DESIGNED FOB 
 
 THE YOLTII OF BOTH SEXES. 
 
 BY MRS. JANE TAYLOR 
 Illustrated with Numerous Anatomical Engravings* 
 
 DO 
 
 sO 
 01 
 
 1SHED BY GEORGE F. <:jOOLEDGE & BROTHER, 
 
 323 PEARL STREBT, FUANKLIN SQUARE. 
 <d also published and for sale by all the principal Booksellers 
 throughout the United States of America, 
 and its Terrdoriet. 
 
 OLD A~G E~] ! 
 
ERKIEY 
 
 WELVE GOOI> REASONS 
 PHYSIOLOGY should be made a common Study. 
 
 First. Because It is a study that may be made as interesting as a 
 book of pleasant stories illustrated with pictures. 
 
 Second. Because it tells us how we are formed, the construction of 
 the human frame, and how life is sustained in our bodies. 
 
 Third. Because it tells us how our health may be preserved, and 
 how, by a neglect of the laws of nature, it may be destroyed. 
 
 Fourth. Because it tells us why we are enabled to do many things 
 that, without this knowledge, we should not know how we did them. 
 
 To all Clergymen, Teachers, and Others. 
 TWELVE Copies of this BOOK, 
 
 ENTITLED 
 
 "WOFLDST KNOW THYSELF," 
 
 OR THE OUTLINES OP 
 
 TJM-A.3XT 
 
 BY MRS. JANE TAYLOR, 
 
 Will be sent by mail, "postage prepaid/' or in other words free 
 from charge for transportation, upon the receipt of a One Dollar 
 bank-bill or its equivalent in postage stamps, addressed to 
 
 GEO. F. COOLEDGE, Publisher, NEW YORK. 
 N. B. Send your Post-office, County, and State address. 
 
 Fifth. Because it tells us what kinds of food, air, and habits of living, 
 will promote the health and strength of the body and the mind. 
 
 Sixth. Because it tells us how our bodies are warmed, and why 
 they are warm when the atmosphere around us is extremely cold. 
 
 Seventh. Because it tells us the cause of all our ails, aches, and 
 pains, and by what habits of living they may be prevented. 
 
 Eighth. Because it tells us what care is necessary to preserve our 
 teeth, and our senses of sight, hearing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. 
 
 Ninth. Because it tells us what kind of clothing and how much we 
 should wear to protect our bodies from the extremes of heat and cold. 
 
 Tenth. Because it tells us how our lives may be prolonged, and how 
 we may, by the blessing of God, attain a healthy and cheerful old age. 
 
 Eleventh. Because it tells us that we can not possess correct moral 
 feelings, or a sound mind, unless we keep our bodies in a healthy state. 
 
 Twelfth. Because it tell us why that it is better to contract good 
 habits, than those which are sure to give us pain and shorten life. 
 
HISTS TO WWII ASD TU WAIID1AB Of TOW 
 
 'Just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined." 
 
 Forms which may be cultivated, , Forms contracted by neglect, 
 
 Representing a full-chested and 
 erect man, one so rarely seen, al- 
 though it is no more than can be 
 obtained in nearly every person by 
 cultivation. A person with such a 
 chest would be free from all disease 
 of the Lungs or Heart, and would 
 have all the indication's of being a 
 robust and long-lived person. 
 
 . Representing an erect and fall-chest- 
 ed woman. Su,-h a person would nat- 
 urally have a strong constitution, and 
 could endure a great amount of labor, 
 either mentally or physically. The 
 European Ladies are more generally 
 of the above form than the American, 
 because they take more interest in 
 cultivating a full chest and fine form. 
 
 Representing a man of stooping 
 form with small lungs and chest. 
 Such a person would be almost sure 
 to have some disease of the Lungs, 
 Heart, or Stomach, and would nat- 
 urally be Consumptive, and short- 
 lived^ because the vital powers are 
 small. Care should be taken to 
 avoid contracting such a form. 
 
 Representing a facsimile in form of 
 a great many women that are daily 
 met with. Such persons are usually 
 troubled with that sinking sensation, 
 or '^goneness' at the pit of the stomach, 
 which is always produced by the pres- 
 sure upon it in stooping, and might be 
 prevented by care in keeping back the 
 shoulders and expanding the chest. 
 
HEALTHY AND UNHEALTHY POSITIONS 
 
 ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 Improper Position. 
 
 Proper Position. 
 
 Learn to sit up, young man, and to imitate your opposite neighbor ; 
 for the unnatural position which yo-u have assumed will never make 
 you a good writer. A bold upright position, with the pen held loose- 
 ly between the fingers, and a determined purpose to imitate some 
 definite copy as nearly as possible, is the only true road to success in 
 the art of writing or good penmanship. 
 
 Healthy Position. 
 
 Unhealthy Position. 
 
 An upright position, in either sitting or walking, favors a healthy 
 action of all the various organs of the system, and besides, it gives a 
 graceful and dignified appearance to the human form. Children and 
 adults are more or less inclined to lean forward with their heads upon 
 their elbows, even when their seats are provided with backs ; such a 
 position oft repeated must in time result unfavorably. 
 
 Correct Position. 
 
 Incorrect Position. 
 
 See how that round-shouldered youth is sitting with his shoulders 
 against the chair-back, and the lower portion of his spine several 
 inches from the back of his chair, giving his body the shape of a half 
 hoop. Parents should regard such a position in their children with 
 apprehension as to the result, and should rectify it at once. 
 
Old Style and New Style of Desks and Seats for Schools. 
 
 Too many schools arc furnished with seats of the same uniform 
 height. If they are high enough for the larger scholars, they are too 
 high for the smaller children, (see fig. 1). In sitting a child should 
 find a support for the back, and rest for the entire thigh-bones and feet, 
 otherwise the bones of these, being soft and growing, are liable to 
 become distorted or out of shape. Fig. 2 represents a proper posi- 
 tion, and fig. 3 an improper position, for sitting. 
 
 Proper and Improper Position to lie in Bed. 
 
 Curvatures of the spine may be caused by too many pillows upon 
 which the head rests while in bed as represented above. Young 
 persons should lie as nearly level as possible with the head but slight- 
 ly raised if at all. As they advance in life, a more elevated position 
 of the head may be desirable. Most people lie upon the right side, 
 some lie upon the back, but this latter position is not favorable to those 
 who are liable to nightmare. A change of position is very desirable. 
 
 A Curved, Round-Shouldered, and Erect Spine. 
 
 How very distressing, and yet how common, it is to see curved or 
 deformed spines. The habits of children, especially of girls, if not 
 corrected in time, create a fearful frequency of this spinal defect. 
 Nature has given to all, both male and female, a sufficiency of bono 
 and muscle to sustain them in the most graceful and healthy position, 
 and when these are correctly and faithfully used, and their strength 
 developed, they fulfil their intended purposes and keep the form erect. 
 
A VERY INTERESTING- SUBJECT ! ! jj 
 
 A Book that should be in every family and School in 
 the United States and its Territories. 
 
 A MUCH NEGLECTED BUT MOST IMPORTANT STUDY. 
 
 < YOUTH. Of what use is the study of Hainan Physiology ? 
 OLD AGE. It teaches us how to preserve our health ; 
 what kinds of food, air, and habits of living, will make 
 us sickly ; what practices will be likely to shorten our 
 lives ; and how, on the other hand, we shall most likely 
 attain, with the blessing of God, a healthy and cheerful 
 old age. 
 
OR 
 THE OUTLINES OF 
 
 BY MRS. JANE TAYLOR. 
 
 DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF 
 
 FAMILIES AND SCHOOLS, 
 
 TO PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 
 
 THIS book may be used with great interest as a reading class book 
 in families and in schools. The parent or teacher reading the questions 
 and the children or pupils reading the answers ; and thus reading the 
 book through and through until the important lessons it contains shall 
 be fully impressed upon their youthful minds. 
 
 PUBLISHED BY GEORGE F. COOLEDGE, 
 
 323 PEARL STREET, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 
 
 And also published and for sale by all the principal Booksellers 
 
 throughout the United States of America , 
 
 and its Territories. 
 
bat 00 learn 0nmlfos 10 Im0fo J 
 foljat 10 man anb fojiat 10 ^00 foe 0foc/' SPENSER 
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1858, 
 
 BY GEORGE F. COOLEDGE, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the 
 Southern District of New York. 
 
"KNOW THEN THYSELF." 
 
 
 
 "The proper study of mankind is Man." 
 
 ~-^~~ v ^~~~-^^-~-~~- LlBRARV 
 
 AN ADDRESS TO PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY may seem a hard word for the title of a child's 
 book, and the subject it presents may, on that account, appear 
 difficult of comprehension to the young ; but this is only because 
 IjL it is new or uncommon. The subject is not often presented to 
 children, and, therefore, the word used to designate it is not famil- 
 iar to their ears. Physiology is not, in reality, a harder word to 
 pronounce than Geography. They are both Greek words in their 
 origin, and the meaning and use of the one are just as easily learn- 
 ed as the other. Geography is a description of the earth. Phys- 
 iology is a description of nature, and is confined to such things as 
 have life, as man, animals, and vegetables. These three depart- 
 ments are called human, animal, and vegetable physiology. 
 
 This little work is devoted to Human Physiology, and explains, 
 in an intelligible and interesting manner, the structure of the 
 human frame, the form and uses of its several parts, the means 
 to be employed for their preservation and perfection, and the 
 sources from which danger is to be apprehended. It will be 
 found to contain many useful hints about clothing, diet, exercise, 
 health, and the care of the body generally, which, if faithfully 
 studied and observed by those for whose benefit it has been pre- 
 pared, may ward off' many a fit of sickness, save many a doctor's 
 bill, and lengthen out many a life, to say nothing of the more 
 perfect development of the form, the improvement of the com- 
 plexion, the preservation of the teeth, &c., all of which suffer 
 incalculably, from the simple fact, that neither parents nor children 
 understand a word of physiology, but leave all that relates to 
 their physical training and health to chance and the care of the 
 doctors. 
 
 A careful study of this little book will open the eyes of parents 
 and children to the wonders of our physical frame, which, as the 
 psalmist beautifully says, "is fearfully and wonderfully made," 
 and to the wisdom and benevolence of the Creator in the adaptation 
 of the parts to their ends, and will lead parents, instead of feeling 
 surprised that carelessness, neglect, exposure, and indulgence, 
 produce so many pains and diseases, to exclaim, with Watts 
 
 " Strange that a harp of thousand strings, 
 Should keep in tune so long." 
 
 NEW YORK, January, 1858. 0*7*7 J- 
 
m 
 
 A HINT TO PARENTS AND TEACHERS. 
 
 IT vns the original intention in this compilation of facts in Physiol- 
 ogy to state them in the simplest language ; but as the work progressed 
 it was found necessary to use more comprehensive words, that a large 
 number of facts might be embodied in a limited space. Some of 
 these words may not come readily within the comprehension of the young 
 scholar; it would, therefore, appear quite necessary that their significa- 
 tion should be fully explained by the instructor as they occur, where it 
 has not already been done in the work. To this end, each parent or 
 teacher should be provided with a DICTIONARY, both for their own and 
 their pupils' benefit, as there is not a word in this book the meaning of 
 which should not be clearly explained for the better understanding of 
 the subject upon which it treats. 
 
 D^* Every family and school should possess a Dictionary of the 
 English Language, as a book of constant reference ; for with an imper- 
 feet knowledge of the accurate meaning of words, it must follow that an 
 imperfect understanding of facts is conveyed to the mind when reading 
 upon any subject. 
 
 TABLE OF LESSONS AND SUBJECTS. 
 
 ESSON 
 
 1 . The Subject of Physiology explained 7 
 
 2. The Human Body 9 
 
 3. The Muscles of the Human Body 13 
 
 4. Muscular Effects of Habit. 15 
 
 5. The Skin, or Covering of the Human Body 17 
 
 6. The Brain and the Mind of Man 20 
 
 (' 7. The Nerves and the Nervous System 21 
 
 8. The Sense of Touch or Feeling 23 J f 
 
 9. The Tongue, or the Sense of Taste 25 
 
 10. The Nose, or the Sense of Smell 26 
 
 11. The Ear, or the Sense of Hearing 27 
 
 12. The Eye, or the Sense of Sight 29 
 
 t 
 
 * 13. The Heart, or the Circulation of the Blood 33 I f 
 
 14. Breathing, or the Heart and Lungs 35 
 
 15. Animal Heat, or Warmth of the Body 38 
 
 16. The Stomach, or Food and its Digestion 41 
 
 17. Physiology of the Teeth 46' ' 
 
 18. The Human Throat, or the Voice 49 
 
 19. The Hair and the Nails 52 
 
 20. Clothing and Dress, or the Protection of the Body 54 
 
 21. Exercise of the Body and the Mind 58 
 
 22. Effects of Alcoholic Spirits on the Body 60 
 
 23. Man, or " the Human Form Divine" 62 
 
 24. Longevity, or the Length of Animal Life 63 
 
"How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, 
 How complicate, how wonderful, is man." YOUNG, 
 
 LESSONS IN PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 LESSON FIRST. 
 
 The Subject Explained. 
 
 What is the meaning of the word Fhys-i-ol-o-gy ? 
 
 This word is formed from two Greek words, and means- a 
 description of nature. 
 What part of nature does it describe ? 
 Organized or animated nature. 
 Does physiology treat of earth, water, air, rocks, and minerals ? 
 
 No, for these being inanimate and unorganized have no life. 
 Does it, then, treat only of plants, brute animals, and man ? 
 
 Yes, of these alone ; for only these have life. 
 When it describes plants, what is it called ? 
 
 Vegetable physiology. 
 What is it called when it describes animals ? 
 Animal physiology. 
 What part is to be found in this book ? 
 
 Human physiology, or that part which speaks of man. 
 What good will it do to study this ? 
 
 It will teach us how to preserve our health ; what kinds of 
 food, air, and habits of living, will make us sickly; what prac- 
 tices will be likely to shorten our lives ; and how, on the 
 other hand, we shall most likely attain, with the blessing of 
 God, a healthy and cheerful old age. 
 
 It will teach us, also, that we can not habitually possess 
 lively, correct moral feelings, or a sound mind, unless we so 
 live as to preserve a sound body. 
 Do most people understand these things ? 
 
 No ; they study almost everything else but themselves. 
 Why have not people generally studied physiology ? 
 
 Because the books that have been written on the subject 
 have not been made sufficiently simple and plain to make the 
 study interesting. 
 Can physiology be made a pleasing study ? 
 
 Yes, one of the most so that can be put in a book. 
 Does this little book make the study so pleasing ? 
 
 You will see that it makes physiology as easy to be under- 
 stood, and as interesting to read, as a story with pictures. 
 
THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 The Frame of the Human Body. 
 
 The names by which the different bones in the human body are known. 
 
 1. The back -bone or spinal column. 112. The elbow-joint. 
 
 13. The wrist or joint by which the hand 
 is united to the arm. 
 
 14. The bones of the hand. 
 
 15. The pelvis or haunch-bone. 
 
 16. The sacrum, a wedge-shaped bone at 
 
 the lower end of the back-bone. 
 
 17. The hip-joint. 
 
 18. The thigh-bone. 
 
 19. The. patella or cap of the knee. 
 
 20. The knee-joint 
 
 21. The fibula or lesser bone of the leg. 
 
 22. The tibia or shin-bone of the leg. 
 
 23. The ankle-joint. 
 
 24. The bones of the feet 
 
 2. The skull or head of the human body. 
 
 3. The under jaw or detached bone of 
 
 the skull. 
 
 4. The sternum or breast-bone. 
 
 5. The ribs or protection of the heart 
 and lunga. 
 
 6. The curtilages which connect the ribs 
 with the sternum or breast-bone. 
 
 7. The clavicle or collar-bone. 
 
 8. The humnrus bone of the arm. 
 
 9. The should.T-joint. 
 
 10. The radius > two bones running par 
 
 11. Th ulna ) a!U>l with each othei 
 
 from the elbow to the wrist. 
 
THE HUMAN BODY 
 
 LESSON SECOND. 
 
 The Human Body. 
 
 What kinds of substances are found in the human body? 
 Solids and fluids. 
 What constitutes a solid ? 
 
 I That is called a solid, the small parts of which adhere 
 together so closely and firmly, that they do not separate by 
 their own weight. A stone, a piece of wood, a lump of clay, 
 a leaf, &c., are solids. 
 What constitutes a fluid? 
 
 That is called a fluid, the parts of which adhere together 
 ( so feebly as to separate readily by their own weight, when 
 j not confined in a vessel. The parts of a fluid move easily 
 [ among themselves, and readily change places, in any direc- 
 tion, with each other. "Water, milk, blood, and all kinds. of 
 liquids, are fluids. 
 
 Will you name some of the solids and some of the fluids of the body ? 
 Bones, muscles, and nerves, are solids. Blood, tears, and 
 gall, are fluids. 
 
 Which is the hardest solid in the body ? 
 Bone. 
 
 Where are the bones in man placed ? 
 Under the skin and flesh of the body. 
 Where are the bones of lobsters, oysters, clams, crabs, and other shell-flsh, 
 
 On the outside of the body. Their bones are called shells, 
 and serve to protect them from injury. 
 Why are the bones of man not on the outside of the body ? 
 If he was covered with bone like an oyster he would have 
 
 but little or no feeling or knowledge. 
 Of what use are bones to man ? 
 
 They make his body stronger, and keep it upright. "When 
 a carpenter builds a house, he makes and raises the frame 
 first. Bones are the frame of the body. The flesh and skin 
 are put on them as the carpenter puts boards, shingles, and 
 plaster, on the house-frame. 
 Are the bones of children hard? 
 No ; the bones of children are very soft, and easily bent ; jj 
 
'10 
 
 THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 but they become harder and stiffer as life advances. The 
 bones of old people are dry, hard, and brittle. Children are 
 
 sometimes taught to stand alone, 
 and to walk, when so young, as to 
 bend the bones of their legs, and 
 thus make them bandy-legged or 
 knock-kneed for life. 
 
 There is a tribe of Indians in 
 North America called Flatheads. 
 This name is derived from their 
 custom of binding pieces of board 
 to the front and back of the heads of their infant children. 
 The hard wood, pressing against the soft bones of the head, 
 flattens it ; and this pressure is continued till the bones, be- 
 come hard enough to retain, through life, the unnatural shape 
 thus forced upon them. In the same way, any pressure from 
 without, if long continued, will alter the shape and position 
 of the bones in any part of the body. 
 Do not tight clothes, then, injure tfie body ? 
 
 Yes ; when very tight, they not only crowd the bones out 
 of their natural places and injure their shapes, but they pre- 
 vent the free and uniform circulation of the blood : thus tight 
 clothes not only injure the general health of the body, but 
 sometimes occasion sudden death. 
 What are bones made of? 
 
 They are made from and of our food, after the food has 
 been changed into blood. - As the blood circulates through 
 the body, certain portions are secreted, or separated from it, 
 to supply the several solids and fluids of the body. This 
 secretion is continually going on, so that every part of the 
 body is constantly fed out of the blood. 
 How many bones are there which give form and shape to the skull or head f 
 
 
 Side View of the Skull. 
 
 Top View of the Skull. 
 
THE HUMAN BODY. 11 
 
 Eight bones or pieces, and these are united like two saws 
 when the toothed edges are pressed together. To make this 
 comparison more exact, the saw-teeth should be a little crook- 
 '' ed, so as to hook into each other. 
 
 How many bones are there in the human face ? 
 
 Fourteen, aside from the teeth, which will be described 
 hereafter. 
 Are there any other bones in the head ? 
 
 There are four small bones in each ear. These ear-bones 
 help to convey the sound to the brain. There is also one at 
 the root of the tongue : making in the whole head sixty-three 
 bones, including the teeth, above the upper joint of the neck 
 of an adult or grown person. 
 What is the back-bone, its formation and use ? 
 
 The back-bone, or spinal column, is that 
 which extends from the bottom of the skull be- 
 hind, down along the middle of the back. It 
 is made up of twenty-four short, round, and 
 perforated bones, termed vertebra, in Latin, but 
 in our language vertebers, and having some re- 
 semblance to so many rings piled one upon 
 another. This resemblance, however, is not 
 very exact ; for the vertebers are not perfectly 
 round, and they have, each of them, several 
 projecting points, which, with the elastic carti- 
 lage between every two vertebers, serve to link 
 and bind them all together, and thus form that 
 strong, upright, and yet flexible column, which 
 gives erectness, dignity, and grace, to the human 
 body. This spinal column, moreover, is largest 
 at the lower end, or base, because at that point 
 it has the most weight to sustain. 
 What makes this bone crooked in some persons ? 
 
 The careless habit of stooping or leaning for- 
 ward, remaining too long in a one-sided position, 
 sitting too long without anything to lean the 
 back against, tight-lacing, and the want of suitable exercise 
 in the open air. 
 How many ribs has the human body ? 
 
 Twenty-four ; twelve on each side. They grow out of the 
 spine, forming a hoop by meeting and being fastened to the 
 breast-bone in front. 
 What is the use of ribs ? 
 They are the framework of that part of the human trunk - 
 
12 
 
 THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 termed the chest, in which the 
 lungs and heart are deposited for 
 safe-keeping. 
 
 What and where are the shoulder-bones ? 
 They are two broad, flat bones, 
 lying over and fastened to sev- 
 eral of the ribs behind and at 
 the upper part of the chest. 
 Of tvhat use are the shoulder-bones ? 
 They furnish sockets, or rests, 
 for the arms. 
 
 What and where are the collar-bones ? 
 They are two long slender 
 bones passing over the ribs in 
 front from the highest part of 
 the shoulder-bones to the head 
 Back-bone and Ribs. of the breast-bone. 
 
 Of what use are the collar-bones ? 
 
 They prevent the arms from sliding too far forward. 
 How many bones are there in each arm ? 
 
 Three : one between the shoulder and the elbow, and two 
 between the elbow and the wrist. 
 Sow many bones has the wrist ? 
 
 Eight, all being wedge-shaped, and strongly united together 
 by ligaments or gristle. 
 
 How many bones are there in the hand and fingers ? 
 Nineteen. These are also strongly secured together. 
 
 How many bones are there in each foot ? 
 Twenty-six ; all strongly fastened together by ligaments, 
 
THE MUSCLES OF THE BODY. 
 
 13 
 
 How many bones are there in each leg ? 
 
 Three : one between the hip and knee, and two between 
 the knee and ankle. There is also a small bone or cap over 
 each knee, called the knee-pan. 
 
 What is the bone called upon which the spine or back-bone rests ? 
 The pelvis, and it has four parts. 
 How many bones are there in the whole body ? 
 
 Two hundred and forty, in an adult or grown person. 
 Who have sound, healthy bones ? 
 
 Those who eat wholesome, nutritious food, and who exer- 
 cise frequently in the open air. 
 Who have diseased and unsound bones ? 
 
 They who work in mines, and 
 in damp, poorly-lighted places ; 
 they who sleep in close rooms, 
 where the air is stagnant and im- 
 pure ; they whose food is usually 
 too scanty, or of a poor quality ; 
 they whose bodies whil^ laboring 
 are kept constantly bent, or in any 
 posture which prevents the free 
 circulation of the blood and the natural action of the vital 
 organs. 
 How often does the entire body change ? 
 
 Every person has another and a different body every ten 
 years ; the previous one having gradually wasted away, and a 
 new growth, by degrees, having taken its place. 
 
 LESSON THIRD. 
 
 The Muscles of the Human Body. 
 
 Muscles of the inside of the Arm and the Hand. 
 How many muscles are there in the human body ? 
 
 It is supposed that there are not less than four hundred 
 and fifty. 
 
 Of what are the muscles composed ? 
 They are composed of the fleshy parts of the body. 
 
14 THE MUSCLES OP THE BODY. 
 
 7s all flesh, then, muscle 9 
 
 All the lean flesh in the body is, and this is composed of 
 parts or fibers ; each part, or number of parts, united into 
 one, is called a muscle. 
 Of what shape is a muscular fiber ? 
 
 It is long, round, and fine, like a thread. Some of the 
 larger muscles are made up of a number of these long, fine 
 strings of flesh ; &s a skein of thread is made of a number of 
 threads. 
 To what are the muscles fastened f 
 
 To the different bones of the body. 
 Of what use are the muscles ? 
 
 They are the instruments by which we move the different 
 parts of the body ; for by them we perform every motion. 
 How do they enable us to move ? 
 
 They have the power of contracting, by which their two 
 ends are drawn nearer to each other, thus moving the bones 
 to which they are attached. This contracting power is sub- 
 ject to the will, and we exercise it when we please, without 
 knowing now we do it. A piece of India-rubber contracts 
 after having been stretched out, springing back to its original 
 form ; so the muscles become shorter at one time and longer 
 at another, whenever we employ them to move the bones of 
 the body. 
 What is the color of the muscles ? 
 
 They are of a deep red or blood color. 
 What appearance do they give to the body ? 
 
 A full, plump appearance. When an animal has lost the 
 greater part of its flesh, or what is the same thing, its muscle, 
 it looks thin and shrunken. 
 7s a muscle the same as a sinew or tendon f 
 
 No ; a sinew is white and gristly ; it is a solid, elastic, and 
 strong substance, neither so hard as bone nor soft as muscle. 
 Muscle is simply lean flesh, which gives form and protection , 
 to the body. 
 Of what shape are the muscles ? 
 
 The larger muscles are the largest in the middle and taper 
 toward the ends. (See the muscles of the arm, page 13.) 
 Are the sinews a part of and connected with the muscles ? % 
 
 Yes ; they are the tapered ends by which the muscles are 
 connected with and fastened to the bones ; some of these are 
 very long arid slender, particularly those which extend from 
 the knees or connect with the toes. The muscles and tendons 
 vary in size according to the duty they are required to perform. 
 
MUSCULAR EFFECTS OF HABIT. 
 
 15 
 
 LESSON FOURTH. 
 
 Muscular Effects of Habit. 
 
 If around a large limb of a tree, 1 bend 
 a small limb, and, by tying it fast, keep 
 it in a bent, crooked form, what will be 
 the result ? 
 
 The small limb will grow twist- 
 ed, and out of shape. 
 
 If a boy, or a girl, be in the habit of 
 standing with the shoulders crooked over, 
 will not round shoulders and a flat chest 
 be the consequence in after-life ? 
 
 Certainly ; our habits change our forms and natures ; for 
 habit is so strong that it is called " second nature" 
 
 How should we stand, that the form may 
 be natural and healthy ? 
 
 Upright, with the breast thrown 
 forward and the shoulders back- 
 ward, as we see in the picture. 
 Why is this position the most healthy ? 
 Because it gives free action to 
 the circulation, the ribs, the lungs, 
 and other vital parts of the body. 
 What does stooping cause ? 
 
 It causes short breathing, pain in the chest, and a mean 
 diminutive appearance. 
 
 Will a person stand more at ease, labor better and more quickly, and 
 travel further in a day, whose position is erect, than one possibly can who 
 stoops or bends forward ? 
 
 Yes ; the body and limbs being in a proper balance, less 
 effort is required to do these things. 
 Which is the most correct position for speaking, reading aloud, or singing ? 
 
 A firm, upright position, the person standing, not sitting. 
 If we eat good food, and exercise freely in the open air, shall we a Iways 
 have good health ? 
 
 No, it is necessary that all our habits should be good also. 
 What are habits ? 
 
 There are different ways of doing the same thing, and 
 when we become accustomed to any particular way, by fre- 
 quent practice of it, it is then called a habit. Habits when 
 long continued, are very difficult to change. 
 Name one of the habits most important for the promotion of health ? 
 The habit of eating moderately is one. If you swallow 
 
16 MUSCULAR EFFECTS OF HABIT. 
 
 j your food, without chewing it much, it will do you but little 
 good. You can not long have good health, if you eat too 
 fast. Your teeth were given you to be used, in preparing 
 food for your stomach. Your mouth is like a mill, and noth- 
 ing must be allowed to pass through it, without being ground 
 very finely. 
 
 What other important habit will you tell me about now ? 
 The habit of sitting and standing erect, is a very impor- 
 tant one. Some children are always leaning on one side, or 
 lounging over chairs and sofas. They weaken their backs 
 and limbs in this way, and acquire an awkward figure and 
 gait, which they can never afterward correct. The back-bone 
 was made to support the body ; and if we allow it always to 
 do so, without constantly leaning, or stooping, it will always 
 be firm and strong. 
 
 -/ 
 
 t! 
 
 Proper Position. An Improper Position. 
 
 What evil consequences result from the habit of stooping and leaning ? 
 
 The ribs are crowded together, and the natural action of 
 all the vital organs of the body are disturbed. 
 Can you mention any 'Other habits ? 
 
 Order and regularity are of great importance. So, also, 
 are early rising, cleanliness, and industry. 
 
 Which part of the body needs to be most carefully guarded from cold and J! 
 damp iveather ? 
 
 The feet should always be protected with special care. 
 " Keep the feet warm and the head cool, you will always find j'< 
 a wholesome rule." 
 What ! should not the head and neck be guarded more than the feet ? 
 
 No ; there is much less danger from exposing the head 
 than the feet. Thin shoes and thin stockings are deadly foes 
 to health and beauty. 
 
 Are not many people in the habit of bundling tip the neck with furs, thus 
 keeping the head and neck very warm ? 
 
 Yes ; and they are usually complaining of headaches, sore 
 throats, or coughs. As a general rule, take good care of the 
 feet, and the head will take care of itself. 
 
THE SKIN. 17 
 
 LESSON FIFTH. 
 
 The Skin, or Covering of the Human Body. 
 What is the human skin t . 
 
 It is that which covers the body, as bark covers a tree. 
 Has a person more than one skin ? 
 
 Every person has three skins ; the innermost one of the 
 three is called the real skin. 
 Of what is this real under skin composed f 
 
 It is composed of blood-vessels and nerves, which cross 
 each other in every direction. These blood-vessels and 
 nerves run so near to each other, that they appear to have 
 been woven through in a net-work. 
 7s this skin strong and elastic ? 
 
 It is, and can be stretched like a piece of India-rubber. 
 7s the under or teal skin of the same color on every person ? 
 
 It is in every respect the same. 
 Then why is it that the skin of some people is black and of others ivhite ? 
 
 Over this under-skin, of which we are speaking, there is 
 another skin which is quite thin, and all over this thin skin 
 is spread something which looks like jelly ; and it is this jelly 
 matter which gives color. In white persons this jelly sub- 
 stance is white ; in the negro it is black ; and in the Indian it 
 is copper-colored. 
 Has the color of this substance ever been known to change in any one ? 
 
 A single instance, or a " freak of nature," as it is called, is 
 related of a woman once wholly black, whose face, arms, and 
 body, became in after-life, nearly covered with white spots, 
 about the size of a half-dollar ; a few of them were larger. 
 What can you say of the outside skin? 
 
 It is very thin, but not equally so over the whole body ; for 
 on the hands and bottom of the feet it is much thicker, and 
 sometimes very hard and tough. 
 If a piece of this outside skin is peeled or cut off, will it grow again ? 
 
 Yes, in a short time ; but if the under, or real, skin is cut 
 off or destroyed, it will not grow again. 
 If you cut or destroy the outside skin will pain be felt, or blood appear ? 
 
 No ; neither of them. 
 Upon whose hands do we find this outside skin the thickest ? 
 
 Upon the hands of farmers, masons, sailors, laborers, and 
 others, who are employed in laborious occupations. 
 Why is this so ? 
 By constant labor with the hands the outer skin becomes 
 
harder, thicker, and tougher, and thus the inner real skin, V, 
 which is tender and easily injured, is protected in handling jh 
 hard and rough things. The more the exposure, the greater i|) 
 becomes the protection. " In wisdom has He made them alL 
 
 Does the jelly matter which gives color to the skin, appear again, if it is , 
 cut or torn away ? . 
 
 Yes ; it appears as soon as the outside skin is restored. 
 Is the thin outside skin very firm and tight ? \\\) 
 
 Yes, and full of little holes, or pores, as they are called. 
 These pores are so numerous and near to each other that you 
 can not put between any of them the point of the finest nee- 
 dle. Their number on the surface of the skin has been esti- 
 mated to be several millions. 
 What are these pores, and what is their use ? 
 
 They are the mouths of little tubes, sometimes called the 
 perspiratory ducts ; and they carry off in the form of perspi- 
 ration, much of the refuse matter of the body ; matter which 
 having been rejected by the organs, is very injurious to remain 
 in the system. A full-grown healthy person throws off from 
 two to three pounds of this matter every twenty-four hours. 
 What is a cold, and its effects on the health ? 
 
 It is the stoppage of this rejected matter which ought to 
 pass off through the pores. Sometimes it gets back to the 
 lungs ; and then it produces a cough, and is thrown out in the 
 form of phlegm. Sometimes it goes to the head and produ- 
 ces the feeling of fullness of the head, headache, sneezing, &c. 
 Which is the best way to get rid of a cold ? 
 
 Open the pores again by warm bathing and rubbing the 
 skin vigorously, with a coarse towel, or flesh-brush. The 
 1 * current of action will soon return from the inward to the out- 
 ward parts of the body, and the system will be thus relieved. 
 While we have a cold, we should eat sparingly, particularly 
 of animal food, and take as much exercise as the strength of 
 the constitution will permit. 
 Can you tell why the skin is so full of these little holes or pores ? 
 
 Yes ; to let the useless noxious matter that has been reject- 
 ed by the digestive and secretive organs, pass off. 
 In what form does this matter escape ? 
 
 In the form of sweat, or perspiration, and of a very thin 
 vapor which should be kept uninterruptedly flowing out of the 
 body from every part. 
 What follows, then, when these pores become closed? 
 
 Pains, cough, headache, irritation and burning sensation of 
 the skin, and sickness in various forms. 
 
 1 
 
THE SKIN. 19 
 
 Why do these ills follow ? 
 
 The reason is, as already stated, the poisonous matter 
 which should depart through the pores of the skin, is retained 
 in the body. 
 In what other way do these pores sometimes become stopped ? 
 
 By not keeping the body clean. We should wash freely 
 and rub with a coarse towel, the entire body every day. 
 
 Do persons usually have good health ivho neglect washing themselves all 
 over frequently ? 
 
 Some do, for a time, but they generally, sooner or later, 
 suffer for the neglect, 
 Should cold or warm water be used in washing the body ? 
 
 Cold water is thought to be the best for persons in health ; 
 and a coarse towel, or flesh-brush should be used in all cases, 
 not merely to dry the surface, but to excite the skin to action, 
 and produce that fine glow which is the proof of benefit from 
 tlie whole operation. 
 What part of the day is the best for bathing ? 
 
 The morning. Yet a person in good health and of a good 
 constitution may take a bath at any hour, excepting just after 
 (i| a hearty meal. 
 
 id 7f people were more particular to keep their skin in a clean, healthy state, 
 r' would they suffer as much as they do from colds and sore throats ? 
 
 No, they would not. 
 What is one of the most convenient modes of bathing ? 
 
 In the morning, on leaving bed, step 
 into an empty tub, and having placed a 
 basin of water within reach, pour it on 
 the body with the hands, or from a sponge, 
 .^,y|- ;,||| or a towel, rubbing the flesh at the same 
 time. Continue this for a minute or two, 
 then rub the whole surface vigorously, 
 with a dry and coarse towel, till the body 
 is all in a pleasant glow, then dress im- 
 mediately. 
 
 This is a simple mode of bathing, con- 
 sumes but very little time, and all it costs is only a small 
 degree of resolution at the outset ; for after the practice has 
 once been adopted and become a habit, it is so agreeable and 
 is felt to be so beneficial that few will be willing to forego it. 
 What is the best sort of cosmetic to freshen the complexion and produce a 
 cheerful countenance ? 
 
 This kind of bathing and purification of the skin; and not 
 powders, paints, or drugs of any kind. 
 
 a 
 
20 THE BRAIN. 
 
 LESSON SIXTH. 
 
 The Brain and the Mind of Man. 
 
 Has each part of the system its own work to perform ? 
 
 Yes. The business of the lungs is to draw in the air to 
 purify the blood, the business of the stomach is to receive and 
 digest the food, which is afterward converted into blood, &c. 
 What is the great business or function of the brain ? 
 To manifest the mind. It is the organ or instrument by 
 which the mind performs all its operations. 
 Is the brain, then, the mind ? 
 No. The eye is not sight, because it is used in seeing, nor 
 
 is the ear, hearing, but the organ of hearing. The brain, 
 likewise, is not the mind, but the organ of the mind, or seat 
 | of the intellectual and reasoning faculties of man, such as 
 | thought, memory, hope, love, hatred, ambition, &c. In brute 
 animals the brain is the organ of what is called instinct. 
 Of what is the brain composed ? 
 
 Of matter which is subject to decay. 
 What is mind? 
 
 It is not matter, but the spirit which animates matter, and 
 which will live for ever. 
 How many things are necessary in order to see an object ? 
 
 Five. An object, light, an eye, a nerve running from the 
 eye to the brain, and the brain. 
 
 Suppose there is an object, light, an eye, and a nerve, and no brain, can 
 fij an object be seen ? 
 
 No. The brain is the seat of all sensation and knowledge. 
 And the mind acquires a knowledge of outward objects, 
 through its mysterious connection with the brain. 
 Does a proper use of the mind strengthen the brain ? 
 
 Yes. The more the brain is exercised, if not overtasked, 
 the more prompt and vigorous will be the operations of the 
 mind. 
 What will be the effect if the brain is permitted to remain inactive ? 
 
 It will lose its healthy state, and all the operations of the 
 mind must, in consequence, be dull and feeble. 
 7s the brain active or inactive during a state of sound sleep ? 
 
 It is inactive. A person may be touched while in a state 
 of sound sleep, and not perceive it, or be conscious of it. 
 I If an injury comes to the brain what will be the effect ? 
 
 The whole system will become instantly affected, and if the 
 f| brain be seriously injured death will at once or soon ensue. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 LESSON SEVENTH. 
 
 The Nervous System. 
 
 What does this picture represent ? 
 It represents a head, with the scalp 
 turned down, the top part of the skull 
 removed, the membrane raised, and the 
 brain exposed. 
 What is the scalp and its use ? 
 It is the covering of the skull, composed 
 of fat, muscle, and skin, out of which 
 grows a thick body of hair, serving to 
 protect the skull from injury. 
 
 Where is the brain situated ? 
 The brain is in the head, occupying the whole inner part or 
 cavity of the skull, but separated from it by a thin membrane. 
 Of what is the brain composed ? 
 
 Of a soft pulpy substance resembling marrow, filled with 
 blood-vessels, the whole having a grayish color. 
 How large is the brain in a grown person ? 
 
 It is about six inches long, five inches wide, and four inch- 
 es thick. It weighs from three to four pounds, and will fill 
 the two hands of a man. 
 Has a person more than one brain? 
 
 Yes, there are two brains ; a large one called the cerebrum, 
 and another about one eighth as large, below and behind it, 
 which is called the cerebellum. , These two brains are equally 
 divided into two parts by a deep cut or separation, reaching 
 nearly through them from front to back. These halves of 
 each brain are precisely alike in shape, and together form a 
 pair of brains, just as we have a pair of eyes and ears. 
 Does all of the substance called the brain lie .in the head ? 
 
 No ; small portions of it run off in every direction, from 
 the top of the head to the extremities of the body. 
 What are these parts of the brain which run through the body called? 
 They are called nerves, which together form what is called 
 the nervous system. 
 What, then, is the nervous system ? 
 
 The nervous system consists of those parts of the brain 
 which, in small strings, extend throughout the whole body. 
 Are all the nerves connected with the brain ? 
 
 They are, for each nerve is but a part or extension of the 
 substance of the brain. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 
 
 Where do we find the nerves ? 
 
 In the ends of the fingers, in the toes, and in every part of 
 the human body. 
 
 Which is the largest nerve in the body ? 
 
 The spinal marrow. 
 Where K this situated ? 
 
 In the centre of the spine, or 
 back-bone ; extending from the 
 middle of the brain, down be- 
 tween the ears, and through the 
 neck. 
 
 Does this large nerve send out small ones 
 through the body ? 
 
 Yes, it does in great numbers. 
 Small parts of the brain also 
 branch off to the ears, eyes, nose, 
 tongue, &c. 
 Of what use are nerves ? 
 
 They give us feeling. "With- 
 out nerves we should be without 
 feeling. If no nerve connected 
 the eye with the brain, we could 
 not see ; neither could we smell 
 nor taste if no nerve connected 
 with the nose or the tongue. 
 If a nerve is cut or destroyed what will be the effect ? 
 
 The organ to which it is attached ceases its function entirety. 
 When we feel the prick of a pin tahy do we suffer pain ? 
 
 Because the pm pierces a nerve. If an animal had no 
 nerves you might pound or bruise it, and it would feel no pain. 
 Are there any animals or insects without nerves ? 
 
 No. It was formerly supposed that some insects were des- 
 titute of nerves, but recent investigations have clearly shown 
 that all insects possess a nervous system. 
 Have nerves am/ other i<se than to give us feeling ? 
 
 Yes ; we have two prominent classes of nerves ; one of 
 feeling and the other of motion. Otfe class of the nerves 
 causes us to feel, and the other class causes the muscles to 
 move. Thus in raising the arm, the nerve connecting the 
 brain with the muscle carries the wish of the mind to it, and 
 the muscle contracts or expands compelling the bone of the 
 arm to move. There are also nerves connecting with the 
 brain, all the various functions of the system, the circulation 
 of the blood, breathing, the digestion of food, &c. 
 
THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 23 
 
 LESSON EIGHTH. 
 
 The Sense of Touch or Feeling. 
 
 When I press my finger against the point of a pin, pain or 
 rather the sensation of pain is felt. Many people would say 
 that they felt the pin ; but pain is felt as well as the pin. The 
 prick or pain tells me the pin is there. 
 What is the cause of this feeling, or sensation as it is called ? 
 
 The pin touches a nerve, and the nerve carries the impres- 
 sion, made by the pin, to the brain. 
 When ant/thing touches the body, what is produced ? 
 
 An outward or external feeling or sensation. 
 Are there any inward or internal feelings ? ^ 
 
 ] Yes, hunger and thirst are internal feelings. 
 How many kinds of feelings, then^ have we ? 
 
 Two. External feeling caused by something touching the 
 body, and internal feeling, caused by hunger, thirst, &c. 
 
 The external feelings are called senses, and are five in 
 number, viz., seeing, hearing, feeling or sense of touch, tasting, 
 and smelling. 
 If ice could neither see, feel, taste, hear, nor smell, what should we be? 
 
 We should be human beings in form only, without the 
 power of self protection. Instances are related, however, 
 in which persons had but the sense of touch in perfection, and 
 yet exhibited intelligence, and were able to express their 
 wants and desires. The loss of one sense is generally at- 
 tended with greater acuteness in the remaining senses. 
 What is the duty and office of the senses ? 
 To convey knowledge to the mind through the nerves. 
 How does feeling, or sense of touch, for instance, carry this to the mind? 
 
 The sense of touch or feeling, like all of the other senses, 
 is on the outside, and gives warning to the mind when any- 
 thing comes in contact with the body. 
 What is the object of this warning ? 
 
 To keep us from harm. If we had, for instance, no feeling jj[ 
 in our feet we should be likely to put them into water so hot 
 as to blister and even destroy them ; as did once happen to a 
 man who had lost the sense of touch in his feet. 
 How do we know rough from smooth, cold from hot, sharp from blunt? 
 By the sense of touch, or the sensation produced upon the 
 
 mind through the agency of the nerves and brajn. 
 Is the sense of touch more acute in healthy than in diseased persons ? 
 Yes. The purer the blood the more acute are all the senses. ' 
 

 24 THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 
 
 Can we tell how much heat there is in anything by this sense of touch ? 
 
 Not exactly ; for a piece of iron will feel colder than a 
 piece of woollen cloth, though both the iron and cloth have 
 the same degree of heat in them. 
 Bow is this ? Why does the iron feel colder ? 
 
 The hand has more heat in it than either the iron or the 
 cloth. But the iron absorbs the heat from the hand much 
 faster than the cloth, and thus seems coldest to the hand. 
 Why does iron absorb heat more rapidly than cloth ? 
 Because the iron is a better conductor of heat. The sense 
 of touch, therefore", does not tell us the exact quantity of 
 heat in every object. 
 Can we blunt or abuse the sense of touch ? 
 
 We can to a considerable degree. Persons in the constant 
 practice of handling hot articles benumb the sense of touch to 
 | that degree that they can endure a great heat without incon- 
 venience to themselves. This can also be done by artificial 
 means. M. Chabert, a Frenchman, could by some process or 
 application dip his hands into melted lead or boiling oil with- 
 out any apparent injury to himself. 
 Are some people more sensitive in their feelings than others ? 
 
 Yes ; some are very sensitive, that is, have very quick, nice 
 feelings ; others have but little ability to distinguish by feeling. 
 Where is the sense of touch the keenest ? 
 
 On the inside of the fingers, and very near their ends, 
 where the ends of the nerves are collected into loops or coils, 
 called papilla. This sense is also very acute, in the palms 
 of the hands, in the lips and tongue, and in the soles or un- 
 der side of the feet. 
 
 How are the blind enabled to read ? 
 
 By passing the end of the sec- 
 ond finger over letters raised a 
 little from the page of books made 
 for their particular use. 
 fijl II 9|^^I^H What was the opinion of M. Bujfon, the 
 
 | great naturalist ? 
 
 I BHHHHHuHHuBl He gave it as his opinion that 
 || the reason why one person knows more than another, is, that 
 J he has made a better use of his hands. Mr. Mudie, another 
 naturalist, has truly said, that there is a mine of wealth in the 
 ends of the fingers. 
 ' May the sense of touch be greatly improved ? 
 
 Yes ; the blind, who have to see with their fingers, can dis- 
 tingish, it is said, the color of cloths, &c., by the sense of touch. 
 
THE SENSE OF TASTE. 25 
 
 m 
 
 How can this be satisfactorily explained ? 
 
 The color of a thing is supposed to affect the texture of its 
 surface, and by a close attention with the fingers, to this 
 texture, its color may be inferred. 
 
 What organs Jiave animals and insects tJiat resemble the human fingers, in 
 delicacy of feeling ? 
 
 The nose of some quadrupeds. The end of the elephant's 
 trunk seems to be possessed of as acute a sense of feeling as 
 the human fingers ; and insects have this sense placed in little 
 horns projecting from both sides of their heads, called feelers ; 
 with these they examine the surfaces over which they travel. 
 
 LESSON NINTH. 
 The Tongue, or the Sense of Taste. 
 
 In ivhat part of the mouth does the sense of taste 
 chiefly lie ? 
 
 On the upper surface of the tongue. 
 Branches of the nerve of taste, are also 
 spread over the palate or roof of the mouth, 
 and on the inside of the cheeks and lips. 
 
 If ive had no tongue, would all our food taste 
 alike to us ? 
 
 Nearly so. To aid us in talking, is 
 not the only use of the tongue. By its 
 means we experience much of the grati- 
 fication we enjoy, in eating and drinking. Nor are these all 
 the uses of this very flexible, busy, little organ. We could 
 not move the food in our mouths, so as to chew it thoroughly, 
 nor could we swallow it, without the aid of the tongue. 
 
 What is the appearance of that part of tJie tongue in which the sense of 
 taste is situated ? 
 
 | It is covered with numberless little loops, or doublings of 
 
 ? 
 
 the ends of the nervous threads, called papillae, which rise 
 above the surface, and give it the appearance of velvet. 
 What is the condition of the tongue in health ? 
 
 It is always kept moist by the constant but moderate action 
 of the saliva, commonly called spittle. 
 What takes place in fevers ? 
 
 The tongue and mouth become dry and hard, the fluid, or 
 saliva, not being there to moisten the parts. 
 Why have we little or no taste when we are sick ? 
 
 Because the tongue is dry, and covered with a fur, or coat 
 of scaly matter. 
 
26 THE SENSE OF SMELL. 
 
 Does this scaly, furry coat, cover up the nerves ? 
 
 It does ; and this shows that the sense of taste resides 
 
 chiefly in the papillae or nerves of the tongue. 
 
 Does great attention to what we eat and drink, lead us to neglect the mind? |tt 
 
 Yes ; in two ways. It occupies time which might be much K 
 
 better employed, and produces tastes and habits unfavorable ' 
 
 to both intellectual and moral improvement. 
 
 May the sense of taste be abused and almost destroyed ? 
 
 We may greatly impair, if not wholly destroy, its power 
 of discrimination, by the excessive use of spirituous liquors, 
 tobacco, and other things to which it is naturally averse. Cli- 
 mates also affect the taste ; in cold countries the most offen- 
 sive oils are partaken of with relish ; while in warmer coun- 
 tries, Asia and Africa, for instance, there are people who 
 have a preference for putrid meats, stale eggs, &c., deeming 
 them their most desirable food. 
 How does the use of tobacco injure the taste ? 
 
 Tobacco belongs to the class of poisonous plants, and the 
 papilla3 of the tongue being habitually covered with its very 
 sharp and irritating juice, gradually lose their sensibility. 
 Spirituous liquors act precisely in the same way. 
 Do all animals have the sense of taste ? 
 
 Yes ; and in some of them it is keener than it is in man. w 
 
 Animals know what plants are poisonous to them by the ]' 
 
 sense of taste and smell, or by instinct ; and most of them I 
 
 will avoid even the taste of tobacco or intoxicating liquors. I 
 
 How can we preserve this sense from injury, and in its natural state ? 
 
 By eating plain, nutritious food, and such only as is agree- 
 able to us at first. 
 
 LESSON TENTH. 
 
 The Nose, or the Sense of SmelL 
 
 In what part of the none is the sense of 
 smell placed ? 
 
 In the inside of the two passa- , 
 ges of the nose called nostrils. 
 
 What is the inner surface of each nostril 
 lined with ? 
 
 With a thin membrane, over , 
 which the branches of the nerve 
 of smell are spread, and which are 
 
 kept constantly moist in their natural state with a thin fluid 
 called mucus. 111,1 
 
@ 
 
 THE SENSE OF HEARING. 
 
 27 
 
 
 What is the use of this thin fluid or mucus t 
 
 It keeps the branches of the nerve of smell in perfect 
 order, and protects them from harm. It also catches the odor- 
 ous or noxious particles which are drawn into the nostrils 
 with the air, and are thereby prevented from being carried 
 deeper into the head where they would be an injury. By 
 the act of sneezing these particles are ejected from the nostrils. 
 If this fluid is not supplied what is the consequence f 
 
 The nerve of smell receives no impression, and the sense 
 of smell is suspended so long as the fluid is withheld, 
 What destroys the mucus, or prevents the secretion of it f 
 
 The use of snuff. Snuff-takers sometimes lose this sense 
 wholly and irrecoverably. 
 What other bad effect has snuff-taking ? 
 
 It injures the voice very much, by obstructing the pass-age 
 of the air through the nostrils. 
 
 If we hold a rose to the face, close the nose, and breathe only through the 
 mouth, will an odor be perceived ? 
 
 No ; the mouth can not smell any more than the eyes can 
 hear, or the nose can see. 
 How do objects communicate to us their smell or odor f 
 
 By means of the minute particles which flow from them, 
 as vapor passes off from water ; these minute particles are 
 drawn into the nose with the air we breathe. 
 Can we see these minute particles ? 
 No ; they are too minute to be visible to the eye. 
 What animals usually have large nostrils ? 
 
 Those which are remarkable for the keenest sense of smell, 
 like the deer, dog, &c. 
 
 LESSON ELEVENTH. 
 The Bar, or the Sense of Hearing. 
 
 What makes sound? 
 The jarring or vibration given 
 to an object by striking it. If a 
 bell is struck with a hammer, a 
 trembling motion can be seen in 
 the bell for a short time afterward. 
 This tremulous motion is called 
 vibration or sound. 
 
 What has vibration to do with the production of sound ? 
 
 The quivering, trembling bell, gives numerous sudden 
 
 strokes to the air, which is thus put in motion, causing sound. 
 
28 THE SENSE OF HEARING. 
 
 Describe the kind of motion which is thus given to the air. 
 
 A circular waving motion. If a stone is dropped into a 
 pool of still water, little waves or circles, one after the other, 
 will run out in every direction. In the same way, when the 
 bell quivers, numerous slight waves are made in the air. 
 These waves are called vibrations, or undulations of the air. 
 
 Hoio do these vibrations convey the sense of sound to the brain ? ]V 
 
 By striking against the drum of the ear. The sound from 
 a musical wind-instrument reaches the ear in the same way. 
 A flute or horn being blown into with energy, undulations or > 
 waves of the air are produced, which convey the sound to 
 the drum of the ear, and thence it reaches the brain. 
 
 What is the drum of the ear, and its construction ? 
 It is a very delicate, elastic membrane, spread across the 
 inner end of the ear-passage, as the drum-head is stretched 
 across the end of a drum. 
 
 How far within the passage or ear-hole is this drum ? 
 About one inch. 
 
 How is the passage to the drum guarded against the intrusion of insects, 
 and the accumulation of dust ? 
 
 It is protected from injury by two methods ; first, by a 
 growth of short, stiff hairs, all along the entrance, standing 
 up like a picketed fence, to keep out intraders ; and, secondly, 
 by a bitter wax, which is constantly secreted about the roots 
 of these hairs, and which is offensive to all insects. 
 
 When the drum of the ear is struck by the air being set in motion, how is 
 the sound conveyed to the mind? 
 
 The membrane vibrates in unison with the motion. These 
 vibrations are communicated to the brain, through the nerves, 
 and are thus perceived by the- mind. 
 Does anything else convey sound besides the air ? 
 
 Yes ; water is even a better conductor of sound than air ; 
 that is, we can hear further through water than through air. 
 Wood is also a good conductor of sound. 
 How fast does sound travel through the air ? 
 
 Eleven hundred and fifty-two feet in a second, or a little 
 more than a mile in five seconds, and nearly thirteen miles in 
 a minute. Sound travels four times as fast in water as in air. 
 Can hearing be much improved by cultivation ? 
 
 Yes, like all the other senses, it may be greatly improved. 
 
 How kindly and wisely the air is made. Its slight vibra- 
 tions, reaching the ear, notify us of the neighborhood of ob- 
 jects and occurrences ; the approach of danger, and of succor ; 
 and this, too, when darkness, or intervening object, do not 
 
permit the eyes to see them ; or, when the eyes are shut fast 
 in sleep, it rouses us to wakefulness and circumspection. 
 
 Without air we could not breathe, nor would the blood have 
 either health or warmth ; our fuel would not burn, nor our 
 lamps give light ; without air, we could hold no converse with 
 friends, or receive delight from " the concord of sweet sounds ;" 
 the murmur of the brooks would cease, the roar of the cata- 
 ract would be hushed, and the " voice of Jehovah" in the 111 
 J' thunder-storm would become mute for ever. 
 
 LESSON TWELFTH. 
 The Eye, or the Sense of Sight. 
 
 What is necessary to the senses of touch, 
 taste, and smell ? 
 
 The object must be present, to 
 meet the skin, mouth, or nostrils. 
 
 How does the sense of sight, differ from 
 these three senses ? 
 
 By the sense of sight an object 
 can be perceived at a greater or 
 less distance. It is not necessary that it should come in 
 direct contact with the eye, in order to be seen. 
 7s the eye, then, an organ of a hie/her order, and more ingenious in its con- 
 struction, than the organs of the other senses ? 
 
 Yes, it is ; and this sense contributes more to the enjoyment 
 and happiness of mankind than any other of the senses. In 
 its construction it exhibits the perfection of infinite knowl- 
 edge. The utmost effort of human skill has as yet invented 
 but an imperfect imitation of this organ. 
 How can you describe the structure of the eye f 
 
 The globe, or ball of the eye, has three coats or coverings 
 around it, the same as a ball with three covers, and is placed 
 in a deep bony socket in the skull. 
 What is the little round dot in the centre of the eye called ? 
 The pupil of the eye, through which objects are visible. 
 What is the color of the outside covering of the eye ? 
 White ; this is what is called the " white of the eye." It 
 is quite hard, and to it are fastened the muscles which move 
 the eye in any direction desired by the will. 
 What is spread over the inside of the middle covering of the eye ? 
 
 A layer of very dark colored matter, which absorbs and 
 softens the rays of light, after they enter the eye. 
 
30 THE SENSE OF SIGHT. *| 
 
 What is the third or innermost covering of the eye ? 
 
 It i- a flattening out or expansion of the nerve which con- 
 nects the eye with the brain, and is the immediate seat of sight. 
 What is the use of these coverings and the fluids which they contain ? 
 
 To receive and properly refract the rays of light. All parts 
 of the eye are constructed in such strict accordance with the 
 laws of light, that it excels all other optical instruments in its 
 perfection and accuracy. 
 What does the picture upon the preceding page represent ? 
 
 It represents the eye. Above it is placed what is called 
 the lachrymal gland (fig. 1), which continually pours out a 
 watery fluid or tears, to moisten the ball of the eye, and keep 
 it free from impurities. This fluid then passes off through 
 the nasal duct or canal (fig. 2) into the nose, and thence it is 
 ejected in the form of vapor with the breath. 
 What is the cause of tears sometimes running down the cheeks ? 
 
 A stoppage in the nasal duct ; or a sudden emotion or irri- 
 tation will at times cause a greater flow of this fluid than will 
 readily pass off through its natural channel, thus occasioning 
 an overflow, which runs down the cheeks in the form of tears. 
 7* a likeness or picture of everything, while it is being looked at, represented 
 on the inner coat or pupil of the eye ? 
 
 Yes. A proof of this fact may be observed by looking 
 closely into another person's eye, when you will see yourself 
 pictured in it, the same as in a mirror when standing before it. 
 
 What instrument resembles the eye in its 
 operation, and how is it constructed? } ^ 
 
 The telescope, which is designed ij 
 to aid the eye in distinctly seeing | 
 objects at a distance. It is a long || 
 tube, with extension joints, to in- 
 crease or diminish its length, and 
 having glasses of a peculiar form, 
 placed within and across it at vari- 
 able distances, to reflect and refract the rays of light from any 
 distant point, so that the object will be pictured on the eye. 
 What taught man to make such an instrument ? 
 
 The form and peculiar structure of the eye. 
 Whan is a person said to be squint or cross eyed? 
 
 When one eye is directed toward one object, while the 
 f| other seems to be looking in a different direction ; the muscles ,J 
 which move the eye are unequally contracted or weakened, ' 
 so that they are not all subject to the will of the mind. A 
 person who is squint or cross eyed sees an object with but one 
 eye at the same time. 
 

 THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 
 
 31 
 
 How may this unequal contraction or weakness be remedied ? 
 
 Blindfolding the perfect eye, if either is straight, and 
 allowing the person to look only through the imperfect one, 
 which is usually weak, will often strengthen and restore it. 
 It may also be remedied by cutting the muscle that prevents 
 the eye from moving in the direction of the will. 
 When the form of the eye is too round, what is the effect ? 
 
 The person is near-sighted, and can not distinguish distant 
 objects clearly. 
 
 What is a frequent cause of near-sightedness, and how may it be remedied ? 
 The habit of looking at objects placed at a short distance from 
 the eyes, which may be overcome by an opposite practice, 
 but the wearing of concave glasses is the usual remedy. 
 Does the eye flatten as we grow older ? 
 
 Yes ; and people near-sighted when young, can often see 
 objects at a great distance when they are advanced in years. 
 
 Why do aged people hold a book at a 
 distance from their eyes when they read 
 without spectacles ? 
 
 Because, as the eye grows flat- 
 ter as it grows older, it can not 
 distinctly see objects that are very 
 near. This is called long-sighted- 
 ness, and may be remedied by the 
 use of convex glasses. 
 What class of men train their eyes to see at a great distance f 
 
 Seamen, by constantly looking at far-distant objects. 
 Wlutt will be the effect of fixing the eye for a time upon some distant object ? 
 There will be a painful sensation in the eye similar to that 
 experienced by other muscles of the body when used too long; 
 this is called " straining the eyes." 
 
 Do all animals and insects have eyes f 
 All animals have eyes, but a few 
 insects have none, while others have a 
 great number. The ant has fifty, the 
 beetle has three thousand, the silk- 
 worm-moth six thousand, the dragon- 
 fly twelve thousand, and the micro- 
 scope shows that others have as many 
 as twenty thousand eyes or more. 
 What does the picture represent ? 
 
 It represents a front view of the head of a bee, highly 
 magnified, showing the great number of eyes it has. Each 
 hexagon in the picture represents an eye. 
 
\ 
 
 32 THE SENSE OP SIGHT. 
 
 What is the probable reason of their having so many eyes ? 
 
 It may be because they have no muscles with which to move 
 the eye, and thus they need a great number of extremely 
 small ones to enable them to see in every direction at the 
 same moment. All these eyes may, moreover, be necessary 
 to help them find food, and to warn them of danger. 
 Why have we but two eyes ? 
 
 Our eyes being moveable, we are enabled to look in many 
 directions ; therefore, a larger number is not necessary. 
 What is the use of eyebrows ? 
 
 They are designed to turn away the sweat of the forehead, 
 and, aided by the eyelashes, prevent its getting into the eyes. 
 What is the use of the eyelids f 
 
 They keep the eyes moistened, and wash off, every time 
 the eyelids wink, all the dust which may settle on the eyes. 
 Besides they protect the eye from an exposure to dust, wind, 
 or a too strong and sudden light, which not unfrequently is 
 the cause of inflammation of the eyes. The eye is the most 
 delicate of the organs of sense, and is more liable to injury 
 and disease than any of the other senses. 
 How may we prevent disease and strengthen the eyes ? 
 
 Diseases of the eye may be prevented by a careful regard 
 to their strength, by refraining from their use in improper 
 light, and by affording them rest as soon as a sense of fatigue 
 begins to be experienced. Washing them in pure, cold water 
 at bed-time, and a liberal bathing on rising in the morning, 
 will be found of great service in promoting strength and vigor. 
 What should be done when particles of dust get in the eyes ? 
 
 The dust should be removed at once by the mildest means, 
 to avoid inflaming the eyes. Eye-stones should never be 
 employed, as they often cause more pain and irritation than 
 the evil they were intended to remedy. 
 Are there any persons who can not distinguish one color from another ? 
 
 Yes ; some persons can not separate any of the colors, 
 while others are unable to distinguish some one or more, like 
 jgreen from blue, but can readily discern the rest. 
 Which of the Jive senses are most important in relation to the mind ? 
 
 Seeing and hearing are obviously the most precious, as 
 means of acquiring knowledge, and promoting mental im- 
 provement. The enjoyments furnished by the senses of see- |J 
 ing and hearing, take a far wider range, and are of a far 
 nobler nature, than those of the other senses, which seem to 
 be more directly useful to the body than to the mind. The ^ 
 interesting yet almost senseless little creature, Laura Bridge- | jj 
 
man, an inmate of the Boston Institution for the Education 
 of the Blind, from her birth has been able neither to see, 
 hear, speak, nor smell, but makes her wants known and holds 
 converse with her teachers, through the sense of feeling only, 
 and is happy and thankful for this one ! 
 
 How wise, good, and ALL-SEEING, must be the Creator, 
 who made the eye, so perfect, so beautiful, and so wonderful ! 
 And we should never abuse this nicely-made and delicate 
 instrument by straining it, in looking too long at one object, 
 or by using it when there is not sufficient light to see properly. 
 
 Neither should we neglect a proper care of all the senses 
 with which we are endowed ; for a deprivation of any of them 
 is one of the greatest misfortunes that can befall us. 
 
 LESSON THIRTEENTH. 
 
 The Heart, or the Circulation of the Blood. 
 
 7s t he blood always rapidly circulating through the body ? 
 It is. The instant the blood stops moving we faint away. 
 
 What makes the blood keep constantly cir- 
 culating through the body ? 
 
 The action of the heart is thought 
 to be the chief if not the only cause. 
 Can you feel this action of the heart ? 
 
 Yes ; by putting the hand on the 
 left breast, and by the beating or 
 throbs of what is called the pulse, 
 in the wrist. \ 
 
 What conveys the blood out Jnti^jtfte heart 
 through the system ? 
 
 The arteries. These are large 
 and small pipes running into and 
 through every part of the body, as 
 represented in the picture. 
 
 What brings lack the Hood again into the 
 heart ? 
 
 The veins, which may be seen 
 through the skin on the body. 
 
 What is the color of the blood when it 
 comes back through the veins ? 
 
 Black and thick, from collecting 
 and bringing with it in its course 
 back to the heart all the impurities 
 of the blood. 
 
THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 Why does the blood return to the heart ? 
 
 To be sent by it into the lungs, to \>e purified. 
 How often does all the blood make a circuit through the system ? 
 
 This depends wholly upon the health or condition of the 
 person. Once in from three to eight minutes, all, or at least 
 an amount equal in weight to all, the blood in a human body 
 flows from the heart through the arteries to the extremities of 
 the system, and then back again through the veins into the 
 heart and lungs, to be purified. 
 How much blood is there in an adult orfull-groum person 1 
 
 From thirty to forty pounds, or from four to five gallons. 
 How many pounds of blood pass through the heart every twenty-four hours ? 
 About sixteen thousand pounds, or eight tons, which is 
 more than the weight of a hundred men, and more than sev- 
 enty barrels in measure ! 
 What is meant by the beating or throbbing of the heart ? 
 
 What we call the " beating of the heart" is its action to 
 throw out the blood into the system. Each beat or throb ex- 
 pels from the heart in this way about two ounces of blood. 
 What may be said of the rapid circulation of the blood ? 
 The faster it circulates, beyond what is natural in health, 
 the sooner it will wear out the body. 
 What injurious effect results from drinking spirituous liquors ? 
 
 It excites and increases the action of the heart. 
 Does it not follow then, that the habitual use of wine, spirits, or even of beer 
 and cider, will shorten life ? 
 
 It certainly does. Drinking alcoholic liquors throws the 
 whole system into an excited and destructive action. 
 With a temperate and healthy man, how often does the heart beat ? 
 
 Some seventy times in a minute, or more than one hundred 
 thousand times in twenty -four hours ! 
 Does exercise promote the circulation of the blood ? 
 
 It does ; and a regular exercise of the muscular system is 
 necessary, to keep up a vigorous circulation of the blood to ,, 
 the extremities of the fingers and toes, and also to maintain a 'JC 
 healthy condition of the system. 'jij| 
 
 Should all kinds of clothing be loosely worn ? <| 
 
 Yes ; all articles of apparel should be worn loosely, so as L 
 to permit a free circulation of blood through every organ, to 
 the very extremities of the body. 
 
 What is the best stimulant when the extremities are cold and chilly ? 
 Exercise in the open air, or an application of cold water 
 
 j followed by a brisk rubbing with a coarse towel. 
 IB t_! 
 
BREATHING, OR THE HEART AND LUNGS. 35 
 
 LESSON FOURTEENTH. 
 Breathing, or the Heart and Lungs. 
 
 The Heart, Lungs, and Windpipe, in their natural Position. 
 Where are the heart and lungs located ? 
 
 They are placed within the chest, at the upper end of the 
 trunk, where they are protected by the ribs or " bones of the 
 chest," (see page 12.) These organs are exceedingly deli- 
 cate in their structure, and will not bear with impunity any 
 exposure to external injury. 
 Of what advantage is breathing, and why does it keep us alive ? 
 
 By breathing we draw in air, which purifies the blood, and 
 prepares it for nourishing and sustaining the body, and the 
 refuse matter which it separates from the blood is carried out. 
 Into what organ does the air enter when we inhale or breath it ? 
 
 Into the lungs where its gases come in contact with the 
 blood, impure from having circulated through the body. The 
 gases of the air purify this blood, which immediately after 
 passes again through the body to return in like manner. 
 What conducts the blood into the lungs ? 
 
 Small vessels or tubes are continually pouring impure blood 
 into the lungs from the heart, while others are carrying it back 
 again into the heart after it is purified. 
 What is the cause of the impurity of the blood ? 
 As the blood passes through the body, it gathers up the 
 decayed and waste particles or atoms, and in this way it be- 
 comes impure. It then returns to the lungs to be purified, jfj 
 
f" 
 . 36 BREATHING, OR THE HEART AND LUNGS. 
 
 and thus made fit again to go out into the system, to perform 
 its life-preserving work anew. 
 What are the lungs that purify the blood by means of the air ? 
 
 They are the bellows, or breathing organs of the body, 
 and are composed of a soft, fleshy substance, full of small 
 air-cells and tubes, similar to a sponge or a honey-comb. 
 How many lungs have we, and how are they situated f 
 
 We have two lungs ; one lying on the right side of the 
 heart, called the " right lung," the other upon the left side, 
 called " the left lung." 
 What is breathing, and how may the process of breathing be explained? 
 
 It is, as has already been stated, the drawing of air into the 
 lungs, and pressing it out again in continued changes. The 
 air is drawn in through the windpipe, and along the tubes 
 into the cells of the lungs, swelling them out, and causing the 
 chest to expand ; and then, as it sinks or contracts, the air, or 
 a watery vapor containing the impurities of the blood, is press- 
 ed out again through the same passage, into the atmosphere. 
 By what process does the air purify the blood ? 
 
 The air consists mainly of two gases ; the principal one is 
 called oxygen, and the other nitrogen. The oxygen gas com- 
 bines with the waste substances or particles in the blood called 
 carbon and hydrogen, producing what is termed carbonic acid 
 gas, which is expelled or breathed out from the lungs when the 
 chest contracts. The oxygen by this process changes the 
 " venous" or impure blood from a dark color to one of bright 
 scarlet or " arterial blood."* 
 Is the carbonic gas thus ejected from the lungs, Jit to be breathed again ? 
 
 By no means ; it is very poisonous, and if much of it is 
 inhaled again, it causes sickness and destroys life. 
 
 Why should school-rooms, churches, and all public buildings, have a free 
 circulation of fresh air into and out of them ? 
 
 The oxygen of the air in the room is soon consumed by 
 the breathing of the scholars, or large assemblage of persons, 
 and carbonic acid gas is left in its place. Air, therefore, should 
 
 * The nature of the different gases may properly be explained here. 
 
 Carbon is an elementary combustible substance. But for the exist- 
 [[ ence of this substance in wood aud coal they would not burn. 
 
 Hydrogen is a gas which constitutes one of the elements of water and 
 jji is highly inflamable or easily set on fire. 
 
 jl Oxygen is the principal component part of water, the vital part of the 
 |f air in sustaining animal life, and the supporter of ordinary combustion. 
 l| Nitrogen is the principal component part of the air that we breathe, If 
 | yet animals can not live in it alone, while it is the living principle of the jl r 
 
 Iff vegetable kingdom. 
 
 _ ^ ^_ ^ yaiE 
 
BREATHING, OR THE HEART AND LUNGS. 37 
 
 pass in and out freely, both to supply more oxygen, and to 
 drive off the poisonous carbonic acid gas. 
 Is not this just as true of private dwellings and work-shops ? 
 
 Yes ; all rooms in which people sit, or pursue their labors 
 by day, as well as those in which they sleep at night, should 
 be kept well ventilated, so that the air they have already 
 breathed may pass out, and pure fresh air be freely admitted. 
 7s it not also true that light is next in importance to air f 
 
 Yes ; light should be perfect and abundant, as it is impor- 
 tant to the health and good color of both plants and animals. 
 Children or adults, like plants, if confined too much in dark 
 and badly-ventilated rooms, will be pale and sickly. 
 Should sick-rooms be well ventilated for the benefit of the patient ? 
 
 It is a too common practice to exclude fresh air from a sick- 
 room, from a fear that the patient will take cold. In fevers 
 or inflammatory diseases let the patient breathe freely of pure 
 air (avoiding draughts or currents of air), for the purer the 
 blood the greater will be the power of the system to overcome 
 the disease, and the less the liability of taking cold. 
 What are lung diseases, and how are the lungs affected ? 
 In health the lungs are exceeding porous and spongy, but 
 in some diseases they become nearly or quite one solid mass. 
 In consumption the tubes and cells are to some extent closed 
 with tubercles or abscesses of putrid or corrupt matter, and 
 sometimes the whole substance of the lungs is filled in this 
 way, leaving but little or no room for the air to be breathed 
 into them. Death soon ensues in such cases from the lack 
 of air to purify the blood and nourish the system. 
 When are the diseases of the lungs most prevalent ? 
 Diseases of the lungs prevail the most during the months 
 when and in localities where the weather is most changeable, 
 but diminish as the temperature becomes more uniform. 
 How may the diseases of the lungs be guarded against ? 
 
 To prevent diseases of the lungs, constant care should be 
 J | exercised to keep the heat of the body as uniform as possible, 
 !l and to avoid sudden exposure to cold air, when the system is 
 unnaturally excited, and the pores of the skin are relaxed and 
 open, or in other words, when we feel " warm and sweaty." 
 The clothing during winter should be sufficient to protect the 
 body, against sudden changes of the atmosphere, and it should 
 not be exchanged too early for summer apparel. It is better 
 i to suffer a little inconvenience in the spring from excessive 
 clothing, than to risk injury to the lungs by making the change 
 prematurely. 
 
fl 38 THE HEAT OF ANIMAL BODIES. 
 
 1 
 
 < LESSON FIFTEENTH. 
 
 jj Animal Heat, or "Warmth of the Body. 
 
 Food supplies fuel for the heat of animal bodies Coal the fuel for heat in Furnaces. 
 
 Is the true cause of heat in animal bodies generally understood ? 
 
 It is not. The true source of animal heat is still but im- 
 perfectly known. There have been many conjectures and 
 conclusions put forth, but we have no means of determining 
 the truth of any of them. The action of the air upon the 
 blood in breathing, the circulation of the fluids of the body, 
 but more especially the blood and the action of the nervous 
 system, may all tend to produce heat. 
 In what way may these be supposed to cause the heat of the body ? 
 
 The part of the air called oxygen uniting or mingling with 
 the carbon of the blood may produce heat, the same as heat 
 is produced by mingling water with unslaked lime. Again, 
 the rapid circulation of the blood and other fluids through the 
 system, may cause the heat from friction, the same as when 
 two pieces of wood are rubbed together they soon become 
 warm. These are but conjectures for which we have no pos- 
 itive foundation. 
 What is the latest conclusion of physiologists upon this subject ? 
 
 Physiologists of the present day very generally agree that 
 the heat of the body is caused by the slow combustion or 
 decomposition of the old and waste particles of flesh and 
 other component parts of the system, which it is evident is 
 constantly going on through the circulation of the blood. 
 How may this conclusion be satisfactorily explained? 
 
 We have before stated that during life the body is con- 
 tinually decaying, and a new body is being formed to take its 
 I) place. The food that we eat adds new material to the blood. 
 This new material is earned with the blood in its circuit 
 | through the system and is deposited wherever it may be 
 needed. The waste or dead particles, or those which have 
 finished their work, are received into the blood, and their pla- 
 
THE HEAT OF ANIMAL BODIES. 39 
 
 ces occupied with new ones fresh with living vigor. These 
 rejected particles or atoms contain more or less of carbon and 
 hydrogen, which, coming in contact with the oxygen in the 
 air, received into the blood through the process of breathing, 
 are thereby consumed, producing and generating a general 
 heat throughout the system. This work of interchange of 
 particles, and the burning up of the old flesh, is carried on 
 throughout the body; consequently every part of it is warmed. 
 
 Do all the waste particles, or rejected matters, pass into the blood to be 
 sent out of the system through the lungs ? 
 
 No, much of the waste of the body escapes through the 
 pores of the skin, in the form of a watery vapor, or as it is 
 called u insensible perspiration." 
 
 2s the natural heat of animal bodies the same in all temperatures ? 
 
 Yes, whether in the icy regions of the polar circles, or in 
 the burning zones of the tropics, the internal warmth of the 
 body, when in health, remains always the same. 
 
 What is the natural heat of the human body ? 
 
 The' usual standard of heat in man is ninety-eight degrees 
 of Fahrenheit's thermometer. 
 
 How warm should a room be in winter to make it comfortable to live in ? 
 From sixty -five to seventy degrees. 
 
 How warm is it in the shade in a very hot day in summer ? 
 
 Seldom more than from ninety to ninety-five degrees. There- 
 fore it is very evident that the heat of the body is warmer 
 than the atmosphere of a hot day or of a heated room. It is 
 also evident that the heat of the body is not derived from ex- 
 ternal objects, and certainly not from the atmosphere, for we < 
 know that our bodies are warm when the air is extremely - 
 cold ; nor from the sun or fire, for our bodies are warm in the 
 absence of both. 
 
 May we then conclude that there is no additional heat imparted to the body 
 from our clothing, let it be what it may, whether cotton, woolen, or furs ? 
 
 Yes ; for our clothing has no actual power of giving heat, , 
 it has no warmth in itself; it keeps a warm body warm, and 
 a cool body cool, but of itself it neither creates nor gives heat. 
 If in summer you wrap a piece of ice in flannel it keeps it ' 
 from melting. Clothing only prevents the passage of heat 
 from within or the cold from without. If then animal heat is . 
 not obtained from any outward source it must originate within 
 the body. 
 How is the heat of the body controlled and kept at its regular temperature ? 
 
 The surplus heat of the body passes off through the pores 
 of the skin, and by evaporation from the lungs. The quan- ' 
 
40 THE HEAT OF ANIMAL BODIES. 
 
 
 tity which thus escapes is regulated by the temperature of 
 the air and the state of the atmosphere. In warm and dry 
 weather a greater amount of heat passes off than in damp 
 and warm or cold and frosty weather. 
 Is the internal heat of the body greater in winter than in summer ? 
 
 Yes. By a wise adaptation of Nature's supply to her wants, 
 the animal body is kept cool in the summer and warm in the 
 winter. In the winter we have a greater appetite and desire 
 for animal food, which supplies more carbon and hydrogen or 
 combustible material, and the increased density of the air fur- 
 nishes more oxygen ; consequently a greater heat is maintain- 
 ed ; but in warm weather a vegetable diet, which gives less 
 fuel, satisfies our desires and appetites, and the atmosphere 
 affords less oxygen for the support of the combustion. 
 Upon what does the amount of fuel consumed and heat generated depend ? 
 They depend mostly upon the quality of the air breathed 
 into the lungs, the healthy or diseased condition of the lungs, 
 the age of the individual, exercise of the body, the condition 
 of the brain, the skin, and the general system. 
 Does exercise increase the heat of the body and the consumption of fuel ? 
 
 It certainly does. We know, from experience, that our bod- 
 ies are warmer during exercise, and our desire and appetite 
 for food greater, than when we are at ease or unemployed. 
 7s the heat of the body the same during sleep as when awake ? 
 
 No, it is not. During sleep when the brain is partially 
 inactive, less heat is generated ; and for this reason, we need 
 more covering to our bodies to be comfortable than we require 
 while awake. 
 Do young or aged persons generate the most heat in their bodies ? 
 
 Young persons. It may be because the circulation of the |j> 
 blood and other fluids are more rapid in young persons than in jj> 
 aged ones, or that the period when all the parts of the system i!j) 
 | are growing more heat may be required in order to make the 
 | circulation more rapid, for it is through the circulation of the 
 ! blood that the material is carried to build up the body, the 
 same as brick and mortar are carried to build up a house. 
 Why does a person become almost cold before death ? 
 Because the vital organs, the circulation of the blood, the 
 breathing, and the nervous system, have almost ceased to per- 
 form their functions ; or, that the circulation, breathing, and 
 action of the nerves, have ceased, because the vital heat is no 
 longer supplied. The effect of this suspension of vital action 
 is first felt at the extremities, the coldness gradually progres- 
 1| sing toward the region of the heart. 
 
LESSON SIXTEENTH. 
 
 The Stomach ; or Food and its Digestion. 
 
 From ivhat is our blood made ? 
 
 It is made from the food 
 which we eat and drink. 
 What is the stomach f 
 
 It is a large pouch or 
 sack into which the food 
 passes after leaving the 
 mouth, and where it is di- 
 gested. (See the , picture 
 of the stomach fig. 1, the 
 passage into the stomach ; 
 fig. 2, the point at which 
 the food passes out after it 
 is digested.) 
 
 How is the food changed or 
 converted into blood ? 
 
 The food while in the 
 The Human stomach. stomach, becomes dissolved 
 
 or digested, the same as sugar is dissolved in tea or coffee. 
 It is then called chyme ; this passes out of the stomach into 
 what is termed the " duodenum or intestines," where it is then 
 separated into two classes, a milky fluid called chyle, or he 
 part which enters into and forms the life of the blood, and the 
 waste or useless part, which should be ejected from the body 
 regularly each morning soon after rising. 
 
 What turns chyle iniv and gives it the color of blood ? 
 
 It is not positively known ; but from the course it takes it is 
 probable that it is converted into blood when it mingles with 
 the blood already formed in the veins, and receives .its color 
 when it comes in contact with the oxygen of the air. 
 
 What digests or dissolves the food in the stomach ? 
 
 A very powerful fluid contained in the coat or lining of the 
 stomach, called gastric Juice. The digestive process which 
 effects so great a change in the food is as wonderful as it is 
 interesting. Every kind of food, no matter what its character 
 may be, whether vegetable or animal, is dissolved into one 
 and the same fluid. It was at first the food of the stomach ; 
 it is now the nutriment or vital part of the blood. 
 
 What prevents the food from escaping from the stomach while in a state 
 of digestion ? ' 
 
 At the point or outward passage of the stomach there is a 
 
FOOD AND ITS DIGESTION. 
 
 strong band of muscular fibers 
 which, by contraction, completely 
 closes the opening, the same as a 
 string tied around the mouth of 
 a bag, and thus retains the con- 
 tents of the stomach, while under- 
 going the process of digestion. 
 If the contents were not thus se- 
 cured, the motions of the stomach 
 and the respiratory muscles would 
 force the food out prematurely. 
 
 Wltfit other duty is performed by this 
 contracting band of muscular fibers ? 
 
 This ever-watchful door-keeper 
 not only retains the food in the 
 stomach until it is properly digest- 
 ed, but also prevents the indigesti- 
 ble matter, or that which will not 
 readily digest, from passing out, 
 so long as it can be retained, or 
 until it is compelled to let it pass. 
 Of what does this indigestible matter 
 consist ? 
 
 We sometimes eat food of a 
 kind which the stomach can not 
 digest, and sometimes we eat more 
 at a meal than the gastric juice 
 can dissolve ; or that which has 
 ( Fif: 4. Th Rectum, or passage for been eaten may not have been 
 the waste matter out of the body. properly masticated in the mouth. 
 In these instances the stomach digests what it can, and makes 
 a great effort to digest the rest, or to send it out undigested, 
 which it finally accomplishes It is while these struggles are 
 going on that we feel a distressing oppression about the right 
 side just below the short ribs. 
 What is tlie cause of "a distress in the stomach," as it is called? 
 
 It is the retention of the indigestible matter, and the effort 
 of the stomach to dissolve it, that causes the headache and 
 the distressing oppression experienced in the region of the 
 stomach some two or three hours after meals, and to relieve 
 which the doctor is often applied to, or in hig stead nostrums 
 and " certain cures" of various kinds are swallowed. 
 What class of persons digest food the most readily ? 
 
 Those who have not abused their digestive organs ; who 
 have not overloaded them, nor tasked them with, indigestible 
 
 Ife 
 
 Fl?. 1. The Stomach. 
 Fii. 2. Thn Duodenum. 
 
FOOD AND ITS DIGESTION. 
 
 substances. Those who exercise freely in the open air ; who 
 sit, sleep, and work, in well-ventilated rooms ; who keep a 
 clean skin ; who have a cheerful and contented mind, and 
 who lead an honest and indastrious life. 
 
 Do not some articles of food digest more readily and quicker than others ? 
 Yes. But there is, however, a considerable difference in 
 this respect. It is too commonly supposed that the food, 
 which people in ordinary health digest soonest, is, for that 
 reason only, the most wholesome, and the lightest, as it is 
 termed. But these are erroneous conclusions. 
 IjL What is generally considered as " light" or "heavy" food? 
 
 The terms "light" and "heavy," as applied to food, are 
 suggested by its effects on the feelings of -those, who eat it ; 
 and, in this sense, they are sufficiently accurate. These effects, 
 | however, do not depend merely upon their readiness or diffi- 
 culty of digestion ; but partly, if not wholly, upon the influence 
 of the food on the circulation of the fluids of the body. 
 Docs animal or vegetable food digest the more readily ? 
 
 Vegetable food, of most kinds, digests more slowly than 
 animal food ; but for persons in ordinary health, it is usually 
 '([ deemed lighter than meat : that is, it leaves them more clear- 
 headed and tranquil, because it is generally much less stimu- 
 lating and heating. Besides, all the digestive organs require 
 some degree of distension, for the better performance of their 
 functions ; and food, therefore, should not consist merely of 
 aliment, or be capable of being wholly converted into chyle. 
 What rule, tfan, should we follow in deciding what food is best for us 1 
 
 The best general rule, for persons in ordinary health, is, 
 probably, to observe their most favorable feelings after eating; 
 for, if the^- are not conclusive evidence of quickness of diges- 
 tion, they are still good evidence ofthe wholesomeness of 
 food. The kind of food, however, is not so material as its 
 condition and quality, and the quantity eaten at each meal. 
 Does the eating of food hastily, or over-eating, produce any ill effect ? 
 
 Yes. Our food should be eaten quite moderately, and be 
 well masticated ki the mouth, before it is swallowed ; other- 
 wise an oppressive weight and oftentimes pain will for some 
 time afterward be felt in the stomach. The same feelings 
 will be experienced when we have eaten too much, or have 
 eaten that which does not readily digest, which must in a great- 
 er or less degree injure the digestive organs. 
 Should drinks of any kind be taken into the stomach at our meals ? 
 
 No ; for they retard rather than assist digestion. The 
 fluids or secretions of the mouth and stomach are all-sufficient 
 
44 FOOD AND ITS DIGESTION. 
 
 for the purposes designed, and these are weakened and less 
 active by the addition of other fluids. For the same reason 
 broths and soups are objectionable. 
 7s ice or very cold water prejudiced when taken tvith our meals ? 
 
 Yes ; for digestion is suspended until the heat of the body j) 
 or stomach shall have equalized the temperature of the ice or 
 cold drinks to that of the stomach. 
 
 When may ice or very cold water be taken with impunity ? 
 
 In cases of fever or inflammation when the stomach is at rest. 
 Pulverized ice swallowed into the stomach at stated intervals 
 is highly beneficial in a feverish or inflamed state of the sys- 
 tem, as it reduces the heat of the blood ; and for the same rea- 
 son the breathing of pure fresh air is also beneficial. In such 
 cases, the food should be of the simplest kind, and the quan- 
 tity limited. Patients are greatly relieved and soon recover 
 under such treatment, where an opposite course has sent very 
 ^ many to an early grave. 
 
 At what times of the day should we lake our morning and mid-day meals ? 
 
 Breakfast should be eaten within one hour after rising from 
 our beds. This applies more especially to invalids, who have 
 but little strength or power of endurance. "We are better able 
 to resist the influences of cold, and to keep up the natural 
 heat of the body, when we are full than when fasting. In 
 about five or six hours after the morning meal the appetite 
 returns, and the system calls for more nourishment ; this is 
 then the true guide for the hour of dining. 
 At what time should we take our supper or evening meal ? 
 
 Supper should be eaten at least three hours before retiring 
 to rest, that this meal may be well digested before sleep ; 
 otherwise the sleep will be disturbed by distressing and op- 
 pressive dreams, and the body and mind will not be refreshed 
 by sleep for the following day's labor. Our meals should be 
 eaten at the same hours from day to day. 
 Should anything be eaten between these several meals ? 
 
 No. With the exception of a little water, nothing should 
 go down our throats between meals, and not even water until 
 two hours shall have elapsed from the time of eating. The 
 reason is obvious. The stomach requires rest, and rest it must 
 have if expected to perform its work properly. 
 f|JL May we not eat an apple, or a little fruit, or a few nuts, between meals f 
 
 The answer is still, No! These maybe eaten with our 
 meals, but not between them as a general rule. Every g 
 housekeeper knows how very annoying it is, when she has 
 cleaned up after a regular meal, to be called upon to go through fi ) 
 
FOOD AND ITS DIGESTION. 
 
 45 
 
 a similar operation between meals. The stomach is as sensi- 
 tive of annoyance as the feelings of the housekeeper. 
 
 Are not children's appetites tampered with ? 
 
 Yes, to an alarming extent. Mothers have much to answer 
 for in relation to this question. Children are trained from 
 their infancy to be gluttonous. No matter if they have filled 
 their little stomachs but ten minutes before, if they but cry 
 the same remedy is applied, and applied as often as the cry is 
 repeated ; sometimes they get so full as to vomit literally to 
 run over. By this early habit of overfeeding, the stomach 
 becomes enlarged, distended, and weakened ; and in after-life 
 if dyspepsia or indigestion does not prove to be the sad result 
 it will only be because human nature is tough and can endure 
 the trespass of youthful indiscretion. 
 
 Does cheerful conversation during meals assist digestion ? 
 
 It does. During the time of eating, the body should be 
 seated in a comfortable and easy position. The mind should 
 be quite free from care and anxiety. None of the evil pas- 
 sions should ever be allowed to come to the table, but in their 
 stead, permit the lively play of the social affections, and the 
 pleasant intercourse of family and friends, to keep the brain 
 in action but not in labor. 
 
 Of what advantage is cheerful conversation during meals ? 
 
 It causes the blood to move more freely, and all parts of 
 the system to be at ease and free from restraint. The lively 
 flow of spirits will aid the digestive process, which will the 
 more readily begin, and be the more easily carried on. The 
 solemn stillness that reigns over the tables of some families, 
 the unbroken quietness which a stern but mistaken disci- 
 pline pursues and imposes upon some children, is at variance 
 with their best interests. 
 
 Should we flee to a doctor or to drugs and medicine for every ail, ache, and 
 pain, that we may have ? 
 
 No ; for if we but act promptly we have under our control 
 a preventive and a cure for nearly or quite every ill that 
 " flesh is heir to," and this too " without money and without 
 price." It is the delay to act which gives rise to the neces- 
 sity for a doctor. Nearly all of our aches and ails proceed 
 from the foul condition of the stomach, because there are mat- 
 ters there which do not readily pass off; and it is into the 
 stomach that medicines are sent for the cure of these troubles. 
 Headaches and other painful sensations in the head proceed 
 from the same cause, and it is only through the stomach that 
 the relief or remedy can be applied. 
 
46 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY OP THE TEETH. 
 
 ,J 
 
 From what source may a very instructive lesson be learned ? 
 
 "We may learn a very instructive lesson from the cat, dog, 
 and other animals. They do not send for the doctor when 
 they are ill; but follow the teachings of their own natural 
 instinct. Who has not observed that when ill they will not 
 eat, but fast, sleep,, and soon after recover. A very eminent 
 physician upon his death-bed said, " I shall leave behind me 
 three greater physicians than myself." Upon being asked 
 who they were, replied, " Air, Exercise, and Diet." 
 
 LESSON SEVENTEENTH. 
 
 Physiology of the Teeth. 
 
 Are the teeth, like all our other bones, made from our food ? 
 
 They are ; and like the other bones, consist chiefly of lime, 
 but unlike our other bones, are exposed to the immediate ac- 
 tion of the air and foreign substances. 
 
 In what respect do they differ from the other bones of the human frame ? 
 
 They are composed of a much harder material. The inter- 
 nal part, or the ivory of the teeth, is a more solid substance 
 than bone, and this is covered with a smooth, white, and still 
 harder substance, called enamel, which when once decayed or 
 destroyed is never again restored. 
 
 What is the use of this enamel ? 
 
 It gives the teeth strength, as well as hardness, for biting, 
 chewing, and grinding the food ; it also prevents injury from 
 these operations, and from the action of acids on the bone 
 of the teeth ; and while the enamel renders these important 
 services, it adds much to their beauty and durability. 
 
 Are the teeth supplied, like the other bones, with blood-vessels and nerves ? 
 
 They are, and as most people have occasion to know, are 
 endowed with life, and also an exquisite sensibility, which is 
 the more apparent when they become decayed. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE TEETH. 47 
 
 How many parts are there to '! 
 a tooth f 
 
 Three parts : called the 
 crown, the neck, and the 
 root. The crown is that 
 part which rises out of 
 the jaw, and which is seen, 
 the neck is that portion 
 clasped by the upper rim jj 
 of the socket ; and the [ 
 root is that part within 
 the gum and socket, which 
 
 Side View of tho Under Jaw and Teeth. . g ^^ t() ^ jawbone . 
 
 C'j How many teeth has a young child, and what care is necessary ? 
 
 Twenty ; ten of them in the upper, and ten in the lower 
 |j jaw. When a child becomes six or seven years of age, the 
 [[ teeth loosen, and, if they do not drop out, they should be re- 
 | moved without delay, otherwise they will prevent the proper 
 formation and regularity of the new permanent teeth, which 
 are growing under them. (See the picture, letter A, showing 
 the position of the new teeth in the under or moveable jaw.) 
 How many teeth has a grown person, when the set of teeth is perfect ? 
 Thirty-two ; or sixteen in each under and upper jaw. 
 How many different kinds of teeth have we ? 
 
 Three: the cutters, or front teeth; the pointers, or eye- 
 teeth ; and the grinders, or back, double teeth. 
 How many are there 'of each kind ? 
 
 In each jaw there are four front teeth, two eye-teeth,' and 
 ten grinders ; one half of them on each side of the face. 
 What is the most important use of tJie teeth ? 
 
 Their leading and most important use is to cut and chew, 
 or grind the food so finely that it may be mixed with the 
 saliva, or the moisture of the mouth, and then swallowed, or 
 passed into the stomach. This is the first step in preparing 
 food for digestion and nourishment. 
 If we had no teeth, would we have the pleasure in eating we now enjoy ? 
 
 We would not ; for the only food which we could then take 
 would be liquids, or pap, such as young children feed upon. 
 Are the teeth useful in any other way ? 
 
 Yes ; they assist the voice in talking, reading aloud, and 
 singing. If a person loses two or three front teeth, he talks, 
 reads, and sings, in a hissing manner, which is called lisping. 
 The loss of teeth also prevent a person from giving the cor- 
 rect sounds to many letters, and from articulating distinctly. 
 
48 PHYSIOLOGY OP THE TEETH. | 
 
 Should we not do everything in our power to preserve our teeth f 
 
 Yes ; for perfect teeth are ornamental as well as useful, n 
 We should never pick nor scratch them with pins or pocket- lf| 
 knives ; for these break the enamel or their brilliant pearly cov- I 
 ering, and when this is once broken they soon begin to decay. M 
 Quill or wooden toothpicks may be useful in removing any ! 
 particles of food that may not be readily reached by the brush, 
 but metallic toothpicks should never be used. 
 7s there any other way in which the teeth may be injured ? 
 
 There is ; taking into the mouth food or drink, which is 
 either too hot or too cold, and the habit of smoking or of chew- 
 ing tobacco, which burns out and destroys the teeth. The 
 practice of cracking nuts, or of biting thread, or of lifting 
 heavy bodies with the teeth, are very injurious to them ; acid 
 drinks and fruit that set the teeth on edge are also injurious. 
 Why are the teeth of Europeans generally better than those of Americans f 
 
 The principal reason is, their food is more simple, and their . } 
 habits more temperate and uniform, than those of Americans. 
 Can we preserve our teeth many years unless we keep them always clean ? 
 
 No. The teeth should be cleansed with a brush or soft 
 piece of flannel and tepid or lukewarm water, after every 
 meal, but more especially before retiring to rest, and again 
 after rising in the morning. Some fine tooth-powder or refined 
 soap may be occasionally used, to remove any corroding sub- 
 stance that may exist around or between the teeth, care being 
 taken to thoroughly rinse the mouth after its use. 
 What is the cause of the pain called "toothache"? 
 
 When a tooth is decayed, and its nerve is diseased and 
 inflamed, its exposure to the air causes the ache or pain 
 which we feel ; and when eating, some of the food is pressed 
 against the inflamed nerve, which also produces the painful 
 sensation, commonly called " the toothache." 
 When a tooth is too much decayed to be preserved what should be done ? 
 
 It should be taken out without any delay ; because its pres- 
 ence not only contaminates the breath, making it disagreeable, 
 but its presence is an injury to the other teeth, by causing 
 them also to decay. This applies to teeth that are decayed 
 beyond a remedy. It is not necessary to have teeth extracted 
 simply because they ache, for the nerve of the root may be 
 diseased and still the tooth be sound. In such cases the dis- 
 ease may be remedied by proper medical advice. Many a 
 tooth, through ignorance, has been removed unnecessarily. 
 What is the cause of the premature decay of the teeth ? 
 
 Some kinds of medicine may be the cause of more or less 
 
THE HUMAN THROAT AND VOICE. 49 
 
 injury to the teeth, but they injure the stomach first. The 
 great leading cause of the premature decay of the teeth arises 
 from their disuse. Some persons hardly use their teeth suffi- 
 ciently to keep them clean. The more the teeth are regularly 
 and properly used for the purposes they were intended, that 
 of masticating and preparing the food for the stomach, the 
 more healthy they will be, and the less the liability to decay. 
 Who have sound and who have decayed or diseased teeth ? 
 
 Healthy persons generally have sound teeth, while feeble 
 sickly people have decayed or diseased ones, for the reason - 
 that the teeth are more or less affected by the healthy or dis- 
 eased condition of the stomach. Therefore all should try to 
 observe the few simple rules that are laid down for the pro- 
 motion of health. 
 If a person wishes to have a sweet breath, of what must he be careful ? 
 
 Of his teeth, his stomach, and his lungs. The breaths of 
 some persons are pleasant, some are offensive, while others 
 are without any perceptible odor ; still there are those whose 
 breaths are so very powerful as to taint the air of a whole 
 room. These disagreeable breaths proceed from various 
 causes ; decayed teeth, disease of the lungs or air passages, 
 but more commonly from the direct secretions in the lungs, 
 as when, for instance, onions or garlic have been eaten, tobac- 
 co smoked or chewed, or when any kinds of spirituous liquors 
 have been taken into the stomach. 
 
 LESSON EIGHTEENTH. 
 
 The Human Throat, or the Voice. 
 
 What class of persons have strong, powerful, and melodious voices ? 
 They whose lungs are healthy, or not diseased, who have 
 cultivated a full chest, and an erect position ; who give their 
 lungs free action by wearing their clothes loosely around the 
 chest and neck ; and they who daily exercise their lungs. 
 Sailors, smiths, and others engaged in noisy occupations, exert 
 their vocal organs more strongly and therefore their voices 
 
THE HUMAN THROAT AND VOICE. 
 
 are with less effort louder and clearer than those engaged in 
 more quiet occupations. 
 
 In what part of the human throat is the voice formed 9 
 The upper part, by means of fourteen pairs of muscles. 
 
 How many clear, distinct tones of voice can a person make ? 
 
 At least fourteen ; and, by practice, perhaps several more. 
 The human throat by proper cultivation is capable of being 
 made the most perfect musical instrument yet known in 
 nature or art. f 'v' 
 
 Are people generally good performers on this instrument ? 
 
 No ; only a very few cultivate the voice as they should ; the 
 greater part of mankind bestow no care upon it whatever, , 
 and employ but two or three of its tones during their lives. 
 
 Is not a variety of tones, in speaking or reading, as pleasing to the ear as 
 a variety of notes in singing or music ? 
 
 Yes ; and it is the duty of every one to obtain more power 
 over the voice, not only by singing, but by the daily practice , 
 of both reading and speaking, on different keys, and in vari- 
 ous tones. 
 Should not singing be taught as a regular exercise in every school ? 
 
 Yes. In the schools of Germany it is, and more recently 
 in some of the schools in the United States it has become, a , 
 part of the regular established course of instruction. 
 What favorable effect is noticed in the Germans as the result ? 
 
 The Germans are noted for being a healthy and cheerful k 
 nation. Consumption or lung diseases are seldom known, and I 
 it is believed that their practice of singing, united with their j[g 
 outdoor exercises, is the main preventive. And this is prob- 
 able, for the regular exercise of the lungs and the vocal or- 
 gans, as well as of all the other parts of the body, developes 
 and promotes their vigorous and healthy action. 
 Is it a general belief that singing has an influence on the moral character ? 
 
 Yes, and a very favorable one, especially when pursued at 
 an early period of life. This conclusion has been fully and 
 satisfactorily sustained by experience. 
 But may not music or singing sometimes exert a corrupting influence ? 
 
 Undoubtedly it may especially vocal music. But any of 
 the good gifts of God may be, and are sometimes, perverted 
 and abused. This, however, is but a very poor reason for - 
 omitting to use them at all. 
 What are the German proverbs in relation to singing ? 
 
 The German enthusiasm for singing is expressed by two 
 proverbs, which read thus : " Where singing is not, the devil 
 enters," and " Singing is the gymnastics of the affections." \ ) 
 
THE HUMAN THROAT AND VOICE, 51 
 
 I How may voe know when music or singing is rightly employed ? 
 
 When it warms the domestic and social sympathies; but 
 its most exalted service is to lift the heart in love, gratitude, 
 and reverence, to HIM " from whom cometh every good and 
 perfect gift." 
 For the free exercise of the voice should anything be tight <xrond the neck f 
 
 No. The dress of the neck, particularly of public speakers 
 and singers, should be quite loose and thin to prevent too 
 | great a flow of blood to the vocal organs when exercised. 
 [ To guard against sore throats and coughs what great error is committed f 
 
 The practice of bundling up the neck to guard against sore 
 throats and coughs is very erroneous, for, instead of warding 
 these off, it is oftentimes their direct cause. It is the extremi- ' 
 ties of the body that need extra protection, and not the head 
 nor the neck. It is better to accustom these parts of the body 
 to exposure, and when coughs, sore throats, or a cold in the 
 head occurs, a little extra covering to the neck and throat is 
 all that will be required for their remedy. 
 By what other practice or habit are the affections of the throat caused ? 
 
 By the habit which some persons have of breathing through jj! 
 their mouth instead of through their nostrils. Children should J J 
 never be allowed to contract this habit, neither in standing, |(|J 
 walking, nor sleeping ; for, besides the vacant appearance it 
 gives to the countenance, it .is the almost certain precursor of 
 coughs, colds, and sore throats. The nostrils or nasal organs 
 are clearly the medium through which respiration was design- 
 ed by our Creator to be carried on. "God breathed into 
 man's nostrils the breath of life," previous to his becoming a 
 living creature. 
 
 What is the real origin of almost all the diseases of the throat, lungs, $*c. ? 
 
 Almost all the diseases of the throat and lungs, such as 
 bronchitis, asthma, and even consumption itself, originate 
 from this unnatural habit of neglecting to keep the lips closed 
 when not engaged in conversation, or otherwise occupied. 
 The excessive perspiration, or " night sweats," to which some | 
 persons are so liable in their sleep, and which is so weaken- f 
 ing to the body, is solely the effect of such persons sleeping || 
 with their mouths unclosed ; and the same unpleasant and 
 exhaustive effects result to the animal system, from the same 
 cause, when exercising by walking or running. 
 
 What is the cause of stammering, and how may it be remedied / 
 J. In persons who have "an impediment of speech/' it is 
 J caused by an attempt on their part to speak too hastily, or 
 while in a state of nervous excitement or agitation. No part 
 
52 THE HAIR AND THE NAILS. 
 
 of the vocal organs are wanting, but some parts are imper- jk 
 fectly under the control of the will. In the young and mid- ]u 
 die-aged this defect may be remedied by patient and judicious 
 training. By at first repeating only the words that can be | 
 articulated distinctly, and then by a similar repetition of | 
 other words, until all the words in common use may be spoken 
 without hesitation or intermission. 
 
 LESSON NINETEENTH. 
 
 The Hair and the Nails. 
 
 Why are our heads covered with hair f 
 To serve as a protection from the sud- 
 den changes of the atmosphere ; the hair 
 being a non-conductor of heat or cold. 
 The hair also serves to shield the brain 
 from injury by bumps or knocks. 
 Has each hair a separate root or bulb ? 
 
 It has ; and this root or bulb extends 
 below the real skin, and is fed by an ar- 
 tery which supplies it with the material 
 from the blood for the growth of the hair. J 
 7s the hair supplied with nerves and blood-vessels ? 
 
 No. The hairs are simply appendages of the skin, and like 
 the outside skin or " cuticle" of the body, are secreted from the 
 real or true skin. They have no blood-vessel or nerves, and 
 therefore no vitality or life ; if they had, we should feel pain 
 when they are cut or trimmed. 
 What is supposed to give the various colors to the hair ? 
 The color of the hair is supposed to depend upon the color 
 of the fluid in the pith or central portion of the hair, running 
 its whole length. 
 
 What peculiarity is visible when the hair is seen through a microscope ? 
 Each hair has on its surface pointed barbs or a beard that 
 point towards the end. By sliding a single hair between the 
 fingers, it will be found to go in but one direction. We 
 [I may then conclude, that the object of this beard is to prevent 
 j| the dust that may accumulate upon the hair from reaching 
 ij the scalp or skin of the head. 
 
 What gives the hair its beautiful glossy appearance ? 
 
 A delicate oil, furnished by little glands in the true skin. 
 What causes the hair to become gray, and what is the cause of baldness ? 
 
 The fluid or coloring matter is but imperfectly secreted at 
 
THE HAIR AND THE NAILS. 53 
 
 the root, and the pith of the 'hair is absorbed or dried up ; it 
 then becomes gray. Baldness is occasioned by the closing of 
 the canals which convey the fluid into the hair for its suste- ' 
 nance and growth, causing it to die and drop off. The skin 
 then closes over these canals, and no art nor application of 
 " Infallible Hair Restoratives" will open them again. 
 Are people generally as careful of their hair as they should be ? 
 
 No, they are not ; and, in consequence of the neglect, the 
 scalp sometimes becomes diseased and inflamed. Cold water 
 is the very best application in such cases, and upon all occa- 
 sions where inflammation exists. 
 What is the cause of the dry white scurf, or dandruff, upon the head ? 
 
 This is natural and can not be prevented. When it exists 
 the only necessary application to remove it is the frequent use 
 of the hair-brush, and an occasional washing with pure water. 
 Which is the most effectual, brushing, combing, or washing the hair ? 
 
 Brushing is more effectual than combing, but combing is 
 better than washing; yet the head should sometimes be 
 washed thoroughly with cold water never with warm water 
 or soap, as this is destructive to the oil, on which the health 
 and beauty of the hair depend. After washing, it should be 
 well dried with a coarse towel. 
 Of what material are the finger and toe nails composed ? 
 
 Chiefly of albumen ; a word signifying a white substance, 
 and meaning a fine, thin, whitish matter. It is one of the 
 substances contained in the chyle and blood. 
 How are these nails produced, and of what advantage are they ? 
 
 They are secreted, like the outer skin, by the true skin. 
 The nails are, in fact, parts of the outer skin, and are depos- 
 ited from beneath, in successive layers, or thin plates, so mod-: 
 ified as to harden into little shields, for the better protection 
 of the ends of the fingers and toes, and to enable them to { 
 take a firmer hold of whatever they may be required to do. 
 In what respect do the nails differ from the skin to which they are appended? 
 The nails are a hard, elastic, flexible, and partly transpa- 
 rent substance, and present the appearance of a layer of horn. 
 Of what use are the finger nails ? 
 
 They give defence and support to the fleshy ends of the 
 I fingers, and thus enable us to do many things more readily 
 jl and correctly than we could do without them. 
 j Of what benefit are the toe nails ? 
 
 The nails of the toes not only serve as a protection, but 
 they enable us to take a firmer footing, and to step, run, leap, 
 
54 CLOTHING AND DRESS. 
 
 and balance the whole frame, with more vigor and precision 
 than v, " otherwise could. 
 May tha usefulness of the nails be secured and increased by care ? 
 
 Yes ; and for this purpose they should be kept so trimmed 
 that their ends will completely cover and protect the flesh be- 
 neath, when anything is pressed against it The nails should 
 be frequently washed with soap and water, and a stiff brush, 
 but should never be scraped. Clean nails are an evidence of 
 neatness and refinement in all, especially with the female sex. 
 What causes the toe nails to sometimes " grow into the flesh" ? 
 
 Short and tight boots or shoes. The forward growth of the 
 nails being interrupted, they spread out on the sides and 
 sometimes becomes unusually thick. The only sure preven- 
 tive is to wear boots or shoes of ample size, which not only 
 secures freedom to the growth of the nails and the circula- 
 tion of the fluids of the feet, but also prevents the formation 
 of the very painful excrescences well known as corns. 
 
 LESSON TWENTIETH, 
 
 Clothing and Dress, or Protection of the Body. 
 
 Winter Dress of an Indian. Winter Drees of a Highlander. 
 
 To what extent is clothing or dress necessary for the protection of the body ? 
 We are so much the creatures of habit, and have been so 
 long accustomed through many years, and even from genera- 
 tion to generation, to cover the body with clothing, that it is 
 difficult to determine how great a degree of cold the body could 
 endure in the absence of clothing. Even in summer we should 
 not feel as comfortable without clothing as we now do with it. 
 
 To ivhat extent are the Indians in cold climates clothed ? 
 
 The North American Indian wears much less clothing than 
 his more civilized neighbors. The Indian is satisfied and 
 comfortable with his blanket for his back and shoulders, his 
 girdle for his loins, and his moccasins for his feet, while his 
 breast ^nd limbs are nearly or quite bare. 
 
CLOTHING AND DRESS. 55 
 
 To what extent is the Highlander of Scotland clothed f 
 
 In the costume of the Highlander, who lives in the north- 
 ermost parts of Scotland, the kilt or short petticoat scarcely 
 reaching his stockings, and as he wears no pantaloons his flesh 
 about his knees is bare and exposed to the cold of his very 
 severe climate, and yet he seems to be as comfortable as his 
 southern neighbors whose limbs are more carefully protected 
 from the weather. 
 Is there a difference in the habits of people of more temperate localities ? 
 
 Yes, there is a great difference. Some persons always wear 
 thick clothing from the first approach of autumn, until the 
 warmth of spring, and never venture abroad without an over- 
 coat or an extra shawl, while others dress much lighter, and 
 a few perhaps find no days in winter so cold as to require 
 any extra covering. It would, therefore, appear that the 
 amount of clothing which the body actually requires depends 
 wholly upon the health and habits of the individual. 
 What, then, next to keeping a clean skin, is essential to health and comfort ? 
 
 Clean and proper clothing, neither too much nor too little ; 
 the quantity to be regulated by our feelings and the state of 
 the atmosphere. 
 In what manner does clothing protect the body from cold? 
 
 Not by imparting any warmth of its own, for it has none 
 to impart ; but by preventing the warmth of the body itself 
 from escaping, and the cold without, from coming in contact 
 with the body. 
 Why is linen clothing found to be cooler than woollen ? 
 
 Because linen cloth having a closer and more compact tex- 
 ture, holds less air in its meshes, and, for this reason, conducts 
 heat away more rapidly than woollen cloth. So, cotton cloth 
 is warmer than linen, but woollen the most so ; and woollen, 
 again, is not as warm as fur, nor is fur as warm as down. In 
 short, the closer the texture the better the conductor, and the 
 more open the texture the more air it contains, and therefore 
 the warmer the clothing. 
 Why is too little clothing in winter objectionable ? 
 
 Because it exposes the body to all the sudden changes of 
 the weather. Colds, coughs, consumption, fever, rheumatism, 
 and other diseases, are often the result of scanty clothing. 
 May too much clothing be injurious as well as too little ? 
 
 Yes ; for it not only prevents the ready escape of perspi- 
 ration, but tends to increase it. The best practical rule is, 
 that all persons wear just so much clothing, of proper kind 
 
56 
 
 CLOTHING AND DRESS. 
 
 and quantity, as will protect them from the sensation of chilli- 
 ness and cold, and no more nor no less. 
 
 Should we depend upon clothing only for the warmth of the body ? 
 
 No ; we should also seek it by exercising freely every day 
 in the open air. If we neglect this, the body becomes weak- 
 ened and relaxed. The more we exercise the less clothing 
 will be required, and the more comfortable we shall feel. 
 
 Should a dress be made so as to Jit tightly about the body ? 
 
 No, such is very hurtful. A dress, tight over the chest, 
 not only binds the ribs together, and thus prevents the free 
 play of the lungs, but it crowds all the vital organs upon eadh 
 other, so as to derange their proper action, and obstruct the 
 circulation in all parts of the system. Thousands die annu- 
 ally, the victims of consumption, produced by tight-lacing. 
 
 Should a lady wear in the waist of her dress whalebone, wood, or steel ? 
 
 No, never. Such casing and confining are deadly foes to 
 health and life, as everything is which prevents perfect free- 
 dom of action to the vital organs. The ribs perhaps may be 
 more easily changed than any of the other bones of the body. 
 Their very structure is such that the constant pressure or 
 tightness of clothing day after day, needs to be but slight to 
 bend the ribs downward or inward. 
 
 Natural Form and the Ribs. Fashionable Form and the Ribs. 
 
 At what period in life will the ribs yield the more readily to compression f 
 During childhood the bones are soft and pliable, and read- 
 ily accommodate themselves to any position which is habitual. 
 Tight-fitting dresses on a young lady from the age of four- 
 teen to twenty, are the only appliances needed to make her 
 sadly deformed in chest for the remainder of her life, which 
 can not be of long duration in consequence. 
 What great mistake do females commit in their manner of dress ? 
 It is well known that a loose and easy dress contributes 
 much to give the sex the fine proportions of body that are 
 observable in the Grecian statues, and which serve as models 
 to modern artists, Nature being too much disfigured among 
 
CLOTHIXG AND DRESS. 57 
 
 us to afford any such models now. The Greek women were 
 ignorant of the use of whalebone stays, by which our women 
 distort their shape, instead of displaying it. This practice is ' 
 carried to so great an excess in America that it must in time 
 degenerate the species^ besides being in very bad taste. 
 
 Can it be a pleasant sight to behold a woman's waist reduced in size ? 
 
 No : on the contrary, a wasp-like waist is as shocking to 
 the eye as it is painful to the imagination. A fine shape, like 
 that of a limb, hath its due size and proportion, a diminution 
 of which is certainly a defect. Everything that confines and 
 lays Nature under restraint is an instance of bad taste. This 
 is as true in regard to the ornaments of the body as the embel- 
 lishments of the mind. Life, health, reason, and convenience, 
 ought to be taken first into consideration. Gracefulness can 
 not subsist without ease, nor must a woman be sick in order 
 to please. 
 
 Is the wearing of flannel next to the skin thought good for the health ? 
 
 Yes ; as it protects the body in a great measure from the 
 injurious effects of sudden changes in the atmosphere. Flan- 
 nel, being a bad conductor of heat, prevents the warmth of 
 the body from escaping too fast. 
 
 At what seasons of the year should flannel be worn ? 
 
 Many persons wear it all the year, but it is much better to 
 put it on at the beginning of autumn, when the changes from 
 heat to cold are sudden, and to leave it off during the sum- 
 mer months. This remark applies to persons in ordinary 
 health. But people of feeble constitutions, and particularly 
 children liable to the summer complaint, should wear flannel 
 more or less thick, according to the season of the year. 
 
 If flannel irritates the skin, what is a good substitute ? 
 
 Cotton or silk under-clothes. They are almost and perhaps 
 quite as serviceable as flannel. 
 
 What should be done when our clothes become wet or damp ? 
 When our clothes have become wet or moist with dew, 
 rain, or perspiration, they should, as soon as possible, be chang- 
 ed for dry ones, and the whole surface of the body rubbed 
 with a flesh-brush or coarse towel till it is glowing red. 
 
 For what reason should our garments be worn loose and easy f 
 
 Besides the reason already given for avoiding tight-dress- 
 ing, loose garments are warmer in winter and cooler in sum- 
 mer than tight ones. 
 
 Should flannel under-clothes be often changed ? 
 
 They should ; for they soon become filled with the vapor 
 or perspiration constantly escaping from the body. It would 
 
EXERCISE OP THE BODY AND MIND. 
 
 be well to have two sets of flannels, one for the day, and the 
 other for the night, and to air them well during the day. 
 Should night-dresses for the same reason be well aired ? 
 
 They should. Instead of folding them up, as is the com- 
 mon practice, they should be hung up, 'to expose them to the 
 action of the air all day. 
 Do not bed-clothes become filled with the vapor that issues from the body? 
 
 Yes. Beds as well as clothes become saturated with the 
 vapor or perspiration which is constantly issuing from the 
 body ; and for this reason the bed-clothes should be taken 
 off early in the morning, the bed shaken up, and the bed- 
 room windows left open for several hours in each day. 
 When this is not attended to what are the consequences ? 
 
 Impure air, nervous complaints, fevers, and bad health in 
 various forms. Housekeepers and chambermaids are apt to 
 say, that they have no time to wait for this airing. They are 
 in too much haste " to have the rooms put in order." But 
 they should remember that a bed is put out of order, when 
 " made up" too soon, and that the best way to save time is to 
 save health. 
 
 LESSON TWENTY-FIRST. 
 
 Exercise of the Body and Mind. 
 
 
 Can a person enjoy good health without taking suitable exercise ? 
 
 Not for any great length of time ; for the health and strength . 
 of the body and mind wholly depend upon the nature and 
 quantity of the exercise taken. A person whose habits of 
 body are active, has a better appetite and digestion, breathes 
 more freely, has a freer circulation of the blood, a fuller de- 
 velopment of muscle, and a clearer brain, than one who is 
 inactive or sluggish. . 
 
 Does exercise enlarge and strengthen the muscles of the body ? 
 
 Yes : and in order that all the muscles of the body should 
 have the full benefit, the exercise or labor should be varied, 
 for the muscles which are the most employed are the strong- 
 
EXERCISE OF THE BODY AND MIND. 59 
 
 est and the most fully developed, while those which are but 
 little used become soft, enfeebled, and shrivelled. 
 Where, when, and how, must exercise be taken to do the most good 
 In the open air ; but not just before, nor immediately after, 
 eating a meal, unless it has been a very moderate one. 
 Why is exercise injurious just before eating ? 
 
 Because the nervous vigor is directed during exercise upon 
 those parts and organs which are most employed. If, there- 
 fore, exercise of the mind or body be taken just before eat- 
 ing, the digestive organs are not in the right condition for 
 receiving food; which should not be eaten until the nervous 
 equilibrium has become sufficiently restored. 
 Why should exercise be avoided immediately after eating a meal ? 
 
 Because a vigorous action can not be sustained in two parts 
 of the body at the same time ; one or the other or both must 
 be imperfect. To insure a perfect digestion the stomach 
 must be allowed to do its perfect work, and without interfer- 
 ence from the action of other parts of the body. We, there- 
 fore, should permit the mind and body to rest awhile before 
 and after each meal. 
 Do not many persons delay walking for exercise until just before night ? 
 
 They do ; but it is not a good practice. Between sunrise 
 and sunset is the proper time for exercise out of doors. The 
 air, toward night, is filled with a moist and miasmatic vapor 
 arising from the ground, and therefore is not so healthy as at 
 any other time of the day. 
 What kind of exercise is the best to promote health and strength ? 
 
 Such as will interest the mind, as well as give action to the 
 body. Driving the hoop, jumping the rope, skating, swim- 
 ming, riding on horseback or in a carriage, through cheerful 
 scenes, are all healthy exercises, if taken at proper seasons, 
 and will serve to strengthen the body and invigorate the mind. 
 Should excessive or violent exercise be avoided as injurious ? 
 
 Yes. If the exercise is too violent or too long-continued 
 the body is rather exhausted than invigorated. The exercise 
 should never go beyond a slight fatigue, never to exhaustion ; 
 nor should it be allowed to produce that uneasy restlessness |j) 
 which unfits one for any other immediate duty, and which 
 rather wears upon than adds to the general health. 
 Does thinking, or keeping the mind in an active state, benefit the health ? 
 
 It does, for mental effort exercises the brain. The brain, 
 as before stated, runs, by means of the nerves, through every 
 j?| part of the body. The soundness and health of the body de- 
 I pend very much on the sound, healthy state of the brain and fi 
 
 I 
 
60 EFFECTS OF SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS ON THE BODY. 
 
 nerves. In short, the mind and the body are continually act- 
 ing and reacting on each other ; the mind on the body through 
 its affections and passions, and the body on the mind through 
 its organs of digestion and secretion, and through its nervous 
 influences. 
 
 Do not slaves and other ignorant people enjoy good health ? 
 
 They do ; but it is not because of their ignorance and 
 mental inactivity, for notwithstanding these, they enjoy good 
 health. Besides, such persons are usually restricted by their 
 condition, to a temperate diet, and live much in the open air. 
 When, however, disease does fall upon them, they have less 
 mental energy to resist it, and are but too apt to yield to it 
 at once in weakness and despair. The mind, if strong and 
 well trained, has a great control over the pains and diseases 
 of the body. 
 
 Does a proper degree of study, then, improve the body as well as the mind ? 
 Yes ; for man has a mind to be exercised and kept healthy, 
 as well as a body. If a man were to sit still in a chair for 
 one year, the health and strength of his body would be seri- 
 ously, perhaps irremediably, impaired. So, if he neglect the 
 vigorous exercise of his mind, for only a short time, all its 
 powers are weakened. Hence we may see the cause of so 
 many mental dwarfs. They have neglected reading and 
 thinking, and are filled with superstitious notions, which cramp 
 and belittle the mind. 
 
 What was the remark of the great philosopher, Sir Francis Bacon ? 
 
 He said : " Reading makes a full man ; conversation a 
 ready man ; and thinking a great man." 
 
 LESSON TWENTY-SECOND, 
 
 Effects of Alcoholic or Spirituous Liquors on the Body. 
 
 
 now is the stomach affected by the drinking of spirituous liquors ? 
 
 The stomach becomes deranged, and its natural form and 
 color are changed. If the stomach of a person, who has been 
 in the habit of drinking much alcoholic or spirituous liquor, 
 
1 
 
 EFFECTS OF SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS ON THE BODY. 61 
 
 be examined after death, the inside of it will be found to be 
 feverish and inflamed, and all the little vessels filled with 
 impure, black blood. The stomach of a drunkard is lined 
 within with a hard crust, which greatly retards digestion, 
 and rapidly produces disease in consequence. 
 Do spirituous liquors burn the stomach as they do the mouth and throat ? 
 
 Certainly ; only much worse, because the hot, fiery stuff 
 soon leaves the mouth and throat, but remains in the stomach. 
 If the burning drink should remain as long in the mouth and 
 throat as it does in the stomach they, being more sensitive, 
 would shortly be in a blistered state. 
 When the stomach is diseased, ire other parts of the body affected f 
 
 Yes, all parts are ; the head aches, the lungs and liver are 
 disordered, and the whole system is more or less distempered. 
 What effect has drinking alcoholic liquors on the liver ? 
 
 The effect is to enlarge it. The liver of the drinking man 
 soon becomes of a frightfully unnatural size. 
 What is the natural color of thejluid in the liver? 
 Bright yellow, but the drinking of intoxicating liquors 
 changes it to a black, thick substance, much like tar. 
 How do alcoholic liquors affect the brain and the heart ? 
 
 They harden and shrink the arteries of the brain, and excite 
 the heart to a very hurried and unnatural action, which in- 
 creases the wear and hastens the decay of the whole system. 
 7s the blood injured by drinking alcoholic or intoxicating liquors ? 
 
 Yes, its healthy properties may be nearly destroyed ; for 
 alcoholic liquors deprive the blood of its light-red color, by 
 jl taking out its living principle. The blood of an habitual 
 | drinker is much darker than that of a temperate person. 
 7s there any nourishment in alcohol, in whatever form it may be found? 
 
 No, not one atom ! Whether in the form of beer, cider, 
 wine, rum, whiskey, or brandy, alcohol is not digested in the 
 stomach ; neither does it makes chyle. This poisonous stuff 
 passes into the blood, and is found in the brain, and in other 
 parts of the system, unchanged from what it was when first , , 
 taken into the mouth. 
 What evil results arise from the habit of using intoxicating drinks? 
 
 Besides the irreparable injury to the body, the habitual 
 drinker will almost invariably neglect and abuse his family. 
 If he is a skillful mechanic his skill becomes impaired, and he 
 is then compelled to apply his hands to coarser work, and 
 finally betake himself to the rudest labor, or become a degrad- 
 street vagrant. Therefore, all should avoid even the first 
 Jf taste of that which may in the end prove their ruin. 
 
 ; 
 
 j n 
 3 ed 
 
62 MAN, THE CHIEF OF ANIMAL LIFE. 
 
 LESSON TWENTY-THIRD. 
 Man, or "the Human Form Divine." 
 
 In what does man, in bodily structure, differ from every other animal ? 
 
 In his erect or upright position, and the peculiar construc- 
 tion of his hands and feet ; but more especially in the eyes, 
 which man can move in every direction, while the eyes of 
 other animals are fixed. The skin or the outer covering of 
 his body is also different from any other animal. 
 
 Is there anything else in which man differs from every other animal ? 
 
 His brain is larger and more perfectly developed, than that 
 of any other animal in proportion to his size. Man has artic- 
 ulate language, reason, imagination, wit, and humor ; and he 
 knows, or can know, what is true and what is false, what is 
 right and what is wrong. Man is also a being capable of 
 being educated in a career of endless improvement. 
 
 Are not other animals, likewise, capable of being educated ? 
 
 No, not in any just sense. Their nature, or instinct, is as 
 knowing at first, while they are young, as in after-years, 
 though the number of objects or purposes, to which it can be 
 applied, may be somewhat increased. Man was created to be jd 
 flj educated, and beasts were made for his use. t 
 
 Are all the senses combined in man more perfect than in any other animal ? ] 
 jy They are; though a few animals have some one of the Jj, 
 if senses more perfect that man. Thus the eagle can see farther, JU 
 the dog can smell more keenly, and some insects, with their |) 
 slender feelers, can feel more nicely. 
 What faculty has man that is not found in any other animal f 
 
 The moral or religious faculty ; the faculty which tells man j,'jj 
 he ought to do right, and which gives him pain when he does jf, 
 I wrong ; the faculty that tells us we ought to worship the Ore- 1 
 ator of all things. Other animals have not this faculty. |l 
 
 Has any species of animals improved like man 9 
 
 No ; the first beehive, the first anthill, the first bird's-nest, 
 the first beaver's dam and dwelling-house, the first spider's web, 
 have only been repeated through their countless generations, 
 the last one being not only no more skillfully made than the 
 first, but exactly like it. They also remain without any tools, > 
 ijijl or knowledge of the laws and uses of the mechanical powers, 
 s| to exercise their skill upon the objects around them. They 
 if have nothing but the muscles and instinct given them at that 
 j [ mysterious beginning, when the Creative Word first sent 
 ]| them forth, " each after his kind." 
 
 m 
 
THE LENGTH OF ANIMAL LIFE. 63 
 
 LESSON TWENTY-FOURTH. 
 
 Longevity, or the Length of Animal Life. 
 
 Do most of the infants that are born live to an advanced age ? 
 
 No. Of all the infants born, only one half live to see their 
 eighth year ; but one third of the whole number live beyond 
 their fourteenth year ; and but one fourth of all that are born 
 survive their twenty -first year ; or, in other words, three 
 fourths of mankind die before they reach an adult age. 
 
 What is the reason of so great a mortality among children ? 
 
 Because in most instances their parents are unacquainted 
 with Physiology, and leave all that relates to the diet, exer- 
 cise, and general health of their children, to the care of chance 
 and the doctors, until too late to save their lives. 
 
 What general rule is there which tells the length of animal or vegetable life ? 
 " Whatever grows quickly, decays equally quickly," or, as 
 it is worded in the old proverb, " Soon ripe, soon rotten." 
 
 Can this rule be proved true by any illustration ? 
 
 Yes ; a man who is twenty-five years coming to maturity, 
 lives, not very unfrequently, to eighty or ninety years, and, 
 occasionally, some to even over one hundred years. But the 
 dog, that attains his growth in two years, seldom lives to be 
 more than ten or twelve years of age. 
 
 Are fishes a long time in attaining their full growth f 
 
 They are ; and some of them live from two to three hun- 
 dred years. A pike was known to have lived still longer. 
 
 Can you mention some other instances of longevity or long life ? 
 
 The elephant is thirty years m attaining his full growth, 
 and lives two hundred years. The rhinoceros attains his 
 growth in fifteen years, and lives from eighty to ninety. The 
 camel attains his full stature in four years, and lives to from 
 forty to fifty. The horse is also four years in growing, and 
 lives to thirty. The sheep attains his full growth in about a 
 year, and lives but eight or ten. The hog usually ceases to 
 grow in from twelve to sixteen months, and lives about as 
 many years. 
 
 Does the same general rule apply to birds ? 
 
 Yes ; the smaller kinds attain their full growth in a few 
 months, and usually live but three or four years. 
 
 Do the larger birds generally live longer than the smaller ones ? 
 
 They do ; but there are various exceptions to this rule. 
 For example, the raven and the eagle attain their full size in 
 a short time, but they live from fifty to one hundred years. { ) 
 
m 
 
 64 THE LENGTH OF ANIMAL LIFE. 
 
 Has the toad been known to live a long time ? 
 
 Yes ; one was known to have lived thirty-six years ; and 
 occasionally living toads have been found enclosed in compact 
 masses of rock, in which they must have been shut up for 
 hundreds of years perhaps. 
 Are insects usually long lived ? 
 
 No ; they are generally very short-lived. There are in- 
 sects, called ephemerous (a Greek word meaning "for a day"), 
 whose lives begin and end between the rising and setting of 
 the sun. 
 What may be regarded as the limit of man's life ? 
 
 Seventy years ; some persons live to a more advanced age ; 
 but this refers only to the limit of his bodily existence on earth. 
 Man's mind or spirit his soul continues to live for ever. 
 Will they who die young, even in infancy, continue to exist hereafter ? 
 
 Yes,, as long as they who have existed on the earth many 
 years. The soul of man is immortal ; and although this high 
 destiny, decreed for him by his Creator, when he made him 
 " a little lower than the angels, and crowned him with glory," 
 had long been the hope of some, and the dream of many, yet 
 was it "fully brought to light" only in the Gospel, as part of 
 " the glad tidings" announced from heaven by the descended 
 Son of God. 
 
 A parting Word of Advice to our Young Readers. 
 
 Having gone as fully into the most important but much neglected 
 study of Physiology as our limited space will permit, and having given 
 in this work but an introductory or primary glance at its more impor- 
 tant teachings, wo would earnestly urge our young readers to still fur- 
 ther pursue this most interesting of all studies. A great number of 
 books have been written on this subject ; and among them are the fol- 
 lowing, from which we have gathered many of the facts we have stated. 
 
 THE PRACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY, by Edward Jarvis, M. D. Publish- 
 e"d in Philadelphia, by.H. Cowperthwait & Co. 
 
 THE LAWS OP HEALTH, by Wm. A. Alcott, M. D. Published in 
 Boston, by John P. Jewett & Company. 
 
 ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, by Calvin Cutter, M. D. | 
 Published in New York, by Clark, Austin, & Smith. 
 
 Every family should possess one or more works on Physiology, to ' \f 
 consult as they would a "Family Physician," and to teach them not n 
 only how to preserve health, but how health maybe restored, when If 
 | from neglect or inattention to the laws of nature it has become partially i!|r 
 I destroyed, 'ftie proper study of man is to know himself physically as lni 
 if well as morally. 
 
 D^r* Would you possess a copy of either of the above*named books, 
 " enclose, with your address, a one-dollar bank-bill, or its equivalent in 
 postage stamps, directed to the publisher of the book desired, and you 
 will receive it by mail, free from any charge for transportation. 
 
} 
 
 Important to Teachers, Students, and Clergymen 
 
 HEALTH WITHOUT MEDICINE! 
 
 y CURE WITHOUT PAY ! ! 
 
 HALL'S JOUMITOF" HEALTH, 
 
 Edited by Dr. W. W. HALL, 42 Irving Place, N. Y. 
 One Dollar a Year Specimen numbers, Ten Cents. 
 
 This Journal never advises a dose of medicine. 
 
 It is oftener quoted, and more frequently commended, than any 
 other health publication in the world, at home or abroad. 
 
 It is always on the side of order, virtue, morality, and religion. 
 
 It seeks to show the young how they may early learn to take care 
 of their constitutions, and thus live in health to a good old age. 
 
 It shows those who are of more mature years how they may, in the 
 majority of cases of acute disease, be restored to health by means of 
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 It seeks to impress the mind by striking facts and self-evident pre- 
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 promptitude, in securing wealth and position ; in the quiet, and tem- 
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 dieting, bathing, exercise, and curtailment of sleep, may waste health, 
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 " CONSUMPTION ;" either book is sold or sent postpaid for One 
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