UC-NRLF ^ ' CNJ/ CM o Published under l-he Puhhorifyan-he^^p^l^jf^E^jy AUSTRALIA. OCTORFR 1914 ..--# ITS RESOURCES AND PRODUCTION t THE AUSTRALIAN COMMONWEALTH ITS RESOURCES AND PRODUCTION. McCarron, Bird & Co., Printers, 479 Collina Street, Melbourne. 1 . On Mt. Buffalo in Winter. 2. Buffalo Gorge, from Eurobin Creek 3. The Chalet. 4. The Buffalo Gorge 5. Mt. Fealhertop. near Bright. 6, Lake Catani in Winter. VIEWS OF MT, BUFFALO, VICTORIA. p,^^, COMMONWEALTH BUREAU OF CENSUS AND STATISTICS MELBOURNE. THE AUSTRALIAN COMMONWEALTH ITS RESOURCES AND PRODUCTION 1915 V PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE MINISTER OF STATE FOR EXTERNAL AFFAIRS. BY G. H. KNIBBS. C. M. G., FELLOW OF THE ROYAL STATISTICAL SOCIETY. COMMONWEALTH STATISTICIAN. C.S.— No. [96]. IN :2C Hoi' Gbounds, Dekwent River, Tas. PREFACE. In the following pages, issued under the authority of the Minister of State for External Affairs, the Honour- able John Andeew Arthur, M.P., a brief account is given of the Eesources and Production of the Australian Commonwealth. The figures, in general, are those furnished in the seventh OFFICIAL Year Book of the Commonwealth, giving statistics for the period 1901-1913, and issued under the authority of the Eight Honourable Andrew Fisher, P.C, M.P., Prime Minister and Treasurer. To this work reference may be made for more detailed information. The illustrations furnished are characteristic of Aus- tralian life and scenery, and give some idea of the scale of development in this part of the British Dominions. G. H. KNIBBS, Commonwealth Statisticia7i. Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics, Melbourne, 1915. I Information Concerning AUSTRALIA may be obtained on application to [N AMERICA: THE AUSTRALIAN PAVILION, PANAMA PACIFIC EXHIBITION. SAN FRANCISCO. NIEL NIELSEN. Esq.. Trade and Immigration Commissioner lor New South Wales, 419 Market Street. San Francisco. F. T. A. FRICKE. Esq., Land and Immigration Agent for Victoria, 687 Market Street, San Francisco. IN LONDON: The High Commissioner for THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA, 72 Victoria Street, Westminster. IN AUSTRALIA: The Secretary DEPARTMENT OF EXTERNAL AFFAIRS. Collins and Spring Streets, Melbourne. 1^ ^H *V ^iL_ ^ '^'k ^. iT te:^» rf '7^ ' -^M? Flemington Racecourse — Melbourne, Victoria (Cup Day). M215398 View showing the Robb's Monument Train coming out of Tunnel. Silver Falls. VIEWS ON CAIRNS RAILWAY, QUEENSLAND. SYNOPSIS. I. AUSTRALIA : ITS AREA AND PHYSICAL FEATURES. Geographical Position and Size Political Subdivisions ... Physical Features PAGE 1 2 Mountain Ranges Rivers Artesian Water PAGE 3 5 6 II. THE FEDERATION OF THE COLONIES. Responsible Government ... 7 The Federal Movement ... ... 7 The Federal Scheme of Government 9 Development and Immigration The Federal Capital III. THE AUSTRALIAN PEOPLE. Density of Population ... 12 A Century's Increase ... ... 13 Population of States & Territories 13 Immigration Growth ... The Health of the People The Aborigines IV. CLIMATE. Climatic Zones ... ... 19 Summer and Winter Temperatures 20 Rainfall Droughts 23 23 V. THE PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES OF THE COMMONWEALTH. 1. General ... 2. AGRICULTURE 24 Area and Distribution of Crops 25 Wheat ... ... ... 27 Oats, Barley, and Maize ... 28 Other Grain and Pulse Crops... 29 Hay ... ... ... 29 Root and Tuber Crops ... 30 Sown Grasses and Green Forage 30 Vineyards ... ... ... 32 Sugar Cane ... ... 33 Bounties on Sugar ... ... 34 Fruitgrowing ... ... 34 Minor Crops ... ... 35 Agriculture in Papua ... 35 Commonwealth Bounties on Agricultural Products ... 35 The Pastoral Industry Wool ... ... ... 36 Commonwealth Bounty on Wool 37 Sheep ... ... ... 38 Frozen Meat for Export ... 38 The Pastoral Industry (continued) — Horses, Cattle and Pigs ... 40 Net Exports of Pastoral Products 42 4. Dairying, Poultry,Bee Farming Dairying ... ... ... 42 Butter and Cheese ... ... 43 Pigs and Pig Products ... 44 Poultry ... ... ... 45 Bee Farming ... ... 45 5. FORESTS Timber Sawn or Hewn ... 47 Sandalwood ... ... 47 Tanning Bark ... ... 49 6. FISHERIES Possibilities of the Fishing In- dustry ... ... ... 49 Food Fishes ... ... 50 Bounties for Fish Preserving... 51 Pearlshell, Beche-de-mer, and Tortoiseshell ... ... 51 SYNOPSIS. THE PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES OF THE COMMONWEALTH— Continued. 7. Mineral Wealth Variety of Mineral Wealth ... 53 Gold Yield ... ... 55 ' ' Nuggets ' ' and Masses of Gold 55 Silver and Copper ... ... 65 Bounties on Iron ... ... 56 Coal ... ... ... 57 Gems ... ... ... 59 Manufacturing Development of Manufactories 59 Classification of Industries ... 60 Clothing Industries... ... 62 Food and Drink Industries ... 62 Butter, Cheese, etc., Factories 63 Tobacco ... ... ... 64 Metal Works and Machinery... 64 Potentialities for Manuf acturi n g 66 VI. SETTLEMENT ON THE LAND. Room for New Settlers ... Area Available for Settlement Condition of Public Estate How to Obtain Land Advances to Farmers Assisted Passages 67 67 68 69 71 71 Market Prices for Produce ... 72 Railway Freights for Produce ... 73 Dissemination of Agricultural In- formation ... ... ... 73 Farm Labourers ... ... 74 VII. TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION. Railway Systems ... ... 75 The Transcontinental Railway ... 76 Mileage Open for Traffic ... 76 Opening New Areas for Settlement 77 A Year's Operations ... ... 77 Profits in Working ... ... 79 Coastal Steamers The Postal Service Money Orders and Postal Notes Telegraphs and Telephones Growth of the Post Office 79 79 80 80 81 VIII. THE TRADE OF THE COMMONWEALTH. The Commonwealth as a Trading Country ... Growth of Commonwealth Trade... Imports Classification of Imports 82 83 84 85 Imports from Various Countries Exports Exports to Various Countries The Commonwealth Tariff Oversea Shipping 86 88 89 91 92 IX. COMMONWEALTH AND STATE FINANCE. Commonwealth Revenue ... 94 Commonwealth Expenditure ... 95 Cost of the Commonwealth Deptmts 96 Financial Accounts of the States ... 96 Functions of State Governments... 97 State Consolidated Revenue ... 97 State Revenue State Revenue from Taxation State Expenditure States Loan Expenditure The Public Debt of the States Assets against Debts 97 97 98 99 99 100 X. SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN THE COMMONWEALTH. 1. General 101 2. Education Distribution of Educational Facilities ... ... 101 Spread of Primary Education 102 State Schools ... ... 103 State Expenditure ... ... 104 Schools other than State Schools 104 Universities ... ... 106 Technical Education ... 107 3. Religion — Religious Liberty 108 4. Public Justice Courts of Justice ... Criminal Statistics ... 5. Public Benevolence Hospitals and Orphanages 6. Old-age Pensions Pension Age Residence Qualification Pensions Granted ... 108 109 111 112 112 112 I KURNELL, N.S.W., FIRST LANDING PLACE IN AUSTRALIA OF CAPTAIN COOK. 1.— AUSTRALIA : ITS AREA AND PHYSICAL FEATURES. ff USTEALASIA comprises (cl) the island continent of Aus- tralia, which is made up of the five States of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and Western Australia, (h) the adjacent island State of Tasmania, and (c) the Islands of New Zealand. The five mainland States and Tasmania were formerly independent colonies, but on the 1st January, 1901, they were united to form the Com- monwealth of Australia. New Zealand, however, remained outside the Federation. The Northern Territory, formerly part of South Australia, was transferred to the Commonwealth on the 1st January, 1911. The de- pendency of Papua was placed under the authority of the Commonwealth on 1st September, 1906. Australia is situated between the meridians of longitude 113° 9' E. and 153° 39' E., the parallels of latitude 10° 41' S. and 39° 8' S., or, includ- ing Tasmania, 43° 39' S. On the N. it is bounded Geographical Position and Size, by the Timor and Arafura Seas and Torres Strait ; on the S. by the Southern Ocean ; on the E. by the Pacific ; and on the W. by the Indian Ocean. Including Tas- mania the Commonwealth has an area of 2,974,581 sq. miles, and in its vast area it contains nearly every description of soil, and every variety of climate from temperate to sub-tropical. Australia is about twenty-five times as large as the United Kingdom ; it is more than fourteen times the size of Germany or France ; nearly sixteen times as large as Spain ; and Australia: its Area and Physical Features more than seventeen times larger than Sweden. It is about three-fourths of the size of Europe ; a third of that of the whole of North America ; and over a fourth of the whole British Empire. The diagrams given below shew at a glance the area of the Common- wealth compared wdth the areas of other countries : — United Kingdam. 121,391 D Area of Commonwealth in sq. miles compared with Areas of Other Countries. Europe, 3.860.368 United States, 2.973,890 Commonwealth,, 2,974,581 India, 1.789.000 France, 207,054 D Eeference to the population of Australia is made in a later part of this book, but in order to shew how small it is compared with its area, and also with the populations of other parts of the globe, the following diagrams, in which the area of the circles represents the populations of the several countries, are here given : — Population of Commonwealth compared with Population of Other Countries, 1911. 45,365,000 o France, 39,601,000 0\ / /United States,\ ConmoDwealtli. \ y V 91.972.000 J <.455.00fl \ — ^ \;;^ o The areas of each of the six States of the Commonwealth, and the percentage of the area of each State on that Political Subdivisions. of the whole Commonwealth, are given below^ What is known as the Northern Territory is now" under the jurisdiction of the Commonwealth. Relative Areas of States and Commonwealth. Particulars. N.S.w. Vic. Qland. S.A. W.A. Tas. N. Ter. C'wealth Area in square miles Percentage of whole area 310,372 10.4. 87,884 3.0 G70,600 22.5 380,070 12.8 975,920 32.8 26,215 0.9 523,620 17. G 2,974,581 100.0 From north to south the Australian Continent extends for nearly 2000 miles, while its greatest breadth from east to west is about 2400 miles. The coast-line of the Commonwealth, exclusive of minor indentations, measures 12,210 miles, which gives an average area of 244 square miles to one mile of coast hne. 2 f Australia: Its Area and Physical Features. Mountain As regards the general appearance of its land surface, Australia may be described as a plateau, fringed by a low-lying, well-watered coast, with a depressed and, for the most part, com- Physical Features. paratively arid interior. In the early days of the settlement of Australia it was thought that the interior part of the continent consisted chiefly of desert plains ; as settlement progressed, however, it was discovered that this area contained extensive tracts of excellent country. The main mountain feature of Australia is the Great Dividing Range, which, starting in the C ape York Peninsula in Queensland, runs parallel with and close to the eastern shore of the continent through the States of New South Wales and Victoria. In the south, one branch of the range sweeps west- ward towards the boun- dary of Victoria and South Australia, and the other — the main branch — ends in Tasmania, which is, to a large extent, covered by ramifications of the range. The greatest height at- tained is in New South Wales, near the Victorian boundary, where Mount Kosciusko reaches an alti- |tude of 7300 feet. The Dividing Range, with its [lateral spurs, receives [various sectional names in the States through which it passes. The t seaward slope of the range is generally sharp and precipitous, and in [places marked by extensive chasms and lofty precipices. On the inland [side the descent is more gradual, the mountains merging by easy degrees [into the great plains stretching towards the centre of the continent. In South Australia a chain of mountains runs northward from the neighbourhood of Adelaide and terminates in the Flinders Range, near Lake Torrens, while the plateau in Western Australia is traversed by ranges in various localities. 3 A TYPICAL, BliUE MOUNTAIN BLUFF, N.S.W. BLUE MOUNTAIN SCENES. 1. Valley of the Gkose. 2. Orphan Rock, Katoomba. 3. 4. National Pabk. 5. Britannia Falls. 4 Australia : Its Area and Physical Features. The Burdekin and the Fitzroy are the two largest rivers in north- eastern Queensland. Other important Queensland rivers are the Burnett, the Mary, and the Brisbane. Of New South Rivers. Wales rivers, the Hunter, which drains about 11,000 square miles, and empties itself at Newcastle, is the most important, while other large rivers are the Clarence, the Hawkesbury, and the Shoalhaven. The largest Victorian rivers, apart from tributaries of the Murray, are the Latrobe, the Hopkins, and the Glenelg. The Eiver Murray, which drains a considerable part of Queensland, the major part of New South Wales, and a large part of Victoria, is one of the longest rivers in the world. It forms for a con- GouLBUBN River, near Alexandra, Vic. siderable distance the boundary between New South Wales and Victoria, and subsequently entering South Australia, flows into the ocean on the southern coast of that State. In good seasons, with its tributary the Darling, it is navigable for a considerable distance from its mouth, the total length, including the Darhng, being 2310 miles. The chief tributaries, beside the Darling, are the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan. Some of the rivers flowing into the sea on the north-west coast of Australia — e.g., the Murchison, Gascoyne, Ashburton, Fortescue, DeGrey, and Fitzroy — are of considerable size, as also are those of the northern coast — e.g., the Victoria, Daly, Gregory, Leichhardt, Cloncurry, Gilbert, and Mitchell Eivers. The Victoria Eiver, estimated to drain 90,000 square miles, is said to be navigable for the largest vessels for fifty miles. Australia : Its Area and Physical Features. Though much of the rainfall received over the vast area of the Aus- tralian continent passes off by evaporation or finds its w^ay to the sea, a large volume sinks into the earth and helps Artesian Water. to swell the store of artesian water contained in subterranean channels and reservoirs. The most importaut artesian basins are (a) the Great Australian Basin, about 570,000 squares miles in area, and extending over parts of Queens- land, New South Wales, South AustraUa, and the Northern Territory, and (h) the Western Australian Basins. Large numbers of bores have been sunk by the Governments as well as by private individuals, the water thus obtained proving invaluable for the watering of stock and for irrigation purposes. The discovery of artesian water has, in fact, com- pletely changed the outlook over thousands of square miles of country where surface water was the only want, and has opened the way for the development of areas as yet barely touched. It has also enabled stock to be travelled where formerly such a thing was difficult or impossible. COM5IONWKALTH PARLIAMENT HOUSE, MELBOURNE, VIC. II.— THE FEDERATION OF THE COLONIES, » For many years now there has been complete pohtical freedom in Austraha. As the newly-founded colonies increased in wealth, commerce, and population, and their resources and in- Responsible Government. dustries were developed, the evils of a prac- tically irresponsible form of government began to be felt. During the decade 1851 to 1860 all the Australian colonies were granted responsible government, with the exception of Western Australia, which remained a Crown colony until 1890. Although in the early days of the colonisation of Australia the ten- dency was towards the separate evolution of isolated settlements, it was not long before the desirability of considering the interests of the Australian colonies as a whole was recognised. Movements in the direction of the establishment of some form of a Federal Council took place before the middle of the nineteenth century, and when responsible government was granted The Federal Movement. the evil of want of union among the colonies was from time to time forcibly shewn. From that time the idea of federation gradually increased in the popular favour. At last, on the 1st January, 1901, after several intercolonial conferences had been held, the six colonies were federated and united of their own free will under the name of the Commonwealth of Austraha. 1. Teee Febns, Shoaxhaven Disteict, N.S.W. 2. Ocean Beach, Manly, N.S.W. 3. Mt. Kosciusko, N.S.W., Ice Lake in Foreground. ■ ^ I The Federation of the Colonies. Just as, prior to Federation, full powers of self-government in local matters had been enjoyed by each separate colony, so now each State retains its former powers of legislation and The Federal Scheme of administration, except in certain matters, Government. over which exclusive control has been sur- rendered by all the States. The legislative powers of the Federal Parliament embrace, among other matters, trade and commerce, navigation and shipping, railways, taxation, naval and military defence, quarantine, lighthouses, and fisheries ; finance and insurance ; postal, telegraph, and like services ; census and statistics ; emigration, immigration, and nationalisation; currency, banking, weights and measures ; and conciliation and arbitration in industrial disputes- Various departments and sub-departments have been transferred from time to time from the States to the Commonwealth, while other departments necessary for the due performance of the Commonwealth functions have been created. The Ministerial departments of the Commonwealth are as follows : — Prime Minister, External Affairs, Home Affairs, Treasury, Trade and Customs, Defence, Attorney-General, and Postmaster-General. The Sovereign is represented in the Commonwealth by a Governor- General, and in each State by a Governor. There are two legislative chambers both in the Commonwealth and in each State Parliament, the members of one House of each of the Parliaments, and of both Houses of most of them, being elected by the people. In 1914, the Commonwealth Ministry w^as composed of the following members : — The Commonwealth Ministry. August, 1914. Prime Minister and Treasurer ... THE Rt. HON. ANDREW FiSHER, P.O. Attorney-General ... ... ... THE HON. WILLIAM MORRIS HUGHES. Minister of State for Home Affairs ... THE HON. WILLIAM OLIVER ARCHIBALD. Minister of State for External Affairs THE HON. JOHN Andrew Arthur. Postmaster- General ... ... THE HON. WILLIAM GUTHRIE Spence. Minister of State for Defence ... THE HON. GEORGE FOSTER Pearce. Minister of State for Trade and Customs The HON. FRANK GWYNNE TUDOR. Vice-President of Executive Council... THE HON. ALBERT GARDINER. Honorary Minister ... ... THE HON. HUGH MAHON. „ ... ... THE HON. Jens August Jensen. „ ,, ... ... The Hon. Edward John Russell. A feature of Australian public affairs worthy of special mention is the system of local government which has been established. The whole of the settled parts of the country has been divided into municipal districts, each of which is under the control of a council or board elected by the ratepayers to deal with matters of purely local interest and to carry out local works. The Federation of the Colonies. Regatta, Swan Rivki Since the advent of systems of responsible government, steady and strenuous efforts have been made by all the States to develop the resources of the country and to improve the condition Development and Immigration, of the people. To this end commerce and settlement have been assisted by the con- struction of railways throughout the States ; by the extension of highways wherever settlement has gone ; by the construction of irrigation works, not only for domestic and stock purposes, but also for the irrigation of the land ; by subsidising steamship services, and by the construction of extensive docks, wharves, and jetties at the coastal towns. The " bush " has in a large part been explored, surveyed, and thrown open to settlement. Facilities have been granted both to bona fide settlers on the land and to the working classes in the centres of more dense population to acquire possession of the soil, and special inducements have been offered to immigrants by the introduction of new forms of tenure on easy terms and conditions. Postal services have been extended throughout the settled portions of the land. Free schools have been established and are main- tained in all the States. Thoroughbred live stock lias been imported for the purpose of improving the Australian breeds. Agricultural colleges, experimental farms, and technical schools have been established. Money is advanced to settlers by the various Governments to assist them in the construction of improvements and in developing their selections. Instruction and advice is given to farmers, dairymen, fruitgrowers, and stock breeders in the best methods of conducting their several businesses. It is recognised that the present population of nearly five millions is inadequate, hence the desire on the part of the Government to secure desirable immigrants, who, while assisting in the development of the Commonwealth, may participate in its benefits. 10 The Federation of the Colonies. By the Commonwealth Constitution Act, 1900, provision was made for the ostabUshment of a Federal Capital in New South Wales, and it was also provided that the Commonwealth The Federal Capital. Parliament should sit at Melbourne until it meets at the new seat of Government. In 1910 the Commonwealth Government acquired from the State of New South Wales an area of approximately 900 square miles in the district of Yass- Canberra, about 200 miles to the south-west of Sydney, and proceeded to take the preliminary steps towards the establishment of a capital city in that district. A large number of survey operations has now been carried out ; these include the demarcation of the boundaries of the territory, the determination of the boundaries of privately-owned properties, surveys for enghieering works and proposals, and for other necessary purposes. In 1911 competitive designs were invited from architects throughout the world for laying out the city, with the object of embodying in the construction of the Federal capital the most desirable features from the standpoint of general efficiency for its purposes, of engineering, hygiene, etc. The city, which has been named "Canberra," will be the permanent seat of Government of the Commonwealth. A temporary observatory has been established, roads and bridges made and improved, gauge-weirs constructed on the rivers, reafforestation operations commenced, and a complete scheme for the successive stages of works has been prepared. Adjacent to the city site, and within the Federal territory, an up-to-date Military College has already been opened, and at the port which is to be established on Commonwealth territory at Jervis Bay, a Naval College is to be opened at a later date. A railway line to connect the city with the railway system of New South Wales has been con- structed, and the survey of a line between the city and Jervis Bay is in progress. Revikw of Troops, Ckntenntal, Park, Sydney. N.S.W. 11 AN AUSTRALIAN WATERING PLACE. GLENELG. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. THE AUSTRALIAN PEOPLE. The estimated population of the Commonwealth on the 31st Decemher, 1913, was 4,872,059, exclusive of aborigines. The density of the population — that is to say, the distribution of the people per square-mile of country — is shewn on the map on page 15. It will be seen that practically the only districts Density of Population. which may be considered as at all well populated are comprised in a fringe of country near the coast. The area of the Commonwealth being 2,974,581 square miles, and the population 4,872,059, the average density is only 1.6 persons to the square mile, and Australia is, therefore, the most sparsely populated of the civilised countries of the world. For other continents the den- sities are approximately as follows : — Europe, 118 ; Asia, 58 ; Africa, 12 ; and America, 11. The densities of the populations of some of the prin- cipal countries in the world for the latest dates available are given in the following table : — Density of Population. Australia and Various Countries. Country. No. of Persons per Sq. Mile. Country. • No. of Persons per Sq. Mile. Country. No. of Persons per Sq. Mile. Belgium England and Wales Japan (ex. of Korea) Italy 666 633 322 318 German Empire... Switzerland France... Spain ... 313 237 192 100 Russia (Europe'n) United States ... Canada Commonwealth... . 67.75 32.08 2.08 1.67 12 The Australian People. At the end of the year 1800 the population— excluding aboriginal natives — of what is now the Commonwealth was 5217. At the end of 1900 it was 3,765,339, shewing the gain dur- A Century's Increase. ing the 19th century to have been over 3f millions in an original population of a little over 5200. The population at periods of 20 years since 1800 was as follows : — Population of Australia, 1800 to 1900. Year 1800. 1820. 1 1840. 1860. 1880. 1900. Population 5,217 33,543 190,408 1,145,585 2,231,531 3,765,339 It may be seen from the figures given above that the increase in population has been of fairly rapid growth ; nevertheless it is still very small in relation to the total area, to the national needs of the country, and to the generally prosperous conditions in Australia. The estimated population of each State and Territory, male, female, and total, on 31st December, 1913, was as follows : — Male and Female Population of each State and Territory, 31st December. 1913. Population of the States and Territories. Persons, etc. N.S.W. Victoria. Q'land. S. Aust. W. Aust. Tas. Nth. Ter'y. Fed. Ter'y. C'wealth Males Females 962,053 869,663 706,948 705,171 356,613 303,545 221,605 218,442 180,747 139,937 104,476 97,199 2,995 677 1,093 895 2,536,530 2,335,529 Total 1,831,716 1,412,119 660,158 440,047 320,684 201,675 3,672 1,988 4,872,059 George Street, Sydney, New South Wales. 13 The Australian People. Of the above population the inhabitants of the metropolis of each State comprised the following numbers : — Estimated Population of Metropolis of Each State, 31st December. 1913. Metropolis ... Sydney. Melbourne. Brisbane. Adelaide. Perth. Hobart. Total of Six Capitals. Population ... 725,400 651,000 151,300 201,000 121,700 40,000 1,890,400 VIEW OF ADELAIDE, CAPITAL OF S.A. The immigrant races consist mainly of natives of the United King- dom and their descendants. At the census of 1911, out of a population of 4,424,537 persons, whose birthplaces were Immigration Growth. specified, no fewer than 3,699,538 or 83.62 per cent., were Australasian-born, while of the remainder, 591,719, or 13.37 per cent., were natives of the United Kingdom — that is, 96.99 per cent, were either Australasian- born or British. Other birthplaces largely represented in the Commonwealth were Germany, 32,992 (0.75 per cent.) ; Scandinavia 14,706 (0.33 per cent.) ; United States of America, 6640 (0.15 per cent-); and Italy, 6719 (0.15 per cent.). The total population of Asiatic birth was 36,442 (0.82 per cent.), of whom 3474 (0.08 per cent.) were born in Japan. The net immigra- tion, or excess of arrivals over departures, for the whole Commonwealth during decennial periods since 1861 was as shewn on p. J 6. 14 The Australian People. — OF THE COM.MnMVEAIJIl {\Y AIjSTIIALL\ AS AT THE CENSUS OF 1911 1 1 in 4 sq. miles 1 in 1 sq. mile 2 in 1 4 in 1 8 in 1 16 in 1 A— Less than 1 inhabitant to 16 sq. miles B— From 1 inhabitant in 16 sq. miles to less than 1 C— „ 1 „ 4 D— „ 1 „ 1 sq. mile R— „ 2 inhabitants in 1 F— „ 4 „ 1 a— „ 8 „ 1 H — 16 inhabitants and upwards in 1 sqviare mile This map furnishes a graphic representation of the distribution of the population of the Com- monwealth at the date of the census of 1911. For this purpose the density of the population for various districts in each State has been computed, and the areas representing these have been shaded in accordance with the scale of density given at the foot of the map. The calculations for each State have been made for counties, the areas for which for New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, and Tasmania are fairly equal, and do not average much more than 2,000 square miles. The areas of counties in Northern Territory and in Western Australia average 4,000 and 8,000 square miles respectively. An area of about 1,136,000 square miles, equal to 38 per cent, of the total area of the Commonwealth, and belonging to South Australia, Western Australia and Northern Territory is not subdivided into counties. As the total population of the area is under 5,000 it appears white in the map, together with a considerable number of adjoining counties, in which the population is less than one inhabitant to 16 square miles. Centres of gravity of population of each State, and Commonwealth, ai'e shewn by cross sur- rounded with circle (double circle in case of Commonwealth). 16 The Australian People. Net Immigration, 1861 to 1910. Period 1861-1870. 1871-1880. 1881-1890. 1891-1900. 1901-1910. 1861-1910. Number 166,890 191,804 382,741 24,879 40,485 806,799 During the period 1861 to 1910 the gain to the Commonwealth population by excess of arrivals over departures was, therefore, 806,799 persons, while the gain by excess of births over deaths for the same period was 2,472,699 ; that is, nearly 25 per cent, of the increase was due to " net immigration " and 75 per cent, to " natural increase." The greatest increase by migration during any decennium was that between 1881-90, viz., 382,741. The increase by migration during 1911, 1912, and 1913, was 207,816, the increase for 1912 (83,741) being the highest on record. The gain during the same three years due to natural increase was 74,324, 80,911, and 83,925 respectively. That Australia is one of the healthiest countries in the world is shewn by its low death rate, which in 1913 was only 10.78 per 1000 of the population. Its enviable position in this The Health of the People. respect — a position shared by the Dominion of New Zealand — as compared with other coun- tries, will be seen from the following table, which gives the information for the latest available dates : — Country. Death Rate. Country. Death Rate. New Zealand 9.1 Ireland 17.1 Commonwealth 10.78 German Empire . 17.2 Denmark 12.9 France . 17.9 England and Wales . 13.6 Italy 19.6 Norway 13.5 Spain . 23.3 Netherlands... 13.6 Hungary ... . 23.6 Scotland 15.3 Ceylon . 27.3 Switzerland... 16.1 Russia (European) . . 29.9 The smallness of the Australian death rate is doubtless due to some extent to the comparatively few persons of very advanced age contained in the population, but, even so, the rate furnishes indisputable evidence of the healthy condition of the people, due largely to the splendid climate, the dry air and sunshine, the absence of intense aggregation and over- crowding of the population, and the small amount of extreme poverty. In Australia there are no endemic diseases. In the early days, owing to careless ideas as to sanitation, typhoid and diphtheria were introduced, but, with the general improvement in the sanitary arrangements of the towns, the number of cases has gradually decreased. Asiatic cholera, and other deadly diseases are quite unknown. Small-pox, in a mild form, is occasionally introduced, but is quickly stamped out, only seven deaths from this disease having occurred in the whole of Australia during the last ten years. 16 1. Launceston, from Cataract Gorge, Tas. 2. Wynyard Square, Sydney, N.S.W, 3. CoLi^iNs Street, Melbourne, Vic. The Australian People. ABORIGINES CLIMBING TREE. The greater part of Australia. was originally occupied by a number of aboriginal tribes,. The Aborigines, who lived in distinct communities. Al- though they were expert lishers- and hunters, and were skilled in the use of implements of war and the chase, no traces of an agricul- tural instinct have ever been dis- covered in them. As regards their laws, habits, customs, and language, the tribes were very diverse. Since- the advent of the white man, the natives have gradually decreased in number and have now been practi- cally submerged by the wave of civi- lisation which has spread over the country, notwithstanding the many attempts which have been made by the States, as well as by private individuals, to regulate then* lives and to promote their welfare. Naturally, no proper census of the aboriginals exists, but at the last census the number of full- blooded aboriginals living in a civilised or semi -civilised condition was in New South Wales 2012 ; in Victoria 196 ; in Queensland 8687 ; in South Australia 1439 ; in Western Australia 6369 ; and in the Northern Territory 1223. In Tasmania the last full-blooded aboriginal native died in 1876. In the less settled parts of Queensland, South Australia, Western Austraha, and Northern Territory, on the other hand, there are considerable numbers of natives still in the " savage " state. Tlie total numl^er of aboriginal natives at present in Australia may be roughly estimated at 100,000. The whole matter, however, is involved in considerable doubt. 18 r MlLLSTREAM FaLL,S, NEAR HeRBERTOX, QlD. ! v.— CLIMATE. Australia presents in climate, soil, and season, a very wide range of -choice to those who may desire to become colonists. As the south of "Tasmania is in a latitude corresponding roughly to that of the south of France, or of New York, in the northern hemisphere, while the northern -extremity of the Australian continent corresponds to the south of India or Ceylon, it is. obvious that the Commonwealth must have a great variety of climatic conditions. Its climates, in fact, range from tropical to "temperate, missing, however, both the extremes of the tropical and the frigid zones. Australia may generally be divided roughly into three belts or zones "marked by broad climatic differences, which are, perhaps, more noticeable in the output of the orchards than in any Climatic Zones. other products of the soil. In the southern belt — comprising Tasmania, the greater part ■of Victoria, and considerable parts of New South Wales, South Australia, and Western Australia — the climate is similar in many respects to that of the south of France or the north of Italy. In these lands arc the farms and the wlieatfields, while the apple, pear, plum, and cherry grow to perfec- tion. In the south of Victoria the thermometer rises above 100° in the shade on the average on five days during the year, and generally on about three nights during the year it falls to about two or three degrees below :;freezing point. The middle belt — -comprising parts of all the continental 19 Climate. Summer and Winter Temperatures. States — was, in the early days, with the exception of the coastal districts,, devoted almost entirely to sheep stations, and is the natural home of the peach, grape, fig, and olive ; while in the northern belt — comprising the- Northern Territory and the northern parts of Queensland and Western Australia — the mango, pineapple, cocoanut, and banana flourish, the inland districts being mainly occupied by cattle runs. Even to these broad' climatic zones there are numerous exceptions. The farms and wheatfields of the southern belt stretch north through New South Wales to the- plateaux and coastal districts of Queensland, and even in the far north dairying is a profitable industry. Again, the sugar plantations and other- sub-tropical vegetation come down from the northern belt and blend with the vegetation of the middle belt. By reason of its insular geographical position and the absence of striking physical features, Australia is far less subject to extremes of weather than are regions of similar area in other parts of the globe, and, latitude for- latitude, Australia is far more temperate- Thus, in parts of Europe, Asia, and North America, winter blizzards alternate with summer heat waves. In Siberia^ in Asia, the extreme range- of shade temperatures in summer and winter is no- less than 171° F., and in North America 153° F., or, say, about double the- Australian range, which is only about 81°F. Thus it is that in hardly any of the great farming districts of Australia is it necessary to house live stock, while people live comfortably in cheaply - constructed houses which would be- considered almost unin- habitable in countries^ where the climate is rigorous. For the purpose of com- parison the following table of temperatures is given for the capital towns of the Australian States and for various important cities- Palm Tkek Avknue, Botanical Gardens, Bbisbane. [-■' throughout the world : 20 Climate Almond Trees in Bloom: Adelaide in the Distance, S.A. Comparative Temperatures. — Australia and Other Parts of the World. Place Mean Summer. Mean Winter. Highest on Record. Lowest on Record. Average Hottest Month . Average Coldest Month. The STATE Capitals. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr. Fahr Sydney... 70.9 53.8 108.5 35.9 71.6 52.3 Melbourne 66.5 49.9 111.2 27.0 67.5 48.4 Brisbane 76.7 59.5 108.9 36.1 77.2 58.0 Adelaide 73.] 52.9 116.3 32.0 74.2 51.5 Perth 73.0 55.7 107.9 35.3 74.2 55.0 Hobart ... 61.7 46.6 105.2 27.0 62.4 45.3 Other Towns. Amsterdam 63.2 36.8 90.0 4.1 64.4 35.4 Berlin ... 64.7 32.2 98.6 —13.0 06.0 30.0 Bombay 83.0 75.2 100.0 55.9 84.8 74.2 Buenos Ay res 73.2 51.5 103.1 25.9 74.2 50.5 Calcutta 85.1 66.9 108.2 44.2 85.4 65.5 Capetov^^n 68.1 54.7 102.0 34.0 68.8 53.9 Chicago 70.0 26.3 103.0 —23.0 72.3 24.0 Dublin ... 59.4 42.0 87.2 13.3 60.5 41.7 Edinburgh 55.9 38.8 85.3 16.6 57.2 38.3 Lisbon ... 69.6 51.3 94.1 32.5 ... ... London... 61.2 39.3 92.3 9.4 62.8 38.7 Madrid 73.0 41.2 107.1 10.5 75.7 39.7 Marseilles 70.3 45.3 100.4 11.5 83.1 56.3 New York- 72.1 31.7 100.0 — 6.0 74.5 30.3 Ottawa... 67.2 14.1 98.5 —33.0 69.7 12.0 Paris ... 63.5 37.1 101.1 —14.1 65.8 36.1 Rome ... 74.0 46.6 100.4 19.6 76.5 45.7 Vienna... 65.7 30.4 97.7 — 8.0 67.1 28.0 Washington 74.7 34.5 104.0 —15.0 76.8 32.1 21 Climate. The range of summer and winter temperatures in Australia, as in other countries, increases with the distance from the coast, but even in the interior, where the heat is greatest, the nights are cool, and the extreme dryness of the air renders the heat easily bearable and very healthy. DISTRIBUTION OF THE RAINFALL IN THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA The above map lias been prepared from a chart shewing the isohyets (curves of equal mean annual rainfall) for every 10 inches for Australia, and compiled from the most recent information. It was impracticable on the small scale map to distinguish between the areas with 40 to 50, 50 to 60, 60 to 70, and over 70 inches of rain annually. 22 Climate. The average annual rainfall varies from about five inches in the Lake Eyre District to about 166 inches on the north-east coast of Queensland. Its general distribution is best seen from the map Ra'"^a"- on page 22, shewing the areas subject to average annual rainfall lying between certain limits. The following table of average annual rainfalls is given for the purposes of comparison : — Annual Rainfall. — Australia and Other Parts of the World. Place. Average. Highest. liowest. 1 Place. Average. Highest. Lowest. THE STATE CAPITALS. Sydney ]\relbourne Brisbane Inches. 47.97 25.51 46.95 Inches. ' Inches. 1 82.76 21.49 Adelaide 36.61 15.61 Perth 88.26 16.17 Hobart Inches. 21.04 33.11 23.57 Inches. 30.87 46.73 40.67 Inches. 13.43 20.48 13.43 Other Cities. Amsterdam . . . 27.29 40,69 17.60 Berlin 22.95 30.04 14.25 1 Bombay 71.15 114,89 33,41 ' Buenos Ay res... 36.82 80.73 21.53 Calcutta 61.98 89.32 39.38 i Capetown 25.50 36.72 17.71 1 Chicago 33.54 45.80 24.52 Dublin 27.66 35.56 16.60 Edinburgh 25.21 32.05 16.44 Lisbon 29.18 52.79 17.32 : London Madrid ]\Iarseilles New York Ottawa Paris Rome Vienna Washinji;ton ... 24.04 38.20 ... 30.23 27.48 ... 21.88 43.04 ... 42.47 69.68 ... 33.40 44.44 ...j 21.9J 29.66 ... 33.58 67.95 ... 24.50 33.90 ... 43.80 61.33 18.23 9.13 12.28 28.78 26.36 16.44 20.71 16.50 18.79 Though much has been said and written about the recurrence and the evil effects of droughts in Australia in past years, when the agricul- turists suffered loss chiefly in consequence of Droughts. their having been too speculative and not sufficiently provident, the beneficial influences of the droughts have been to a large extent overlooked. In nearly all countries in the Northern Hemisphere the harvesting of crops for fodder has to be undertaken every year, so that the stock may be fed during the winter months, when the soil is resting and regaining its fertility and chemical constituents. In Australia the droughts will probably recur, but, with reasonable care and the proper conservation of water and fodder by the experienced agriculturist in the years when there is a superabundance of rain and herbage, they will be looked upon in future as by no means an unmixed evil, but rather as one of the provisions by which nature enables the soil to regain those properties which have been exhausted during a succession of bountiful seasons. The beneficial effect of resting the soil in times of drought is shewn by the very rapid recovery, by the increased fertility, and by the abundance of the harvests in the seasons immediately following the droughts. 23 A GOOD CLASS OF MEBINO EWE. V.-PRODUCTIVE RESOURCES OF THE COMMONWEALTH. 1.— GENERAL In the value of its production per inhabitant, the Commonwealth of Australia exceeds any other country for which records are available, while the total amount, as shewn hereunder, has increased enormously during the last forty years. The estimated value at various periods since 1871 and the value per inhabitant were as follows : — Value of Commonwealth Production, 1871-1912. Year 1871. 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1912. Total value in ^1000 Value per inhabitant 227,268 $135.57 346.091 $151. 17 467,614 #145.94 557,635 #146.61 917,742 $204.56 1,006,075 $216.60 The estimated return for the- various elements included in the total for 1912 was as shewn hereunder :^ Agriculture ... ... 222,664,769 Pastoral Industry ... ... 251,187,701 Dairying, Poultry & Bee-farming 98,693,918 Forests and Fisheries ... 31,301,740 1 Mining ... Manufacturing Total . 124,725,169 . 277,501,212 1,006,074,509 24 Productive Resources Elements of Commonwealth Production. Forestry and Fisheries, $31,301,740. 0»ry, Poultry & Bee Farming, $98,693,918. $124,725,169. Agriculture, $222,664,769. Pastoral Industry, $251,187,701. Manufacturing, $277,501,212. A brief reference to the development of the industries in the fore- going list is appended. 2.— AGRICULTURE. Although Australia is pre-eminently a pastoral country, the value of the return from its flocks and herds far exceeding that from any other primary industry, nevertheless, as the above figures shew, the agricultural industry is of considerable importance, and, judging by the great advance in recent years, bids fair to become still more so as a factor in Australian wealth. The progress of agriculture at various intervals since 1880, and during the last nine years, appears below. The figures quoted are exclusive of lands under permanent artificially-sown grasses. Area under Crop in the Commonwealth, 1880-1913. Year* ... 1880. 1890. 1900. 1905. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1909. Area 1000 acres 4,578 5,430 8.812 9,433 9,552 9,354 9.891 10.972 1910. 1911. 11,894 12,107 1912. 13.038 1913. 14,696 * For the later years of the period the agricultural year ends on the 31st March following, i.e.» agricultural year 1908 ends on 31st March, 1909, etc. During the period of thirty-three years shewn in the table the area under crop has increased over 220 per cent. The great extent of the Commonwealth permits of an almost unlimited Area and Distribution of Crops, range in the variety of its products. A sum- mary of the acreage under the principal crops is given in the next table : — 25 1. Farm in Grenfell. District, N.S "W 2. Phkparing for Whkat Harvkist, .Nauhumunk, N.S.W, 3. Ploughing on Farm near Adelaide, S.A. Productive Resources. Distribution of Crops in the Commonwealth, 1913-14. Crop. Wheat ... Oats Barley Maize Potatoes Hay Green Forage Sugar Cane ... • Acres. 9,295,256 859,545 222,627 336,975 170,223 2,756,105 475,389 160,976 Crop. Acres. Vines Orchards and Fruit Gardens Market Gardens All other Crops 62,941 215,644 31,000 *109,063 Total ...114,695,744 *Consi8ting of Beans and Peas, Eye, Onions and other root d'ops, Grass Seed, Tobacco, Hopp. Flax, Chicory, Cotton, Coffee, Sisal Hemp, ludiarubber. Rice, etc. From the above table it will be seen that wheat is the main crop in the Commonwealth, the cereal occupying. Wheat. over 63 per cent, of the total cultivated area in 1913-14. The progress of wheat-growing at various intervals since the vear 1875 is shewn hereunder: — Progress of Wheat-Growing in the Commonwealth. Production. Year Area under Wheat. Production. Year. Area under Wheat. 1875 1880 1885 1890 1895 Acres. 1,422,614 8,054,305 3,277,374 3,228,631 3,774,332 Bushels. 18,712,051 23,356,749 [ 27,431,869 27,118,259 18,270,848 1900-1 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 1913-14 Acres. 5,666,614 7,372,456 7,427,834 7,339,651 9,295.256 Bushels 48,353,402 95,111,983 71,636,347 91,981,070 108.517,725 Despite the checks to progress due to the vagaries of the season, the above table gives evidence of solid advancement, and, with the vast areas of land in the Commonwealth still available and suitable for wheat - growing, the industry should undoubtedly shew a considerable increase in the near future. According to the returns for 1913-14, the yield was equivalent to over 21 bushels per head of population. The estimated value of the Commonwealth wheat crop in that year was ovei |)92,464,716.. For some years past Australia has been in a position to export a fair quantity of Avheat and flour to other countries. The extent of this trade during the last six vears is shewn hereunder : — Exports of Commonwealth Wheat and Flour, 1908-13. Year 1908. 1 1909. 1910. 1911. 1 1912. i 1913. Wheat (bushels)... Flour* 15,027,388 5,840,150 31,549,498 47,761,895 6,498,450^ 6,997,300 1 55,147,840 8,794,550 ! 32,604,247 ^42,922,887 8,404,700 ill, 082,900 i • In bushels of wheat— one ton of flour being taken as equivalent to 50 bushels of wheat. Competent authorities have pronounced Australian wheat to be second to none in the world. In brightness and hardness of grain, ini 27 Productive Resourees. milling qualities, and in the whiteness of its flour, it stands unequalled. At present it is not quite equal in the quality known by bakers as " strength" to some of the Canadian flours, but here the experimentalist is coming to our aid, and it is believed that ere long an Australian wheat will be produced as near perfection as could be desired. The excellence of the grain is attested by the high price realised for it in the British markets, as compared with wheats from other countries. Average Price of Foreign Wheat Imported into the United Kingdom, 1910-12. Average Price per Imperial Average Price per Imperial Quarter. Quarter. Country. Country. 1 1910. 1911. 1912. 1910. 1911. 1912. $ ^ $ 1 $ « Argentine 8.64 8.50 8.11 United States ... 9.06 8.46 8.70 Chile 8.94 8.17 8.03 Canada 8.94 8.48 8.56 Germany 8.92 8.99 8.15 British India ... 8.62 8.17 9.00 Russia ... 9.12 8.66 8.11 Australia 9.04 8.48 9.35 Roumania 9.06 8.31 8.42 Other cereal crops Oats, Barley, and Maize. grown to fair extent in Australia are oats, barley, and maize. In the table hereunder will be found the area and production returns for these crops during the period 1901-13 : — Area and Production in the Commonwealth of Oats. Barley , and Maize. 1901-13. Oats. Barley. Maize. Acres. Bushels. Acres. Bushels. Acres. Bushels. 1901-2 ... 461,430 9,789,854 74,511 1,519,819 294,849 7,034,786 1902-3 ... 592,247 7,296,710 76,260 1,147,515 303,375 4,835,232 1903-4 ... 620,856 17,541,210 121,088 2,701,233 371,906 9,667,089 1904-5 ... 493,317 8,832,045 113,207 2,019,896 324,265 8,118,530 1905-6 ... 466,567 10,474,521 90,945 1,896,678 314,901 8,346,068 1906-7 ... 581,843 13,612,007 106,336 2,248,432 325,581 10,172,254 1907-8 ... 642,815 9,185,227 131,099 1,991,652 299,579 8,137,745 1908-9 ... 676,156 16,248,857 140,243 2,874,204 323,875 8,655,279 1909-0 ... 698,448 14,734,868 143,013 2,436,384 364,585 10,770,648 1910-1 ... 676,688 15,428,456 108,424 2,226,368 414,914 13,044,081 1911-2 ... 616,794 9,561,833 116,466 2,056,836 340,065 8,939,855 1912-3 ... 874,284 16,116,712 181,387 3,859,116 314,936 8,356,168 1913-4 ... 859,545 15,238,932 222,627 3,921,545 336,975 9,077,662 Oats and barley are grown throughout Australia, although Queensland grows very little oats, and only 8826 and 7723 acres were under barley in the States of Queensland and Tasmania respectively during the latest season under review. Malting barley was grown on about 72 per cent, of the area cropped with the cereal in 1912-13. In view of the good price which well-grown grain commands, it is rather surprising that the area devoted to it should fluctuate so considerably. That there is room 28 Productive Resources. MAIZE CROP, •SOUTH AUSTRALIA MELONS FOR FODDER. for expansion is shewn by the circumstance that the imports of malt into the Commonwealth averaged over 100,000 bushels during the last three years. The warm, humid climate of the coastal districts of New South Wales and Queensland is admirably adapted to the growth of maize, while Tery heavy yields are obtained in selected districts in Victoria. Although the extensive range of soil and climate in the Commonwealth permits of the growth of a profusion of varied products, the only grain and pulse crops, other than those already mentioned, Other Grain and Pulse Crops, grown to any extent are rye, and peas and beans. Eice is grown in Queensland, and, doubtless, in "time to come, large areas will be devoted to this grain in the Northern Territory and the northern parts of Western Australia, where there are large areas well suited to its cultivation. Next to wheat, the hay crop is the most important in the Common- wealth, nearly 19 per cent, of the cultivated area in 1913-14 being under this crop. In other countries the hay is prin- Hay- cipally made of various grasses, but here it is found very profitable to use wheat and oats for hay-making. Barley is used to a less extent, and in New South Wales and Queensland excellent hay is made from lucerne. The acreage and yield of hay at various periods since 1871 are shewn in the table hereunder : — 29 Productive Resources. Commonwealth Hay Crop, 1870-1 to 1913-14 • Year ... 1870-1. 1880-1. 1800-1. 1910-11 1913-14. Area under Hay (acres) Production of U:\y (tons) 423,357 517,561 716,576 815,033 1,033,114 1,218,089 2,258,405 3,175,887 2,756,105 3,374,052 All varieties of root and tuber crops thrive excellently in the Common- • wealth, but of those grown potatoes and onions- Root and Tuber Crops. ^yq the most important. The progress of potato cultivation is shewn hereunder : — Potato Cultivation in the Commonwealth, 1890-1 to 1913-14. Year isco-i. 1901-2. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1913-14. Area under Potatoes (acres) Yield of I'otatocs (tons) 100,764 309,079 109,685 322,524 151,515 399,851 130,463 301,489 170,223 417.893 HiiiT.TNG Potatoes, Latdlky, Qld. The other root crops grown comprise onions, mangolds, beet, turnips, and sweet potatoes." Experiments have demonstrated that sugar beets of a high saccharine percentage can be grown in New South Wales and Victoria. Owing to the strides made by the dairying industry in the Common- wealth, it is only natural to expect that there Sown Grasses and Green Forage, should be a considerable increase in the area under artificially-sown grasses and green forage. The progress in this direction is shewn hereunder : — 30 6 Apple Trophy, Hohart, Tas. 2. Vineyard, Mt. Lofty, Adelaide, S.A. 3. Orchard Spbaying, Tas. Productive Resources. Commonwealth Area under Grasses and Green Forage, 1902-3 to 1913-14 Year. Area under Area under Year. Area under Area under Sown Grasses. Green Forage. Sown Grasses Green Forage^ Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. 1902-3 1,413,504 210,705 1908-9 2,445,403 413,511 1903-4 1,901,159 159,884 1909-10 2,457,856 306,082 1904-5 2,004,351 179,603 1910-11 ... 2.714,691 374,862 1905-6 2,144,858 225,780 1911-12 ... 2,869,866 424,440 1906-7 2,301,857 236,484 1912-13 2,987,419 428,006 1907-8 2,416,792 438,555 1913-14 * 475,389 * Figures not available at time of going to press. The grape vine flourishes in all the States on the mainland of Australia, but wine-growing is carried on Vineyards. most extensively in South Australia and Victoria. Figures illustrating the progress of the viticultural industry are shewn hereunder: — Commonwealth Vineyards and their Production, 1901 to 1912-13 Year. Area under Grape Vines. Production of Wine. Table Grapes. Raisins. Currants. Acres. Gallons. Tons. libs. Lbs. 1901-2 ... 63,677 5,816,087 13,235 3,905,745 667,413 1902-3 ... 63,943 5,186,457 12,288 5,274,742 964,122 1903-4 65,463 6,260,169 13,055 7,449,116 2,004,427 1904-5 ... 65,673 5,851,902 11,669 4,367,181 2,093,076 1905-6 ... 64,344 5,589,928 11,427 6,148,168 2,346,980 1906-7 ... 62,557 5,940,943 16,484 12,796,000 2,922,192 1907-8 ... 61,232 4,450,033 12,867 10,427,760 3,404,464 1908-9 59,450 5,515,801 12,700 10,924,816 4,074,336 1909-10 ... 58,151 4,602,577 15,314 12,191,424 7,107,520 1910-11 ... 59,114 5,866,049 13,812 12,775,056 7,465,360 1911-12 ... 60,602 4,975,147 13,927 15.838,368 10,470,208 1912-13 ... 62,388 6,103,808 11,648 16,835,504 11,328,240 During 1913-14 the area under Grape Vines in the Commonwealth was 62,941 acres. The raisins and currants referred to in the above table, prior to the year 1910-11, were grown in Victoria and South Australia : for the last three years those grown in New South Wales are included. Excellent- raisins and currants are also produced in Queensland and Western Australia^ but until recently, no statistics have been collected. Despite the fact that Australia produces wines of excellent qualityr many of which have obtained medals and certificates at foreign exhibitions, the industry has not achieved the success which it deserves. This is due to a variety of causes. In the first place, Australians do not use wine as a beverage to any great extent, and consequently the local market is limited. Entry into British or foreign markets is rendered difficult by the circum- stance that the new and comparatively unknown wines of Australia have to compete with well-known brands. Further, the Australian vigneron,. instead of using distinctive names for his wine, has adopted foreign names, a fact which frequently tends to confusion, since the Australian wine, though having fine body and flavour, is often quite difi"erent from its prototype. 32 Productive Resources. The value of the oversea imports and exports of wine is shewn hereunder : Commonwealth Oversea Wine Trade. 1901-13. Year. Imports. Exports. Sparkling Other. Total. 1 Sparkling. Other. Total. i « $ ^ « « $ 1901 . ... 509,529 278,586 788,115 33,930 597,376 631,306 1902 . .. 893,905 227,891 621,796 29,146 695,889 725,035 1903 . .. 383,821 141,198 525,019 20,250 491,601 511,851 1904 . .. 338,922 132,502 471,424 21,608 502,580 524,188 1905 . ..[ 349,191 137,388 486,579 24,284 525,531 549,815 1906 . .. 396,372 120,131 516,503 22,566 452,814 475,380 1907 . .. 460,129 128,463 588,592 25,467 592,801 618,268 1908 . .. 516,381 131,426 647,807 22,099 478,543 500,642 1909 . .. 443,081 121,542 564,623 21,681 589,419 611,100 1910 . .. 473,497 141,646 615,143 25,987 601,473 627,460 1911 . .. 747,314 152,030 899,944 20,079 718,047 738,126 1912 . .. 646,688 176,788 823,476 23,330 566,118 589,448 1913 . .J 674,326 169,. 342 843,668 18,391 497,757 516,148 The sparkling wine included amongst exports is mainly foreign re-exported. Although, as will appear from the above figures, the Australian wine trade can hardly be regarded as satisfactory, it is pleasing to note the rapidly-growing demand for locally-dried raisins and currants, the raisins especially having, to a large extent, displaced the imported article. Sugar cane is grown in Queensland and New South Wales, the area under crop in the former State being naturally by far the more extensive. The area and yield for Commonwealth during the last 10 years were as follows : — 1 ^W^P^TjH^^P|^BIPBBBP ^ ^^ ^^^^^iB^ist^flHBH^H Cutting Sugab Cane at Yandina, Qld. 33 Productive Resources Pineapple Plantation, WooDooTT, Queensland. k""':^ Area and Yield of Sugar Cane, 1904-5 to 1913-U. Year. Area under Sugar Cane. Yield of Cane. Year. ^ Area under 'Sugar Cane. Yield of Cane. 1904-5 1905-6 1906-7 1907-8 1908-9 Acres. 141,842 155,912 153,864 144,763 140,888 Tons. 1,526,629 1,617,743 1,950,340 1,942,418 1,678,075 1909-10 \ 1910-11 1911-12 1912-13 ' ... 1 1913-14 p ... Acres. 142,261 155,542 144,283 155,936 160,976 Tons. 1,294,575 2,000,758 1,682,250 1,135,141 2,271,558 There is a fairly extensive import trade in sugar, the principal countries -from which supplies are obtained being Java, Mauritius, and Fiji. The total net import in 1913 amounted to 71,448 tons, valued at $3,944,735. In order to assist the industry and at the same time diminish the employment of coloured labour in connection Bounties on Sugar. therev^ith, the Commonwealth Government has, at various times, passed legislation pro- viding for bounties on the product, extended reference to which will be found in the Commonwealth Official Year Book. In July 1913, the sugar bounties and excise duties were abolished by the Commonwealth Government and Acts were passed by the Queensland Government adopting the bonus system and prohibiting the employment of ahen labour. During the year 1910-11 the Commonwealth Government paid $3,066,948 on account of bounties on sugar cane, $2,634,072 during 1911-12, and $1,802,191 during 1912-13. In Queensland excellent pineapples, bananas, mangoes, custard apples, granadillas, and other tropical fruits can be Fruit-growing. grown ; in Tasmania apples, cherries, rasp- berries, strawberries, and all fruits which 34 Productive Resources, prefer a cool climate thrive to perfection. During the last five years the value of the exports of fresh fruits from the Commonwealth averaged close upon $1,700,000 per annum, apples forming the chief item in the list. That the fruit-growing industry is susceptible of considerable extension is evidenced by the fact that in 1913 there was an import of fresh fruit to the value o $1,732,000, while over $547,000 worth of dried fruit was imported. At the latest available date, the area under orchards and fruit gardens in the Commonwealth was 215,644 acres. Amongst the minor crops grown in the Commonwealth may be enumerated tobacco, hops, grass-seed, millet, cotton, coffee, arrowroot* rhubarb, and various gourd crops- Experi- Minor Crops. mental cultivation has proved also that dates and rice will flourish. Olives of excellent quality are grown in South Australia. In the territory of Papua, transferred to the control of the Common- wealth on the 1st September, 1906, there are considerable areas of rich agricultural land which may be acquired Agriculture in Papua. by settlers on easy terms. The most reliable and lucrative plantation industries are para rubber and cocoanuts, but all sorts of tropical fruits, fibres, and spices, in addition to many valuable drug-yielding plants, have been proved to thrive to perfection. In addition to sugar, bounties are granted on Commonwealth Bounties on ^, i i • -, .., Agricultural Products. various other products m accordance with the attached schedule : — Agricultural Products (other than Sugar) on which Bounties are Payable. • Period, dating from 1st July, 1907, Goods. during or in respect of which Bounty Rate of Bounty. may be paid. Cotton, ginned 8^ ^ears 10% on market value Fibres— N.Z. Flax 10 j^ ') >> Flax and Hemp ... 5 ,, ,, >i Jute 5 ,, 20% Sisal Hemp 10 ,, 10% Oil Materials supplied to an oil factory for the manufacture of oil — Cottonseed 8 ,, )) I) Linseed (Flax Seed) ... 5 n >> >> Rice, uncleaned ... 5 $4.87 per ton Rubber ... 15 jj 10% on mkt. val. Gofiee, raw, as prescribed ... 8 ,, 2 cents per lb. Tobacco Leaf for the manufacture of cigars, high grade, of a quality to be prescribed 5 >> 4 cents per lb. Fruits— Dates (dried) 15 n 2 cents per lb. Dried (except currants and raisins) , or Candied and Ex- ported 5 ,, 10% on mkt. val. 35 Productive Resources. Although the rate of bonus on the several articles, is, as shewn above, fairly liberal, the bounties have not been availed of to any great extent, as will be seen from the following table : — Particulars of Bounties Paid on Agricultural Products (other than Sugar) 1909-10 to 1912-13. Article. Quantity produced on which Bounties were paid. Amount paid as Bounties. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1912-J3. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1912-13. Cotton, ginned ... ... lbs. Fibres — Flax and hemp . . . tons Sisal hemp ... „ Oil Materials supplied to an oil fac- tory for the manufacture of oil- Cottonseed ... ... lbs. Linseed (flax seed) ... cwt. Coffee, raw, as prescribed... lbs. Tobacco Leaf for the manufacture of cigars, high grade, of a quality to be prescribed ... ... lbs. Fruits — Dried (except currants and raisins) or candied, & exported lbs. 51,493 28 45 97,997 26[646 10,902 548,123 60,443 137 8 99,209 16,269 9,258 636,452 46,043 101 84,479 100 30,053 25,820 196,837 443 599 545 107 545 438 4,575 565 2,336 88 102 331 380 8,439 462 1,046 63 44 608 1,046 2,857 No bounties have yet been paid on New Zealand flax, jute, uncleaned rice, or dates. 3. THE PASTORAL INDUSTRY. As shewn in the opening paragraph of this section, the pastoral industry is by far the most important of the primary productive industries of the Commonwealth. Daring 1912 the total value of the yield from all industries, including manufacturing, was about $1,007,000,000, and of this sum nearly $253,000,000 or nearly 25 per cent., was contributed by the pastoral industry. Wool, of course, was the main factor in this yield. The qualities of Australian wool are well known, and are evidenced in the prices paid for it by British and foreign purchasers. The pro- Wool. duction of wool, stated as in the grease, is given below for the year 1901, and for each of the seasons 1910-11 to 1912-13 inclusive: — Production of Wool (in the Grease) in the Commonwealth, 1901 to 1913. Year 1901. 191011. 1911-12. 1912-13. Production ... (lbs.) (,000 omitted) 543,132 721,298 726,409 648,852 There was a sharp decline in production during the year 1902 due to bad seasons, but the great recovery which has since taken place shews unmis- takably the wonderful recuperative powers possessed by the Commonwealth. The great bulk of the wool produced in Australia is exported abroad, the quantity used yearly in the woollen mills of the Commonwealth being at present about 11,000,000 lbs. greasy. The destination and value of the wpol exported from Australia in 1913 is given in the following table : — 36 Productive Resources. Export of Wool from the Commonwealth, 1913. Country to which Exported. Weight of Greasy Wool Exported. Weight of Scoured and Washed Wool and Tops Exported. Total Value of all Wool Exported. lbs. lbs. 1 United Kingdom 185,387,090 26,176,484 46,021,324 France 159,782,827 18,804,399 36,157,870 Germany 94,068,893 10,135,857 22,839,549 Belgium 51,881,724 5,269,908 11,615,963 Japan ... 7,199,671 3,564,433 3,577,012 United States ... 14,666,551 124,301 3,627,313 Austria-Hungary 11,731,933 62,932 2,528,068 Italy 5,778,424 188,298 1,249,335 Other Countries 939,765 123,474 5,129,135 Total 531,436,878 64,450,086 132,745,569 WOOL SHOW ROOM, SYDNEY, N.S.W. Of the total imports of wool into the United Kingdom during the five years ending 1913, Australia's share amounted to nearly 40 per cent. In order to encourage the export of combed Commonwealth Bounty on Wool, wool or tops, bounties have been provided in accordance with the schedule below. The maximum amount to be paid may not exceed the rate of $48,700 per annum; any unexpended sum may be carried forward and be available for the years following. Goods. 1 Period from 1st July, 1907, during or in respect of which Bounty may be paid. Rate of Bounty. Bounty paid to 30th June. 1913. Combed Wool or Tops Exported. 3 years commencing from 1st January, 1909 1 year commencing from 1st January, 1912 1 year commencing from 1st January, 1913 3 cents per lb. 2 cents per lb. 2 cents per lb. 212,864 37 PASTORAL PRODUCTION OF THE COMMONWEALTH. 1. Dkafting Sheep. 2. Ram Sold for 1200 Guineas. 3. Frozen Mutton for Export. Productive Resources. At the latest available date the number of sheep in the Commonwealth was over 85 millions. This is considerably less than the number recorded in 1890, when the total was returned at nearly Sheep. 98 millions, but there is no doubt that stock- owners had, in the earlier year, gone beyond what might be considered as the fair stock- carrying capacity of their holdings. By the year 1900 the total had fallen to 71 millions, and in 1902 to 54 millions, but after that year a succession of very favourable seasons brought the total up to 93 millions in 1911. A severe, though fortunately short, drought was experienced over nearly the whole of Australia during the earlier months of 1912, and this had the effect of reducing the number of sheep at the end of that year to 83,593,846. Good rains fell about the middle of June, and once more the pastoral interest is on the up-grade. The table hereunder shews the number of sheep in Australia at various intervals since 1860 : — The Sheep Flocks of the Commonwealth, 1860 to 1913. Year. Number. Year. Number. Year. Number. 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 20,135,286 41,593,612 62,186,702 97,881,221 70,602,995 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 53,668,347 56,932,705 65,823,918 74,403,704 83,687,655 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 91,676,281 92,047,015 93,003,521 83,263,686 85,046,724 The fact cannot be gainsaid that the methods adopted by the great majority of pastoralists were formerly of a somewhat happy-go-lucky description, for comparatively little provision was made in the way of effective water conservation or accumulation of stocks of fodder to tide over the lean years. Too much reliance was placed on the well-known recuperative powers of the country, but, happily, it has come to be recognised that the policy of simply letting the good years pay for losses incurred in bad seasons is, apart from its cruel indifference to animal life, uneconomic. For some time past -great and increasing attention has been paid to the question of combating years of drought by means of extensive water con- servation and the storage of fodder in the shape of hay and ensilage, and every year sees the Australian pastoralist better prepared to cope with the vagaries of the season. The Commonwealth conducts a large and rapidly-increasing trade in frozen mutton and lamb, the exports during Frozen Meat for Export. 1913 amounting to $14,000,000. A state- ment of the trade for 1901 and the last five years is appended : — Value of Commonwealth Export of Frozen Mutton and Lamb, 1901 to 1913. Year 1901. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. Value 3,534,566 1 5,990,911 10,519,141 7,950,126 7,749,409 14,096,158 39 Productive Resources. The total export for the last five years, shewn above, V7as $46,305,745 and of this $43,669,479 was taken by the United Kingdom. It is, perhaps, needless to remark that Australia in the size of its sheep flocks and general value of its production from the sheep-breeding industry far exceeds any other country in the world. The sheep flocks of Australia in 1913 numbered 85 millions, the only other countries which approach these figures being Eussia and the Argentine Eepublic. Farm Stock, Victoria The number of horses, cattle, and pigs in the Commonwealth is shewn in the table hereunder for 1901, and for each of the years 1909 to 1918. Horses, Cattle, and Pigs in the Commonwealth, 1901 to 1913. Horses, Cattle, and Pigs. Year. 1901. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. Horses Cattle Pigs 1,620,420 8,491,428 931,309 2,022,917 11,040,391 765,137 2,165,866 11,744,714 1,025,850 2,279,027 11.828,954 1,110,721 2,408,113 11,577,259 845,255 2,522,178 11,493,167 800,367 It is difficult at the present time to assign a limit to the carrying capacities of the Commonwealth in regard to horses and cattle. Large areas in the interior of the continent — which, be it remarked, is by no means a desert, as was once popularly supposed — have been proved suitable for the breeding of cattle and horses. Indeed, the possibilities of this portion of Australia have, so far, remained almost undeveloped. The so-called "Nor'-west" district of Western Australia is destined to be one of the chief centres of the cattle industry in the Commonwealth, while the capacities for stock- carrying possessed by portions of the Northern Territory and Northern and 40 Productive Resources Western Queensland have yet to be determined. Difficulties of transit have hitherto to a large extent prevented the development of these districts, but with the improvement of stock routes and the extension of the railway systems, ranchmen should be attracted by the possibility of establishing themselves in localities where the rent is low, and where climate and other natural advantages are eminently adapted to stock raising. Even when fed only on the natural herbage of the country, the Australian horse has been found to possess a remarkable degree of speed and endurance, and these good qualities have been greatly enhanced by careful breeding. Little need be said in regard to the capacity of the Common- wealth for the production of high-class racing stock, in view of the world- wide renown gained by more than one Australian racehorse. A fairly considerable though fluctuating export trade in horses is carried on by the Commonwealth. The average value of this trade during the last five years was about $973,000. India is the chief customer and buys annually in the Commonwealth about 8000 horses to be used as army remounts. The average export value per head of horses forwarded oversea during the last five years was $107. The Commonwealth also exports annually large quantities of frozen beef, the bulk of which goes to the United Kingdom, Philippine Islands and the South African Union. During 1912 and 1913 the exports amounted to $7,936,057 and $12,907,466 respectively. Shearing Time, Burrawong Station, N.S.W. 41 Productive Resources. Further reference to the pastoral industry is here impracticable, but a statement of the net exports of the products Net Exports of Pastoral Products, of the industry will convey a general idea of its value to the Commonwealth. Values of Net Exports of Principal Pastoral Products of the Commonwealth, 1908 to 1913. Products. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. Animals (living)— ■ $ % $ $ % s Cattle ... ... • 3,426 18,863 56,043 184.268 312,594 244,443 Horses ... 742,988 412,174 —249,494 —623.027 —136.347 308,487 Sheep 27,910 29,345 ; 80,045 61.961 301,138 226,612 Bones 25,253 29,399 35,847 47.683 59,907 107,167 Glue Pieces and Sinews ... 61,703 57,425 53,712 66,404 88,275 113,527 Glycerine ... ... ' ... 15,471 11,271 49,488 77.505 66,287 67,008 Hair 81,461 109,906 125,942 121,601 145,754 137,042 Hoofs 9,850 7,894 13,646 15,422 23,953 30,066 Horns 88,912 91.146 124,253 124,939 147.647 148,1.58 Meats- Frozen Beef 2,197,268 3,567,328 5.737,971 5,362,535 7.933.988 12,906 829 Mutton and Lamb 5,932,862 5,990,872 10,519,054 7,950,004 7.749.040 14,094,990 Rabbits and Hares 1,635,618 2,061,861! 2.368,031 1,980,857 1,.561,617 2,421,447 „ Other 41,400 87,730 ' 198,634 235,493 290,563 484,267 Potted and Extract of 107,590 277,691 343.112 279,127 295,785 989,918 Preserved in Tins, etc. ... 1,038.895 1,954,441 2,933,954 3,679,843 2,974,872 ' 5,171,299 Other —14,064 8,093 39,774 63,314 62.993 86,026 Sausage Casings 129.451 253,947 185,922 180,691 42.509 156,377 Skins- Hides 420,033 1,165,732 1.393.171 2,274,457 4,243,415 6,901,717 Sheep ... 5,990.147 8,450,613 9,751,670 7.804,596 9,675,323 12,073,459 Rabbit and Hare — 1,484.253 1,689,885 2.758,072 2,423,729 2,804,012 ; 3,019,640 other. Including Undressed Furs 1.346,593 2,954,773 4,000,778 2,320,728 3,153,334 ; 3.630,569 Tallow ... 3,824,681 5,983,640 1 9,191,947 9,411,979 7,519,002 10,500,147 Wool— Greasy 87,682,928 100,157,698 114,033,070 104.086,825 107,388,448 104.496,614 Scoured ... 23,767,350 23,457,286 25.319,190 21,403,762 19,260,848 , 21,316,446 Tops 285.366 656,373 1,340,281 1,573,355 1 2.022.885 Total Values 136,641.979 159,114,379 189.720.205 170,874,977 177.538,312 ;201,655,140 Note. — signifies net imports. 4. DAIRYING, POULTRY, AND BEE-FARMING. During the last twenty or thirty years dairying has made great strides in the Commonwealth. This rapid development is due to a variety of causes. In the first place it may be noted Dairying. that the Australian climate is so mild that excepting in very few regions, stock require no housing all the year round. The dairy-farmer is, therefore, not under the expense of providing stall accommodation for his herd during the winter, while stall-feeding is in most places unknown. Any winter fodder required in Australia is as a rule simply given to the cattle in the fields. In some cases clumps of shelter trees are grown for the protection of the stock, while farmers in certain districts rug their cows during the colder months, as it has been found that the practice results in an improved milk yield. Moreover, the old-fashioned idea that heavily-grassed country was alone suitable for dairy stock has been abandoned in Australia, for it is found that dairying pays well on very lightly-grassed country. With the introduction of the cream separator and the spread of the factory system the industry has advanced rapidly, so that at the present time large areas once given up to 42 Productive Resources. general agriculture have been devoted almost entirely to dairying. When Captain Phillip established the settlement at Sydney in 1788 the live stock consisted of one bull, four cows, one calf, and seven pigs. At the end of 1912 the dairy herds of the Commonwealth numbered 2,086,885, the total number of all cattle being 11,577,259. The number of dairy cattle in the Commonwealth at the close of each of the six years ending in 1912 was as follows : — Dairy Herds of the Commonwealth, 1907 to 1912. Year ... 1907. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. Number of Cattle 1,892,351 1,839,398 1,906,174 2,064,599 2,120,659 2,086,085 Mixed Farm. Butter and Cheese. The production of butter and cheese is given in the next table: — Production of Butter and Cheese in the Commonwealth, 1905 to 1913. Year. Butter. 1 Cheese. Year. Butter. Cheese. 1905 1906 1907... 1908... 1909 lbs. lbs. 140,898,726 13,155,030 159,934,617 14,847,958 156,380,670 13,383,563 145,317,357 14,579,788 154,273,252 15,774,837 1910 1911 1912 1913 lbs. 193,425,606 211,573,745 187,259,569 197,987,421 lbs. 16,537,011 15,886,712 16,147,105 19,265,328 Australian butter has achieved a highly satisfactory reputation in the London market, as well as in other countries, as is evidenced by the prices received. The following table will give some idea of the magnitude of the export trade ■ in milk products : — 43 Productive Resources. Oversea Exports of Butter, Cheese, and Milk from the Commonwealth, 1905 to 1913. Year. Butter. Cheese. Milk— Concentrated and Preserved. lbs. $ lbs. $ lbs. $ 1905 • i 56,477,536 11,457,833 193,608 25,749 495,089 45,351 1906 .; 75,802,856 15,767,974 252,115 33,248 311,540 31,024 1907 .! 66,076,915 14,065,640 495,530 62,759 322,119 30,684 1908 . 51,206,359 11,618,678 153,589 25,486 309,789 34,129 1909 .; 55,700,987 11,692,499 203,477 28,085 360,821 88,212 1910 • 1 87,928,151 19,230,593 921,583 107,931 517,634 50,072 1911 . 101,722,136 22,568,019 1,159,363 132,580 1,260,323 107,016 1912 . 66,685,056 16,267,181 146,022 28,031 1,820,943 184,326 1913 . 75,802,303 17,350,673 1,609,452 206,445 2,875,030 365,795 The chief trade is, of course, confined to butter. Although cheese and pre- served milk of fine quality are produced locally, the Commonwealth still imports annually a considerable quantity of cheese, while the importations of concentrated and preserved milk in the years 1912 and 1913 were S126,531 and $131,397 respectively. i VPPHI HB^^^^B "^j^ ' -%^^^^^^ ''.rfl H^Hj^^^ri^ -44 1 1 «^«:-S ^ A i¥\ ^^ |j|%|y|^iJH 1 Wpr 1 ^B> i^^^^B ^'llMHl^^^H^r^^H Milking by Machineky. Pig-breeding is carried on principally in conjunction with dairying but the industry has by no means received the attention which, economic- ally, it deserves. The number of pigs in the Pigs and Pig Products. Commonwealth fluctuates considerably, the figures in 1861 being 319,147; in 1881, 703,188; in 1901, 931,309; in 1908, 695,689; in 1909, 765,137; in 1911, 1,108,450 ; and in 1913, 800,367. The production of bacon and ham during each of the last six years is shewn in the following table: — Production of Bacon and Ham in the Commonwealth. 1908 to 1913. Year 1908. 1910. Production (lbs.) 40,102,9351 37,774,967 45,149,752 1911. 1912. 1913. 53,264,652 ;54,870,752 51,925,746 44 Productive Resources. The oversea trade in pig products is at present small, and susceptible of considerable expansion. During 1913 the net oversea export of frozen pork was about $24,000, of bacon and ham $333,000, and lard $296,000. Poultry- farming has only recently attained any importance amongst the industries of the Commonwealth, and the returns relating to it are so incomplete that any estimate of the value of Poultry. the production therefrom is at best very un- certain. It is to be feared that in the earlier years, owing to imperfect management, the aggregate output represented little more than cost of production. Better methods are, however, now in vogue, and Government experts in all the States give instruction in matters that will tend to amplify the returns. An increasing number of private persons is engaged in breeding the best type of bird for laying and for the table, and the industry bids fair to occupy ere long a place of some importance amongst Commonwealth sources of production. At the present time, so far as eggs and live poultry are concerned, the balance of trade is against the Commonwealth. There is, however, a fairly considerable, though fluctuating, export trade in frozen poultry, the returns for the last six years being shewn below : — Export of Frozen Poultry from the Commonwealth, 1908 to 1913. Year 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. Value « 35,696 15,218 20,298 36,353 49,366 63,430 Bee-farming, like poultry-raising, has generally been carried on in conjunction with other industries, few persons devoting their attention to apiculture alone. Eeturns of production are Bee-Farming. available for all the States except Tasmania, the figures for the five years ended 1912 being as follows: — Number of Bee Hives, and Production of Honey and Beeswax, 1908 to 1912. state. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. (Hives ...No. 69,946 64,799 70,266 73,503 62,944 N.S.W . ■ Honey ...lbs. 3,064,526 2,066,330 2,765,618 3,394,489 ii,390,355 (Beeswax... lbs. 58,697 63,006 72,617 66,686 49,267 [Hives ...No. 40,595 42,632 52,762 53,711 52,723 Vic. Honey ...lbs. 2,373,628 1,611,284 2,308,405 1,635,260 3,277,590 (Beeswax... lbs. 38,674 22,369 34,695 28,405 45,354 Hives ...lbs. Honey ...No. 14,282 14,457 15,375 14.945 15,841 Qld. 445,432 548,171 517,565 574,973 581,228 (Bees wax... lbs. 9,707 11,849 11,798 11,419 11,744 [Hives ...No. 24,020 24,001 27,990 28,044 27,228 S.A. Honey ...lbs. 1,007,717 812,487 996,376 760,094 1,446,364 Bees wax... lbs. 12,063 10,059 10,608 9,745 18,054 (Hives ...No. 16,559 13,739 10,620 10,718 8,533 W.A. ■ Honey ...lbs. Beeswax... lbs. 309,109 409,345 338,507 416,823 292,515 6,217 9,841 7,215 13,730 6.073 45 Productive Resources. Both honey and wax are produced in sufficient quantities to supply- local requirements, while a fair quantity of each is exported oversea. During the last five years the average quantity of honey sent oversea was 227,000 lbs., and of beeswax 22,000 lbs. As evidence of its excellent quality it may be noted that an exhibit of Australian honey obtained the highest award at the Franco-British Exhibition in London in 1908. 5. FORESTS. It has been estimated that the forests of the Commonwealth cover about 102 million acres, or 5.35 per cent, of the total area, while the area specially reserved for timber is 27f million acres, or 1.45 per cent, of the total. Special areas have been set apart in all the States as "State forests" or "timber reserves," the reservation being made in perpetuity in some cases, in others for a definite period, while in some instances the reserva- tion may be cancelled at any time. The present abundant natural supplies are in most of the States supplemented by the es- tablishment of forest nur- series and plantations. Limits of space preclude more than a passing re- ference to the number and variety of the forest tim- bers of Australia. It may be remarked en passant that the Australian forest is not always " a continu- ous assemblage of mourn- ful-looking gum trees," as has been sometimes supposed, for the beauty and diversity of bush and undergrowth in many parts of the coastal jungles is often very striking. Amongst hardwood tim- bers the particular species of eucalyptus, popularly known as ironbarks, are very highly prized for all work requiring great strength and durabihty. Builders prefer ironbark girders in many cases to those made of steel or iron, for the ironbark does not burn easily, nor does it bend or buckle with heat. Large quantities of other species of eucalyptus are used locally, as well as exported abroad, for wood-paving, such as jarrah (E. marginata), karri {E. diversicolor) , Murray red gum {E. rostrata), etc. 46 Felling Timber in Tasmania. Productive Resources. The stringy barks and the turpentine {Syncarpia laurifolia) are valuable timbers for wharves and bridges. There are vast numbers of other " gums," " boxes," and " mahoganies," all of more or less value for indus- trial purposes. Then there are the pines of various sorts, which give valuable timber for ceilings, box-making, etc. Amongst furniture and cabinet -making timbers may be included red cedar {Cedrela australis), a beautifully-marked and easily-worked timber, rosewood, white beech, silky oak, tulip wood, red bean, figured blackwood, and hosts of others. Sandal- wood in considerable quantities has been exported from the Commonwealth for over half a century. The Commonwealth Government encourages the development of the timber industry by extensive use of local products in connection with its buildings and works. Moreover, tests are being Timber Sawn or Hewn. made as to the suitableness of Australian woods for rifle stocks, telephone switchboards, etc. The estimated quantity of timber sawn or hewn in the Commonwealth during each of the five years from 1908 to 1912 was as follows : — Local Timber Sawn or Hewn In the Commonwealth, 1908 to 1912. Year 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. Production Super feet. 489,061,000 Super Feet. 609,562,000 Super feet. 532,661,000 Super feet. Super feet. 591,646,000 667,554,000 The exports of timber during the last five years were as follows : — Exports of Timber from the Commonwealth, 1909 to 1913. Description. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. Dressed Undressed Logs... Palings Other $ 58,905 4,777,847 115,289 16,785 8,594 $ 55,459 4,751,494 81,603 15,116 14,468 $ 61,314 4,962,182 112,048 23,997 8,911 $ 56,170 4,177,249 72,765 18,172 8,631 $ 39,711 • 4,695,933 123,246 13,081 4,531 Total 4,977,420 4,918,140 5,168,462 4,332,877 4,876,502 Sandalwood. The exports of sandalwood were as shewn hereunder : — Exports of Sandalwood, 1909 to 1913. Year... 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. Value $ 219,579 431,294 357,186 160,110 282,003 The bulk of the export of this product is taken by Hong Kong, nearly 80 per cent, of the total during the last five years having been consignecl thither. 47 1. Preparing Blue Gum Piles for Admiralty Works. 2. Loading Blackwood Logs. 3. Shipping 100 ft. Piles for England. Productive Resource?. The Commonwealth exports a considerable amount of tanning bark, the amount of this trade during the last five Tanning Bark. years being shewn hereunder : — Exports of Tanning Bark from the Commonwealth, 1909 to 1913. Year 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1913. Value $ 447,456 580,357 509,266 351,016 293,994 Local tanneries consume about 26,000 tons of bark annually. The imports into the Commonwealth comprise chiefly softwoods, such as pine, deal, and Oregon, the principal contributing countries being the United States, Norway and Sweden, Canada, and New Zealand. HAuiiiNG Timber. 6. FISHERIES. Numerous varieties of valuable food fishes abound in the coastal waters of Australia, while the freshwater rivers and lakes yield abundant supplies both of natural and acclimatised species. The fishing industry has not^ however, developed to the extent it deserves. It has been said that the Australians are not an "ichthyophagous race," but the comparatively heavy import of dried and preserved fish appears to disprove the statement. The •natural explanation seems to be that the industry is ill-managed — the consumer has to pay too much, while the fisherman receives too little — and the system of distribution lacks method and daintiness. In recent years, however, considerable improvement in this regard has been efiected. Prior to the year 1907, information was very meagre concerning such matters as the condition of the sea bottom, times and seasons of migration of fish, locality and extent of fishing grounds, Possibilities of the Fishing most suitable methods of take, etc. For the Industry. purpose of co-ordinating and extending in- formation on these and kindred matters, the 'Commonwealth Government, in the year mentioned, decided to build and 49 Productive Resources. equip an investigation vessel. The Endeavour, as the vessel is called, was put in commission on the 9th March, 1909, and has been almost constantly- engaged since that date. Careful records are kept of the results of each cruise, and a large fund of valuable information has already been acquired and is at the disposal of persons interested. To attempt anything like a complete account of the food fishes which abound in Commonwealth waters is here out of the question. Amongst sea varieties may be mentioned "snapper," or Food Fishes. "schnapper," which is taken by line in quanti- ties off the coast of the mainland, and which is reckoned amongst the finest edible fishes in the world. Then there are hosts of others, such as whiting, mullet, trevally, sea perch, black and red bream, sole, groper, rock cod, garfish, barracouta, trumpeter, flathead, sea carp, herring, etc. Amongst fresh -water fish may be enumerated the- Murray cod (which sometimes reaches a weight of over 50 lbs.), perch, and mullet. Suitable streams on the mainland have been stocked with English trout and other fish, and the trout-fishing to be obtained in Australia is said to be unsurpassed anywhere. Fine sport is also afforded by the trout and salmon in the lakes and rivers of Tasmania. Lobsters, shrimps, prawns, and edible oysters and other shell-fish are found in abundance in the- Common wealth . In order to encourage the development of local industry, the Common- wealth Government has prescribed a bounty of 1 cent per lb. on preserved fish- for a period of five years dating from the 1st. Bounties for Fish-Preserving. July, 1907. The maximum amount which may be paid in any one year has been fixed at- Wavebley Fish Farm, neak Latjnceston, Tas. 50 Productive Resources. PKAKL LUGGKKS, Vv'.A. $48,666, and the amount paid to 30th June, 1913, was $11,427. That there is considerable room for development in the fishing industry is evidenced by the fact that the average value of fish imported into the Common- wealth during the last five years was $2,808,000. Pearlshell is obtained in Western Australia, Queensland, and the Northern Territory, the two last-mentioned places also' exporting fair quantities of b6che-de-mer and tortoiseshell. Pearlshell, Beche-de-mer and Comparative statistics for the Commonwealth Tortoiseshell. -in connection with the fishing industry are as follows: — General and Oyster Fisheries, Commonwealth, 1908 to 1912. Particulars. 1908, 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912, General Fisheries — No. of boats engaged 3,063 3,101 3,088 2,593 2,898 „ men employed 5,107 5,492 5,515 4,405 6,114 Fish obtained — Quantity ... cwt. 289,820 298,351 841,6691 350,8281 391,168 Value... ... ^ 1,262,348 1,346,442 1,855,047 2,306,883 2,420,361 Lobsters obtained — Value, i 78,658 78,245 107,901 134,891 135,485 Edible Oyster Fisheries — No. of boats engaged* 189 139 113 482 485 „ men employed* ..; 196 175 174 589 518 Oysters obtained — Quantity ... cwt. 57,590 59, 109 1 59,854 64,897 58,113 Value... ... $ 301,240 307,528t 295,736 875,115 388,999 * Queensland and South Australia only. There are practically no oyster fisheries in Victoria, Western Australia, and Tasmania. + New South Wales and Queensland only. I Exclusive of Tasmania. 51 Productive Resources. Information regarding the pearlshell, beche-de-mer, and tortoise- shell industries is given hereunder : — Pearl, Pearlshell, Beche-de-mer, and Tortoise-shell, Commonwealth,* 1908 to 1912. Particulars. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. No. of boats engaged 604 567 586 578 607 No. of men employed ... 3,852 3,883 4,038 4,052 4,291 Pearlshell obtained — Quantity tons 1,768 1,770 1,853 1,717 2,103 Value ^ 1,066,254 1,315,218 1,455,799 1,593,527 2,580,729 Pearls obtained j — Value $ 239,557 378,560 461,195 426,861 517,671+ Becbe-de-mer obtained— •>■ Quantity tons 346 352 251 323 450 Value $ 111,459 79,860 68,560 86,197 122,355 Tortoiseshell obtained — Quantity lbs. 5,056 3,532 2,070 1,056 1,302 Value ^ 13,510 8,463 4,857 2,784 3,820 * Queensland, Northern Territory and Western Australia only. There is no production in the- other States. + As returned. I Exclusive of pearls obtained by Japanese divers, estimated at- $1,217,000 4 p^ mt.^r,. /'Vc^C*! Z^^^^mM -^ ■I^^M^ ^HHIS^" A: 1 BaowN Hill Gold Mine. W.A. 7. MINERAL WEALTH. Although the annual return from the mining industry is now consider- ably less than that yielded by the pastoral, agricultural and manufacturing, industries, nevertlieloss it was the discovery of gold in 1851 that attracted large bodies of population to Australia, and thus laid the foundations of its nationhood. This question has been alluded to at greater length elsewhere. - It will be sufficient to note here that, while the population of Australia in. 52 Productive Resources. 1841 was only 221,000, the total had increased to over 1,168,000 by the end of 1861. At the present time, in the richness and variety of its mineral resources, Australia compares very favourably with any other country in the world. What the future may bring forth with respect to the develop- ment of the mineral industry it is difficult to say ; at all events, it is known that a large proportion of the mineral-bearing areas has up to the present been merely scratched, while there is still a considerable portion of the continent which has never yet been properly prospected. The table hereunder, which refers to the years Variety of Mineral Wealth. 1908 to 1912, will give some idea of the wealth and variety of Australian mineral resources: — Value of Principal Minerals Produced in the Commonwealth. 1908 to 1912. Minerals. 1908. 1909. 1910. 1911. 1912. 1 » $ $ « Alunite 13,164 42,782 13,821 18,469 66,672 Antimony 58,584 27,793 37,497 53,581 80,381 Asbestos 7,787 749 ... ... ... Bismuth 27,710 12,673 101,346 120,068 112,500 Chrome 1,168 ... ... ... Coal 18.312,462 15,007,004 17,928,621 19,124,005 21,500,601 Cobalt... ... ... 268 ... Coke 972,987 667,663 920,116 897,088 790,593 Copper 11,742,946 11,353,635 11,628,226 12,479,223 15,789,810 Diamonds 6,608 19,267 14,021 19,778 9,835 Diatomaceous Earth 2,920 11,680 10,911 8,302 17,189 Gems — Unspecified 73,972 112,495 103,171 118,710 194,740 Gold 63,551,744 61,340,650 56,227,502 51,350,153 48,081,302 Graphite 292 ... Gypsum 5,280 5,791 47,279 37,584 60,146 Iron ... 494,691 488,394 788,130 707,676 636,099 Iron Oxide 16,824 24,080 110,271 11,568 23,179 Ironstone Flux ... 466,708 291,935 178,905 186,964 176,028 Kaolin 8,093 3,012 4,828 2,141 2,565 Lead 933,495 1,239,543 1,358,852 1,208,105 1,668,073 Limestone Flux 352,753 250,385 266,736 231,663 232,339 Manganese 26,883 10,337 16,298 19,617 6,546 Molybdenite 49,410 60,934 86,221 77,228 102,466 Opai ... 215.589 310,487 336,766 293,454 184,968 Platinum 2,136 8,370 6,901 19,408 18,882 Salt 182,496 124,555 131,397 197,582 195,573 Scheelite 54,029 71,139 78,026 57,114 24,153 Shale 126,857 114,934 165,998 181,182 169,210 Silver... ... - 1,558,040 1,408,004 1,411,070 1,236,146 1,638,665 Silver-lead Bullion Silver- lead Ore ... 11,677,038 8,687,479 9,415,512 12,259,021 17,225,359 Tin 5,324,673 4,768,688 ' 4,626,973 5,888,411 6,564,956 Wolfram 230,485 404,154 587,015 478,189 413,317 Zinc ... 2,924,712 5,068,643 6,276.802 6,887,012 8,596,586 Unenumerated ... 209,082 184,302 1 98,733 98,509 143,693 Total 119,621,618 112,121,557 112,978,213 114,267,951 124,726.326 As the table shews, the yield of gold far outstrips that of any other item in the list, being equal to over 40 per cent, of the entire production for the period. 63 I. Gold Mining, Baker's Crkek, N.S.W. 2. Mt. Keira Colliery, South Coast. N.S.W. 3. Silver Mining at Broken Hill, N.S.W. Productive Resources. How great a part the precious metal has played in the wealth pro- duced in this portion of the British Empire will be evident from the following table, which shews the value of the Gold Yield. gold raised in each State, in the Northern Territory, and the total, from the date of dis- covery up to the end of 1912 : — Total Gold Yield of the Commonwealth, 1851 to 1912 state N.S.W. Victoria. Q'land. 1 S; Aust. i W. Aust. Tas. N. Ter. C'wealth. Value 289,380.373 1,419,593,530 $ Sis 36»5,052,384 4.481,181 531,909.946 36,048,012 s 10,052.803 S 2.657,518,229' The figures given above by no means represent the total production , as large quantities of gold were taken away by successful "diggers" in the early days, the amount of which was not in all cases recorded. Eemarkable masses of gold have been found in the Commonwealth at various times. The first "nugget" was discovered at Hargraves, in New South Wales, in 1851, and weighed a little '•Nuggets" and Masses of Gold, over 1 lb. The Burrandong nugget, found near Orange in the same year, weighed 2217 ozs. 16 dwts., and the "Brennan" was sold in Sydney for $5626. The "Jubilee," found in 1887, weighed 347 ozs. In Victoria a nugget which weighed 1620 ozs. was found in 1853 at Canadian Gully. The "Welcome," found near Ballarat in 1858, weighed 2217 ozs., while the "Welcome Stranger," unearthed in 1869 at Mount Moliagul, near DunoUy, weighed 2315 ozs., of which 2284 ozs. were fine gold and 31 ozs. silver, and was valued at $46,398. Probably the largest mass of gold ever found was obtained at Beyer and Holtermann's claim at Hill End, New South Wales, in 1872. The specimen was 4 ft. 9 in. high, 2 ft. 9 in. wide, and about 4 in. thick, and contained only a comparatively small admixture of quartz. An offer of $63,265 was refused for this prize when it was first exhibited. A miner in Western Australia "dollied" out $73,000 worth of gold in 189Q from the cap of a reef on the Yalgoo field, and $97,000 worth was won in a few days by the discoverer of the Wealth of Nations mine. The Broken Hill silver field, the chief lode on which was discovered in 1882, is one of the richest and most productive mining centres in the world. Incomplete returns of the output of the various Silver and Copper. companies operating on the field give the pro- duction to the end of 1912 at $336,518,000, while the dividends and bonuses paid during the same period came to $77,164,000. The total production of silver and lead in the Commonwealth during 1912 was valued at $20,532,097. During 1912 the copper produced in the Commonwealth was valued at $15,789,810. The production from other metals is given in the table on page 53. but more extended reference to them cannot be made here- It may be remarked, however, that the small return 55 Productive Resources. from iron by no means represents the possibilities of working the metal, as there are vast deposits of iron ore throughout Australia which have never been touched. Relative Proportions of Minerals Raised in 1912. Tin, $6,564,956 Zinc, $8,596,586. Copper, $15,789,810. Silver-Lead, $20,532,097. Coal, $21,500,601. Gold, $48,081,302. The Manufactures Encouragement Act of 1908 provides for the payment of a bounty not exceeding $146,000 Bounties on Iron. per annum on all pig iron, puddled bar iron and steel made from Australian ore and pig iron respectively, on the following basis: — Description of Goods. Pig iron from Australian ore ... Puddled bar from Australian pig iron Steel from Australian pig iron Rate of Bounty. ^•2.9 per ton Total Amount Date of which may Expiry of be Authorised. | Bounty. ^730,000 130th June, 1914 COPPER WORKS, LITHGOW, N.8.W Productive Resources. Bounties were also provided for galvanised sheet or plate iron or steel v^ire netting, and iron or steel tubes and pipes. From the 1st January, 1909, up to the 30th June, 1913, the total amount paid in bounties was $519,739. Of that sum $383,709 was paid in respect of pig iron, $87,296 in respect of wire-netting, and the remainder in respect of steel ($23,014), puddled bar iron ($22,440), and galvanised sheet iron ($3280). Coal was discovered at a very early period in the history of Australia, the first mention of it being made in 1797, when its existence was noted in New South Wales by some survivors from the ^®*'- wreck of a vessel, who had walked from the southern portion of Australia up the coast to Sydney. During the last five years the production has averaged over 10,000,000 tons, valued at $18,370,000, the bulk of the yield being contributed A TYPICAL COLLIEBT, NEW SOUTH WALES. by New South Wales. In the Newcastle and Northern District of this State is situated one of the most productive coalfields in the world, the coal- bearing strata extending from the Newcastle Harbour to a distance of about fifty miles inland, and containing practically inexhaustible supplies of excellent coal. There are extensive deposits in the Southern District, while the Western coalfields are in close proximity to vast stores of lime- stone and high-grade iron ore. Victoria possesses deposits of valuable black coal in addition to immense deposits of lignite and brown coal, the beds in the Latrobe Valley being over 800 feet in thickness. In the event of the application of a cheap and efficient process of manufacturing fuel briquettes from the product, the value of these vast accumulations of soft coal can hardly be over-estimated. An extensive deposit of good, hard clean coal was discovered through boring in 1908 in the Powlett Eiver district, and the output has already assumed large proportions. Nearly half 57 Productive Resources. Mt. Lyell Reduction Works, Queenstown, Tas. a million tons were raised during 1912 from the state coal mine in this district. Good coal is also mined in Queensland, Western Australia, and Tasmania. In view of the very great wealth in coal, iron, and limestone possessed by the Commonwealth, its success as a manufacturing country should be assured. The salt referred to in the table on page 53 is produced from salterns in South Australia. Separate information regarding the quantity produced in Victoria is not available for publication, and it is included therefore in the table under the heading of "Unenumerated." There are deposits of almost pure chloride of sodium on islands near Fremantle, Western Australia. SALT, LAKE FOWLKB, SOUTH AUSTRALIA. 58 Productive Resources. Gems are found throughout the Commonwealth, the most important being opal, many beautiful varieties of which are found in New South Wales and Queensland. The official returns Gems. by no means adequately represent the total production, as much of the opal raised is sold to foreign buyers on the fields, and is not recorded. The same remark applies in the case of diamonds. Hydraulic Sluicing, Briseis Tin Mine, Derby, Tas. 8.— MANUFACTURING. As shewn in the first paragraph of this section, the return from the manufacturing industry in 1912 was Development of Manufactories. $277,500,000, and represented over 27 per cent, of the total value of Commonwealth production. The development of the Commonwealth manufactories during the last nine years is shewn in the table hereunder : — The Manufactories of the Commonwealth, 1908 to 1912. Number of Hands Salaries and Value of Land and Buildings used. Value of Plant Value of Factories. Employed. Wages Paid. & Machinery. Output. No. No. ^ « ^ $ 1908 12,853 257,494 96,768,545 129,732,819 126,179,118 484,367,319 1909 13,229 266,661 102,741,225 1 134,667,608 130,692,608 515,652,994 1910 13,850 286,928 116,146,200 143,593,100 141,017,135 588,173,656 1911 14,455 311,710 133,968,579 158,135,347 153,779,573 647,360,514 1912 14,878 327,456 152,262,582 169,400,985 167,706,151 724,025,054 59 Productive Resources. During the short period of five years the nuraber of hands employed and amount of wages paid in connection with factories has increased 21 and 57 per cent, respectively. The value of land and buildings has increased by 30 per cent., while there has been an advance of 32 per cent, in the value of the plant and machinery. The total value of the output of factories in the Commonwealth during 1912 reached $724,000=000. Some idea of the relative importance of the various classes of indus- trial establishments in the Commonwealth Classification of Industries. may be obtained from the next table, which shews the distribution of the returns for 1912 under similar headings to those given above : — Classification of Commonwealth Manufactories, 1912. ■ No. of No. of Salaries Value of ' Value of Class of Industry- Estab- Hands and Land and Plant Value of lish- Em- Wages B'ildings and Ma- Output. ments. ployed. Paid. used. chinery. I. Treating Raw Material, Product of No. No. S ,, $ $ $ agricultural and Pastoral Pursuits 871 9,624 3,969,705 4,887,106 4,511.139 51,846,173 II Treating Oils and Fats, Animal, Vegetable, etc. 102 2,091 938,716 2,187,292 2,030,481 10,434,536 III. Processes in Stone. Clay, Glass, etc. 709 12,909 7,072.660 6.725,893 7.257,911 17,070,510 IV. Working in Wood 1,752 30,660 16,239,038 9,363,089 11,949,536 50,034,527 V. Metal Works, Machinery, etc. 1,779 66,472 39,812.333 26,463,003 30,700.018 153,035,505 VI. Connected with Food and Drink ... 2,331 46.812 21,755,950 40,193,273 43,943,783 238,623,274 VII. Clothing and Textile Fabrics 3,115 84,661 25,058.945 23,984,734 7,885 960 83,066,140 VIII. Books, Paper, Printing & Engraving 1,158 25,077 12,672,620 15,329,915 12,789,520 34,003,719 IX. Musical Instruments, etc. 21 628 357,697 417,215 102,003 988,219 X. Arms and Explosives 16 899^ 410,98.6K 546,515 772,922 1,138.591 XI. Vehicles and Fittings, Saddlery, Harness, etc ... 1.249 13,400 5,861,377 8,051,672 1,605,640 15,614,093 XII. Ship & Boat Building & Repairing 97 3.821 2,442,202 6,139,886 2,909,149 4,141,042 XIII. Furniture, Bedding, and Upholstery 670 10,405 4,998.375 5,079,136 1,008,406 14,277,832 XIV. Drugs, Chemicals, and By-products 202 4,381 1,964,535 4,007.270 3.063,025 13,030,741 XV. Surgical and other Scientific instruments ... U 238 106,266 288,626; 56,525 290,373 XVI . Jewellery, Timepieces , &Plated Ware 177 2,302 1,170,720 1,675,587 300,710 3,893,840 XVII. Heat, Light, and Power ... 372 8,550 5,620,692 12,221,485 35,978,303 23,855,775 XVIII. Leatherware, n.e.i. 66 1,231 488,389 587,131 134,779 2,585,717 XIX. Minor Wares, n.e i. 147 3.295 1.321,374 1,252,157 706,338 6,094,447 Total... 14,878 327,456 152,262,580 169,400,985 167,706,148 724,025,054 BOOT FACTORY, VICTOBIA. 60 1 & 3. WiLLIAMSTOWN WoOLLEN MILLS, ViC. 2. SORTING & CLASSING WOOL. BURBAWONG, N S.W. Productive Resources. Judged by the number of establishments and the total persons employed therein, the clothing and textile class easily occupies first place in importance amongst Commonwealth Clothing Industries. manufactories. Figures showing the develop- ment of some of the principal industries included in the class are given hereunder. The first table gives particulars illustrating the development of woollen mills during the period of five years from 1908 to 1912 :— Development of Woollen Mills in the Commonwealth. Year. Number of Mills. Hands Employed. Value of Plant and Machinery. 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 21 24 25 32 32 2,717 2,965 3,030 3,200 3,379 1,804,751 2,062,314 2,126,304 2,330,398 2,422,707 The production of these mills consist chiefly of tweed cloths, flannels ,^ and blankets, all of which have acquired more than a local reputation for purity, quality, and durability. The progress of boot and shoe factories is exhibited in the table hereunder : — Development of Boot Factories in the Commonwealth. Year. Number of Hands Value of Plant and Boots and Shoes Factories. Employed. Machinery. j Made. ^^908 No. No. 1 ^ 1 Pairs. 328 13,606 1,578,378 9,874,000 1909 315 14,023 1,643,604 10,158,078 1910 337 13,810 1,755,944 10,657,787 1911 341 13,772 1,897,371 10,786,775 1912 332 13,341 ' 1,936,961 J 10,591,441 Competent judges have expressed the opinion that the product of the- best factories compares very favourably with the finest imported goods. In 1907 there were 1935 tailoring, dressmaking, and millinery establishments in the Commonwealth," employ- Development of Tailoring, Dressmak- ing 38,721 hands, with salaries and wage& ing and Millinery Establishments, amounting to $7,935,322. Five years after- wards, in 1912, the progress amounted to 2232 establishments, 49,544 hands, and salaries and wages, $13,426,855, an increase of 15 per cent., 28 per cent., and 69 per cent, respectively. Viewed in regard to the value of land and buildings, and of plant and machinery, industries connected with food and Food and Drink Industries. drink occupy foremost place in the list of Commonwealth manufactories. The develop- ment of industries included in the class specified is shewn hereunder : — 62 Productive Resources. Development of Commonwealth Food and Drink Industries. Number of Hands Value of Plant and Value of Land and Factories. Fitn ployed. Machinery. Buildings. No. No. ^ ^ 1908 2,253 40,652 37,689,991 34,853,577 1909 2,258 41,006 37,826,683 35,000,211 1910 2,286 42,921 39,966,365 36,010,749 1911 2,810 45,623 41,709,203 39,747,642 1912 2,331 46,812 43,943,783 40,193,273 The progress of the dairying industry in the Commonwealth has been noted in a previous section. In the table hereunder will be found figures relating to butter, cheese and con- Butter, Cheese and Condensed densed milk factories, these ranking amongst Milk Factories. the more important establishments included in the preceding table: — Commonwealth Butter, Cheese and Condensed IVIilk Factories. Year. Number of Factories. Hands Employed. Value of Plant and Machinery. 1908 1909 1910 1911 ... 1912 ... No. 560 550 548 540 530 No. 3,824 3,283 3,479 3,730 3,518 % 3,485,423 3,380,666 3,446,690 3,775,441 3,839,339 »4evlr^>^^ * 4,i i I ^« ■ /^' I I ■" Wheat at Cquntby Railway Siding, Victokia. 63 Productive Resources. Tobacco factories are included amongst the industries connected with food and drink. Particulars regarding these establishments are shewn hereunder: — Development of Commonwealth Tobacco Factories. Tobacco. Year. G1908 . 1909 . 1910 . 1911 . 1912 . Factories. No. 33 37 35 33 35 Hands. No. 4,058 3,991 3,923 3,730 3,484 Value of Plant and Tobacco Cigars Cigarettes Machinery. made. made. made. $ lbs. lbs. lbs. 1,130,371 9,685,784 274,823 1,522,398 1,174,662 9,440,167 285,330 1,623,67^ 1,218,349 9,933,087 319,903 1,862,178 1,044,248 10.048,396 356,127 2,163,729 1,106,141 10,299,000 389,000 2,606,000 BARBED WIBE MANUFACTURING. As regards total salaries and wages paid, Class V., which includes, industries connected with metal works and machinery, is the most important amongst the list of Commonwealth Metal Works and Machinery. manufactories. The development of the indus- tries included in the class is shewn hereunder: Development of Commonwealth Industries connected with Metal Working and Machinery. Year. Number of Establish- ments. Hands Employed. Approximate Value of Plant and Machinery. No. No. # 1908 1,548 48,505 22,549,983 1909 ... 1,588 49,753 24,048,768 1910 ... 1,620 54,288 25,576,592 1911 1,697 60,538 27,851,132 1912 1,779 66,472 30,700,018 64 1. Bolt Making. 2. Railway Car BmLDiNG. 3. Furniture Making. Productive Resources. The established policy of the Commonwealth Government is that of effectively encouraging the development of local industries by means of protective duties, as well as by the payment of bounties and bonuses, which have already been referred to in the preceding pages of this section. In addition to tariff support, contracts are frequently placed with local manu- facturers at prices higher than those which would have to be paid for imported goods. There is thus a determination on the part of the Austra- lian people to become more self-supporting by creating and maintaining manufacturing industries, and hence to assure a maximum condition of employment. While it is not within the scope of this section to point out in detail the possible openings which exist for the profitable employment of capital in industrial enterprises, sufficient has been said to shew that there are exceptional openings for establishing factories in Australia at the present time, and manufacturers in other countries, especially those who have hitherto been carrying on a profitable overseas business on the Australian market, will do well to examine closely the inducements offered to manu- facturers inside the tariff. There can be no doubt as to the natural potentialities of the Common- wealth for manufacturing ; for of coal there is practically an inexhaustible supply, while the deposits of iron ores and Potentialities for Manufacturing. Umestone have so far barely been touched. For years past Australia has been the world's greatest supplier of wool; we could, if need be, produce in Queensland and the Northern Territory all the cotton required in our local manufactures; while the Commonwealth Dependency of Papua is capable of producing in- exhaustible supplies of rubber and other valuable tropical products. Olre Plantation, neau AoEiiAiDE G6 S.A. An Austbalian Disc Cultivator. VI. -SETTLEMENT ON THE LAND In Section V. a brief indication has been given of the extent and variety of the productive resources of the Commonwealth- When the magnitude of its yet unoccupied area is con- Room for New Settlers. sidered, in conjunction with the circumstance that the present comparatively small popu- lation has only touched the fringe of the productive potentialities of the country, it seems clear that there is room and opportunity enough for a large accession of population. Moreover, present conditions point to the belief that it is to Australia that the world must in future years look for a large proportion of its breadstuff s supplies. The people most needed in Australia at the present time are agricul- tural settlers with a small capital who will help to develop the areas proved suitable for husbandry, together with other immigrants able and willing to work on the land. The days have gone by when " gold could be picked up in the streets,"' but land can be obtained under such easy terms in Australia that new settlers and thrifty labourers can easily become landed proprietors It may truly be said that no country in the world can offer greater advantages to wheat-growers, cattle-raisers, wool-growers, dairy-farmers, fruit-growers, and for raising lambs for export- Area Available for Settlement. Qf the total area of the Commonwealth — namely, 1,903,731,840 acres — only about 102,746,699 acres, or a little over one-twentieth of the whole area, have been alienated absolutely, that is to say, the freehold has been sold or granted 67 'Settlement on the Land. 'by the Crown outright. About 52,000,000 acres, or one-thirty-sixth of the whole area, are in process of alienation, or, in other words, are held by settlers who are purchasing the freehold of the land on easy terms by the payment of a small sum annually for a period of years. About 859,000,000 acres, or about two-fifths of the whole area, are let by the Crown under leases or licenses to occupy for various periods, while the remaining 890,075,605 acres, or 47 per cent, of the whole area, are unoccupied. Of the unoccupied lands, large areas are already available for settle- ment, while other areas are constantly being opened up by the State Governments. In all the States, also, what are called Closer Settlement Acts have been passed. It has been found that the value of the produce of a large estate, originally considered as being at its full capacity, compares unfavourably with the returns which may be obtained from the same area when subdivided and cultivated by settlers. Under the Acts just men- Weir, Torrens Gorge, 9i Miles from Adelaide. tioned, the State Governments, therefore, repurchase large estates which have in past years been alienated by the Crown, and, after cutting them up into areas of suitable size, throw them open to settlement on easy terms and conditions. The subdivision and sale of lands by private owners is also going on all over the country, but the terms offered by such owners are not, as a rule, nearly so easy as those offered by the Governments, which do not desire to make a profit, and which can insist on the permanent occupation of the land by carefully chosen tenants. The diagram given below shews the condition of the public estate in the Commonwealth. The large square represents the total area of the Commonwealth, while the relative areas of Condition of tiie Public Estate, individual States are shewn by the vertical rectangles. The areas alienated absolutely, in 68 Settlement on the Land. process of alienation under systems of deferred payments, and the areas held under leases or licenses are shewn by the differently shaded areas, as described in the reference given below the diagram, while the areas un- occupied are left unshaded. Area alienated absolutely Area in process of alienation Area held under lease, etc. Area unoccupied It is not possible within the scope of this sketch to enter with any degree of completeness into the different methods by which land may be taken up in the several States. Though there How to obtain Land. is a considerable similarity between the prin- cipal forms of tenure in the States, the terms and conditions vary very considerably in detail, and therefore a general indication only of the most important systems will here be given. More detailed accounts will be found in the " Commonwealth Year Book." Eeliable information regarding the several States as to land available, price. 69 Settlement on the Land. and conditions, as well as to numerous other matters of interest to the settler, may be obtained from the High Commissioner, the States Agents - General in London, or from the Government Officers in Australia, whose names and addresses are given at the beginning of this pamphlet, and to whom all intending settlers should apply. The freehold of the land may generally be acquired under what are known as systems of conditional purchase by deferred payments ; that is to say, the settler may purchase the land by the payment of small half- yearly instalments upon terms which are very liberal, viz.: — The settler must reside upon his holding and must fulfil improvement conditions of the lightest nature — conditions inserted simply to guarantee that the occupier will become of benefit to the community by making a reasonable effort to make his holding wealth -producing. The maximum area which a settler may select in this manner varies from 200 to 2560 acres, according to the situation and quality of the land. The purchase price ranges from ten shillings an acre upwards, and the payment may be extended over a period of from twenty to forty years, the annual amount payable ranging from sixpence an acre upwards. The selector must ordinarily reside on his hold- ing for at least five years, and must carry out certain prescribed improve- ments, such as clearing the land and enclosing it with a fence. Friends or relations may take advant- age of the co-operative or family system of settle- ment, under which they may form a small com- munity among themselves, and while holding their land separately may assist one another by the reci- procal use of implements and stock. Under the Closer Settlements Acts, repurchased lands are from time to time divided into allotments for far- mers, for agricultural labourers, or for working- men's homes. They are thrown open to settlement under systems of condi- tional purchase by defer- red payment, but the land being already improved, the price is usually larger Ensilage Making, Biggenden State Farm, Q. Settlement on the Land. than in the case of unimproved lands available for settlement. Under these Acts, and under the Small Holdings Acts, farm labourers and working-men may acquire freehold property near the centres of work, and money is advanced to them by the State Governments on easy terms to assist them in building homes. Special areas are set apart for orchards, vineyards, and gardens, while other areas are from time to time specially reserved for selection by settlers from Great Britain. Instead of selecting the land by conditional purchase, a settler may purchase the land outright, or may obtain a lease for an indefinitely long term — called a perpetual lease — upon payment of a small rent. In Queensland and Western Australia free homestead farms of 160 acres are granted to settlers upon residential and improvement conditions. For the purpose of assisting settlers in erecting buildings and carrying out improvements on their holdings, systems have been established in all the Australian States, under which financial Advances to Farmers. aid is rendered to settlers by the State Govern- ments. The amounts advanced and the con- ditions regarding interest and repayment differ somewhat in the several States. Generally, advances may be obtained on freehold property or on conditional purchases for the purposes (a) of paying off existing encum- brances, (b) of making improvements or of developing the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, or viticultural resources of the land, (c) of building homes on the land, or (d) for the purchase of stock, machinery or imple- ments. Loans, together with interest at not more than 5 per cent., are generally repayable by half-yearly instalments within 31 years. To the end of the year 1912-13, the total amount of such advances was $54,667,496, the balance due being $31,311,448. Special clauses are inserted in many of the Closer Settlement and Small Holdings Acts, providing for advances to persons taking up land under the Acts on similar lines and for similar pur- poses to the above. In the Northern Territory, the Commonwealth Government is throwing open a large area for settlement, at the same time assisting settlers in the purchase of fencing, implements, stock, etc. By taking advantage of the opportunities thus offered for borrowing money at a low rate of interest and repayable in small instalments, many farmers have been able to make their holdings wealth-producing at an early stage, when otherwise they would have had a hard struggle to surmount the initial difficulties incidental to the cultivation of virgin lands. The Governments of some of the States have arranged to grant assistance towards the payment of the passage money of persons desiring to settle on the land or to engage in farm or dairy work, or work Assisted Passages for Settlers of a similar nature, to domestic servants, and and Farm Workers. to other persons who can satisfy the Agents- General in London that they will make suit- able settlers, together with their wives and families, if any. Arrangements have been made with several of the best known and most up-to-date shipping 71 Settlement on the Land. companies for special reductions to intending settlers, in addition to which the Government contribution reduces the cost of the passage to the immigrant to so small an amount as $29 for males, $15 for females, and $7.3 for children. Persons resident in Australia may nominate their relatives or friends to come out by assisted passages. Settlers have the choice of travelling by any one of a number of fast and well-appointed steamships, and the actual amount of passage money will, of course, depend upon the First Stages in Cropping, Gippsland. Victoria. class of accommodation required. Those who have availed themselves of assisted or nominated passages are met on arrival by Government officers, who make themselves acquainted with the needs of the passengers and help them in every possible way. Special concessions may also be obtained by settlers in the way of railway fares and freights from the port of arrival to the railway station nearest to their selection. One of the most important considerations to the intending settler is the question of selling his produce at a profit. Naturally, the market prices fluctuate considerably from time to time. The Market Prices for Produce. table below, however, gives a general idea of the prices prevailing during the year 1912 for various classes of produce. Average Wholesale Prices Agricultural and Dairy Produce, 1912. Wheat . ^0.99 bushel Mutton, prime Barley, Feed . 1.14 ,, Ham Oats . 0.78 ,, Bacon Maize . 0.99 „ Butter, choice Potatoes . 48.80 per ton. Cheese, matured Beef, prime bodies .. . G.08 per 1001b. Eggs, ordinary $0.07 per lb. 0.27 0.19 0.24 0.22 0.27 doz. 72 Settlement on the Land. Another consideration of great importance to the intending settler is the cost of getting his produce to market. In each State various descrip- tions of goods are classified, and the freight is Railway Freights for Produce, charged according to classification. Both the classification and the rates charged vary some- what in the several States, but generally it may be said that low rates prevail, the charges having generally been reduced in recent years as the revenue from traffic has increased. The mileage rates are based on a tapering principle, i.e., a lower charge per ton mile is made for a long haul than for a short haul. District rates are charged between specified stations, and are, as a rule, somewhat lower than the mileage rates. The following table shews the mileage rates for agricultural produce in truck loads per ton and per ton mile for various distances : — Rates for Carriage of Agricultural Produce in Truck Loads on State Government Railways, 1913. Charge per Ton for Haul of— 50 Miles. 100 Miles. 200 Miles. 300 Miles. 400 Miles. 500 Miles. Average per ton ... „ per ton mile 1.38 0.03 2.11 0.02 2.80 0.02 1 3.35 0.02 3.95 0.01 4.44 0.01 It may be seen from the above table that the principle which has been followed has been to diminish the rates rapidly in proportion to distance, so as to enable distant areas to compete in the principal markets. Special rates have been fixed in the interests of the pro- ducer for partic- ular classes or for small packages of produce. The pro- '^ ducer also has the benefit of rea- sonable rates in getting his implements, stock, and necessary commodities to his land. The education of the farmers is a subject to which much attention is given by the State Governments, which have established five agricultural colleges, where, for moderate fees, pupils Dissemination of Agricultural receive instruction in the theory and practice Information. of all branches of agriculture. There are also in various parts of the Commonwealth 73 A CAMEL TKAM I\ THE FAR NORTH. Settlement on the Land. thirty-six experimental farms, orchards, and vineyards, where the most advanced and best methods of farming in all its branches are studied by the Government authorities. Experts on dairying, on horticultural and viticultural and other matters, are sent out to lecture in various country districts and to give practical demonstrations. Advice is given to farmers by means of the official Agricultural Journals, special bulletins, or by letter when asked. There are also in practically all the settled districts, agricul- tural and horticultural societies, and associations of farmers and stock- breeders, having the one general aim of improving their methods of business. Excellent elementary training in agriculture and horticulture is given at the State Schools in most of the States. In Australia the position of the farm labourer and of other persons employed in agricultural and pastoral pursuits is much superior to what it is in England, where they have but few chances Farm Labourers. of improving their position. In the Common- wealth, with its higher rates of wages, cheap living, and with the financial assistance given by the Governments, the agricultural labourer may, by perseverance and self-help, easily acquire a home and a farm of his own. Naturally, the rates of wages vary from time to time in different localities, according to the state of the labour market and according to the prosperity of the seasons. The table given below has been prepared from official returns, so as to give a general indication of the ordinarily prevailing wages, and also the minimum and maximum wages, paid in Victoria during 1912-13, and may be accepted as an indication of rates of wages prevailing in Australia. In addition to the rates shewn below, board and lodging, or rations, are found. Rates of Wages, with Rations, Paid upon Agricultural, Dairying, and Pastoral Holdings in Victoria during 1912-13. Occupation. Prevailing Rate. Range. « ^ % Ploughmen . . . per week 6.08 4.87 to 7.30 Farm Labourers ... ... ,, 5.47 4.87 7.30 Threshing Machine Hands . . . per hour 0.18 0.16 0.24 Harvest Hands ... ... per day 1.58 1.22 1.95 Milkers ... . . . per week 4.87 3.65 6.08 Maize Pickers (without rations) per bag of cobs 0.12 0.10 0.14 Hop Pickers (without rations) per bushel 0.07 0.06 0.08 Married Couples ... . . . per week 8.52 7.30 12.17 Female Servants ... 3.65 2.43 4.87 Men Cooks ... ,, 6.69 4.87 9.73 Stockmen per annum 291.99 253.06 „ 379.59 Boundary Riders ,, 253.06 253.06 „ 379.59 Shepherds >> 219.00 189.80 „ 330.93 Hutkeepers 'J 194.66 126.53 „ 253.06 Generally-useful Men . . . per week 4.87 3.65 7.30 Sheep-washers ... ,, 7.30 4.87 8.52 Shearers*, hand or machine per 100 sheep 5.47 4.87 6.08 Bush Carpenters . . . per week 9.73 6.08 14.60 Gardeners, market or orchard ... ,, 6.08 4.87 8.52 Vineyard Hands... 4.87 4.26 7.30 It is believed that in some of the higher rates rations are not found. 74 Transport and Communication. River Boats on the Murray, S.A. VII.— TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION, The people of Australia possess a valuable asset in the railway systems which have been constructed throughout all the more settled parts of the country. As these systems, with but few exceptions, belong to the State, they can be devoted largely to the development of natural resources and to the increase of settlement by opening up new districts. Due weight must be given to these considerations in any examination of the financial results attendant on the working of Australian railways. As may be seen from the accompanying map, the eastern, south- eastern, southern, and western parts of Australia are now equipped with a considerable network of lines, providing means Railway Systems. for conveying the produce of the agricultural, pastoral, and mining districts to the principal towns and ports. Great progress has been made in the way of railway development during the last fifty years. The first line was opened in 1855, and at the end of that year there were IGi miles in operation. On the 30th June, 1913, there were no less than 19,734 miles open for traffic, while there were 1775 miles of line in course of construction and 2878 miles authorised, but the construction of which had not then been commenced. These figures are exclusive of the transcontinental 75 Transport and Communication. line referred to hereunder. The main interstate Hne, which permits of direct communication between the four capitals — Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, and Adelaide — has a total length of 1790^ miles. The journey from Brisbane to Adelaide occupies about three days, including one stop of nearly nine hours at Sydney and another of nearly four hours at Melbourne, while the longest railway journey which can be undertaken in Australia on one continuous line is from Longreach, in Queensland, to Oodnadatta, in South Australia, a total distance of 3303 miles. In Western Australia the railway systems, which connect the principal coastal towns, and which run inland to the gold- fields for nearly 600 miles, are not as yet connected with the railways of the eastern States. The survey of a line The Transcontinental Railway, between Port Augusta, in South Australia, and Kalgoorlie, on the Western Australian gold- fields, was completed in March, 1909, the route followed being indicated by dotted lines on the map overleaf. The construction of the line, which will be about 1100 miles long, was commenced in September, 1912, the necessary legislation having been passed by the Commonwealth, South Australian, and Western Australian Parliaments. The estimated cost of construction and equipment is about four million pounds, and it is expected that the line will be completed in three years. Another proposal is to extend the main northern line from Adelaide, which at present terminates at Oodnadatta, as far as Pine Creek, the southern terminus of the Northern Territory line from Darwin. Sydney-Melboubne Expbess. The table given below shews the mileage of State-owned and private lines open for traffic on the 30th June, 1913. Of the 1960 miles of private railway, 1002 miles were available for general Mileage Open for Traffic. traffic, while 958 miles were used for special purposes only, such as the conveyance of coal, timber, etc., from privately owned or rented lands. In each State of the 76 Transport and Communication •Commonwealth the policy has now been established that the railways should be kept under the control of the Government, and this policy is adhered to, excepting in cases presenting unusual circumstances. Commonwealth Railway Lines. — Mileage Open, 1912. Particulars. N.S.W. Victoria. Q'land. S. Aust. W. Aust. Tas. N. Ter. C'wealth. State-owned Private 3,930 267 3,647 61 4,524 412 2,168 34 2,854 973 507 222 145 17,775 1,959 Total ... 4,197 3.698 4,936 2,202 3,827 729 145 19,734 In spite of the great extension of State-owned railways which has taken place in recent years throughout the Commonwealth, there are still vast tracts of country into which lines have Opening New Areas for not yet penetrated. As population increases Settlement. and funds are made available by Parliament, the States are constantly providing new lines or extending existing ones to open up lands in places where there is a reasonable prospect of settlement and traffic being likely to follow. At present the railways in course of construction in some of the States are chiefly light lines of the "pioneer" class, and are made with a view to affording communication at moderate speeds to districts in which the traffic would not warrant the expenditure necessary to provide thoroughly equipped lines. As the traffic increases, the permanent way is strengthened in order to carry the heavier types of rolling stock. In this way feeders to the main line are built, providing transport facilities to a large area of country and opening up extensive districts to settlement. In order to still further supplement transport facilities the employment of "road'' trains has recently been introduced with satisfactory results. Motor trains are also being tested on country lines. The particulars given below for the last finan- A Year's Operations. cial year shew the large proportions which the traffic on the Government lines has reached: — Government Railways in the Commonwealth, 1912-13. Miles open 17,775 Train miles run ... 68,169,000 Cost of construction ... ^833,283,000 Number of passengers 249,855,000 Gross earnings ... 1^97,107,000 Tons of goods and live stock 26,964,000 Working expenses ... 166,160,000 Number of employees 83,503 Net ^rnir.^{llTL,, ... $30,941,000 Locomotives in use 30,98 oncost 3.71 Passenger coaches in use . . . 43,49 Interest on capital cost ... $28,980,000 Goods trucks & other vehicles in use 67,192 Net profit ... $1,961,000 77 Transport and Communication. THE GOVERNMENT RAILWAY SYSTEMS OF THE COMMONWEALTH. ExpiiANATiON OF MAP. — The continuous lines denote the existing railway lines of Australia, the heavier lines being the main routes. Of the two transcontinental lines, viz., one joining the railways of South and Western Australia— and thus connecting continuously by railway Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia, and one connecting Oodnadatta in South Australia with Pine Creek in the Northern Territory, the former has been commenced, and is shewn ; while the latter, the construction of which is to be deferred for the present, is shewn . LIST OF PRINCIPAL SECTIONS OF RAILWAYS. Miles. Townsville to Winton ... 368 Townsville to Selwyn ... 552 Rockhampton toLongreach 428 Brisbane to Cunnamulla... 604 Toowoomba to Newcastle 520 Brisbane to Sydney (27§ hrs.)725 llewcastle to Inverell ... 405 Miles. Sydney to Bourke ... 508 Sydney to Hay ... ... 460 Nimmitabel ... 291 Melb'rne(17hrs.) 582i Melb'rne to Adelaide (17^,. ) 482| Merbein ... 358 Swan Hill ... 215 78 Miles. Adelaide to Broken Hill 334 Oodnadatta 688 Perth to Laverton ... 586 Meekatharra ... 640 Albany ... 340 Hobart to Launceston ... 133 Transport and Communication. The above figures shew the gratifying results which have been obtained by the States in carrying out their railway policies. Notwith- standing the sparse population of the Commonwealth, the Government -owned railways, which cost $833,283,000, shewed for the financial year 1912-13 net receipts equal to 3.71 per cent, on Profits in worlclng. the cost of construction and equipment, and> in spite of the demand on the finances occas- ioned by the opening of new lines in furtherance of the Governments' policy of development, it is gratifying to be able to record a net profit on the year's, operations of $1,961,000. A considerable proportion of the population of Australia lives on a fringe of country near the coast, hence it will be easily understood that sea-borne traffic by coastal vessels plays an Coastal Steamers. important part in the transport of the country. At intervals along the coast, rivers or harbours provide ports of call for the vessels, thus enabling produce to be taken at a small cost to the various markets. On some routes the passenger and goods traffic alone would not pay. A considerable addition to the profits, however, is made by sums received from the Government for the regular conveyance of mails. The first regular coastal service was- initiated in 1851, while others shortly followed. From the outset- success attended these enterprises, and the services were rapidly extended* and their operations broadened. At the end of the year 1912 the coastal- shipping companies carrying on business in the Commonwealth, owned 180 steamships engaged in regular coastal and interstate services, having a gross tonnage of 311,144, the aggregate indicated horse-power being 276,703. The total passenger accommodation of these vessels was 15,460, and the total number of crew employed was 5722. Though this shipping carries goods from port to port within the Commonwealth, and is called coastal, it may be explained that many of the vessels are magnificent and fast ocean-going steamships, ranging up to 10,000 tons gross tonnage, and replete with all modern comforts and conveniences. The postal service of the Commonwealth extends to all the settled parts of the country, and postal facilities are furnished to new settlements as soon as they are formed. At the end of the Tiie Postal Service. year 1912 there were 5772 post-offices in the Commonwealth, being an increase of 108 over the number for the previous year. During the year 1912 there were 479,673,000 letters and postcards, or one hundred per head of the population, and 138,170,000 newspapers, or twenty-nine per head of the population, dealt with at the Australian post offices. Postal rates in Australia are low, and compare favourably with those in other countries. 79 Transport and Communication. Facilities are provided by the Post-ofl&ce for the transmission of money by means of money orders and postal notes. A money order, which may be issued for payment either within the Com- Money Orders and Postal Notes, monwealth or abroad, may not be granted for a larger sum than $97, nor a postal note, which is payable only within the Commonwealth, for more than $4.87. Eegistered letters are received and despatched at all post-offices. During the year 1912 money orders to the value of over $36,095,305 were issued, the value of postal notes sold being $15,743,335. The rates of commission charged on money orders are low, and vary according to the value of the order and to the place in which they are payable. Eates of poundage on Portion of Sydney Harbour shewing Ciiu i i a Postal notes are also low. Full particulars regarding these may be found in the "Official Year Book." Australia is well supplied with telegraph and telephone systems, both of which are owned and operated by the Commonwealth Government. The total length of telegraph lines, exclusive of Telegraphs and Telephones. railway telegraphs, available for use in 1912 was 47,923 miles, the corresponding length of telegraph wire being 101,218 miles. In the same year there were over 13 million telegrams, exclusive of cablegrams, dealt with by the Postal Depart- ment. The telephone system is largely utilised throughout the more densely populated parts of Australia, and is being extended in the rural districts, so that the farmers may benefit by being kept in close touch with the markets. At the end of the year 1912 there were about 334,223 miles of telephone 80 Transport and Communication wire, exclusive of telegraph and railway telephone wire, available for use, the number of telephone connections being 95,965. By the erection of nineteen "wireless" telegraphic stations, radio- telegraphic communication has been established with Asia, New Zealand, and the islands of the Pacific. The growth of the Postal Department furnishes a good index of the prosperity of the country, and the following Growtii of tiie Post-office. table, which gives figures for the years 1901 and 1912-13, shews that even during the short interval covered by those years there has been remarkable progress: — ous Bays and Subukbs in distance. Commonwealth Posts and Telegraphs, 1901 and 1912 -13. ar. Ye Particulars. 1901. 1912-13. Number of post-offices. . . No. 4,994 No. 5,772 Postal revenue $ 11,380,000 $ 20,561,000 Letters and postcards ... No. 220,178,000 No. 479,673,000 Newspapers- ... No. 102,727,000 No. 133,170,000 Parcels and packets No. 41,531,000 No. 74,473,000 Value of money orders issued ... $ 20,405,000 « 36,095,000 Value of postal notes issued $ 6,277,000 $ 15,743,000 Number of telegraph stations ... No. 2,567 No. 4,180 Number of inland telegrams No. 6,428,000 No. 13,343,000 Number of telephone exchanges No. 120 No. 1,032 Number of connections No. 24,683 No. 95,965 Length of telephone wire Miles 47,276 Miles 334,223 Number of cablegrams No. 225,125 No. 586,484 81 ^jf-'7''Tl''CTl' Small River and Coastai/ Steamer, N.SA^' VIM.— THE TRADE OF THE COMMONWEALTH, Eelatively to population, the Commonwealth The Commonwealth as a Trading of Australia occupies a high position amongst Country. the trading countries of the world, as the fol- lowing table will shew : — Special Trade of Various Countries (Imports for Home Consumption and Exports of Domestic Products including Bullion and Specie), for Latest Available Year. Year ended. Trade. Trade per Inhabitant. Country. Im- ports. Ex- ports. Imports. Exports. Total. Total. $ $ $ $ $ $ C'WEALTH OF AUSTRALIA* | 31/12/13 371,430,000 365,542,000 736,972.000 77 36 76.12 153.48 31/12/12 364,715,000 369,673,000 734,388,000 78.51 79.59 158.10 United Kingdom* ... [ 31/12/13 3,266,754,000 2.557,189,000 5,823,943,000 70.97 55.56 126.53 31/12/12 3.102,427,000 2,-371,104,000 5,473,531,000 67.95 51.93 119.88 Canada i 31/3/12 573,763,000 294,247,500 868,010,000 78.80 40.76 119.56 New Zealand 31/12/12 97,659,000 103,523,000 203,182.954 97.19 100.94 198.13 United States of America .. 30/6/13 1,664,880,000 2,124,484,000 3,789,364,000 17.74 22.65 40.39 Argentine Republic 31/12/11 369,445,000 318,964,000 688,409,000 59.39 51.28 110.67 Austria-Hungary ... 655,594,000 514.478,000 1,170.072,000 13.16 10.32 23.48 Belgium 913,721,000 704,883,000 1,618,604,000 121.99 94.11 216.10- Brazil 257,660,000 325,276.000 582,936,050 11.15 14.07 25.22 Denmark ... 170,276,000 146,172,000 316,448,200 61.44 52.72 114.16 France 1,660,111,000 1,238,429,000 2,898,540,000 41.91 31.27 73.18 German Empire 2,394,476,000 1,967,873.000 4,362,349,000 36.46 29.97 66.43 Italy 659,322,000 430,476,000 1.089,798,000 19.02 12.41 31.43 Japan 265,408,000 238,753,000 504,161 000 51.48 46.31 97.79- Norway .. 125,450,000 78.254,000 203,704,000" 52.01 32.44 84.45 Portugal " 75,646.000 37.759,000 113.405,000 14.01 7.00 21.01 Spain 193,665,000 190,073,000 383,738,000 9.88 9.69 19.57 Sweden 188,341,000 179,405,000 367,746,000 33.86 32.26 66.12 Switzerland... 358,928,000 250,891,000 609.819,000 94.74 66.23 160.97 Uruguay 31/12/10 41,721,000 41,589,000 83,310,000 36.28 36.17 72.45 From the figures just given it will be seen that in total trade per head of population the Commonwealth occupies fourth place on the list, while,. 82 Trade of the Commonwealth. if allowance be made for the value of imported raw materials re-exported in manufactured form by Belgium and Switzerland, its position would doubtless be still higher. The volume of its external trade is not necessarily an unequivocal test of a country's prosperity, as the total may obviously be affected by various factors, nevertheless an impartial survey of the Growth of Commonwealth Trade, general characteristics of the Commonwealth's trade will shew that there has been rapid and substantial progress. The following table shews the growth of the trade of the Commonwealth at quinquennial periods since 1888, and for the last three years : — Oversea Trade of the Commonwealth, 1888 to 1913. Recorded Value. Value per Inhabitant.* Iin ports. Exports. Total Trade. Imports. Exports. Total Trade. $1000. $1000. SIOOO. $ $ $ 1888 179,484 140,644 320,128 61.22 47.98 109.20 1893 115,654 161,692 277,346 34.69 48.50 83.19 1898 153,204 195,466 348,670 42.08 53.67 95.75 1903 184,010 234,812 418,822 47.27 60.31 107.58 1908 242,350 312,974 555,324 57.77 74.62 132,39 1911 325,899 386.804 712,703 72.57 86.16 158.73 1912 380,366 384,926 765,292 81.90 82.87 164.77 1913 388,108 382,142 770,250 80.81 79.55 160.36 * Reckoned on mean population for year. Vessels Loading at Darling Harboub. Sydney, N.S.W. 83 Trade of the Commonwealth. The total value of imports during 1913 was $388,107,000 and the value per inhabitant was $79.71. The following table shews the average yearly value of imports from Imports. the principal countries of shipment for each of the quinquennial periods 1898-1902 and 1903-7, 1908-12, and also for the year 1913:— Imports into the Commonwealth from Various Countries, 1898 to 1913. (Including Bullion and Specie.) Yearly Average. 1898-1902. 1903-7. 1908-12. 1913. $ « $ ^ United Kingdom 113,569,447 120,568,335 178,284,231 231,724,175 British Posessions— Canada 1,237,572 1,455,983 3,355,861 5,639,535 Ceylon 2,166,010 3,154,312 3,695,099 4,713,267 Fiji 453,063 397,151 1,525,016 2,776,618 Hong Kong 1,478,092 1,418,131 1,331,215 1,779,250 India ... 4,622,189 6,891,897 10,229,878 14,425,693 Mauritius 830,533 279,827 250,390 630,692 New Zealand ... 9,121,016 11,907,314 12,655,378 12,234,221 Papua... 298,685 327,140 354,982 439,898 South African Union 25,973 62,326 733,362 619,334 Straits Settlements 1,258,659 1,055,275 2,720,146 3,480,722 Other British Possessions 160,417 636,713 1,432,973 1,458,266 Total British Possessions . . 21,652,209 27,586,069 38,284,300 48,197,496 Total British Countries 135,221,656 148,154,404 216,568,531 279,921,671 Foreign Countries — Belgium 2,015,293 3,355,233 7,139,814 10,992,785 Chile and Peru ... 160,879 88,138 158,008 512,503 China ... 1,226,827 515,121 387,145 436,755 France 2,440,304 2,226,166 2,510,758 3,043,535 Germany 11,771,367 14,029,253 19,661,595 24,122,750 Hawaiian Islands , Bismarck Archipelago, New Cale- donia, New Hebrides, and South Sea Islands 740,307 747,859 1,006,274 1,009,184 Italy ... 730,481 886,235 1,457,760 2,201,210 Japan ... 1,284,437 2,033,158 3,549,616 4,470,820 Java ... 2,479,724 1,969,484 3,741,069 3,474,050 Netherlands 232,992 558,307 1 1,058,424 1,262,056 Norway and Sweden 2,049,719 1,835,794 4,474,679 6,659,888 Philippine Islands 371,246 376,945 510,352 608,496 United States of America 22,914,178 25,257,209 33,808,268 46,342,848 Other Foreign Countries... 1,568,862 ; 2,102,498 1,910,155 3,048,239 Total Foreign Countries .. 49,986,616 55,981,400 81,373,817 108,185,119 Grand Total 185,208,272 204,135,804 297,942,348 388,106.790 84 Trade of the Commonwealth. The relative proportions of the Commonwealth imports shipped from the United Kingdom, British Possessions and Foreign Countries, re- spectively, are shewn hereunder: — Percentages of Imports from Various Countries on Total Imports into the Commonwealth. 1898 to 1913. Countries. 1898-1902. 1903-7. 1908-12. 1913. United Kingdom British Possessions Foreign Countries % 61.31 11.69 27.00 % 59.06 13.51 27.43 % 59.84 12.85 27.31 % 59.71 12.42 27.87 Total ... 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Circular Quay, from Milson's Point, Sydney, N.S.W. As the figures shew, the proportion of imports from the United Kingdom is now smaller than it was during the first quinquennium, while imports from foreign countries increased during the period covered by the table. Notwithstanding that the imports from the United King- dom have increased from an annual average of $113,569,44:7 during the quinquennial period of 1898-1902, to $231,724,175 in 1913, an increase equal to 104.05 per cent., her proportion of the total imports into the Commonwealth has declined during the same period from 61.31 per cent, to 59.71 per cent. This subject is discussed at some length in the " Commerce" chapter in the "Official Year Book of the Commonwealth." The imports into the Commonwealth during Classification of Imports. the year 1913 may be classified under the following headings : — 85 Trade of the Commonwealth. Imports into the Commonwealth, arranged in Classes, 1901 and 1913. Classes. 1901. 1913. Classes. 1901. 1913. $ $ $ $ I. Animal Foodstuffs, etc. 3,860,961 4,612,028 XIV. Metals, Ores, etc. ... 4,790,290 7,668,410 II. Vegetable 14,239,493 16,136,675 XV. Metals, part manftd. 5,169,795: 7,301,968 III. Beverages (non-alcoho- XVI. Metals, manufactd. 36,458,526 80,897,550 lic), etc. 5,130.935 8,921.555 XVII. Leather, etc. 2.547,963 8,511,844 IV. Alcoholic Liquors, etc. 8,980.942 ilO.199,812 XVIII. Wood, etc 8,829,806 17,391,898 V. Tobacco, etc. ... 5,493,779 1 5.425,971 XIX. Earthenware, etc. ... 4,.502,063 7,692,164 VI. Live Animals... 196,152 1 706,698 XX. Paper, etc 8,425,628 15,255,461 VII. Animal Substances, etc. 603,537 1 2,029,547 XXI. Jewellery, etc. 5.184,-584 6,864,556 VIII. Vegetable 2,235.510 ! 6,541,655 XXII. Instruments, etc. ... 1,063,038 3,672,256 IX. Apparel, etc. ... 58,716,881 195,899.381 XXIII. Drugs, etc 7,164,371 12,133,278 X. Oils, etc 6,279,094 I 9,.585,321 XXIV. Miscellaneous 15,282,690 54,792,552 XI. Paints, etc. ... 1,873,866 2,967,918 637,982 j 1,062,527 XII. Stones, etc XIII. Specie 838,971 1,835,765 Grand total 206,506,857 388,106,790 For detailed reference to the imports from each country the reader is referred to the pubUshed returns of "Trade and Customs and Excise Revenue of the Commonwealth." Space will Imports from Various Countries, permit of the inclusion of only the more im- portant items, of the produce of the countries mentioned. For the year 1913 these were as follows : — United Kingdom.— Apparel and textiles, $57,258,493 ; iron and steel, $17,113,151 ; machines and machinery, $12,396,925; other metal manu- factures, $28,567,086; drugs and chemicals, $4,391,310; spirits, $4,282,586; arms, ammunition, and explosives, $3,405,943 ; books and periodicals, $2,907, 572; paper, $4,385,256 ; jewellery and precious stones, $1,023,205; vessels ("ships), $7,681,638; stationery, $1,416,263; paints, colours and varnishes, $2,405,387. British Possessions: Canada.— Timber, $330,868; fish, $259,130; agricultural implements and machinery, $1,269,190 ; paper, $753,193 ; vehicles, $1,076,357. Ceylon.— Tea, $3,958,906. Fiji.— Bananas, $1,151,522; sugar, $1,381,715; copra, $122,525. Maueitius.— Sugar, $630,809. India.— Bags and sacks, $9,051,313; rice, $1,127,018; tea, $1,458,071; hessians, $1,433,724 ; oils and waxes, $406,859. New Zealand.— Gold Bullion, $5,429,265 ; timber, $2,124,056 ; skins and hides, $802,749 ; flax and hemp, $569,841. Straits Settlements. — Eice, $1,981 ; rubber and Eubber Manu- factures, $466,703 ; sago and tapioca, $278,776 ; spices, $290,826. Foreign Countries : Austria-Hungary. — Apparel and textiles, $749,436 ; furniture, $138,332 ; china and glassware, $141,033 ; machinery and manufactures of metals, $75,685. Belgium. — Apparel and textiles, $1,104,267; glass and glassware, $1,088,193; iron and steel, $928,823; jewellery, $213,496; matches, $60,686 ; metal manufactures, including machinery, $1,143,141. Chile.— Soda nitrate, $181,596. China. — Tea, $439,013; rice, $291,176; apparel and textiles, $579,399. 86 Trade of the Commonwealth. Wool, Teams starting for the Eailway. Feance. — Apparel and textiles, $4,673,941 ; drugs and chemicals, $1,104,306 ; fancy goods, $75,719 ; pipes (smoking), $254,672 ; motor vehicles and parts, $779,473 ; rubber manufactures, $258,814 ; leather, $71,592 ; spirits, $1,083,049 ; wine, $676,282 ; machinery and metal manufactures, $217,599. Geemany. — Ale and beer, $649,423; apparel and textiles, $8,248,641 ; arms, ammunition and explosives, $486,277 ; chinaware, $353,853 ; drugs and chemicals, $1,298,453 ; fancy goods, $666,997 ; glass and glassware, $743,694 ; indiarubber and manufactures thereof, $1,262,124 ; metal and metal manufactures, $9,882,405 ; jewellery, $390,522 ; leather and manu- factures thereof, $429,250 ; musical instruments, $1,753,214 ; paper, $891,214 ; stationery, $405,643. Italy. — Apparel and textiles, $979,907 ; fruits, $194,804 ; matches, $35,891 ; marble and stone, $121,703. Japan.— Apparel and textiles, $2,310,659 ; sulphur, $392,308 ; oils, fats and waxes, $303,591 ; timber, $378,278. Java. — Sugar (cane), $1,907,776 ; rubber and manufactures thereof, $35,151 ; kapok, $623,611 ; tea, $584,353. Netheelands. — Apparel and textiles, $234,456 ; spirits, $646,577 ; cocoa and chocolate, $321,782 ; paper, $151,462. NOEWAY.— Calcium carbide, $578,231 ; timber, $2,152,267 ; fish (preserved in tins), $370,443 ; milk (preserved), $-53,196 ; paper, $744,940. Philippine Islands. — Flax and hemp, $362,856 ; cigars, $262,152. Sweden. — Calcium carbide, $210,863 ; cream separators, $392,031 ; matches and vestas, $78,293 ; paper, $1,092,076 ; timber, $1,137,326. SwiTZEELAND. — Apparel and textiles, $3,893,402; watches, $541,308; cocoa and chocolate, $458,834 ; confectionery, $259,578. 87 Trade of the Commonwealth. United States of America.— Apparel and textiles, $2,989,350; cameras, kinematographs, magic lanterns, $605,620 ; fish, $980,199 ; leather, $1,347,917; medicines, $474,169; metal manufactures, $7,991,317 ; machines and machinery, $6,983,047 ; oils — kerosene, $2,443,920 ; lubri- cating, $891,452 ; paper, $1,385,409 ; stationery, $579,121 ; timber, $7,356,746 ; tobacco, and preparations thereof, $3,904,980 ; wood manu- factures, $511,787 ; vehicles, $2,916,980. The value of the exports from the Commonwealth during the year 1913 was $382,141,000, and the value per inhabitant was $78.55, of which $365,431,000, equal to $75.13 per Exports. head, was the produce of the Commonwealth. The quantity and value of each of the more important articles of domestic produce exported during the year named are given in the following table: — Chief Articles of Export Australian Produce) from the Commonwealth in the year 1913. Article. Qnantitj'. Value. Butter ... ... ... ... ... lb. 75,695,642 17,348,936 Meats — Preserved by cold process^ — Beef... ... ,, 218,918,606 13,029,688 „ „ Mutton and lamb ,, 204,931,783 14,096,158 „ „ Rabbits and hares pair 9,366,290 2,421,447 Meat preserved in tins... ... ... ... lb. 52,124,461 5,273,599 Pruits, fresh — Apples ... ...cntl. 492,711 1,582,271 Orain and pulse — Wheat . . . ,, 25,753,732 38,871,568 Flour . . . ,, 4,433,151 9,069,655 Animals — Horses No. 8,550 784,198 Hides— Cattle ... „ 1,066,315 8,041,398 Skins — Rabbit and hare lb. 9,788,323 3,024,263 „ Sheep No. 11,103,934 12,113,467 Pearlshell ...cwt. 41.308 1,862,541 Wool— Greasy lb. 531,434,544 104,532,247 „ Scoured and washed .. . ,, 64,450,086 23,346,270 Bark — Tanning ...cwt. 142,127 289,040 Tallow— Unrefined ... ,, 1,437,697 10,513,009 •Coal ... ton 2,098,505 5,457,876 Gold — Bullion and matte ... oz. 393,824 6,696,533 „ Specie... 3,456,136 "Silver— Bullion and matte ... ,, 7,960,521 4,307,196 €opper— Matte, ingots, etc. ...cwt. 846,411 1,401,230 Lead — Matte and pig ... ... ... „ 2,053,588 8,992,023 Silver and silver-lead ore ,, 239,241 803,071 ■Concentrates ... ,, 12,857,833 19,615,275 Leather, and manufactures thereof ... 3,026,779 Timber — Undressed ... ... ... sup. ft. 134,895,846 4,726,787 The destination of exports at various periods is shewn in the next table : — Percentages of Commonwealth Exports to Various Countries on Total Exports, 1898-1913. Countries. 1 1898-1902. j 1903-7. 1908-12. 1913. United Kingdom British Possessions Foreign Countries 1 % 1 ... 1 53.03 1 19.10 27.87 % 46.23 23.04 30.73 % 45.45 16.41 38.14 % 44.26 12.04 43.70 Total , ... " ... ... 1 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 88 Trade of the Commonwealth. From the comparative table on page 82 it will be seen that the value of domestic products exported from Australia is only exceeded by two of the countries named, viz., New Zealand and Belgium. Value of Exports per Inhabitant, Australia and Other Countries, 1912. » til 1 As was the case in regard to imports, so with exports, the space avail- able permits only of reference to the more Exports to Various Countries, important articles sent to the chief countries. These were as follows in 1913 : — United Kingdom.— Wheat, $25,416,643 ; butter, $15,480,209 ; gold, specie, bullion, matte and ore, $4,655,642 ; wool, $46,021,324 ; copper, concentrates, matte, ingots, and ore, $4,321,373 ; silver, concentrates, ore, specie, bullion and matte, $2,495,155 ; tin, ingots, $2,209,707 ; tallow, $7,302,245 ; hides and skins, $10,416,583; mutton and lamb, $13,201,441; leather, $2,043,490 ; frozen rabbits and hares, $2,334,179 ; lead, pig and matte, $5,995,797. British Possessions : Canada— Butter, $48,593 ; meats, $398,382 ; timber, undressed, $39,069 ; wool, greasy, $26,090 ; skins, $162,339. Ceylon.— Specie, $2,822,607 ; silver bulUon, $1,342,106 ; flour, $219,448. (The bulk of the bullion and specie shipped to Ceylon is. transferred to India and other destinations.) 89 Trade of the Commonwealth. Fiji.— Specie, $234,568 ; apparel and textiles, $141,729 ; timber (undressed), $118,837; biscuits, $100,251 ; bran, pollard, etc., $146,372 ; flour, $103,410; coal, $89,014 ; machinery and other metal manufactures, $303,557. Hong Kong.— Specie, gold, $2,798,459 ; fish, $183,041 ; lead, pig, 1492,886; sandalwood, $201,846; flour, $99,473; butter, $105,658. India.— Gold bullion, $2,048,186; specie, $894,474; timber, un- dressed, $792,442; silver bullion, $1,078,333; horses, $525,224; coal, $160,684 ; wool, $148,849. New Zealand.— Specie, gold, $2,141,288 ; timber, $1,413,927 ; coal, 1,238,857; sugar (cane), $1,000,760; apparel and textiles, $333,043; machinery, $372,180 ; other manufactures of metals, $347,035 ; tobacco and preparations thereof, $408,397 ; indiarubber and manufactures of, $455,914; fruit, $241,323; leather and leather manufactures, $187,012; fertilisers, $505,071; flour, $121,177; tea, $230,154; books, $308,097; optical, surgical, and scientific instruments, $174,929 ; medicines, 1204,303 ; tin ingots, $138,702. Wharves and Railway, Newcastle, N.S.W South African Union.— Sheep, $204,298 ; butter, $438,200 ; fruit, $76,361; wheat, $4,023,169; flour, $1,487,056; jams and jellies, $85,793; leather, $416,004; beef, $320,736; mutton and lamb, $97,020; other meats, $272,075; tallow, $457,783; timber, $1,138,854. Straits Settlements. — Flour, $912,476 ; coal, $397,944 ; horses, $56,520; butter and substitutes, $164,685; tin ore, $2,179,612. Foreign Countries: Argentine Eepublic. — Agricultural imple- ments, $844,193. Belgium.— Wool, $11,615,963 ; silver ore $7,070,183; copper ingots and matte, $3,543,866: 90 and concentrates, zinc concentrates. Trade of the Commonwealth. $6,828,466; tin ingots, $288,395 ; lead, pig, and mitte, $306,170 ; hides and skins, $4,017,461; wheat, $1,566,951. Chile.— Coal, $1,797,986. China.— Copper ingots, $40,271; leather, $55,995; lead, pig, $247,718; butter, $150,829; specie, gold, $231,614; flour,$96,261; sandalwood, $27,219. Feance.— Wool, $36,157,870; hides and skins, $6,591,999; copper ingots, $764,260 ; lead,pig, $219,969 ; concentrates (excluding gold), $886,114. Germany.— Wool, $22,839,549; copper ingots and matte, $1,787,173 ; bark, tanning, $115,109 ; ores and concentrates, $3,162,629 ; hides and skins, $2,151,123 ; sausage casings, $397,243 ; lead, pig, $180,520; timber, $79,471 ; fruit, fresh, $464,499. Italy.— Wool, $1,249,335 ; hides and skins, $630,577 ; copper in matte, $90,396 ; wheat, $165,733 ; tallow, $337,740 ; beef, $365,625. Japan.— Wool, $3,577,012; lead, pig, $1,221,400; tallow, $367,231; manures, $218,518. Java.— Flour, $1,592,880 ; coal, $701,418 ; butter, $408,149 ; horses, $104,461 ; cattle, $112,092 ; gold, specie, $24,333. Netherlands. — Concentrates, other than gold, $1,484,993 ; tallow, $250,132. Peru.— Wheat, $836,587 ; coal, $142,605. Philippine Islands.— Coal, $126,234 ; meats, $1,109,367 ; flour, $624,434; butter, $165,906; horses, $10,030; cattle, $125,762. United States of America. — Wool, $3,627,313 ; copper in matte, $3,455,241; skins, $3,030,697; goldin matte,$675,012; tin ingots, $120,832; silver in matte, $114,189 ; coal, $246,049 ; pearlshell, $250,000. It has been urged that the Commonwealth tariff is an unduly restric- tive one, but a comparison with the under- The Commonwealth Tariff. mentioned countries shews that dutiable goods other than intoxicants and tobacco are subject to a lower average ad valorem rate of duty in the Commonwealth than in any of the other countries named. In the table below will be found com- parisons with Canada, New Zealand, and the United States of America : — Proportion of Free Goods and Rates of Import Duty. Country Common- wealth of Australia. Canada. New Zealand. United States of America. Year ended ... 31/12/12 31/3/12 31/12/12 30/6/12 Percentage of free merchandise... 38.10 35.70 51.76 63.73 Equivalent ad valorem rates of duty on : — Spirits, wines, and malt liquors Tobacco, and preparations thereof Other dutiable merchandise ... Other merchandise, dutiable and free ... Total dutiable merchandise ... Total merchandise, dutiable and free ... per cent. 137.78 144.20 21.03 12.71 28.32 17.53 per cent. 120.80 22.30 23.86 15.34 26.12 16.79 per cent. 183.80 130.60 22.03 10.09 33.67 16.24 per cent. 88.88 78.76 37.02 16.57 40.16 18.58 91 Trade of the Commonwealth. Shipping Stt^ver Bullion, Pobt PmiE, S.A. Eeference has already been made to the interstate and coastal steam- ship services between ports in the Commonwealth. Appended is an abstract of total shipping tonnage — oversea Oversea Shipping. an(j coastwise — which entered the more im- portant ports of Australia during the year 1913, together with similar information in regard to some of the ports of the United Kingdom for the year 1912. Shipping of Ports, Commonwealth and United Kingdom. Port. Tonnage Tonnage Entered. Entered. COMMONWEALTH— UNITED KINGDOM— Sydney . 9.018,785 London 18,746,936 Melbourne . 6,128,266 Liverp'l (inc. Birkenh'd) 15,147,198 Newcastle 4,661,703 Cardiff 11,493,422 Port Adelaide . 3,505,443 Tyne ports 10,997,315 Brisbane . 2,832,819 1 Southampton... 7,288,261 Fremantle 2,399,275 Glasgow 5,529,820 Townsville . 1,597,173 Hull 5,469,490 Albany . 1,403,135 Plymouth 4,665,488 Mackay . 1,067,835 Belfast 3,347,588 Rockhampton . 1,000,302 Middlesbrough 3,253,830 Hobart . 850,424 Newport 3,230,616 Swansea 2,992,748 From the figures in the above table it may be seen that the shipping business of the port of Sydney is only exceeded by that of four ports in the United Kingdom, viz., London, Liverpool, Cardiff, and the Tyne ports. Trade of the Commonwealth. The tonnage of vessels owned in Australia has rapidly increased, and in 1912 there were 440,367 tons (net) of shipping on the registry books of various ports of the Commonwealth. The Great Shipping Ports of the British Empire, 1912. Glasgow, 5,529,820 tons. Melbourne. 6,138,566 tons. Southampton, 7,288,261 tons. Sydney. 8.494,059 tons. Tyne Ports, 10.997,315 tons. Cardiff, 11,493,422 tons. Liverpool. 15.147,198 tons. London. 18.746.936 tons. The ship-building industry has been established in Australia for some years, though it cannot be said to have been developed in the past with any degree of rapidity. Plans are, however, projected for the building of new yards, and with the development of the iron industry, now established at Lithgow in New South Wales, for the manufacture of pig iron and steel, there is every prospect of a marked development of ship-building in Aus- tralia in the near future. Wharves at Launceston, Tas. 93 Commonwealth and State Finance. 1. Richmond Railway Station, Vic. 2. Chatswood Railway Station, N.S.W. IX.— COMMONWEALTH AND STATE FINANCE. A more or less adequate account of the finances of the Commonwealth as a whole, and of the States as component parts thereof, is given in the chapters on Commonwealth and State Finance, in the " Commonwealth Official Year Book," No. VII. (see pp. 692 et seq.) Under the Constitution, the Federal Government alone can impose duties of Customs and Excise, State powers in this respect having passed to the Commonwealth on its inauguration. Commonwealth Revenue. The Constitution also confers on the Federal Government the power to make laws regard- ing other forms of taxation, but until the passing in 1910 of an Act imposing a graduated tax on the unimi^roved value of land this power had not been exercised. Customs and Excise receipts have consti- tuted, so far, the major portion of the Federal Treasurer's revenue, but there are, in addition, revenues from services transferred from State to Commonwealth control. The revenue from all sources for the financial year 1912-13 was $106,612,226 of which Customs and Excise yielded nearly 73 million dollars, while postal receipts accounted for 19 million dollars. Patents and Trade Marks furnished together a sum of about $117,000. Per head of population the total receipts amounted to $22.53- 94 Commonwealth and State Finance. At the outset, it may be noted that up to the present the Com- monwealth Government has only raised one loan. It has, however, assumed responsibility for the debts on the Northern Territory, and the railway from Port Augusta to Oodnadatta, and the total Commonwealth debt on 30th June, 1913, amounted to $36,163,189. The disbursement by the Commonwealth Treasurer of the revenues Commonwealth Expenditure, collected fell naturally^ under the " book-keep- ing " system (see sections 89 and 93 Common- wealth Constitution Act), into three divisions : (l) Expenditure on trans- ferred services; (2) expenditure on new services ; (3) payments to States of surplus revenue. Of these three, the first two were actual expenditure, while the third item was merely a transfer, the actual expenditure being incurred by the States. Under the Surplus Eevenue Act of 1910, however, the book-keeping system was abolished, and provision was made for the payment to each of the States for a period of ten years, and thereafter until Parliament otherwise provides, of a sum of $6.08 per annum per head of the population of the State, with a special payment to Western Australia, diminishing on a sliding scale, for a similar period, and with a special deduction aggregating $2,189,954 in respect of the year 1910-11. Moreover, a special payment of $4,379,908 is being made to Tasmania in ten annual instalments as a compensation for her financial sacrifices at the time of Federation. All surplus revenue (if any) in the hands of the Common- wealth Treasurer at the close of each financial year is payable to the several States in proportion to the population. The expenditure by the Common- wealth Government for the financial year ended 30th June, 1913, was 176,831,195. Per head of population the total expenditure averaged 116.22. The table hereunder gives a comparison of the surplus revenue actually paid to the several States during the five years 1906-1910, together with the statutory three-fourths of net Customs and Excise revenue for the same period: — Payments to States of Commonwealth Surplus Revenue, 1906 to 1910. Particulars. 1905-6. 1906-7. 1907-8. 1908-9. 1909-10. Payment on account of period ... Three-fourths of net Customs and Excise revenue $ 35,936,572 31,897,762 .38,180,988 34,258,533 $ 43,10-2,695 41,493,128 33,593,775 38,593,775 41.328,983 41,328,983 Amount paid to States out of the one-fourth re- tainable by Commonwealth 4,038,810 3,922,455 1,609.567 The table also shews the amount paid to the States out of the one- fourth retainable by the Commonwealth. For the period since federation this amounted in all to $29,486,974, i.e., the Commonwealth returned to the States surplus revenue to the extent of about 81j per cent, of the net revenue from Customs and Excise, instead of the 75 per cent, minimum required by the Constitution. In the year 1912-13 the Commonwealth, under the new arrangement, paid to the States the sum of $29 320,707. 95 Commonwealth and State Finance. Cost of Commonwealth Departments. The cost of the various branches of the Com- monwealth service during the year 1912-13 i& shewn hereunder: — Depai-tments, etc. 1912-13. Departments, etc. 1912-13. Governor-General Parliament Prime Minister's... External Affairs . . , Attorney-General Home Affairs Treasury 105,351 1,368,775 280,115 2,626,592 323,709 632,517 14,162,791 Trade and Customs Defence Postmaster-General All other Expenditure ... Total 4,262,059 12,714,808 23,269,593 17,082,885 76,829,195 BuFFAT.o Gorge, Vic. It is impossible to draw any hard and fast deductions from mere con- sideration of the actual totals of revenue and expenditure of the States as compared with similar figures for other coun- Financial Accounts of the States, tries. In the first place, the functions of central and local government are by no means identical even throughout the Australian States themselves, while they differ widely from those in force elsewhere. The railway and tramway services may be cited as a very important example in illustration of the- truth of the latter portion of the preceding sentence. In other countries these services are chiefly in private hands, while practically the whole of the railways and many of the tramways of Australia have been built and are controlled by the State Governments. It is on this fact, moreover,, that a good deal of outside criticism of AustraUa's loan indebtedness is. 96 Commonwealth and State Finance. shattered, for, as will be shewn later on, the bulk of the loans has been raised in connection with these railway services, which not only constitute an excellent set-off against the corpus of the Functions of State Governments, debt, but were absolutely essential to the development of the country. Australia, it must be remembered, is a country of "magnificent distances," and the lack of navigable inland waterways renders railway construction a sine qua non to all progress. Without railways the record of production alluded to in a preceding section could never have been achieved. The States' revenue is obtained from the following sources: — (a) Taxation ; (b) Public works and services under State control ; (c) Sale and rental of Crown lands ; {d) Payments by State Consolidated Revenue. the Commonwealth to the States (now regu- lated by the Surplus Revenue Act 1910) ; (e) Miscellaneous, comprising fees, fines, interest, etc. The revenue under each category is shewn hereunder for all the States. Details of State Revenue. 1912-13." Particulars. 1912-13. Particulars. 1912-13. Taxation ... Public Works and Services ... Land 24,650,183 123,741,685 19,305,791 Commonwealth Subsidy Miscellaneous ... Total... 29,761,321 11,961,168 209,420,148 * Exclusive of Northern Territory. As the figures shew, practically three-fifths of the entire revenue was obtained from public works and services. The State Revenue. chief items in this category are given here- under : — State Revenue from Public Works and Services, 1912-13.* Particulars. 1912-13. Particulars. 1912-13. Railways and Tramways Harbour Services ... Pnhlio TJattiPrips 105,858,877 5,094,421 210,703 Water Supply and Sewerage Other Public Services Total 6,981,480 5,596,204 123,741,685 * Exclusive of Northern Territory. A scrutiny of the above figures compared with those in the preceding table shews what an important place is occupied by the railway and tram- way services in the list of sources of State revenues. The land revenue of the States is obtained from sales and rental of the public lands, the amounts from each source being $9,816,030 and $9,489,761 respectively. As explained previously, the power to impose duties of Customs and Excise now rests solely with the Commonwealth, and the major portion of the surplus revenue, shewn above as returned State Revenue from Taxation, to the States by the Commonwealth Govern- ment, was obtained from those sources. A 97 Commonwealth and State Finance fair amount of revenue is, however, obtained by the States from other forms of taxation. These are set out in the accompanying statement: — State Revenue from Taxation. 1912-13. Taxation. N.S.W. Victoria. Q'land. S. Aust. W.A. Tas. All States Probate and succession duties Other stamp duties ... Land tax Income tax ... ... ) Dividend tax / Licenses Other taxation $ 1,777,513 1.138,484 27,924 3,224,707 670,646 2,159,207 1,228,355 1.500,240 2,638,826 105,853 46,363 $ 527,375 905,585 2,051.291 331,778 109,716 $ 286,207 493,947 690,113 1,022,144 118,019 $ 233,2.50 343,832 226,388 f 354,164 1 479,181 223,541 55,197 $ 126,433 365,824 385,802 [ 722.261 67,728 12.289 5,109,985 4,476,027 2,830,467 10.492,574 1,517,565 223,565 Total 6.839,274 7,678,844 3,925,745 2,610,430 1,915,553 1.680,337 24,650,183 At the Summit of Mt. Gambiek, S.A. The table hereunder shews details of the State State Expenditure. expenditure from consolidated revenue during the year 1912-13:— Details of State Expenditure, 1912-13.* Particulars. 1912-13. Particulars. 1912-13. Public debt (interest and sink- ing fund) Railways and tramways (work- ing expenses) ... Justice, police, etc. 1 54,590,171 74,040,839 11,814,713 Education Medical and charitable Miscellaneous Total 18,386,195 9,548,422 44,864,328 213,244,668 * Excluding Northern Territory. 98 Commonwealth and State Finance. According to the above figures, interest and sinking funds in connection with the public debts, together with railway and tramway working expenses, account for more than 60 per cent, of the entire expenditure. In addition to the expenditure from consolidated revenue, the States expend varying amounts each year from loans. States' Loan Expenditure. The amounts so spent during the five years 1909 to 1913 are given hereunder: — States' Loan Expenditure, 1908-9 to 1912-13. Year 190S-9. 1909-10. 1910-11. 1911-12. 1912-13. Amount... 36,165,647 40,803,910 58,039,241 79,447,519 1 89,687,241 It will perhaps prove of interest to shew how the States expend their loan moneys. The statement hereunder gives the details for the year 1912-13: States' Loan Expenditure, 1912-13. Heads of Expenditure. 1912-1 Heads of Expenditure. 1912-13. Railways and tramways Water supply and sewerage Harbours, rivers, etc. Roads and bridges Public buildings ... DfivfilnnrnPTifi of minAKi pt.p 54,454,432 12,801,049 [5,857,148 2,886,471 236,690 Advances to settlers ... ^ Land purchases for settlement Loans to local bodies ... Rabbit-proof fences Other public works and purposes • 10,284,174 3.167,277 Total 89,687,241 The aggregate loan expenditure by all the States up to the 30th June, 1913, was $1,429,509,376. How this was expended is shewn in the table hereunder : — Aggregate Loan Expenditure of the Several States of the Commonwealth to 30th June, 1913 Heads of Expenditure. 1912-13. Heads of Expenditure. 1912-13. Railways and tramways Telegraph and telephones . . . Water supply and sewerage ... Harbours, rivers, lighth's, etc. Roads and bridges ... Defence ... Public buildings ... Immigration 872,133,153 20,559,934 192,783,877 } 136,874,273 11,630,027 63,217,401 18,881,645 Development of mines, etc.... Advances to settlers Land purchases for settlem'nt Loans to local bodies Rabbit-proof fences Other public w'ks & purposes Total 7,560,801 - 72,804,002 33,064,263 1,429,509,376 A natural corollary to the statement just given is one shewing the actual public debt of the Australian States. This is set out in the following table. The figures in the table The Public Debt of the States, of aggregate loan expenditure represent the amounts actually spent, while those in the table below refer to the loans still unpaid at a given date. Commonwealth and State Finance. Public Debt of Australian States, 30th June. 1904 to 1913. Date. 30th June, 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 191U 1913 Treasury Bills. Inscribed Stock. For Public Works and Services. 183,669,114 190,568,534 192,653,759 185,230,181 183,300,491 151,925,509 144,857,798 151,584,524 153,669,817 190,014,967 840, 851, 882, 896, 926, 991, 1,039, 1,082, 1,120, 1,176, 924,545} 879,083} 206,098 215,5741 485,845 027,813 497,535 047,315 138,350: 832,020 60,801,147 58,618,250 59,345,140 66,048,934 59,040,527 66,285,332 60,313,776 43,505,968 67,946,976 60,082.283 In aid of , Revenue. 22,953,519 21,838,662 26,119,272 21,209,323 I 17,814,135 ! 16,033,338 9,072,915 } 19,204,269 ' 6,157,011 5,653,293 I Total Amount Outstanding. 1,108,348,325 1,122,904,529 1,160,324,269 1,168,704,012 1,186,640,998 1,225,271,992 1,253,742,024 1,299,991,999* 1,348,642,1391 1,433,069,2191 * Includes an advance of $3,649,923 from South Australian Government to Victorian Government. + Includes $729,985 balance of .$3,649,923 referred to in note * 4 Includes $186,656 advance from Queensland to Victorian Government. From the figures just given, it will be seen that the public debt of Australia at the 30th June, 1913, was over 1433 million dollars, or $298.42 per inhabitant. At first sight, the total Assets against the Debts. appears somewhat heavy for a country with such a comparatively small population, and Australia has been subjected to a good deal of hostile criticism on this account, by people who, it is to be feared, were not sufficiently conversant with the circumstances under which the bulk of the debt was incurred. A study of the conditions under which the development of this country pro- ceeded, will make it fairly clear that Australia's progress is largely the result of Australia's debt. In explanation of this rather paradoxical state- ment, allusion may again be made to the fact that Australia is practically destitute of navigable inland waterways. In the absence of these, the effect- ive development of the rich lands distant from the coast line rendered imperative the construction of expensive roads and railways. A glance at the figures in the table on page 98 will shew what a large proportion of the debt was incurred on these services alone. It will be seen also that the major portion of the loan moneys has been spent in services necessary to the opening up of the country. Without this expenditure, the progress which has been achieved in the development of the productive resources of the country would have been impossible. Moreover, while it must be admitted that expenditure was over lavish in some States during the years when the so-called "vigorous public works policy" was in force, an impartial review of the history of Australian borrowing will shew that, on the whole, the loan moneys have been wisely spent and that the corpus of the debt is set off by some very solid assets. 100 > 'Svi,ciar''''5oij4'ii<^n&i Univebsity Buildings, Mei^bourne, Victoria. X.-SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN THE COMMONWEALTH 1.— GENERAL As pointed out in a previous section, Australia is one of the healthiest countries in the world, and its bright sunshine and equable climate con- duce to living largely in the open air. One of the first things which must strike a newcomer is the absence of the violent contrast between rich and poor so characteristic of older lands. While there is a certain amount of poverty, particularly in the cities, there is no hereditary pauper class in Australia, and poor rates are neither levied nor required in any of the States. Industrial conditions are good. Legislation is in force to prevent sweating, there is proper supervision of manufactories, and the eight hours' day is observed in most trades. Wages are reasonable, and in many cases are adjusted by boards composed of employers and workmen under the presidency of a Government official. An Arbitration Court was created in 1904 by the Commonwealth Government for the prevention and settlement of industrial disputes. Education is free, andreligion is untrammelled. 2.— EDUCATION. In all the States of the Commonwealth public primary education is free, while in those States possessing public higher schools and universities free admission is granted to the children of Distribution of Educational parents unable to pay the fees. There is very Facilities. liberal provision also in the way of scholarships and bursaries, which are open to all children 101 Sot'A^ Contlitrons. Old Type Country State School. without distinction of class or religion. It has always been the aim of the Australian Parliaments to spread the advantages of primary education as widely as possible. All the capital cities and the larger towns are, of course, well provided with schools, which in respect of general design and equipment are very similar to schools of the same class in the United Kingdom. Then in the more sparsely- peopled country districts, there are smaller public""'' or " provisional" schools. In still more thinly-peopled areas half-time schools are to be found, i.e., schools which are visited alternately by the one teacher, while itinerant teachers visit the scattered settlers in the "back blocks." In some States the plan has been adopted of closing clusters of small country schools and replacing them by a larger central institution, to which the children are conveyed each day in comfortable vehicles. That the States have been successful in at least spreading the benefits of primary education is clearly set forth by the following table, which shews the number per 10,000, between the ages of Spread of Primary Education, five and fifteen, who could read and write, read only, and who were unable to read at the census periods from 1861 to 1911 : — Education of Children in the Commonwealth at Census Periods. Proportions in 10,000. Heading. 1861. 1871. 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. Bead and Write ... Read Only Cannot Read 4,757 2,628 2,615 5,910 2,078 2,012 7,061 1,266 1,673 7,588 734 1,678 7,984 481 1,535 9,027 29 944 Total 10.000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 In Australia a "public" school is, generally speaking, a State primary school. 102 Social Conditions From the above figures, it will be seen that whereas only 48 per cent, of the children between five and fifteen could read and write in 1861, the proportion had increased by the year 1911 to over 90 per cent. The marriage statistics also shew the great spread of primary educa- tion since 1861. In that year, nearly 25 per cent, of the persons married signed the marriage register with a mark, while in the year 1913 the per- centage had fallen to as low as 0.37, and bids fair to practically disappear. The State schools of the Commonwealth had an enrolment in 1912 of 662,576 pupils, and an average attendance of over 496,000. The schools themselves numbered 8393, that is to say, State Schools. there is one public school in the Common- wealth for every 560 inhabitants. In the table hereunder will be found the distribution amongst the States : — State Schools in the Commonwealth, 1912 state or Territory. Schools. Teachers.* Scholars Enrolled. Average Attendance. New South Walesf Victoria Queensland ... South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory ... ... 3,234 2,178 1,278 768 536 396 3 6,454 5,567 2,992 1,473 1,189 840 3 235,803 209,209 95,641 58,273 38,184 25,368 98 171,028 154,410 77,385 40,838 32,959 19,561 71 Commonwealth ... 8,393 18,518 662,576 496,252 Exclusive of sewing mistresses, t Including Federal Territory. Modern Type Country State School, Victoria. 103 Social Conditions. The States expend a considerable sum annually in the maintenance of their systems of primary education. This will be seen from the table hereunder, which gives for each State the State Expenditure. expenditure on maintenance and the cost per head of average attendance for the year 1912. Expenditure on Maintenance — State Schools, 1912. State. Expenditure. Cost per head of Average Attendance. New South Wales Victoria ... Queensland South Australia Western Australia ... Tasmania ... Northern Territory ... 6,255,530 4,349,000 1,915,202 1,060,298 1,074,440 420,958 3,280 36.68 27.27 24.76 25.95 32.61 21.51 46.19 Commonwealth 15,078,708 30.40 The latest available figures in regard to the diffusion of private education will be found in the next table. The term "private" is not exactly suitable, as some of the institutions Schools, other than State Schools, included in the table, such as the Queensland Grammar Schools, receive large subsidies from the State. State ScHOOii CHiiiDREN's SP' 104 Social Conditions. Private Schools (other than State Schools) in the Commonwealth, 1912, state. Schools. Teachers. Enrolment. Average Attendance. New South Wales Victoria Queensland ... South Australia Western Australia Tasmania Northern Territory 754 548 151 174 118 116 1 3,673 1,856 767 681 427 360 2 61,744 56,035 17,289 12,031 10,000 6,933 53 51,168 45,000 14,752 9,430 8,506 5.041 43 Common weal th ... 1,862 7,766 164,085 133,940 There is at present no direct means of ascertaining the quality of the bulk of the private schools in Australia, as a large proportion of them is independent of any State control, but, indirectly, an idea can be gained of their worth from the highly successful results obtained by many of them at the various University public examinations. Considerable sums of money have been spent on buildings and equipment of the higher grade institu- tions, the buildings and sites of thirty-seven of the most important schools being returned as worth $4,433,440. In Australia, the State concerns itself mainly with primary and University education, most of the larger secondary schools not being under State control. How best to secure an effective co-ordination and orienta- AGRICTJLTURAIi GROUND, SYDNEY. 105 Social Conditions. tion of all branches of educational activity is a problem which is now challenging public attention. There is a University in the capital city of each of the States. The latest available Universities. figures regarding teachers and students at these institutions, from which returns were received, were as follows: — Universities in the Commonwealth. Professors. Lecturers. Students attending Lectures. University. Matriculated. Non- matriculated. Total. Sydney Melbourne ... Adelaide Tasmania (Hobart) Queensland (Brisbane) J 29 18 11 4 4 101 64 36 6 17 1,007 387 79 205 388 310 51 14 1,495 1,221* 697 1 130 219 * Exclusive of 98 music students. + Exclusive of 318 music students. t Opened in 1911. Women are admitted as students at all the above institutions. The latest returns of the income of the Universities are shewn under : — University Revenues. here- University. Government Grants. Fees. Other. Total. Sydney Melbourne ... Adelaide Tasmania (Hobart) ... Queensland (Brisbane) 209,262 182,029 131,417 24,333 60,832 100,203 154,723 50,106 7,076 11,344 130,667 36,655 31,365 3,562 18,921 440,132 373,407 212,888 34,971 91,097 I;- ■ , m^ : ^^i^tMM-^^m 1 ' iii^ '^^M 1 m^^^ ^^^^H IR|HB| ■ JjF^ '^^^^HhI ■L -jhJH^^H ■ l^i -iH^^^H ^Hl^jj^^^^gj ■ I^^^H ^^nm HHHi Univeksity of Sydney, N.S.W. These institutions have benefited considerably from private munifi- cence. Thus, the Challis bequest to the Sydney University amounted to about $1,509,000, while Sir Peter Nicol Eussell gave $487,000 to the 106 Social Conditions. Engineering School. In Melbourne, The Hon. Francis Ormond endowed Ormond College to the extent of $525,000, and gifts and bequests amounting to a similar sum were made by Sir Thomas Elder to the Adelaide University. <-^ -5,^ , _ .'.^ TECHNicAii College, Sydney, N.S.W. Courses of extension lectures are given in the various States, but these faave, generally speaking, met with but moderate success. The development of technical education has so far been somewhat uneven in Australia, but the results achieved give every promise of greater success in the near future. Excellent technical Technical Education. instruction in agriculture and mining is given at various institutions throughout the Common- wealth, while with the increase of population and the development of the ■manufacturing industry, further extension of technical training in the arts and crafts will become a necessity. During the year 1912 the Common- wealth expenditure on technical education was about $1,124,000, or -excluding buildings, $856,000, a very trifling sum compared with that •expended on primary education. Space will not permit of more than a passing reference to the spread of education, as evidenced by the number and distribution of the public libraries in the Commonwealth, of which at the latest date there were 1500, containing about 3 million books, the institutions at Sydney and Melbourne respectively containing 250,000 and 246,000 volumes. Of the numerous Scientific Societies the most important is the Eoyal Society of New South Wales, which has over 300 members, corresponds and exchanges ivith 372 kindred societies throughout the world, and possesses a library of about 21,000 volumes, including many interesting works on the early iiistory of Australia. 107 Social Conditions. 3. RELIGION. There is no State-established rehgion in the Commonwealth, nor are- any religious distinctions operative in public affairs. There is, moreover, no religious test for admission to any of the Religious Liberty. eights and privileges of citizens. By far the largest proportion of the inhabitants of the Commonwealth belongs to the Church of England. The Eoman Catholic is the next most numerous denomination, followed by the Methodists, Presbyterians, and Baptists. At the decennial census fairly accurate returns are obtained of the professed religions of the people, although if a person has conscientious objections he is not compelled to state his religion on the census schedule. At the census of 1911 the distribution of the denominations was recorded as follows. Only the larger branches are separately mentioned. Religions in the Commonwealth, Census of 1911. Eeligion. I Persons. Religion. Persons. Christian — Non-Christian — Church of England . 1,710,443 Hebrew ... 17,287 Methodist . 547,806 Buddhist 3,269 Presbyterian . 558,336 Confucian 5,194 Congregational 74,046 Mohammedan 3,908 Baptist ... 97,074 Pagan 1,447 Church of Christ ... 38,748 Others ... 5,68a Salvation Army- .j 26,665 Indefinite — Lutheran ... 72,395 No Denomination .. . 2,688- Seventh Day Adventist 6,095 Freethinker 3,254 Unitarian... 2,175 Agnostic ... 3,084 Protestant (undefined) i 109,861 Others ... 5,647" Eoman Catholic ... 921,425 No Religion, object to state, and Greek Catholic 2,646 unspecified 129,133; Catholic (undefined) 75,379 Other Christians ... 31,320 Total 4,455,005- The professed adherents of the Church of England thus comprised* about 38 per cent, and the Roman Catholic Church about 21 per cent, of the entire population of the Commonwealth. 4. PUBLIC JUSTICE. The great body of Australian law is, in its basic principles, founded oir British law, but there have, of course, been considerable modifications and extensions to suit local circumstances. Throughout the Commonwealth there are minor courts for the trial of petty offences and the settlement of trivial civil actions, such courts being presided over by magistrates or similar func- Courts of Justice. tionaries. Next in order come courts of various designation, such as Courts of Quarter Sessions, District Courts, Circuit Courts, then the Supreme Courts, and, lastly, the High Court of Australia. In certain circumstances appeal may 108 Social Conditions. Law Coukts, Mklbouj-iXK. be made from an Australian court to the Privy Council. The purity of the administration of justice in Australia, from the lowest to the highest stages, has never been seriously impugned. Despite the rapid changes in social and industrial conditions which have characterised the history of Australia, crimes of violence have been comparatively few. There are no means of Criminal Statistics. comparing satisfactorily the criminal records of Australia with those of other countries, but the statistics here prove that not only has there been a very considerable diminution in crime compared with the record of forty years ago, but that the decrease, even during the last six years, has been persistent. Taking the convictions at Lower or Magistrates' Courts for offences against the person and property, the rate in 10,000 persons was as shewn hereunder: — Convictions for Serious Crime at Commonwealth iVIagistrates' Courts. Year ... 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1912. Oonvictions per 10,000 persons... 69.3 44.8 29.1 24.6 26.3 A more satisfactory test still is afforded by taking the persons com- mitted for trial at the Superior Courts of the Commonwealth. The rates per 10,000 of these were as follows : — Committals to Superior Courts. Year ... 1881. 1891. 1901. 1911. 1912. Committals in 10,000 persons ... 12 11 8 6 7 109 Social Conditions. There has also been a remarkable decline in the gaol population. Although complete figures are not available for the earlier years, the- results even during the period 1901 to 1912 shew that the improvement is continuing. The prisoners in gaol per 10,000 of the population during the decennium were as follows : — Prisoners in Gaol. Year ... 1901. 1905. 1907. 1908. 1911. 1912. Prisoners in Gaol, per 10,000 ... 11.2 10.0 8.9 8.2 7.0 7.3 The expenditure in the Commonwealth on police, prisons, and other matters connected with the administration of justice, for the years 1901, 1903, 1909, and 1912 was as follows:— Expenditure on Justice. Year ... 1901. 1903. 1909. 1912. Expenditure ... ... % Per head ... ... ^ 9,319,470 2.43 9,465,467 2.43 10,133,252 2.35 12,210,564 2.62 During the period dealt with, the expenditure on gaols decreased by 6 cents per head of population, while the expenditure on Courts of Justice and miscellaneous increased by about 4 cents per head, and police expenditure by 20 cents per head. Henley on Yarba, Melbourne, Victoria. 110 Social Conditions. Country State School and Garden. 5. PUBLIC BENEVOLENCE. It would be absurd to affirm that there is no poverty in Australia, but it can truthfully be said that the number of absolutely destitute persons forms a comparatively negligible proportion of the entire population. No poor rate is levied in any part of the Commonwealth, for there is practically no pauper class to need it. The bulk of the work of looking after the sick and destitute is in private hands, although the States maintain orphanages and asylums for the destitute and insane. At the latest avail- Hospitals and Orphanages. able date there were in the Commonwealth 368 hospitals, in which 139,000 patients were treated, the total expenditure being $5,363,606. Orphanages in 1912 numbered 41, the inmates were 5057 and the expenditure came to $308,355. Hospitals for the insane number 35. The expenditure on these during the year 1912 was $3,377,000, and the number of indoor patients 19,000. There are also institutions which combine the functions of general hospitals and benevolent asylums. The total State expenditure on all charities for the year 1912 was $7,952,000. 6. COMMONWEALTH OLD-AGE PENSIONS. Prior to the inauguration of the Commonwealth system of Old-Age Pensions, the States of Victoria and New South Wales had paid old-age pensions from early in 1901, while the Queensland pension payments dated 111 Social Conditions. from the 1st July, 1908. The Commonwealth Invalid and Old-Age Pensions Act, which superseded the State Acts as far as provision for old age is concerned, was passed in 1908, and pension payments commenced on the 1st July, 1909. The Act provides also for the granting of pensions to invalids, and operations under this heading commenced on the 19th November, 1910. The age qualification for a pension is 65 years, or in the event of per- manent incapacitation for work, 60 years. The age qualification for women is 60 years instead of 65. For an Pension Age. invalid pension the age qualification is the attainment of the age of 16 years if accom- panied by permanent incapacity for work. For an old-age pension the residential qualification is twenty years, and for an invalid pension continuous residence for at least five years is required. In neither case, however, is contin- Residence Qualification. ^lous residence in the Commonwealth deemed to have been interrupted by occasional absences aggregating not more than one tenth of the total period of residence. The amount of pension is fixed by the Commmissioner at such sum as he deems reasonable, but must not exceed $126.53 per annum, nor such a sum as will cause the pensioner's income together Pensions- Granted. ^yith the pension to exceed $253.06 per annum. At the end of December, 1909, 40,201 State pen- sions were exchanged for Commonwealth pensions, 22,705 new applications were granted, 2633 rejected, and 2447 were under consideration. On the 30th June, 1913, the number of old-age pensioners was 82,943, and invalid pensioners, 13,739, while the total amount paid during the year 1912-13 ^^as $11,139,799. Fat Stock for Market, Bourke, N.S.W. By Authority : McCabron, Bird and Co., Printers, 479 Collins Street. Melbourne. 112 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO 50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. 29Sep5ibB- xm^ |^flRi7C7l21ft (■.^■-