v&" — o Mi Greene's Elements of English Grammar. THE ELEMENTS ENGLISH GRAMMAR; ■ ass* ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETICAL METHODS: SO ARRANGEI INT V.Alt 10' lEGINNERS, WRITTEN, FORM .AT UC-NRLF SB 307 Dfll E, A.M., 3ITT, AKD T H \» A I T & C 18G2. x»r. J\7?i t -Acth, C a/.A^/j^f J 1 CX I 1- nv-^' 4 , A W 6a* ^i PREFACE \» The design of this new work — for it is essentially new — .s to combine in one treatise all the distinguishing features of the " Analysis " and " The First Lessons." The depart- ments of Orthography and Etymology are made sufficiently full, and their principles are illustrated by a great variety oi examples. Oral Exercises, Exercises for Parsing and for the Correction of Errors, are introduced in their appropriate places, under each part of speech. The Syntax contains all the essential distinctions found in the "Analysis," but differently arranged, and less rigidly and technically set forth. In the presentation of a subject like that of English Gram- mar, the first question which naturally arises is that of the point of view from which it shall be examined. Shall the forms of language be regarded as direct results from thought, as the offspring of an inner impulse ? or shall they be looked upon as possessing in themselves, regardless of their origin, all that is necessary to guide to a successful investigation ? The one may be called the interior, the other the exterior, point of view. From th° one point, language is regarded as or- ganized under the influence of a vital, life-imparting power, determining all its outward forms and manifestations ; while from the other it becomes a lifeless frame, to be dis- sected and examined, for the purpose of ascertaining what it is, and of what it is composed. At one point, the learner is iii M289986 tV I'iSEFACE. placed in sympathy with the speaker or writer, in the act of embodying thought, and is allowed, as it were, to inquire why one form is chosen and another rejected ; why one expression, better than another, supplies the inner demand ; whether a sin- gle word or a group of words best meets the want, and what the word or group shall be called, not so much from its exter- nal features as from the nature of the idea winch it denotes. From the other point of view the learner seeks to know what a word or expression is from its external aspect — its ter- mination, position, or from some auxiliary or other outward sign. In one case, an idea being given, the problem with the learner is, to find as well an appropriate expression as to decide upon the nature and classification of the latter. In the other case, an expression being given, the problem is to determine therefrom its nature and class. In the one case, expression is the prominent object of interest ; in the other thought, expression being regarded only as the medium of its manifestation. The author has aimed in the following pages, as far as possible, to take the interior point of view. He has, there- fore, required much to be written by the pupil, believing that what is produced by one's own mind is best appreciated and best analyzed. To this end also have the Introduction and Oral Exercises been prepared. Objects in the outer world first attract the attention of the child : they first call forth the desire to speak ; they are ever after his lexicon. Nay, more : they give rise to most of the distinctions in language ; and it is believed that an ingenious teacher would, at the out' set, accomplish more in imparting a knowledge of grammar during a single walk in the fields, among the objects of tint ure, than during a whole week devoted to the abstract definitions of a text book. With children, that which is seen is impressive ; a distinction addressed to the eye isi indelibly fixed. The image or mental picture arising there- from is ever after distinct, awakening the impression of a corresponding outward reality. What is defined in word? PREFACE. V must be committed to memory, as the result of another's judgment ; what is seen reaches the understanding at once, and defines itself by appealing directly to the discriminating faculty. When visible objects are employed, the teacher i ; required to tell but little ; he only guides, intimates, sugges' ' . while the learner is observing for himself, discriminate" for himself, expressing for himself. The Introductory Course is intended to be wholly- , tium The models are given as specimens of methods whk' ers may adopt to evolve grammatical distinctions * ,d -• ver- nal objects. As objects, with all their varieties, attrib-r^-s relations, modifications, and distinctions, first evoked in the child the desire to speak, so now they may be most fittingly resorted to as the interpreters of the distinctions found in speech itself. A child of six years already knows enough to distinguish the noun, although he may not know one word of its definition. He knows what an apple is ; it is an object perfectly familiar to him ; its name is equally so. The one he can touch, taste, handle ; the other he can only speak or write. The one is the thing itself; the other its name, a mere word, an object-word, a noun. He can now generalize, and make the same distinction between & peach, & cherry, & nut, an insect, a fsh, a bird, or a quadruped, and its name. He finds nouns wherever he finds objects which he can name. So, again, he knows the qualities of objects ; he may not know the meaning of the word quality, but he knows when an apple is sweet or sour, hard or soft, ripe or unripe, small or large, rough or smooth, red r yellow, good or bad. He knows that no one of these designates the apple itself, but only something discovered in it. It is only necessary to draw his attention to what he thus knows, and make a skil-. ful use of it. The quality is something in the object ; the word is something away from the object spoken or written — a mere word — a quality-word — an adjective. He knows when an object acts ; he can tell when a dog runs or walks, growls or barks, plays or fights ; and yet the definition, " A 71 PREFACE. verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer," is to him wholly incomprehensible. It is easy to draw his atten- tion to the difference between the action itself and the mere action-word or verb which represents it. . In the same way, all the parts of speech may be easily drawn from the learn- er's own resources. The teacher thus appeals directly to the intelligence of the learner, and not to the authority of a definition. By similar processes, the combination of words into sentences and parts of sentences may be easily illus- trated. To do all this, and to prepare the way for the more formal and technical course, is the object of the Introduction. The author would invite attention to the mode of pre- senting each of the prominent topics in Orthography and Etymology. 1. An oral exercise, in which it is supposed that the learner is about to enter upon a new field of inquiry, is first given. In this nothing is to be taken for granted, nothing presented dogmatically. The pupil's power to express what takes place in the common affairs of life is made the basis of those gram- matical distinctions, to which the teacher wishes to draw at- tention. A principle in language being thus evolved, the learner is called upon to express it in his own words ; he feels the need of suitable terms. 2. The way is thus prepared for the defnitions which im- mediately follow. They give expression to the very distinc- tions which, in the oral exercise, the pupil has learned to make. They are welcomed as exhibitions of his own thoughts, and not as paragraphs of unmeaning words, to be mastered by the mere force of memory. But the learner is not left here. The ability to make a distinction, or even to embody it in language, does not always insure its univer- sal application. Hence, — 3. Copious and varied exercises immediately follow tho definitions and remarks. These are intended (1.) to tefet nis ability to apply the definitions ; (2.) his ability to pro- duce illustrative examples ; (3.) his ability to alter and adap* PREFACE. Vll given examples, in all their varieties and modifications, to the words with which they are connected and (4.) his ability to correct erroneous expressions. Two classes of errors are given : the first intended to illustrate violations of the principles under consideration ; the second, prevailing improprieties of speech, which the rules of grammar may or may not correct. These, though they may seem blemishes on the pages of a grammar, are inserted in the hope that they may draw attention to the importance of cultivating in the school room the spirit of generous criticism. It is the study of the language, rather than the technical forms of grammar, that should claim the first attention of the teacher. It being his aim to cultivate the habit of speaking and writing correctly, it is immaterial whether all the principles of criticism are embodied in a grammar, or are drawn from the known usages of good speakers and good writers. These and kindred exercises, if faithfully attended to, will do more than any tiling else to eradicate those incorrect expressions which habit is daily confirming. If it should seem that the examples are too glaring and palpable, it must be said, in reply, that they are mainly actual expressions taken from the lips of children, and that the author has thought it best, at first, to take the most obvious errors, and engage the attention hy presenting, not doubtful, but striking examples. The Syntax is arranged on a plan similar in ts spirit to the other parts. It is assumed that a child can best under- stand a sentence by witnessing its formation.- Hence, — Under the head of Construction, the learner commences with the foundation of the sentence, and from this most fa- vorable point of view he witnesses the progress of its struc- ture, from its commencement to its completion. As the parts are added one by one, he notes the effect of each, and feels that each supplies a want and fills a vacancy demanded by the unfinished structure. In no other way so well can the peculiar force of the elementary parts be appreciated. Hav till PREFACE. ing learned to combine every form and c 1 dition of the ele- ments, whether with their relations expressed or unexpressed, he commences, under the head of Analysis, the opposite process of taking the structure in pieces, and pointing out all the peculiarities of its parts. Thus by the two processes any child of ordinary capacity must become acquainted with the general features of a sentence, whether considered as a whole, or in respect to its component parts. The way is now pre- pared for the Rules and principles which apply to the more minute details of construction. Various Cautions, intended to guard the learner against prevalent errors in common con- versation, are interspersed among the rules. They are to be used in correcting errors. Under the head of Peculiarities and Idioms, a few of the anomalous and peculiar expres- sions which perplex the learner are collected and explained. The author has thought it best to indicate the prominent idea in the paragraphs to be committed to memory by Italics, rather than to insert printed questions. The teacher can then vary the questions to suit the wants of the learner ; ami the learner will follow the guidance of the subject rather than that of the questions. The paragraphs in large type are intended as a first course, to be committed to memory by the learner. The Remarks in smaller type are intended as a second course for the more advanced pupil. Any parts of this second course may be studied or omitted, at the discre- tion of the teacher. The author takes this opportunity to acknowledge his in- debtedness to many friends, mostly teachers, whose sugges- tions and words of encouragement have induced him to pre- pare this work, in the hope that it may supply such defects as were found in his other books, and may prove a complete and convenient text book on the subject of grammar. S. S. GREENE, Providence, June, 1853. C N TENTS. INTRODUCTORY COURSE. riii bBSfOM I. Objects, xiii II. Criticism, XT III. Qualities of Objects, xvi IV. Actions of Objects, xix V. Ideas and Words, or Expressions of Ideas, xx VI. Qualities of Actions, xxiii VII. Relation of Objects, xxiv VIII. Classification of Words, xxv IX. Combination of Words, xxvi X. The Proposition xxviii XL The Proposition enlarged, xxix XII. Implied Relations, xxxiii ENGLISH GRAMMAR Definition and Division, *.... 1 ORTHOGRAPHY. Elementary Sounds. — Oral Exercise, 2 Classes of Elementary Sounds 2 Table of Elementary Sounds, ? Letters. — Oral Exercise, 4 Classes of Letters, 5 Combination of Letters, 6 Syllables. — Oral Exercise, 8 Words as the Representatives of Sounds, 9 Derivation. — Rules for Spelling, 10 Spelling, 11 Primitive Words, 11 Derivative Words, 11 Prefixes. — Rules I. II., » 12 Suffixes. — Rules I. II. III., 15 Rules for the Use of Capital Letters, .* 18 ETYMOLOGY. Classification of Words, 18 Parts of Speech, , 19 X CONTENTS. Nouns, 2C Classes of Nouns 21 Person, 22 Number, 23 Formation of the Plural, 23 Remarks on the Number of Nouns, 25 Gender 26 Case. — Oral Exercise, 28 Declension of Nouns, 29 Parsing, , 80 Adjectives. — Oral Exercise, 33 Classes of Adjectives, 38 Articles 34 Pronominal Adjectives, '. 35 Numeral Adjectives, 36 Qualifying Adjectives, 36 Comparison of Adjectives. — Formation of the Com- parative and Superlative, 37 P&onouns. — Oral Exercises, 39 Classes of Pronouns, 41 Personal Pronouns, 41 Declension, 42 Relative Pronouns, 45 Simple Relatives, 40 Compound Relatives, 47 Interrogative Pronouns, 48 Vkubs. — Oral Exercise, 50 Classes of Verbs, 52 Voice. — Oral Exercise, o . . . 54 Mode. — Oral Exercise, 57 Participles, 59 Tense. — Oral Exercise, 03 Tenses in all the Modes, 67 Forms of the Verb, 69 Forms for each Division of Time, 70 Auxiliaries, 72 Conjugation of Auxiliaries 73 Formation of Tenses . 73 Indicative Mode, 73 Potential Mode, 70 Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive, 78 Number and Person of the Verb, 79 Conjugation, 79 'Of the Verb " to be," 80 Of the Verb " to love," 84 Interrogative and Negative Forms, 89 Synopsis. — Progressive Form 90 Synopsis. — Emphatic Form, 90 Forms for ei ch Division of Time combined. — Verb " to make," 91 Irregular Verbs, 92 Defective Verbs, ?0 Impersonal Verbs, 96 Aura itBS, , .. 99 Classes of Adverbs, 100 Conjunctive Adverbs, 101 Comparison of Adverbs, 101 Phki'ositioxs, 102 Conjunctions v 104 Classes of Connectives, 105 fcfTEKJECTXON 108 CONTENTS. X SYNTAX. Oral Exercise , .... 110 1. CONSTRUCTION — Sentence- making. Shot. I. Simple Sentences. — "Words. — Relations UNREP- RESENTED, Ill A. Subject and Predicate Unmodified, Ill 13. Subject Modified. — Oral Exercise 112 Various Kinds of Complex Subjects, 113 C. Predicate Modified. — Oral Exercise 116 Various Kinds of Complex Predicates, 116 D. Subject and Predicate Modified, 118 Sacr. II. Simple Sentences. — Phrases. — Relations Repre- sented 119 A. Subject and Predicate not Modified 120 B. Subject Modified, 122 C. Predicate Modified 124 D. Subject and Predicate Modified 126 Sect. III. Complex Sentences. — Clauses. — Relations Rep- resented, 127 A. Sentences having a SuViect and Predicate only, 128 B. Subject Modified, 129 C. Predicate Modified 131 D. Subject and Predicate Modified 134 Sect. IV. Compound Sentences. — Similar Parts Combined, 134 Case I. Coordinate Elements, 135 Case II. Coordinate Clauses, 137 Elements, 138 Classes of Elements, 138 Relation of Elements, Hi Entire Sentences, 144 Interrogative Sentences, 144 Transformation of Sentences, 145 I. Altered Constructions, 145 II. Elements Suppressed. — Ellipses, 117 III. Elements Transposed, 143 II. ANALYSIS. General Directions, 149 Models for Analysis, 151 I. Elements with the Relations Unrepresented, 151 II. Sentences with the Relations Represented, 153 III. Complex Sentences, 151 IV. Sentences having Coordinate Parts, 158 III. RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION. Rtilbs, Cautions, and Remarks, 161 Rule I. Subject, 161 II. Attribute, 162 III. Pronoun, 164 IV. Verb, 167 V. Adjective, 169 XU CONTENTS. VI. Apposition 172 VII. Possessives, 174 VIII. Objectives, 17-5 IX. Adverbs, 177 X. Interjection and Nominative Independent, 179 XI. Coordinate Conjunctions, 180 XII. Agreement of the Verb and Pronoun, 181 XIII. Preposition, 182 XIV. Object of the Preposition 183 XV. Subordinate Connectives, 184 Abridged Propositions, , 185 Subject in the Abridged Expression, 187 Predicate, Noun, or Pronoun, 187 XVI. Infinitives, 187 XVII. Participles 189 PECULIARITIES AND IDIOMS. I. Classification and Uses op Words and Sentences, 131 A. The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech, 191 B. The Same Part of Speech in Different Relations and Uses, 102 C. The Same Word, Element, or Sentence in its Different Properties, 1 )4 II. Peculiarities in the Form, Construction, and Applica- tion of Words, l'J7 Figures of Etymology, 107 Figures of Syntax, 198 Figures of Rhetoric, 20C III. Idiomatic Constructions, 202 IV. Structure of Sentences, 205 PUNCTUATION. I Points used within a Sentence, 207 Comma, 207 Colon and Semicolon, 210 Dash and Parenthesis, 211 II. Points used at the Close of a Sentence, 212 Per od, 212 In' :rrogation Point, 212 Exdamation Point 212 Other Marks used in Writing, 213 PROSODY. Definition, 215 Verse, 215 Feet, 215 Scanning, 216 Iambic Verse, 216 Trochaic Verse, 218 Anapaestic Verse, .... 218 Dactylic Verse, 219 Poetic Pauses 219 INTRODUCTORY COURSE FOR BEGINNERS. LESSON I. OBJECTS. The world in which we live is full of objects, as trees tirubs, flowers, grass, rocks, stones, metals, houses, barns t alleys, rivers, brooks, springs, oceans, seas, lakes, ponds oxen, horses, sheep, birds, insects, reptiles, mountains, hills pools ; in all, a multitude so great that one could not count them in a lifetime. Lessons on objects may be conducted after the following MODEL.* Teacher. (Pointing to the object.) What is this ? Pupils. . (In concert or separately.) The platform. Teacher. Now, write upon your slates near the top, Names of objects (The teacher does the same on the blackboard.) Under this, write Platform, commencing it with a capital letter, and placing a period (.) after it. Now, which is the object ? Pupils. . (All point to the platform.) Teacher. Which is the name of the object ? * Directions to the Teacher.— 1. Let the class be so arranged that each mem- ber can see the object pointed out. 2. Ask, while pointing lo it," What in this ? " 3. When the pupil has named it, write the name distinctly on the board. 4. Let each point out, first the object, and then its name, on the board 5. Follow some order m the selection of objects, such as size, similarity, or location. 6. At first, let each exer- cise be written by every pupil. 7, After the few first lessons, let some member of tlio class point out the objects, enjoining on him the observance of order. 8. At length, let each member silently select for himself a given number of objects. 9. In review- ing, let each scholar give in turn, orally, the names of objects in the room, taking care that no object shall be repeated. 10. Should the teacher find (as he undoubtedly will) th U the children have either no names, or incorrect, or perverted names tor com- mon objects, let the correct name be given. 11. Encourage the habit of observation and the spirit of inquiry respecting all common objects. 12. Continue the exercise till ail the objects in the school room are exhausted ; then take objects out of the room. 13. When entire objects have been examined sufficiently, commence analyzi»g objects, and pointing out their parts. Lach part is an object. 14. The term object-word may gradually be displaced by the word noun. 15. At first, let the attention be drawn mora forcibly to the object than to the name ; but at length let the name, as an object-word. a noun-, become the more prominent. 16. Letthe exercises be multiplied and varied by the teacher, till the object of the true basis of distinct" n is secured h xtv XIV INTRODUCTORY COURSE. Pupils All point to the blackboard or their slates, (thus showing tha they know the distinction.) Teacher. (Pointing to the iirst object at the end of the platform, so as to proceed in order.) What is this ? Pupils. . Bookcase. Teacher Write the word bookcase under Platform, placing the first letter directly under the first letter of that word. Now, since plat form and bookcase are names of objects, what shall we call :hcse words ? Pupils. . (All hesitate. ) Teacher. May we not call them, object-words f Pupils. . (All give assent.) The lesson, when carried to six objects, — quite enough for the first, — will stand thus : — NAMES OF OBJECTS. &c Q3eo4. The same lesson may be written in lines so as to form a paragraph. The first word should begin with a capital, the rest (unless some are proper names) with small letters ; a comma should separate the words ; a period should be placed at the end. Each pupil should be made to feel responsi- ble for a strict observance of all these- rules of criticism. Neglect now will be likely to result in neglect through life. The lesson will stand thus : — Names op Oiwects. Platform, bookcase, chair, settee, desk, George, Dox, table, umbrella, &c., &c. EXERCISES. I. (1.) What articles are made by a jeweller, a tailor, a milliner, a car- penter, a cabinet maker, an upholsterer, an optician, a blacksmith ? What do you call each NAME that you have given? Why? (2.) What articles do toe use for food, drink, clothing, building, sewing, knitting, hunting, fishing, cooking? What do you call each word that you have used? Why? (3.) What articles may be found in a parlor, a dining room, kitchen,^ closet, girden, church, hardware store, paper mill, grist mill, printing office, dry g >ods store? What do you call each name? Why? (4.) What are tho namps of the various trees, plants, shrubs, flowers, fishes, reptiles, birds, domestic animals, nuts, fruits ? What do you call each word that you have used? Why ? II. (1.) Menhon all the parts of this room; of the door, of the window the stove, the tabic, a chair, a phi, a book, a watch, a portfolio, a ship, a liNTKuuucTUK* UOETB8J5. Y wnting desk. (2.) Of a hat, a coat, a bonnet, an apron a dress, a boot, a Blocking. (3.) Of a wagon, a harness, ahorse, a whip, a p bugh, a scythe, a boat, a barn, a wheel, a steam engine. What do you call each word which you have used t Why f III. (1.) What do you call the following words: Pen, wafer, card, coal, flour, paper, pencil, thermometer, eye, hair, nose, mouth, teeth, tongue, ear, chin, cheek, lip, eyelid ? LESSON II. CRITICISM* In writing exercises upon the slate or paper, the pupil should be careful, (1.) to select his objects in an orderly manner; (2.) to spell correctly; (3.) to use capitals cor- rectly ; (4.) to write legibly and neatly, that is, to observe uniformity in the size of the letters, to be careful to cross the t's, dot the i's, and to preserve a horizontal di ection of the lines ; (5.) to punctuate correctly. MODEL FOR CORRECTION. names of objects. floar Desk Beiling W in der ink s *a n d The teacher, having transferred some faulty exercise like the above from the Mete of a pupil, calls the attention of the class to it in the following manner : — Teacher. How many of you see any thing wrong in this ? Pupils. . (All hands are raised. Ea«?h is eager to speak.) Teacher. (Naming a pupil.) Mention one error. Pupil. . The heading begins with a small letter, and has no lines drawn under it.f * Directions to the Teacher. — 1. Let the teacher at first examine each writ- ten exercise carefully. 2. Mark and draw attention to each minute error. 3. En- courage the members cf the class to criticise each other — always in (he spirit of kindness. 4. Let the scholar exchange slates, and correct each other's errors. 5 Let li>is habit of criticism be extended to all written and oral exercises, especially when the pupils begin to combine words. * See note p. xvii. XVI INTRODUCTORY CoUnSE. Teacher. (Naming auotner.) What else is -wrong ? Pupil. . The objects are selected without order. Teacher. What else ? Pupil. . The words floor, ceiling, and window are misspelled. Teacher. Is any thing else wrong ? Pupil. . The words floor, ceiling, and inkstand begin with small letters Teacher. Who can see any other error ? Pupil. . There are no periods at the end of the words. TeacJter. (Having corrected the errors as they have been pointed out) Does any one discover another error ? Pupil. . The words are written in a disorderly manner. Let such exercises be repeated, as often as may be necessary, to estab- lish habits of care and critical examination of every written exercise When children are trained to habits of accuracy, neatness, and precision, tfcwy will know no other. LESSON III. QUALITIES OE OBJECTS.* If we hold a piece of glass before our eyes, we can see through it ; but if we hold a slate in the same manner, we cannot see through it. We say of the glass, because we cat see through it, it is transparent ; and of the slate, because \yq cannot see through it, it is opaque. Neither transparent * Directions to the Teacher. — 1. In writing, at first let the class use the full term, as in the first model : " Tlie sponge is opaque," " The sponge is flexible," &c. Af era little time they may use either of the contracted forms. 2. As this exercise wi 1 be found exceedingly suggestive, the teacher should first show that the word is cal ( J a quality-word, (adjective,) because it denotes a quality, and is on that account to be distinguished from an object-word, (noun.) He should then aim to awaken in the child an appreciation of the uses which we make of objects in ths arts on account oi their qualities ; show also how we classify, compare, contrast, measure, weigh, &.•:., &c 3. When it is wished to illustrate some quality, as adhesive, brittle, aromatic, some ob ject is brought in, which contains it, and by an appropriate experiment the child's atten- tion is fastened upon it 4. Whenever a quality cannot be made to appear directly, the opposite should be exhibited by way of contrast, and the attention of the pupil should be directed to the prefixes employed, as elastic, inelastic, flexible, inflexible, sound, ;/■•• . sound, ripe, unripe. 5. But in all this, let it be the teacher's ultimate aim to make the distinction between the adjective and noun. fi. When the pupil has become sufficiently acquainted with qualities, let him write the name of the quality and the name of the object together, thus: "Porous sponge;" " White paper ; " " Qreen corn." Also lot him explain the effect of the quality-word upon the object-word. 7. He will now t>e prepared to show the effect of such words as the, tfii<, that, one, two, three, &c, which do not express quality, but yet produce certain effects upon an object-word ; as, ' Three books ; " "This hat ; " " Every boy." 8. Let the learner now be told that the term adjective applies to all the words which may be added to a noun, whether they de- note qua'i.yornot. 9. When objects are compared, let them be placed side by side in the presence of the class ; when classified, let the objects actually oe selected accord- ing to some q> **Jity, as white, red, transparent &c. 1MTUOJJUCTORY COUKSJi. AVil nor opaque is any thing apart from the object. We cannot see transparent, nor take it in our hands as a thing, or a part of a thing. It is what we discover in the glass. It i» an attribute of the glass, which we call a quality. MODEL. Qualities of a sponge. Teacher. (The teacher takes a piece of dry *ponge in his hand, and hclds it up before the class.) What is this ? Pupils. . A piece of sponge. Teacher. Write " Qualities of the sponge " on your slates. (Then holding it to his eye, he attempts to see through it.) What can you say of the spongf ? Pupils. . It is opaque. Teacher. Now write upon your slates, "The sponge is opaque;" com- mencing the expression with a capital letter, placing a period at the end, and drawing a line under "opaque," thus, opaque* (The teacher writes upon the board at the same time, as a model for the class.) Pupils. . (All write upon their slates.) Teacher. Now, where is the quality ? Pupils. . (All point to the sponge.) Teacher. Where is the word which names or denotes it. Pupils. . (All point to their slates or to the blackboard, thus distinguish- ing between the word and the quality.) Teacher. Now, which is the object ? Pupils. . (All point to the sponge.) Teacher. And where is the quality opaque ? Pupils. . (All point to the sponge again.) Teacher. But is the sponge both the object and the quality ? Pupils. . Sponge is the object, and the quality is found in the sponge. (Thus a distinction is made between an object and its qtialities.) Teacher. (The teacher bends the sponge.) What can you say of the sponge because it bends ? Pupils. . It is limber. Teacher. Yes, it is limber. Who can give a better word ? Pupils. . (No one speaks.) Teacher. When any thing bends, we say it is flexible. Pronounce the word, and write, " The sponge is flexible." Pupils. . (All speak the word, and then write as directed.) Teacher. (The teacher now removes the pressure from -the sponge, and it suddenly returns to its original form. He experiments with a piece of lead or wax in the same way, and shows that neither * The pupil should now be told that, in writing, a word is especially distinguished by drawing a lino under it ; in printing, by using the Italic letter; in speaking, by placing stress of voice upon it. Readings n.ro distinguished by drawing two lines under them. XV111 INTRODUCTORY COURSE. returns fn its former state after the pressure .s removed.) Wha-i can you say of the sponge because it romes ^ack to its origins] form. ? Pupils. . It is springy. Teacher. Who can give another and a better word ? Pupils. . One pupil raises his hand, and says, elastic. Teacher. Right ; all may say elastic, and then write, " The sponge is can- tic." Now, since the words opaque, flexible, and elastic are ap- plied to qualities, and not to objects, what shall we call them ? Ptqrils. . Quality-words. Teacher Right; what kind of words then are porous, absorbent, light, moist f The lesson, extended to rive qualities, — quite sufficient for the first, — will s'.and, — The sponge is opaque. The sponge inflexible. The sponge is elastic. The sponge is porous. The sponge is absorbent. Or thus : — ( opaque. flexible. The sponge is < elastic. I porous. [ absorbent. Or thus : The sponge is opaque, flexible, elastic, porous, and absorbent. EXERCISES. I What qualities has a piece of India rubber, chalk, whalebone, wax, paper, lead, pine wood, silk, broadcloth ? What do you call each word you have used ? Why 1 Write out each example as in the model. In the exam- ples, tell which is the object-word, and which the quality-word. II. In the same manner, mention the qualities of an apple, an orange, a piece of glass, a feather, a watch spring, a piece of granite, velvet, ivory, leather, charcoal, fur. What kind of words have you used ? Whyt III. Mention fire objects that are white, and thus classify them ; five that are green ; five that arc yelloio ; five that are transparent ; five that are opaque ; five that are porous, &c. IV. Mention four objects that are soft, also four that are hard, and thus contrast them ; four that are warm, and four that are cold; four that are flexible, and four that are inflexible ; four that are elastic, and four that are inelastic; four that are sweet, and four that are sour, &c. In Exercises I J I. IV., what words have you used — object-words, or quality-words f V. Mention two objects that are equally long, short, smooth, fair, old, white, «"// thus compare them; aho two, one of which is longer, shorter, smoother, See, than the other; also several objects, one of which is longest, shortest, See,. VI. How many fingers have you? How many boohs, slates, knives, ap- ples, &c. and thus number themf What are the words which you have used? Why do you call them adjectives f VII. Tell which of the following words are nouns, and which adjectives and thus classify them : ink, black, coal, white, paper, carpet, soft young, istove, red. pencil, smooth, sharp, dull, steel, iron, hot, cold, book, bottle, ♦r.od. wafer. INTRODUCTORY COURSE. LESSON IV. ACTIONS OF OBJECTS* Among the m'llions of objects which we see, ail those that are alive have the power to move or act, and are classed as animate ; some others, as water, clouds, clocks, watches, &c, move when acted upon. All these move, ments are called actions. Thus a dog runs a biid Jlies. Now, runs or files is not any thing apart from the object , (see M Qualities of Objects ; ") it is only an attribute, which we call an action, just as we called another kind of attri- bute a quality. MODEL. Teacher (The teacher says, Look yonder I) What is that ? Pupils. (All answer.) A dog. Teacher. What does he do ? Pupils. . He bites. Teacher. And what do you see him do now ? Pupils. . He barks. Teacher. And what now ? Pupils. . He groiols. Teacher. And what now ? Pupils. . He eats. Teacher. And what now ? Pupils. . He drinks. m Teacher. Now write upon your slates "The actions of a dog ; " and under- neath this heading write, " The dog bites ; " and underneath that, " The dog barks." Now, where is the action ? Pupils. . (All point to the dog.) Teacher. Where is the word which expresses the action ? Pupils. . (All point to their slates, or the blackboard.) Teacher. Now, which is the object ? * Directions to the Teacher. — 1. At first it will be well for the teacher to per- form some act himself, as renting, walking, or speaking. 2. Let him next suppose some object to move ; as njish, a bird, an insect, and let the pupils be required to write any actions of which it is capable. 3. Let the full form at first be used ; as, " The dog bites t " " The do« barks," Sec ; afterwards employ the contracted forms. 4. As an oral exercise, think of some animal, and let each child, in turn, give one action of which it is capable. 5. When the children have become sufficiently familiar witU the distinction, the word verb maybe substituted for action-word. 6. When the pu- pils have advanced sufficiently far to see that some words are called Vttrba which do not express actions, they are prepared for a lesson like the Oral Exercise, on p. 50. 7. In all the exercises careful 1) observe the rules of criticism. XX INTRODUCTORY COURSE. Pupils. . (All point to the dog. Teacher. And where is the actioi. ? Pupils. . (All point to the dog.) Teacher. But is the dog both the object and the action Pupils The dog is the object, and the action is seen in the dog, or ist performed by him. (Thus a distinction is made between an action and a word, and between an action and an object.) Teacher. Now, since the words bites, barks, groioh, &c, are applied to ac- tions, and not to objects themselves, what shall we call theue words ? Pupils. . Action-ioords. The lesson, extended to five actions, -will stand thus : — The dog bites. The dog barks. The dog groicls. The dog eats. The dog drinks Or thus: — ( bites, barlcs. The dog < growls, eats. ( drinks. Or thus : — The dog bites, barks, groinls, eats, drink? . EXERCISES. I. What actions can be performed by a horse, a man, a child, a trout, a robin, a toad, a grasshopper, a cricket, a soldier, a sailor, a shoemaker, a firmer, a musician ? What toords have you employed f Why f II. What objects can sing, run, play, whistle, sleep, fly, write, study, ride, walk, swim, float, sink, burn, freeze, melt, thaw ? What words have you used? Why? III. Tell ichich of the following words are nouns, which arc'adjectives , which are action-words, or verbs : Ship, mast, white, prow, ploughs, moves, sinks, boat, writes, shines, son, moon, drive, map, blows, buttons, sews, Uexible, plane, plain. LESSON V. IDEAS AND WORDS, OR EXPRESSIONS OE IDEAS. When an object, as a hat, is placed before us, we say we see it ; but when it is removed, and we continue to think of it, or call it to mind after thinking of something else, we say wv seem to see it. It is as though the mind had an eye, and INTRODUCTORY COURSE XX could see son. ithing just like the real hat It appear? \u be in the same place, it has the same form, t is in every way just like it, only it may not be as distinct. That which we «eem to see is to the eye of the mind what the real' hat is to that of the body. It is a kind of image or picture of the real hat, and is called an idea. EXERCISE. I. Now, suppose yourselves at home by the fireside. Think of all the ob- jects in the room, until you aet distinct pictures of them. Let them seem to you just as if you were there ; then write their names in order, as you would do if you were there, or as you did in Lesson I. Now, suppose your selves in a garden, a barn, a street, afield, a church, a mill, on a mountain, in the open air in a clear night, in a meadow, at sea, in a forest, and do the same. II. Mention any qualities of the objects which yoti seem to see in them. III. Mention any actions which you seem to see any of them perform. But when we have formed definite ideas of objects, we need some way to inform others what we have in our minds. When an object, as a dog, is before our eyes, we can point to it, and without saying a word, show to others what we wish them to see. But when we have only the idea, or picture before the eye of the mind, however distinct and impressive. that may be to us, we cannot show it to others. It can be seen only by our mental eye. In that case we must resort to signs, as will be seen in the following MODEL. Teacher. I have a distinct picture, or image, of a beautiful object before my mind's eye. I seem to see its form and colors. Do you see it ? Pupils. . We do not know what it is. Teacher. (The teacher takes from his desk a rose, and holds it up before the class, then places it back in the desk.) How many now know what it is ? Pupils. . (All raise their hands.) Poacher Now, I will give you a signal, and let us see, when I give it here- after, if you cannot call up the picture of the rose, so that all or us may be thinking of the same thing. (The teacher now gives some signal, as a motion of the hand, snapping the fingers, or touching the table, to which all agree as a signal to call to mind the rose, and, after turning the thoughts XX11 INTRODUCTORY BOURSE. of the class upon something else, for a few moments, he sudden ly introduces the signal.) What do you think of now ? Ptipils . The rose. Teacher. Now, though you cannot see the picture of the rose in my mind, you have one in your own. And the signal tells you just when to call it up. Now, I have another beautiful picture in my mind Do you know what it is ? Pupils. . "We cannot tell without a signal. Teacher. I will give you a signal. (Here the teacher introduces a new sig- nal, such as snapping his fingers twice, or making some new mo- tion without any previous warning, and asks,) What new picture have you now in your minds ? Picpils. . (All hesitate ; finally one says,) We cannot tell what the signal means. Teacher. Why can you not tell what the signal means now, as well as before ? Piqrils. . Because we did not understand beforehand what it was to be the signal of. Teacher. Then, in order to make a signal good, there must be a mutual understanding among those who use it; and then any outward sign may enable us to call up our ideas. We must, therefore, have a sign for a house, a sign for the tun, a sign for the moon, and a sign for every other object around us. Would such signs as I have given be good for every object ? Pupils. . We could not make signs enough with our fingers for every object. (Here let the class give such thoughts as they may have about these signs.) Teache)'. Instead of a motion of the hand, or a rap upon the table, if I should make a sound from my mouth, would that be a signal ? Pupils. It would, if we all agree to it Teacher (The teacher makes some sound from the mouth, for the rose.) How many will take this as a sign for the rose ? Pupils. (All raise their hands.) Twcke* ('the teacher experiments with, this new signal as before, then says,) If, instead of this, I should give you the sound r-o-s-e, as a sign, I should give you the one to which not only this school, but all the people who speak the English language, have agreed. Or, if I should write on the blackboard thus, rose, these marks would be the signal to which all who can read the English lan- guage have agreed. These signs are called words ; and when they apply to objects, they arc object-words, or names of objects. Now, when 1 point to the objects in the school room, you may give me the object- word*, or names of the objects. (The teacher points out various objects, and the pupils give their names; then reverses the exercise, he giving the name, and they pointing to the object. Finally, he gives the names of objects not present, asking the pupils to call to mind the idea of each, and raise their hands to show that they are thinking of it. INTRODUCTORY COURSfc Xi 11 Qs feral Remj rk o-» Ideas. — The ingenuity of the teatfi«s, will generally Rug rest the best methods? of testing the correctness of a child's conceptions. Perhaps the b' st general rule is for the teacher, first of all, to imagine the object present, <>r him- self in its presence, arid hid the pupil do the same. Let it he recalled, not as a mere something known to exist, but as an object having form, proportion, color, position, and dimensions; and let all these attributes he made to correspond with the rectify. Then, assuming that the pupil has done the same, proceed to question him minutely, as if the object were present. What is it? What is near to it ? What is its general form? What is it like ? On what does it stand or rest? Of what materials i« it composed ? How Ion?, how thick, how wide is it? What is its color, weight, and hulk ? Of what pacts is it composed ? Does the sin shine upon it ? If so, on which side is its shadow ? What time in the day is it, then ? What surrounds it ? &.c. Let the pupil answer directly from the ideas in his own mind, and his answers will usually reveal the correctness or incorrectness of these ideas. This practice of sean h- ing after the pupil's id us, more than any thing else, evinces the teacher's skill and power over the mental habits of his pupils. It should now be extended to every thing. The lessons in reading, geography, arithmetic, &.c, should he enlivened by it. The aim of the teacher should be to make every thing in the school room real, earnest, practical, and lifcli/c , by awakening an interest in ideas rather than words. The principal de- sign in introducing ■jh'trct lessons is to give m'eater life and reality to ideas. Let the pupil then conceive his ideas of absent objects as though there was a corresponding reality which he had just seen. When this can be done, lessons on objects may be dropped. When it cannot be done, the object should be referred to at any and Bveiy stage of progress LESSON VI.* - . » QUALITIES OF ACTIONS. In Lesson II. it was seen that objects possessed certain qualities, as smooth, rough, gentle ; it will now be seen that actions, or even qualities of objects, may themselves possess qualities, as will be shown in the following MODEL. Teacher (The teacher, calling the attention of the class, says,) How many see my hand move ? Pupils. .-(All raise their hands in token of assent.) Teacher. (Moving his hand very slowly, he says,) How docs it move ? Pupils. . Slowly. £ Teacher. What slowly, hand or moves? Pupils. . Moves. Teacher. What then does slowly express a quality of? Pupils. . The action moves. Teacher. Now write upon your slates, " Qualities of Actions ; " and under it write, " The hand moves slowly." * Directions to the Teacher, — 1. At first it will be well to direct the attention of the learner, as in the model, only to adverbs of quality of manner. 2. Let him thea see that words added to verbs showing when, inhere, why, are also adverbs. 3. Keep up l he habit of criticism. 4. Let all the previous lessons lie reviewed. 5. Give fre- quent examples in whic i the parts of speech si, it be mingled, <>. Let the pupils write short sentences containing adverbs, or words answering the questions, How? When? Where? &c. 7. Do not advance too rapidly, and be careful to secure every point as you advance. 8. It will be well t:> give a subject and verb, and require the class to add any thing, whether a word or a grt lp of words, that will express ihe time, place, or manner of the act. XXIV INTRODUCTORY COURSE. Pttpils. . (All write.) Teaclier. (Moving his hand quickly, he says,) How does my hand move now? Pupils. . Quickly. Teacher. Now write on your slates, "The hand moves quickly." Pttpils. (All write.) Teacher. Now, since quickly and slowly donote the quality of an actiob, and not the action itself, what shall we call them"? Pttpils. . Action -quality-words. Teacher. Right ; and hence we hav® a new class of words, called action- quality-words, or adverbs. EXERCISES. I. How can a bird fly? a horse run ? a Jish swim t How does the sun ihinet the ship sail f the farmer labor f the carpenter build t the boy study f II. Which of the following words are adverbs 1 which nouns? which verbs t and which adjectives t t Nail, hammer, pleasantly, heaps, thaw, elm, grows, rapidlv, renews, at- tractive, sweetly, fiercely, temptation, points^" hopefully, otter, beaver, weasel, musingly, weaves, hopes, point, lace, diamonds, wears, nervously, meaningly. LESSON VII. RELATION OF OBJECTS. When two objects are in any way connected, or when an object is connected with an attribute of another, they are related, or there is a relation between tfijuri. What these relations are will be best seen by the fofl»ying lesson : — Teacher. (The teacher takes a book and a piece of paper, and places the latter on the former.) "Where is the paper ? Pupils. . On the book. Teacher. (Placing it under the book.) "Where is the paper now ? Pupils. . Under the book. « Teacher. (Placing the paper in the book.) Has the paper changed its re- lation t * Pupils. . It has ; it is in the book. Teacher. (The teacher now changes the position of the paper, so as to place it over, above, below, beside, near, &c, and then he moves it from the book.) What is the relation, of its motion to the book ? Pupils . It moves from the book. Teacher. (The paper approaches the book.) What is the relation of the motion to the book ? Pupils. . It moves towards the book. * Using a word while acting out its application is the best possible definition Children thus learn the matting of words even before they can sp-sih INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XX* Teacher. What shall we call such words as on, wider, in, &c, sirce they q show a relation t Pupils. . Relation-words. In this way the various relations of one object to another, or of an ob- ject to an attribute of another, may be illustrated to the eye, so as to be impressed upon the mind. The teacher may now place two objects upon a book, a piece of paper and a pen. Now, what are on the book ? The answer is, The paper a»wi the pen. Here is a new relation-ioord, used to combine ox join two objects in the same relation to the book. He places the book behind him, and takes olF cne of the objects, assuring them that one object is on the book. What can you say now is on the book ? The answer is, The paper or the pen. The teacher asks, Which ? Some one guesses the paper ; he pre- sents the book with the pen on it, and says, Not the paper, but the pc-n. And, or, and but are combination-words. EXERCISES. Now point out the relation- words in the following expressions, at whether two objects are related, br an object and an attribute : The hoi the hill; the dog in the manger ; the slipper under the table; runn&ig to school.; living by a river ; standi?ig beside a well ; a dog and a fox running over a wall ; a needle or a pin in a cushion. LESSON VIII. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. We have seen that some words are used to name objects^ some to denote qualities of objects, some the actions of ob- jects, some the qualities of attributes, (that is, actions or qualities,) some the relation of objects, and some the com- bination of objects. We may now take these characteristic:? v see Lesson III., Exercise III., p. xviii.,) as the basis for grouping these words into classes, thus : — Words denoting objects = object-ioords — Nouns. Words denoting qualities of objects = quality-words = Adjectives. Words denoting actions of objects = action-words = Verbs. Words denoting quality of attri- ) ( attribute- } \-n.- n ^- n r >c butes ...... . . \-\quality-icords $- Adverbs. Words denoting relation of objects = relation till the distinction between predi- cating and assuming shall lie understood. INTRODUCTORY COURSE. LESSON XI. THE PROPOSITION ENLARGED In lesson X. the proposition contains but two parts — r .A which contains the attribute, called the subject, and the at- tribute itself, which is affirmed of the subject, and hence called the predicate. When the subject is not an individual name, or when the predicate does not represent some par- ticular act, it is necessary to add words to each, for the pur- pose of explaining or individualizing them- MODEL, (1.) N King died." (2.) " The king died." (3.) " The good king died." (4.) " The good king Edward VI. died." '5.) " The good king Edward VI., the son of Henry VIII., died." v 6.) " The good king Edward VI., son of Henry VIII., died in th* sixteenth year of his age." (7.) " The good king Edward VI., the son of Henry VIII., died in the sixteenth year of his age, and the seventh year of his reign." The effect of individualizing an object may be seen from the following MODEL. Teacher. If each object in the universe had a distinct and separate name, how many names should we have ? Pupils. . "We could not count them ; there would je as many names as objects. Teacher. If you could not count them, could you ever commit them to memory ? Pupils. . Never ; for there would be as many different names as there are different trees, quadrupeds, birds, fishes, &c. We could not count all the individual fishes in a lifetime. Teacher. If every individual object had an individual name, how could we distinguish one object from another ? Pupils. . Simply by giving its name. Teacher. True ; not only each man would have a name, but each tree, dog, horse, fish, &c., &c. ; and the mention of that name would draw the attention to one object, and exclude all others. But since we cannot give individual names to all objects, what shall we do i Pupils. . (Probably none will answer.) Teacher Here is an object which we call a ;»n, ~ud a ere is another object like it • what shall we call this ? K.XX rSTRODUCTORY COURSE,, Pupils. . Teacher. Piqrils. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher. Piqrils. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher. Piipils. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher. Pupil. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher. Pupils. . Teacher ■ Pupils. . We call that a pen, too. Very well ; now, if I say pen, can you tell which one I mea$ "We cannot ; for we think of one as well as the other. Now, suppose one is a metallic pen, and the other is a quill pen*, how could you point me to the individual pen which you mean ? By saying, metallic pen. Right ; and metallic pen would be just as good as an individual name ; in other words, metallic would help you to individualize the pen by excluding the other. But suppose I should present you another object like these two ; what would you call that ? We should call that in, pen. Now, suppose this new one to be a metallic pen ; how could ycu individualize it ? We would say metallic pen. Yes ; but you have two metallic pens, (the teacher holding them up.) Which one do you mean ? The small pen. Yes ; but the quill pen is a small one, as you see, (the teacher holding it up.) We mean " the small metallic pen." Very good ; and small metallic pen is just as good as an individ- ual name. It distinguishes the pen you mean from the oth^r two. But suppose ail the pens in the world Avere to be pre- sented to you, one at a time, what would you call each ? A pen. Then suppose there were many millions of them ; would their each have a name ? They would. Would they each have an individual name ? They would not. Would they each have a different name ? They Avould not ; each would have the same name. They would have one name in common ; hence called a common name to distinguish it from an individual or proper name. But do no objects have individual names ? Can you mention one ? (One speaks.) Is not George an individual name ? Why do you think so ? I notice when you say "boy," all the boys in school look up as though you called them all ; but when you say " George," we all know what one you mean. Right ; George is a proper name ; so, you see, he has two names — a proper name, George, and a common name, boy. If I use the common name, how can I show whom I mean ? By individualizing him. Right ; so I might say, " That small black-eved boy, who sits in the corner of the room, near the door ; " or 1 might say George. Which would you prefer ? We should prefer George. But most objects have only common names; how can we point out individuals among such objects ? Only oy individualizing them. INTRODUCTORY 30URSE. XXX! fcacher. Now, all words, and groups of words, whether they denote quali- ty or not, when used to individualize an object, (not an attribute,) are called adjective. Hence "that" "small," "black-eyed, 1 '* who sits in the corner, near the door," are all adjective expres- sions. EXERCISES. I. Tell what individual name is the same as the following general names individualized : The man who crossed the Atlantic, and discovered the new world. The man who commanded the American army, defeated the British forces, and was styled the father of his country. II. Use a general name, and so individualize it, that it may designate. Lafayette, Franklin, or Peter the Great. III. Many common names, as tree, cloud, house, insect, fish, have no cor~ responding individual name. Take any ten of these, and so limit them that each will denote an individual. The effect of individualizing or limiting an action may be seen from the following . MODEL. Teacher. In the expression, " The bird moves through the air," what one word can be substituted for those in Italics t Pupils. . Flies. Teacher. Then flies = moves through the air. Will you add something to limit the action in the following example, " The horse ran " t Show how he ran. Pupils. . The horse ran sloicly. Teacher. Now, add something to show when the horse ran. Pupils. . The horse ran in the morning. Teacher. What does the expression " in the morning " exclude ? Pupils. . It excludes any running which took place at night, at noon, of any other time than morning. Teacher. Will you add something to show where the horse ran ? Pupils. . The horse ran in the street. Teacher. Will you add something to limit the verb in the example, " The boy opened''"! Show what he opened. Pupils. , (Individually.) 1st. The boy opened his knife. 2d. The boy opened his eyes. 3d. The boy opened the door. 4th. The boy opened a book. Teacher. Add something to show why he opened it. Pupils. The boy opened the book to read. Tcacfier. Now, how many different kinds of questions have you answered by adding these words ? See if you can recall them. Pupils . ( Separately.) 1st. We answered the question how ? 2d. We answered the question when! 3d. We answered the question where? 4th. We answered the question what? f>th We an swered the question why ? fc-XXll INTRODUCTORY COURSE. EXERCISES. I. Put the following words into propositions; then enlarge them by lim- iting their subjects : — Trees beautiful. Cloud disappear. Vapor rise. Dog bark Wind piercing. Water flow. Flowers bloom. Ice melt. King reign. Ape climb. Vulture tear. Boy boisterous. Child gentle. Serpent crawl. Frog hop. Bee buzz. II. Make propositions of the following, and enlargi them by completing the meaning of the verb : — Boy buy, (what.) Bee eat. Storm have broken. Dogs have devour. In- sect destroy. Eagle see. Lady find. Ink stain. Man see. Washing- • >n defeat. Arnold betray. Hawk catch. Mouse destroy. Thus, The boy bought a pencil. III. Tell when the folloioing events happened : — Columbus discovered America, (when.) The Pilgrims reached New England. Charlestown was burned. The people walked. The sun rises.* The moon sets.* The dew disappears. Twilight commences. The storm abated. i IV. Tell where the following happened : — The British were defeated, (where.) Moses was concealed. Jesus was crucified. Congress was assembled. Webster died. Washington was buried. The stranger stopped. The army encamped. The Pilgrims land- ed. The old worn-out soldier slept. V. Tell how the following happened : — The dog was killed, (how.) The fire was kindled. The pupil wrote his copy. The cars move. Harriet plays. The horses ran. The water falls. VI. Tell why the following happened : — My father has kindled a fire, (why.) Children go to school. The mer- chant buys goods. The mother sings to her chlid. The messenger came. The wall is made around the garden. VII. Limit the subjects and predicates of the following, in any of ike above ways : — Winter has come. The ducks Avere swimming. The tree fell. The mice gnawed. The weeds were removed. The fountain failed . The street was crowded. The lecture was delivered. The coachman drove. VIII. Point out the subjects, predicates, and limiting parts in the last exercise. IX. Tell all the nouns, adjectives, or adjective expressions, adverbs, or adverbial expressions, prepositions, and conjunctions in the last exercise. X. Make propositions of your own, and limit them as above, telling what part of speech each word is. * Let the pupils ascertain the time of rising and setting for the day when the lets- vm k given out. INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XXXUI LESSON XII. IMPLIED RELATONS. We have seen how one object may be related to another object, or to the attributes of another object ; also, how an object may be related to its own attributes. We are now tc show how an object and an attribute — that is, how a prop- osition — is related to him who speaks it or writes it. There must be three parties. 1st. Some one must speak. 2d. Some one must be spoken to. 3d. Some person, or some thing, must be spoken of. MODEL. Teacher. When Joseph said to his brethren, " Does my father yet live ? * ■who was the first party ? Pupils. . Joseph. Teacher. And who was the second ? Pupils. . His brethren. Teacher. Right ; who was the third ? Pupils. . His father. Teacher. Very well ; and when he said, " I am Joseph," who was the speaker or first party ? Pupils. . Joseph. Teacher. Right ; and who the hearers, or second party ? Pupils. . His brethren. Teacher. And who the third, or person spoken of ? Pupils. . (All hesitate — one says,) He spoke of himself. Teacher. Very good. Then the parties stand, 1st, Joseph ; 2d, his breth- ren ; 3d, Joseph. How many of the parties does Joseph represent ? Pupils. . Two ; the 1st and 3d. Teacher. When Joseph said, " Ye shall not see my face except your broth er be with you," who was the speaker ? Pupils. . Joseph. Teacher. Who were the hearers ? Pupils. . His brethren. Teacher. Now, if Joseph, stranger as he was to his brethren, had said, " This do and live, for Joseph fears God," instead of saying, ** 1 ' fear God," would they have understood that he was speaking of himself ? Pupils. . They would not. Teacher If a person by the name of Frank should say, (meaning him- self,) "Frank wrote a letter," w :ld the hearer know that h« meant himself f XXXIV INTRODUCTORY COURSE. Pupils. . fie would not. Teacher. Then, when a speaker is at the same time the actor, i. e., repre- sents two parties, he cannot be understood to be the speaker when he uses the name of the actor. Ihus, if we had the words, " Alexander conquered," no one would suppose that Alexander said that. Now, how can we show both that Alexander con- quered, and that Alexander said it ? Pupils. . If he should say, " I conquered," I would show that he both did it and said it. Teacher. That is right ; I is used instead of Alexander, to show that the actor and the speaker are both one. Sometimes the hearer and the actor are both cne. What shall we do then ? Pupil (No one answers.) Teacher. When a teacher speaks to George, and says, " You write well,*' the teacher is the speaker ; but who is the actor, and who tht hearer ? Pujrils. . George is both aotor and hearer. Teacher. But, suppose the teacher should say, " George writes well," who would be the actor, and who the hearer ? Pupils. . George would be the actor, and those present the hearers. Teacher. Then, in order to put George at the same time in the relation of hearer and actor, we must say, "You write well."* Shall we drop the name when we speak of George simply as the actor ? Pupils. , We need not. Teacher. But, suppose I were to say, " George wrote a letter, and George carried the letter to George's teacher, and George's teacher com- mended George for George's neat letter." Would the expression be agreeable ? Pupils. . It would not, because George is repeated so often. Teacher. How could you avoid the repetition ? Pupils. . By using he, his, and him. Teacher. But suppose the same thing had been said of Elizabeth ; would you use he, his, and him t PujAls. . By no means ; but she and her. Teacfiet. Suppose I should say of my hat, "My hat was made in New York, and my hat was brought to Boston, where I bought my hat ; " what would you do ? Pujrils. . We would use it, instead of hat. Teacher Very good. Now, these three parties are called persons ; the speaker is called thejirst person ; the hearer the second ; and the actor, or one spoken of, (whether a person or thing,) the third. When the speaker wishes to represent himself, he cannot use his name, but must use some other word, as, /; when he wishes to represent the hearer, he must use thou or you ; when he wishes to represent the person or thing spoken of, he may use the name, but to avoid repetition he uses he, she, it, &c. Now, these words, I, thou,, or you, he, she, it, and others, are employed in- stead cf nouns to represent these several relations. Ttiey there- fore are called Pronouns, (instead of nouns.) What new part of speech or class of words have we ? * Here i«t the teacher show that we sometimes introduce the name of the hearer, an the person addressed — " George, you write well." Let both forms be adopted in th« • ?»rcis as, rewiring the insertion of a comma afte the name. i KOUUCTORY COURSE. XXXV Pupils. . Pronouns.* Feachet . Now, give all the classes of words, or parts of speech EXERCISES I. Make the subjects in the following sentences represent both the acton and the speakers : — Jacob loved Joseph. Cain slew Abel. Columbus was aided by the Queen of Spain. William the Conqueror defeated Harold. Thus, / loved Joseph. • II. Make the same represent the hearers ; thus, You loved Joseph. III. Make the objects in the above examples denote the speakers — the hearer; thus, Jacob loved me. IV. Put the following words into propositions, and (1.) make the event appear to take place at the time the icords are spoken, Qrresent ;) {2.) before they are spoken, (past;) (3.) after they are spoken, (future :) — Wind blow. Corn grow. Hail rattle. Thunder roar. Fire burn. Ox graze. Snow melt. Vapor climb. Dog worry cat. Mouse catch trap. Play child barn in. Squirrel tree up run. Thus, The corn grows. The corn grew. The corn will grow. V. Put the same into propositions, so as to show that the event actually takes place ; thai, so as to shoio, not that it takes place, but that it may, can, or must take place ; thus, The corn grows. The corn may grow, (but does not grow.) VI. Alter the nouns so as to make them mean more than one. and set what change takes place in the verb or predicate GRAMMAR. We have been studying things, and what belong to things ideas, and the way to express ideas ; words, and the way to form, alter, and classify them ; propositions or sentences * Directions to the Teacher. — The relation of persons gives rise to the person- al pronoun. The pronoun is not needed, like the noun, to represent an idea, but to represent the relation of the parties necessarily implied in social intercourse. These pronouns should be fully illustrated to the children. They all show a relation to the speaker. The relation affects both the subject and predicate. Let its effect be illus- trated thus : Suppose I say, " James reads ; " what change would take place if James himself should express the" same thought? He would say, " I read." Let the pupils explain the changes in both words. Now, if I should express the same thought to James, I should say, " You read." What changes take place ? The relation of person is here introduced particularly in order to develop the pronoun. Besides this, there are necessarily two other relations to the speaker. When the speaker states an event, he assumes the moment of speaking as the point from which to reckon time, and places the event at that time, or throws it into the past or future, as the fact may require. But this relation requires no new part of speech. It affects only the predicate ; as, "James is writing, was writing, or will be writing." Again : the speaker looks upon an event which he is about to record as something real, as when a house is actually burned, or as something imaginary, as when we think — " What if the house should be burned!" It is not actually burned. Now, this distinction requires a different mode of speaking. The teacher should illustrate these points, as well as the relation of number, before entering upon tho bod? 'f this book- 1XXV1 IN1R0DUCT0RY COURSE. and the way to form them, and the parts which compose them. Now, all this prepares the way to study grammar. Much o.* it is grammar — all, indeed, that has taught us to speak and write correctly. But grammar, arranged sys- tematically, considers whatever pertains to simple sounds, and the letters which represent them ; whatever pertains to words, the changes they undergo, and the classes to whicn they belong ; whatever pertains to sentences, the parts which compose them, the relation, agreement, dependence, and government of these parts ; whatever pertains to the forma- tion of verse, or the arrangement of language so as to pro- duce the agreeable effect of measure. All these are em- braced in grammar ; it teaches us the principles which should guide in using language correctly. Suggestions to the Teacher. — It will be seen, throughout this introductory course, that the aim has been to state nothingdogmatically, but to draw from the .stores which the pupil already possesses, those facts, which, being placed in new relations, may evolve the principle aimed at. In the full course which follows excepting the Oral Exercises, the opposite method is pursued. The principle is first stated, and then the illustrations are given ; yet the teacher, throughout the entire course, should adopt tbe inductive method, whenever a difficult lesson is to be presented for the first time. The inductive method is invaluable in helping a feeble or undisciplined mind to compre- hend elementary principles, and to group them into more general rules. When prin ciples are fully understood, the comprehensive rule or definition should he committed to memory. The teacher cannot be too careful to insist upon this. Every genera' 1 rule or definition should be thoroughly learned and used. Let the learner now sntet upon the main course ; let every point be understood as he advances, and his progress will be satisfactory both to himself and his teacher. ENGLISH GRAMMAR English Grammar treats of the principles and usages af the English language ; it teaches us to speaK and write it correctly. Rem. — Grammar is not a code of laws made for the language, but rather derived from the language in its present state. It is the province of the grammarian to interpret and classify the analogies and usages of the lan- guage so as to present them in a condensed and systematic view. Over the laws of language he has no control, or rather he has the same kind of control that the naturalist has over the laws of the physical world, and no other. He does not make the rules of grammar ; he only exhibits what already exists. That the " verb agrees with its nominative in number and fierson," is not an authoritative edict from the grammarian. It existed as a aw of language long before he discovered and published it. It was none the less imperative before he uttered it, and becomes no moie so because he has uttered it. True, the fact that it is drawn out, and distinctly stated, makes it better known — more widely understood — and, it may be, more generally obeyed. And herein consists the advantage of the study of grammar : he who knows the laws of language has before him a standard by which he may test his own expressions, while he who yields only an unconscious obedience to usage is never sure when or why he is right, nor when or why he is wrong. Entering upon the study of grammar with these views, the learner, aided by his teacher, comes in contact with the language itself ; he himself becomes a discoverer of analogies and principles, it may be, not even noted by the grammarian ; and even if they are, he re- ceives his greatest pleasure from the impression, that he is confirming, rather than blindly obeying, the statement of another.' It teaches how to combine letters into syllables, syllables into words, and words into sentences, either in prose or verse. Grammar is divided into four parts — Orthography, Ety- mology, Syntax, and Prosody. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, the letters which represent them, and the combination of letters into syllables and words. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, and various modifications of words. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. Prosody treats of the laws of versification. 1 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ORTHOGRAPHY. Orthography treats of elementary sounds, the letters whi-.h represent them, and the combination of letters into syllables and words. ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. ORAL EXERCISE. The teacher, calling the attention of the class, says, Listen ! Then giving the sound of a in name, How many heard my voice ? Giving again the sound of s as in *-in, (not the name ess, but the hissing sound alone,) he says, Did you then hear my voice, or only a whispering sound f Am. Only a whispering sound. Listen again ! giving, in the same manner, the sound of/, he says, Did you hear a voice-sound, or a breath-sound f Am. A breath-sotmd. With the same position of the organs, he adds a slight vocality, producing the sound of v. Do you hear any voice now ? He tries the same with p, and passes from p to b ; then from t to d, from k to g, from s to z, from ch toj, from sh to zh, and thus shows the difference be- tween a breath-sound, and a breath-sound mingled with a slight voice-sound . Then, again, recalling their attention to such sounds as a, e, i, o, u, by examples from his own voice, always to be repeated by the class, he causes them to observe and note the distinctions. They are now prepared for the following definitions : — An elementary sound is the simplest sound of the language ; as, a, e ; b, k. The English language contains about forty elementary sounds. CLASSES OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. These sounds are divided into three classes — vocals, svb- vocals, and aspirates. The vocals consist of pure tone only ; as, a, e, i, o, u. The subvocals consist of tone united with breath ; as, b, d l m, n, r. The aspirates consist of pure breath only ; as, p, t, k,f. Vocals are subdivided into long and short. "The long sound is one that can be protracted at pleasure ; as may ay, hee ee. The short sound is one formed by the same position of the organs, but uttered with an explosive effort — pin, pen, hat, six Rem. 1. — The a in hut is properly the short sound of a in fare, not a in hate. The short sound of a in mate is e in met, as any one may see by ORTHOGRAPHY ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 3 placing ihi organs in a position to give a and explode the sound. The t la pin is the short suund of ee in seen; sometimes represented by ee as in teen, (bin.) The o in not is the short sound of o in nor, not o in note. The u in put is the short sound of oo in book. The u in but is the short iound of u in fur, not u in mute. R em . 2. — Some of the subvocals, like vocals, may be prolonged ; as, I, m, t, r, th, v, %o, y, z, zh. Others are incapable of prolongation ; as, b, d, g,j, x. The latter class are sometimes, though not properly, called mutes. TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. Fecals. Subvocals. Aspirates. Correlatives. 1. rt-l-e* 2 f-rt-r 3 b-rt-U 4. h-rt-t 1. 6-a-t 2. rf-o-g 3. g-o 4. >o-y 1. f-aj'-th 2. A-o-m-e 3. a-r-£ 4. j^>-i-n-e 1. 2. 3. 4. 6-o-w = jo-o-l-e rf-o-g = £-o-n ^-e-t = A;-i-n-d th-i-s = ^A-u-m-b 5. m-e 5. l-o-t 5. s-u-n 5. J-o-b = cA-i-n 6. m-e-t 6. m-a-n 6. *-a-k-e G. v-a-n = /-a-n 7. f-t'-n-e 8. p-;-n 9. g-o-l-d 10. m-o-v-e 11. n-o-t 12. m-w-t-e 13. p-tf-U 7. n-o 8. s-o-n-g 9. b-a-r 10. th-i-s 11. c-a-t 12. M>-i-s-e 13. 2-o-n-e 7. M-i-u-k 8. sA-o-n-e 9. cA-u-r-1 10. wA-e-n 7. 8. tj-i-n-e = s-o-n a-z-u-r-e = sA-u-t 14. c-M-p 15. f-oz<-n-d 14. u-z-u-i-e 15. y-e-s The following subvocals, /, m, n, r, z, v, are sometimes called semtvoto- lis ; the first four are called liquids. N©TB. — By what rule such sounds as/, $, or c soft, which have no vo- cality whatever, can be called semivowels, it is impossible to see. The aspirates and subvocals are sometimes divided according to the or- gans of speech chiefly employed in forming them. Thus, labials, p, b, f, v ; dentals, t, d, s, z ; palatals', y soft and./; gutturals, k, q, c, and g hard; nasals, m and n; and Unguals, I and r. EXERCISE. , The following words contain the different elementary sounds in the lan- guage. Utter first the word, and then the element pruded in Italics. Vocals. N-a-ine, f-«-r, b-a-11, «-t ; m-e, m-e-t; f-j-ne, p-i-n; s-o*ld, ci-o-ve, n-o-t; m-u-te, p-M-il, c-u-p ; f-o«-nd. * SiowEST!or and conso~ nants. Those letters which represent vocals are called vowels. They are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. Rem. — W and Y are consonants when they precede a vowel in the same syllable ; as, wine, twine, yes, yet. In all other situations they are vowels. Those letters which represent subvocals and aspirates are called consonants. The consonants are b, d, g, I, m, n, r, v, z (subvocal,) and f h, k, c, q, p, t, s, (aspirates ; ) x is a subvocal when it is equivalent to gs, an aspirate when it is equivalent to ks. EXERCISE. Tell which letters are voicels, and which are consonants, in the following words : — Name, war, come, peace, tree, fish, good, -live, old, sad, young, wine said, yet, win, new, gay, day. Tell which of the following letters represent vocals, which subvocals, and which aspirates : — a, f, g, m, c, k, d, p, o, w, s, h, y, t, r, v, x, 1, e, j. Analyze the following icords by giving, in order, the elementary sounds, (not the names of the letters ;) tell how many sounds and how many letters each has; also what letters are silent :— Mete, laugh, bought, fought, believe, phthisic, balm, rough, piece, beau- ty, thought, blight. Model. M — e — t = mete : — three sounds and four letters. The final e is silent. Give the equivale?it vocals in the following words, tell what letters repre- tent them, and write them on your slates, thus : a = ai, ei, ey, ay, ao, ua, ue. The equivalent of a in pale, sail, ve/1, say, gaol, gawge, boqtiet ; of a '«n ask, lawgh, a?mt, there, prayer, heir ; of a in hall, law, broad, fa* . ap 1* 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. plated, bought, awe ; of e in be, tree, "key, nea, brief, concave, fatigue ; of e in end, says, heifer, many, bury, head, feoff, agat'n ; of i in iron, eye, die, by, buy, aisle, height, guide ; of i in ink, sieve, hymn, been, guilt, busy, women ; of o in go, door, owe, goat, roe, flow, dough, sew?, beau ; of o in dot, what, not, yacht; of u in music, flew, hue, \iew, adieu, beauty, deiice, sluice, you, through. ; of u in ptill, wool, wolf, would ; of u in gun, ton, touch, her, sir, myrrh, does ; of ou in plough, now; of oi in toil, joy. Give the equivalent consonant sounds of the following words, in the same manner: — The equivalents of s in sure, sliaill, cAaise, ocean, nuptial, session, par tisH, gracio.us ; of z in zone, was, Xerxes, suffice ; of s in seat, cent ; of j in joy, yem, soldier ; of v in vote, of, cipher ; of z in azure, measure, rouye , of w in wet, one, quilt ; of y in young, minion. Point out the subvocals in the following icords, and give the correlatives of szveh as have t/iem, thus : b p ; ?i ; d 1 : * — Bat, bind, rub, tube, dog, bad, soda, day, gone, game, joy, just, gill, George, vane, vine, then, those, long, let, fall, man, can, mend, mist, sing, ring, cling, doing, run, river, star, wave, wine, wept, one, once, zone, zebra, has, his, sacrifice, azure, leisure, rogue, yes, you, filial. Point out the aspirates in the following, and give the corresponding sub- vocals to such as have them : * — Fame, far, if, staff, laugh, tough, phrase, kind, hid, quay, lock, hand, hide, hill, heart, put, pink, Up, sin, same, sun, city, mice, tell, tune, tone, net, pit, faced, forced, thief, thought, through, short, shave, shell, shan, sure, ocean, official, church, chin, chest, such, what, when, why, where. Give the various sounds of the several voicels in the following words : — Hate, pate, ball, call, care, fare, hat, mat, far, mar, jar, liar, rival, mete, replete, men, pen, hen, there, where, her, herd, crier, fuel, pine, mine, vine, twine, pin, sin, din, tin, machine, marine, fir, virtue, bird, note, vote, tore, lore, cot, odd, sod, sorrow, more, prove, for, sort, nor, son, done, because, honey, tune, cure, tub, but, hut, pull, bush, push, fur, burr, sulphur, rule, busy, siren, type, style, crystal, physic, myrrh, myrtle, lately, crazy, martyr. Thus, hate — a, pate — d, ball — d. Give the various sounds of the folloxcing consonants in Italics : — Face, pace, cap, cup, suffice, yill, yo, rouye, was, sister, says, measure wax, exist. COMBINATION OF LETTERS. When two or more letters unite, to represent a union of elementary sounds, they form a combination of letters ; as ou, oi, bl, on, no, not, breath, breadth, thrusts. Note 1. — Sometimes a combination of elementary sounds is represented by a single letter ; as, i = d e, (a in far, and c in me ;) u in union — yh ; o in one = wu. Note 2. — Sometimes a combination of letters represents a single ele- mentary sound ; as, th in this ; ti, ci, si, ce, in martial, mission, official- * Let this be done by actually giving the sound, not by looking at tba list of eoi relatives. ORTHOGRAPHY COMBINATION OF LETTERS. ? ocean, oo, ee, act, gg, ze, bb,ff, 11, tt, in door, feet, Isaac, egg, buzz, ebb, off t tall, butt. I. Two or more vowels may unite ; as, ou in sounds uoy m buoy. A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable as, ou in sound, oi in voice. A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are sounded ; as, ou in thou. An improper diphthong is one in which one of the vowels i3 silent ; as, the a in heat. A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable as, eau in beauty. A proper triphthong is one in which the three vowels are sounded ; as, uoy in buoy. An i?nproper triphthong is one in which one or two of the vowels are silent ; as, ea in beauty, ie in adieu. II. Two or more consonants may unite ; as, bl-e-nd, thr-ee Rule 1. Two similar consonant sounds, that is, two aspi- rates or two subvocals, may unite ; as, apt, adze, huts. Rule 2. When a sub vocal is followed by an aspirate, the latter usually takes the sound of its correlative ; as, bag, bags,* pad, paas,* = bagz, padz. Rule 3. When an aspirate is followed by a subvocal the latter usually takes the sound of its correlative ; as placed = plac'cZ t — placZ, scraped = scraped t = scmpt. Note. — To this rule there are exceptions; as, fierce, first, se?it, no\ fierze, &rzt, send. Rule 4. While two similar sounds may unite, two identi- cal sounds cannot, even though letters to represent them may be employed ; thus : egg, butt, ebb, whiff =: eg, but, eb, whif, not eg-g, but-t, &c. * By analyzing the plurals of bag and pad, it will be seen that, though we add the Jetter s, which should represent an aspirate, we do not add an aspirate sound, but the subvocal sound z, and that because it is preceded by the subvocals g and d. JMark trie difference in the following plurals, where s is preceded oy an aspirate : caps, hata hc-ks. t Though d should represent a subvocal, it takes the sound of its correlative, bo cause it is made to unite with aa aspirate. 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. III. Any consonant sound may unite with a vowel sound as, aw, no, did, call. EXERCISE. Point out the vowel combinations in the following words ; tell whether ths diphthongs are proper or improper :-— Fear, pear, voice, sound, pierce, receive, Europe, people, view, adieu, beauty, though, chief, fail, Caesar, how, sew, gaol, mail, deal. Point out the consonant combinations in the following, and tell what let- ters are identical, and what are changed into their correlatives : — Birds, blend, apt, capped, clapped, buzz, mats, heads, beads, brought, off, skiff, pass, insist, first, faced, round, word, gird, gold, sold, bulb, verb, worm, last, craft, compact, acts. oYLLAJBLES. ORAL EXERCISE8. The teacher utters the word bat, thus, b — a — t, and says, How many sounds did you hear ? Ans. Three. Now, let the class utter the same. How many listinct efforts did you make ? Ans. Three. Now, utter them all at once, thus, bat. How many efforts or impulses now ? Ans. One When letters unite so as to be uttered at one impulse, like bat, they form a syllable. How many impulses in bat-tert How many in pe-cu liar? Which syllable receives the strongest impulse in con-trol, in-firm, dear-ly, o-pent A syllable is a letter or combination of letters uttered with one impulse of the voice ; as, mat, mat-ter, ma-te-ri-al. The essential part of a syllable is a vowel. Note. — By voicel here is meant a vowel sound, whether represented by a single letter, a diphthong, or a triphthong. A syllable may consist, — (1.) Of a vowel ; as, a -ere, ei-ther. (2.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants prefixed ; as, basis, bri-er, three, phthisis. (3.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants affixed ; as., in, elf, mter-ests, earths. (4.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants both pre- fixed and affixed ; as, ?i-oo-n, tr-u-th, thr-u-sls. Note. — In the preceding exercises the pupil has been occupied with elementary sottnds and the characters which represent them. In this, he is taugh" the modes, of combining these into syllables. It is often ne- cessary \>i separate a syllable into its elements. The process of combining elementary parts is called ORTHOGRAPHY — WORDS. 9 tynthesis, and that of separating a combination into its ele- ments is called analysis. Note. — In analyzing a syllable, let the learner tell, (1.) the essential part, that is, the vowel or diphthong ; (2.) the consonant or consonants which are prefixed to it; (3.) the consonant or consonants which are affixed to it. MODELS FOR ANALYZING SYLLABLES. An ... is a syllable consisting of two elements : — A . . . . is the essential element, — it is a vowel. (Give its sound.) n .... is a consonant, and represents a subvocal ; it is affixed to a. (Give its sound.) Break . is a syllable consisting of three parts : — «a . . . . is the essential part, — it is a diphthong (why ?), improper (why ?) ; 8 is silent, — a only is sounded. (Give its sound.) Br. ... is a union of two consonants, both representing subvocals, b and r, (Rule 1,) which are prefixed to ea. (Give their sounds separate- ly, then together.) t is a consonant representing an aspirate, and is affixed to ea. (Give its sound.) EXERCISE. Analyze the following syllables, and describe each element: — Kite, dog, numb, boat, friend, truth, day, wax, bat, view, sound, aid, meat, suit, rude, the, think, sit, leave, three, bursts, threats. Form syllables by prefixing one consonant to a, ay, ey, ou, ieu, y ; two or moke consona?its to e, oo, oe, i, ou, oi, ee. ca, ay, i, ey ; by affixing one, two, or thkee consonants to any Jive of the above vowels or diphthongs. Form ten syllables in which one, two, or "more consonants sliall be prefixed and affixed. WORDS AS THE REPRESENTATIVES OF SOUNDS. Note. — Written words are used to represent both soimds and ideas. As the representatives of sounds, they are classified according to the number of syllables they contain. A word may consist of one syllable alone, or of two or more syllables united. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as, boy pen, tree. A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable; as, na-ture, faith-ful. A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable ; as, nat-u-ral, faith-ful-ness. 10 ZNGLISH GRAMMAR. A word of four or more syllables is caLed a polysyllable ' as, un-nat-u-ral, un-j'aith-ful-ness. Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a particulai syllable, to distinguish it from others. Every word of more than one syllable has one of iti syllables accented. The accented syllable may be either the first, last, or a middle syllable ; as, du'ty, be-long', pre-paying. Some words hare a prim try and secondary accent; as, in"defat'igable, in'conijjrehcn'sible. Note. — In separating a word into its syllables, we should divide it as it is pronounced. Thus some pronounce pat'ri-ot, others pa'tri-ot, and the t must be joined to the first or second syllable accordingly. The learner should tell how many syllables a word contains, calling it a monosyllable, dissyllable, &c. ; then point out the accented syllable, and analyze each ac- cording to the preceding models. In writing", a syllable should never be divided at the end of a line. A word of more than one syllable may be divided, one part being placed at the end of one line, and the other at the beginning of the next. EXERCISE.* Analyze and describe the following words : — Beat, said, tree; friendship, social, himself, stately ; complaining, inter- pret, indolence; incessantly, condemnation, interdicting, domesticate; consanguinity, confederation, impenetrable; mispronunciation, incompre- hensible, indefatigable ; impenetrability ; incomprehensibility. Correct the accent in the following words : — Local', indolence, memo'rable, ig'noble, frequently, lament'able, actual, indisputable, immutable, retro 'spect, completion, lateral. Change the ac- cent in the following words to the second syllable, and give their meaning: August, conjure, desert, en'trance, min'ute, pres'ent, prpj'ect, in'valid. Write the following words upon your slate, and divide them into syllables, marking the accented syllable: — -. Conscience, detecting, inability, indubitable, commotion, laborious, re- late, detestation, infesting, exemplary. Model. Con'science. DERIVATIONS. — RULES FOR SPELLING. R]$M. — So far as the derivation of words refers to their application, and classification into parts of speech, the subject properly belongs to the de- partment of Etymology. So far as it refers to changes of letters in spell- ing, it belongs to Orthography. For the sake of convenience, the fol- lowing definitions and rules are here inserted. * Let the teacher first give an ora! exercise in which lie shall exhibit the JMxeM bf oIh own voice. Than tap. ire the pupil to repeat the same. ORTHOGRAPHY SPELLING. 1 ] A woro. in no way derived from another is a radical 01 primitive word ; as, form, harm. A word formed by joining to a primitive some letter or syllable, to modify its meaning, is a derivative word ; as, re- form, harm-Zess. A word formed by uniting two or more entire words is a compound word ; as, inkstand, schoolhouse. The parts of those compounds which have been long in use are generally united closely ; as, nevertheless, sunrise ; in others, the hyphen (-) is used to separate the parts ; as, labor-saving. EXE11CISE. Tell which of the following words are primitive, which derivative, and which compound : — Bright, fair, told, meek, some, playful, joyless, income, bookstore, play- mate, cloud-capped, ink, housetop, fearful, reform, dismember, dreary. Form derivative words from the following primitives, and draw a line tinder the added syllable or letter : Hope, fear, harm, love, care, know, peer, ape, weed, cloud, form, grade, place, joy, truth, poet, fade, weep, laugh. Model. Hopeless. Form comjmtnd words, by joining some appropriate word to each of the following : Air, chest, alms, bank, birth, bill, lire, eye, weed, toll, wood, foot, work, play, land, busy, tree, breeze. Model. Ah-pump. SPELLING. Spelling is the art of representing words by their proper letters. PRIMITIVE WORDS. The spelling of primitive words should be learned mainly from the die- tionary or spelling book. The following are the most obvious rules : — Rule 1. Monosyllables ending in/, I, ors, preceded by a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, stuff, bell, miss. If, of, as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, are excep • ions. Rule II. Words ending in any other consonant than/, *, or s, do not double the final letter ; as, put, rap, on, trim, orag,star. Add, odd, ebb, egg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt % yuzz, fuzz, are exceptions. DERIVATIVE WORDS In the formation of derivative words, the final letters of the urirnitiv* 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. as -well as those of the prefix, often undergo a change. Hence the follow ing rules should be studied with care. PREFIXES. That part of a derivative word which is placed before the radical is called a prefix; as, re-turn, pre-pay. In applying prefixes to radicals, certain changes often take place, to render the sound more agreeable. These changes are made according to the following rules : — lluLE I. Dropping the final Letter. — The final let- ter of a prefix is sometimes omitted ; as, co-existent, for cow- existent ; antarctic, for an^-arctic. Rule II. Changing the final Letter. — The final Jetter of a prefix is often changed to one which will har- monize, in sound, with the initial letter of the radical ; as, twt-pious, for irc-pious. The final letter of the prefix generally becomes the same as the first let- ter of the radical ; as, ^7-limitable. The principal prefixes which undergo this change are ad, (ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at;) con, (cog, com, col, cor;) en, (em;) e, (ex, ec, ef ;) dis, (dif, di;) ob, (of, oc, op;) sub, (sue, suf, sug, sup, sur ;) syn, (sym, syl.) EXERCISE ON RULES I. II. Write derivatives by prefixing anti to arctic ; con to temporary, laborer, extensive, location, mend, mix, mingle, nomen, relative; ad to scribe, credit, firm, fluent, legation, rest, point, ply, tempt ; in to religious, legal, egible, liberal, noble, perfect, penitent, potent, prove ; en to body, broil ; ob to position, press, cur, fend ; sub to cession, fix, fumigation, fusion, gest, press, render ; sijn to pathetic, logistic ; ex to centric, flux ; dis to fuse, late. Correct the follouring examples by Ride II: Inply, subrender, inmediate, sympathetic, adlegation, adfect, adcredit, obpose, obportunity, exfect, dis- fer, inluminate, conlect, conmend, enploy, subgest. Note. — The most common prefixes are contained in the following list. They are chiefly prepositions of Saxon, Latin, or Greek origin. The roota to which they are prefixed are not always used as distinct words in the English language. The meaning of such radicals may generally be deter . mined by applying different prefixes. Thus, in im-ycl, ex-pel, dis--pe\, com- pel, pro-yel, one would readily see, by comparison, that pel means to drive. These exercises on the prefixes may be omitted the first time of going through the Grammar. PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN. Prefix. Signification. Example. A. on or in. .Aboard, ashore. Be. near, on, far, over. Beside, Jestir. For. against, not, from. .Forbid, forsake. ORTHOGRAPHY PREFIXES. 13 Prefix. Signification. Example Fore. before. Foresee, foretell Mis. wrong, error. Mistake, misspell. Over. above, beyond. Overdo, overload. Out. beyond, more. Outrun, outdo. Un. not, negation. r/nwise, ?mkind. Under, oeneath, inferior. Understand, undergo. With. above, tip, subversion. Uplift, upset. against, from. Withstand, withdraw PREFIXES OF LATIN ORIGIN. A, ah, abs. from, aioay. Abstract, avert. Ad.* to, at, towards. Adjoin, approach (move). Ante. before. Antecedent (going). Bene. good, well. .Benevolent, oenehcent (doing) Ris or Bi. twice, two. .Bisect (cut), 6ipcd (feet). Circum. around, about. Ciratmnavigate (sail). Cis. on this side. Cisalpine. Con.* together, with. Collect, eonfine. Contra. against, from, down. Contradict (speak). De. .Dethrone, o*etract (draw). Dis.* astmcfer. Distract, divert (turn). E (ex).* out of, from. .Eject (drive), expel (cast). .Extraordinary. Extra. beyond. In.* into, in ; not.f Inform, include ; inactive. Inter. between. interpose (place). Intro. in, within. introduce (lead). Non. not. iVonconformist. Ob.* against. Obstruct (build). Per. through, by, Perfect (made). Post. after. Postpone (place). Pre. Before. Precede (go). Pro. for, forth, forwards. Pronoun, progress (go) Preter. past, beyond. back, again. Preternatural. Re. .Recall. Retro. backwards. TJetfrograde (move). Se. apart, separation. /Secede (go). Sine. without. ■Sinecure (care). Sub.* under. Subscribe (write). Super. over, beyond, over, change. Superscribe (write). Trans. Transplant. Uni. one. Uniform.. GREEK PREFIXES. A or an. without. Anonymous (name). A in phi. both, double. Amphibious (living). Ana. through, up. dnatomy (cut). Anti. against. 4n^ichristian. A po or Aph. from. Apogee (earth). Dia. through. Diameter (measure). Epi. upon. .Epitaph (tomb). 11 y per. over, above. JF/ypercritical. Hypo. under. Hypocrite. * Those prefixes marked with the star have other forms. t Before a verb, in signifies into, in, and sometimes against ; before an adj«CO*T», It has a negative meaning. 2 Prefix. Signification. Meta or Meih. change, beyond. Para. from, against. Peri* around. Syn.* with. 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Example. .Metamorphose (form). Paradox (opinion). Perimeter (measure). Sympathy (feeling). Note. — Many of the roots to which the prefixes are added are not distinct words in the English language. In the following exercises, as in the above examples, such roots will be defined in a parenthesis. The pupil should analyze derivative words according to the following : — MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. Impenitent ... is a derivative word. (Why ? ) Penitent .... is the radical part, and signifies repenting. lm is the prefix (in, Rule II.,) and signifies not. Hence, impenitent, not repenting. EXERCISE. Analyze the following derivative words according to the model : — Aboard, aground, accredit, accustom, aggrieve, antepast (taste), for- give, bestir, foreknow, misplace, overtake, abstract (draw), outrun, un- common, adjoin, understand, uphold, withdraw, benevolent (wishing), circumscribe (write or mark), cisalpine, bivalve, complete (fill), dispel (drive), imprint, interdict (speak), oppose (place), pervade (pass), pre- meditate, preoccupy, post mortem (death), progress (go), refer (carry), reanimate, subterraneous, (earth), support (bear), superstructure, trans- pose (place), acephalous (head), antipathy (feeling), apostatize (standing), aphaeresis (taking), diagonal (angle), epitaph (tomb), paraphrase (speak- ing), periphrasis. Study the list of prefixes, and then add to tlie following roots all tJiat may be used appropriately. Define each word. Form spire f (to breathe), rect (to make straight), part, sign, sume (to take), scribe, (to write), tract (to draw), duce (to lead), sist (to stand), lude (to play), cede (to go, to yield), elude (to shut or close), port (to carry), act, claim (to call or speak), natural, sine, prove, join, struct (to build), course, cur (to run), vention (the act of coming or going), graph (marked or written), fuse, press, pel (to urge or drive), volve (to roll or turn), gress (to step, pass), fiw, flux, fer or late (to bear, cany), mise or wit (to send), tain (to hold), diet (to speak), pose (to place), vers or vert (to turn). MODEL. Conform, to form together, i. e., to assimilate, to yield to custom. Reform, to form again, i. e., to renew. inform, to form in [the mind], i. e., to tell. ZMorm, to form from [the proper shape], i. e., to disfigure. Perform, to form" through, i. e., thoroughly, to complete. Iransiorm, to form over, i. e., to change the form. Note. — By exercises like the above, multiplied at the discretion of the teacher, the pupil may soon perceive the force of all the prefixes. It is a * Those prefixes marked with the star have other forms. f To many of Hie radicals two prefixes are added, each having its peculiar force , as, re-coa-struct, rc-ad-uiit. The pupil should explain each. ORTHOGRAPHY — SUFFIXES. 15 good exercise to take the dictionary and require the pupil to explain all the derivatives from any given root SUFFIXES. That part of a derivative word which is placed after the radical is called a suffix ; as, faith^/wZ, end-Zm. Note. — In applying suffixes, the final letter or letters of the radical are often changed. Such changes are made according to the following rules : — Rule I. Doubling the final Letter. — On receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, the final consonant of a mono- syllable, or of any word accented on the last syllable, is doubled, if the radical ends with a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel ; otherwise it remains single ; as, dig-ing, dig-ging ; defer-ing, defer-ring. Not so repair-ing, defend- ing, differ-ing. Many words ending in I; as, travel, libel, cancel, cavil, chisel, counsel, duel, equal, gravel, model, pencil, revel, rival, trammel, tunnel, &c, double the I on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, though not accented on the last syllable. To these add worship, bias, kidnap; worshipping, bias-sing, kidnap -ping. Rule. II. Dropping the final Letter. — On receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, the final vowel of the radi- cal is dropped in most words ending in e silent ; as, love-ing, loving ; also in some words ending in y and i ; as, felicity- ate, felicitate ; detism, deism. Contrary to the general rule, the final e is retained, when preceded by c or/7; as, peace-able, peaceable ; change-able, changeable; to preserve the soft sound of those letters. So also we have singeing and sivingeing, to distinguish tnem from singing, swinging. The final letters le, when followed by ly, are dropped; as, noble-Zy, no- bly. So also t or te before ce or eg ; as, vagrant-cy, vagrancy ; prelate-cy, prelacy. Words ending in II usually drop one I on taking an additional syllable beginning with a consonant ; as, skill-/?^, skilful. RuleJiI. Changing the final Letter. — The final y of a radical word is generally changed to i, if preceded by B. consonant ; otherwise it usually remains unchanged ; as, nappy-es^, happiest ; duty-es, duties ; day-s, days. The f, in w >rds ending in f or fe, is generally changed to v, when the suffix begins with a vowel ; as, life, lives. To prevent doubling i, the y is not changed when the suffix begins with 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. t ; as, marry^ny, marrying. .For tne same reason, the e being dropped by Rule ll., in die, lie, tie, vie, the * is changed to y ; as, dying, lying, tying, vying. EXERCISES ON THE RULES. Add ing, ed, or er, to beg, sit, dig, dim, bed, dog, let, bet, prefer, trans- fer, forget, dispel, propel, befit, control, travel, level, counsel; love, compile, receive, leave, grieve, confine, define. Add able to peace, change, sale ; — LY to able, disagreeable, conformable, idle, noble ; — ful to skill, will; — es, ed, or ing, to duty, lily, glory, story, history, beauty, beautify, amplify, rectify. Correct the following, and explain your corrections : — Beding, beting, wifes, debarcd, abhorent, alkalioid, gloryous, citys, fan- cyful, taming, carding, dutyful, bountyful, handsomeest, bloting, farne- ous, agreeabley incompatibiey.. LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL SUFFIXES The following list contains the principal suffixes. They signify, — I. The person who, the female who : Ant, ar, aid, ary, eer, er, ee, ent, ist, ite, ian, ive, or, ner, ster, yer, sen ; ess, ress, ix, ine. Examples. African, one who lives in Africa. Servant, one who serves. Beggar, one who begs. Adversary, one who opposes. "So, dotard, chariot- eer, laborer, mortgagee, president, economist, favorite, arithmetician, operative, actor, partner, teamster, lawyer, citizen; poetess, instructress, testatrix, heroine. II. The thing which, the act of the quality of, or state of: Acy, age, al, ade, ancv, ance, ency, ence, ety, hood, ion, ism, ice, ment, mony, ness, ry, ship, ude (tude), th, ty, ure, dom, ric. Examples. Privacy, the state of being private. Justice, that which ia just. Meekness, the quality of being meek. So, bondage, refusal, cannon- ade, expectancy, repentanee, penitence, emergency, variety, childhood, erec- tion, despotism, commandment, acrimony, goodness, rivalry, scholarship, quietude, truth, novelty, presswre, Chris tendom, bishopric. III. The property pertaining to, belonging to, or abounding in : Ac, al, an (ian, ean,) ar, ary, ate, ic (tic or atic), i\e, ine, ory, ose (ious, eous, uous), ful, ey, y. Examples. Elegiac, pertaining to an elegy. Mountainons, abounding in mountains So, autumnal, antediluvian, emblematic, lunatic, consular, discretionary, juveniie, adamantine, transitory, verbose, wondrous, affec- tionate, hope/id, sunny. IV. To cause, to make : Ate (iate, uate), en, fy, ish, ize, ise. Examples. Alienate, to make an alien. So, justi/y, stablis/i, soften* civilize, criticise. V. Diminution . Cle, cule, kin, let, ling, ock. Examples. CorpuscZe, a little body or particle. So, animalcWe, lamb- kin, eaglet, duckfe'ny, hilloc/fc. VI. (Miscellantoxis:) Oid, like; as, spheroid — ive, tending to; as, delusive — ward, towards; as, eastward — less, without; as, sleepless — ics, science of; as, mathematics — ish, somewhat ; as, bluisA — like, re tvrn/dmg ; as, \v\rliJce — ly, in manner ; as, wisely — able (iblc), capable of e as, credible. ORTHOGRAPHY SUFFIXES. 17 Note. - The following terminations are properly grammatical inflections, used to denote the accidents of the noun, verb, adjective, or adverb : — s or es, . more than one, (plural ;) as, birds,* churches. ed, . . . past time, or the passive state ; as, loved, (did love, or was loved.) ing, . . . continuing to do ; as , \oving. Eli, est, . more, most ; as, warmer warmest. Note. — The general signifi ;ations of the various suffixes are given !n the above list. The pai ticular variations of these meanings, to suit given cases, -noil readily suggost themselves. MODEL FOR ANALYSIS. Quietude It is a derivative word. ("Why?) Quiet is the radical part, and signifies rest. Ude is the suffix, and signifies state of. Hence quiet-ude, state of rest. Note. — By combining this with the preceding model, the pupil can ana- lyze all words having both a prefix and a suffix. All compounds may be analyzed according to the following MODEL. Sea-breeze . . is a compound word, (why ?) formed from sea, which means the ocean, and breeze, . . .' . which means a gentle xoind. Hence Sea-breeze, a gentle wind from the ocean. EXERCISE. Study the list of suffixes and prefixes, and t/ien analyze the following derivative words : — Incomplete, famous, peerage, childhood, peaceable, animalcule, pupilage, globule, hopeful, kingdom, friendship, expectation, indecisive, incompati- ble, incomprehensibility, righteous, signature, prepossession, dissimilarity, discovery, recoverable, reorganize, transparency, debasement, promotion, derangement, reinstate, predisposition, illumination, ignominiously, alle- gation, confederation, impenetrability, disqualification. Analyze the following Annpound words : — Seahorse, timepiece, cloudcapped, fireplace, inkstand, tree-top, wood- house, schoolroom, mousetrap, whaleship, sunrise, drawbridge, newspaper copy-book, breastplate, eyesight, airpump, cornstalk, woodpile. Add as many prefixes and suffixes as you can to the folloicing radicals, and count the number of words you form from each : — Form, gress (go), press, grade, range, merge, number, face, brace, value, measure, like, state, cloud, fair, stable, equal, print, trust, burden, mix, motxnt, line, social, move, base, animate, judge, test, use, lay, figure, firm, Tene (come), join, struct (build), charge, cede, seive, tend. * When sot es are added to If e present tense of the verb, thoy denote the singu- la number. 2* 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. MODEL. Form — forms, former, formed, forming, formation, formal, formally, formality, formalist, forma/ism, formative, reform, reforms, reformed, re* forming, reformation, reformatory, reform* tive, reformer, inform, in- forms, informer, informed, informing, infomal, informally, informality, informant, misinform, misinformed, perform, ] 'erforms, joerformer, perform- ed, performing, performance, performable, deform, deforms, deformed, de- forming, deformity, transform, transforms, transforming, transformed, trans formation, conform, conform*, conforming, conformed, conformer, conform- ance, conformably, conformation, conformist, conformity, nonconformist, nonconformity, uuform, unformed, uniform, imiforms, uniformly, uni- formity. 65 words. RULES FOR THE "USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. (1.) The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital ; as, " Jesus wept." (2.) Titles of honor and respect, and every proper name, and every ad- jective derived from a proper name, should begin with a capital ; as, IIu Highness, Boston, Bostonian. (3.) Every appellation of the Deity should begin with a capital ; as God, Jehovah, the Eternal. (4.) The first word of every line in poetry should begin with a capital. (5.) The words / and O should always be capitals. (6.) Any important word may begin with a capital. (7.) The principal words in the titles of books should begin with capi- tals; as, Pope?s " Essay on Man." (8.) The first word of a direct quotation, when the quotation forms a complete sentence by itself, should begin with a capital. ETYMOLOGY. Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, and various modifications of words. A word is the sign of an idea, and is either spoken oi written. CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. According to their meaning and use, all words are divided into eight classes, called Parts of Speech. All words are divided, according to the number of syllables they contain, feto monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables. Words are divided, according to their formation, into primitive, derxva tive, and compt A primitive word is always a simple word ETYMOLOGY — PARTS OF SPEECH- 19 Worcis which vary their forms in construction are called declinable Those which do not vary them, are indeclinable. PARTS OF SPEECH. In English, there are eight parts of speech — the Noun, the Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposi- tion, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. A. noun is the name of an object ; us, fruit, Henry, Boston. The noun (from the Latin nomen, a name) embraces a large number of words. All words which are the names of persons, animals, places, or things, material or immaterial, are called nouns. An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the mean- ing of a noun or pronoun ; as, good, faithful, this, some. The adjective (from the Latin adjectus, added to, i. e., to a noun) em- braces a large class of words, which are added to nouns to express their qualities, or define them ; as, " toorthy citizens ; " " this book." All words which are united to nouns answering such questions as What? W/iai kirult Hoio many? are adjectives. A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun ; as, I, he, you, who. This part of speech (derived from the Latin pro and nomen, for a name) embraces but a small number of different words ; yet any noun may be represented by a pronoun. It will be seen that these three parts of speech are intimately connected: the first is the name of an object; the second expresses the properties of the first ; the third may take the place of the first. A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state ; as, be, read, sleep, is loved. Nothing can be affirmed without a verb. It is derived from the Latin verbum, the ivord, i. e., the important word; it embraces a large class of words. The different uses of the verb, as well as those of the other parts of speech, will be explained hereafter. An adverb is used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb ; as, quickly, first, far. The adverb (from the Latin ad and verbum, added to a verb) embraces all those words which are added to verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, to denote time, place, and manner. A preposition is a word used to show the relation between a noun or pronoun and some other word ; &s,fro?n, upon, em, with. This part of speech includes a small list 0/ words, which are used to de- note the relations of place, time, cause, manner, property, quality, &c. It is called a preposition (from tho Latin prse, before, and positio, a placing, placed before) from the circumstance of its bemg placed before the object with which it is always associated. 20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. A conjunction is a word used to connect either woids phrases, or propositions ; as, and, but, or. The conjunction includes but a small class of words, which are used to Join the parts of a sentence ; it is derived from the Latin conjunctus,./oiw«J. The interjection is used to express some emotion of the mind ; as, ! alas ! The term interjection (from the Latin interjectus, throrcn between) i* applied to a few words that do not enter into the structure of a sentem.e, Dut may be thrown in at pleasure, to express our feelings. NOUNS. A noun is the name of an object ; a; house, tree, Boston goodness. Rem. 1. — The word object, as here used, should be carefully distinguished from the same term employed in Syntax, to denote the complement of the transitive verb. It here denotes every species of existence, material or immaterial, which may be considered independently or alone; and is op- posed to the term attribute, which always represents something dependent upon, belonging to, or inherent in an object.* Thus apple is the name of the object, — the substance which embraces every possible property of the apple, — while sweet is the name of one of its attributes, and when used concretely, exists only in connection with the object, not independently and alone. These fundamental distinctions gave rise, among the earlier grammarians, to the terms noun substantive, or name of the substance, (object,) for the former, and noun adjective, or name of the attribute, (something added to the substance,) for the latter. Subsequently, the former term was abbreviated into substantive, afterwards noun, and the lat- ter into adjective. Rem: 2. — It will be perceived that the idea of substance or independent existence is the basis of the distinction between the noun and the adjec- tive ; yet it must be remembered that nouns or adjectives are mere words, so called, because the one denotes a substance, or an object, and the other an attribute. Rem. 3. — It will be seen, moreover, that an attribute, when regarded as an independent existence, that is, when abstracted from the object to which it belongs, becomes an object of itself. Its name, whether changed or not, ought to be a noun. To show the change, however, the word denot- ing the attribute generally undergoes some change ; as, good, good-«e.v.s, bright, bright-ness. Rem. 4. — Whenever a word, syllable, letter, or symbol of any kind is spoken of as an object, it must be regarded as a noun ; as, " We is a per- sonal pronoun." " Un is a prefix." " A is a vowel." " + is the sign of ad- dition." " , is a comma." Rem. 5. — So, again, when a phrase, or a clause of a sentence, is used to denote an object, it becomes a noun ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant." " That you have xoronged me doth appear in this." * Note to the Teacher. — Tt i? alt-import ant that tho learner arquire the habit erf distinguishing, at the outset, between <-\\ ooject and an attribute. This cei don? by lessons on onjert.-; and their BttriDUtes. (See Introduction.) .!t will the distinction a matter of concrptim, rather than of mere memory. ETYMOLOGY — EXERCISES. 21 Rum. 6. — The noun is often called a substantive. All phrases or clauses, *sed as nouns, are called substantive phrases or clauses. CLASSES OF NOUNS. Note. —For an oral exercise, see Introduction, pages xxix and xxx. Nouns are divided into two classes — proper and common A proper noun is the name of an individual object ; as, Tames, Erie. A common noun is a name which applies to each individ jal of a class of objects ; as, man, boy, house. Hem. 1. — As a proper noun denotes simply an individual, whenever it »s made to represent an individual as belonging to a class, it becomes a common noun ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age," i. e., a distinguished orator. Rem. 2. — Common nouns, on the contrary, may become proper, when, by personification, or special use, the object named is regarded as an indi- vidual, not belonging to a class ; as, " Justice, thou art fled to brutish beasts, and men have lost their reason." " The Common" " The Park" Under the head of common nouns are commonly reckoned collective, abstract, and verbal nouns. A collective noun is one which, in the singular, denotes more than one object ; as, army, family, flock. An abstract noun is the name of a quality or an action, considered apart from the object to which it belongs ; as, goodness, virtue, wisdom, move- ment A verbal noun is a participle used as a noun ; as, " He was convicted of stealing." The infinitive is a kind of verbal noun ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant." To nouns belong person, number, gender, and case. EXERCISES. Tell which of the following xcords designate objects, and which prop- erties ; then select the nouns : — Horse, old, good, peach, vine, heavy, dell, bard, strong, hill, star, empty,. ocean, hilly, wright, William, European, engine, saline, road, top, stile, bog, rose, upright, smith, smart, weed, smithy, smoke, balloon, oyster, sea, charict, wild, hungry, thirst, delay, duty. Select the nouns from the following sentence : — As soon as the sun was seen coming over the hills, the fanner aroused the laborers from slumber, who, with their scythes on their shoulders. and pitchforks in their hands, marched gayly to the field to begin the la- bora of the day. Tell which of the following nouns are common, and tohich art proper : — Posterity, virtue. Rome, tea, Ner-;, Cicero, Germany, Paris, pomp, sua 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. shine, meadow, Pekin, gulf, Medici, astronomy, Darius, father, calico, Louden, dungeon, district, Sicily; Tell which of the following common nouns are abstract, which art collective,, which are verbal : — Army, tasting, goodness, heat, harness, rising, sailing, wisdom, flock, Wonder, teaching, energy, frankness, freedom, school, destiny, household, multitude, teething, shutting, dulness, company. Change the following names of properties into abstract nouns : — pood, cheerful, diligent, rapid, powerful, dark, strong, heavy, lovely, brilliant, beautiful, flaming, brave, swift, lame, solid, soft, thick, easy, Btrange. Thus, good, good ness. Write the names of fifteen objects m this room ; also write the names of such objects at home as you can recall. Fill the blanks in the following examples with nouns of your own se lection : — is short. are strong. have fallen. is a quadruped. were destroyed. will deefv. will rise at six o'clock. is the king of beasts. was the father of bis country. was a tyrant. were overthrown in the Red Sea • mourned for Absalom. shine at night. PEKSON. Note. — Review the oral exercise in the Introduction, page xxxiii. Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which shows its relation to the speaker. A noun or pronoun must represent either the spieaker, the person spoken to, or the person or tiling spoken of. There are three persons — the first, second, and third. The first person denotes the speaker ; as, " I, John, saw." The second person denotes the person spoken to ; as '* Children, obey your parents." The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of ; as, " Thomas did not come." M The harvest is abundant.' "Rem. 1. — Nouns in the first or second person are never used as the sub- ject or object of a verb, but may be put in apposition with either, for the purpose of explanation ; as, " I, Paul, beseech you." Rem. 2. — The names of inanimate objects are in the second person, when the objects to which they apply are spoken to. Objects thus ad- dressed are personified, and are treated as though they were actual hear • crs ; as, " An! I have loved thee, Ocean." EXERCISE. Tell trie person of the nouns and pronouns in thefolkncinq sentenr.es : — Nero was a tyrant. Children, obey your parents. Philip, thou art a man. Belays are dangerous. We cannot tamper with temptation. Ta« ETYMOLOGY — NUMBER OF NOUNS. 23 ferryman took us safely" across the river. Keep thy heart with all dili- gence. We should love our country. King Philip was the last of the Wampanoags. " Let my country be thine," said his preserver. Babylon, how art thou fallen ! The lady loves her will. Fill the blanks in the folloioing expressions; tell the person of the noun or pronoun inserted: — was executed for murder. ■ art the man. The lady lost — purse and all contents. are willing to remain »■ hast strangely ended. delight in surf bathing. The father called ■ sons and daughters around . The duke was esteemed for uprightness, and the duchess beloved for kind- ness. Art a spirit of earth or air ? wast wrong to urge me so. NUMBER OF NOUNS.* Number is that property of a noun which distinguishes one object from more than one. Nouns have two numbers — the singular and the plural. The singular number denotes but one object ; as, horse, river, nation. The plural denotes more than one object ; as, horses, riv~ ers, nations. FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. I. The plural of nouns is regularly formed, — (1.) By adding s, when the singular ends with a souncl that can unite or coalesce with s ; as, look, looks ; tree, trees. (2.) By adding es, when the singular ends with a sound that cannot unite or coalesce with s ; as lox, loxes ; church churches. Rem. 1. — When es is added, s has the sound of z ; as, fox, foxes; when * only is added, it has the sound of z when it unites or coalesces with a vowel ; as, folio, folios ; flea, fleas. It follows the rule (see Rule 1, page 7) for the combination of consonants, when it follows a consonant ; that is, it is s aspirate when it unites with an aspirate ; as, hat, hats ; cap, caps surf, surf's; clock, clocks ; it is s subvocal (or z) when it follows a subvo- cal; as,' lad, lads; log, logs; ball, balls ; farm, farms ; fan, fans ; war tears. * Let the teacler give an oral exercise before commencing " Number of Nouns. Its object should be to show that number has reference to one, or more than one Fust, take one bo ok, or any other object, and ask, " Ilow many do 1 hold up ? " .ins. One book. Spell the word or write it on the slate. How many now? rfns. Two bonks. What letter is added ? Why is it added ? How many "now ? Ans. Three books. Are any more letters added? Jlns. No more. Ilow would you write the word if there were twenty books ? Ans The same as when there were two or three. 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Eem. 2. — The s cr es adds a syllable when it. does not coalesce wito the final syllable of the singular ; as, church, church-es ; race, rac-esj cage, cag-es. The s or es does not add a syllable Avhen it does coalesce with the final syllable ; as, work, works ; echo," echoes. II. The plural is irregularly formed in various ways. (1.) "When the final 5, contrary to the rule, (see Rem. 1, above,) ia MiDYOcal, after the aspirate sounds f fe, the/ must be changed (see Rule 1, page 7) into its correlative v ; as, loaf, loaves ; life, lives ; sheaf, sheaves ; thief thieves. When s is aspirate, as in the plurals of dwarf, brief, scarf reef, chief, grief, kerchief, handkerchief gulf, surf turf serf, proof hoof, roof safe', fife, strife, the Vis not changed. Staff, when meaning a stick, has stores' for its plural; when meaning a set of officers, it has stajfs. The plural of wharf, in the United States, is wharves ; in Eng- land, wharfs. Note. — The s added to th aspirate is also subvocal, (except in truth, youth, and, *t may !>e, a few Others,) and would cause a similar change in the orthography of the plural, were not the correlative also represented by th ; as, oath, oaths ; buth, hatlu. (2.) Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add es, not- withstanding s alone would coalesce with o ; as, cargo, cargoes. Yet canto, grotto, quarto, junto, duodecimo, octavo, solo, portico, tyro, halo, add only s. But by some writers es is added. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel, follow the general rule ; as, folio, folios ; cameo, cameos. (3.) Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y into ies ; as, glory, glories; mercy, mercies. Formerly, these words, in the sin- gular, ended in ie , as, glorie, mercie ; their plurals were then formed regu- larly. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, form the plural regularly ; as, "day, days ; key, keys. (4. ) The following plurals are very irregular ; as, man, men ; wo- man, women ; brother, brethren, or brothers ; ox, oxen ; goose, geese ; child, children ; foot, feet ; louse, lice; mouse, mice ; die, dice (meaning a cube used in gaming), dies (meaning a stamp) ; pea, peas, or pease ; tooth, teeth ; penny, pennies (coins), pence (a sum or value). (5.) Names of substance, and most abstract nouns, commonly have no plural form ; as, gold, cider, fax, tnilk, tar, goodness, darkness. When different kinds of the substance are referred to, the plural is added ; as, waters, wines, teas. (6.) In compound words, if the word denoting the principal idea is placed first, it is changed to form the plural ; as, court-martial, courts martial ; cou.sin-(/erman, cousi?is-yerma?i ; hanger-on, hangers-on ; but if the principal word is placed last, the final word is changed ; as, hand- ful, haiul-fuls ; man-servant, woman-servant, and knight-templar change both ; as, men-servants, women-servants, knights-templars. (7.) Letters, marks, figures, and signs are pluralized by adding 's ; as, the s's ; the i's ; the * 's ; the 9's ; the +'s. (8.) On the use of the plural of proper names with a title prefixed, the opinions of writers are divided. The following rules have the au- thority of good usage : — (a.) A proper name with the title of Mrs., or the ordinal numbers, two, three, four, &c., prefixed, when used in the plural, is itself changed, and not the title ; as, " the Mrs. Livingstons ; " " the two Dr. Warrens." (b.) In addressing two or more persons of the same family, or of differ- ent names, the title alone is changed ; as, " the Misses Livingston ; " " Messrs. Walker." But either of the following forms may be used ; " the Miss Rands," or " the Misses Hand ; " " the Mr. Walkers," or * the Messrs. Walkers." ETYMOLOGY EXERCISE. 25 (9.) Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plu- rals ; as, antithesis, antitheses ; automaton, automata ; axis, axes ; ban- dit, banditti; beau, beaux ; cherub, cherubim; criterion, criteria; datum, data ; desideratum, desiderata ; encomium, encomia ; erratum, errata ; fo- cus, foci ; formula, formulae ; hypothesis, hypotheses ; madame, mesdames ; magus, magi; memorandum, memoranda; monsieur, messieurs; nebula, nebula ; phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii; seraph, seraphim; stimu- lus, sti?nuli ; stratum, strata. REMARKS ON THE NUMBER OF NOUNS. Nouns "without the Plural. Rem. 1. — Proper names, when ap- plied to individuals, strictly speaking, do not admit of a plural form. But when several of the same name or family are spoken of together, the noun takes the plural, according to the general rule ; as, " the Caesars ; " " the Stuarts ; " " the Harpers." Nouns without the Singular. Rem. 2. — The following nouns have no singular : embers, oats, scissors, vespers, literati, antipodes, ashes, clothes, billiards, ides, intestines, vitals, bellows, draxoers, nippers, tongs, shears, &c. Lungs, bowels, and some others have a singular denoting a part of the whole ; as, lung, boicel. Rem. 3. — The following words are plural in respect to their original form, but singular or plural in respect to their meaning : alms, amends, news, riches, pains, (meaning effort,) odds, wages, molasses, series, suds, corps, measles, tidiivjs, mumps, rickets, nuptials ; as also the names of some of the sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, statics, mechanics, mnemonics. Note. — News is now regarded as singular ; so also measles and molasses, although they iiave the plural form. Nouns either Singular or Plural. Rem. 4. — Some nouns art alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine, vermin, hose, fry, trout, tah- mon, brace, dozen, yoJce, gross. EXERCISE. NUMBER of nouns. Note. — Let the teacher give short sentences in the singular, as, watet flows, and require the learner to change the nouns to the plural. Tell which of the following nouns are singular, and which are plural : — Daughter, diy, chairs, watches, apple, pears, stars, oats, coat, nails, ink stand, horri, hearts, hoof, books, bundle, home, canes, umbrellas, markets flower, leaf. Write i\e plural of the following nouns, and give the rule for the termi nation : ■ "Work example, lady, oak, horse, hope, stratagem, ferry, leaf, storm, bird, bend, thief, dreg, sex, trick, band, bottle, day, filly, half, watch, iroa nnegp*. Tel 1 , the singular of the following : — Heroes, pence, strata, teeth, dies, memoranda, children, mice, hypothe- ses, messieurs, brethren, scissors, seraphim, axes, snuffers, errata," cheru- oim, sheep, formulae, swine, sol >s, flies, knives, riches, mottoes, octavo*, courts-martial, inkstands. 3 ?6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Fill the following blanks ; the first Jive with common nouns in the singular number : — is a noble animal. is a virtue. cannot be seen. — must be avoided. had reached the meridian. The next fivt with propel' nouns in the singular : descended the Alps. waa not at home. crossed the Delaware. was the Emperor of Rome. was a valiant soldier. The next jive with abstract, verbal, or collective nouns : on the water is a pleasant amusement. was scattered by the wolves. is the mother of vice. waa collected around the hearth-stone from friends is painful. 'The next jive with nouns which do not admit of a plural : is sour. is found in Pennsylvania. goes before a fall. is situated on the Danube. is transparent. The next jive with nouns which do not admh of a singular: must be ground. take to themselves wings. were joyful. were made of brass. were voted by the assembly. Correct the following plurals, and give the rule or remarks for the cor rection : — Heros, negros, folioes, vallies, dutys, thiefs, calfs, stratums, phenome- nons, cherubims, mans, turkies, flys, court-martials, father-in-laws, son in- laws, cupsfull, seraphims. Tell the nouns and pronouns in the following sentence ; tell the person and number of each : — " Thy testimonies have I taken as an heritage forever, for they are the rejoicing of my heart." GENDER. Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex. There are three genders — the masculine, the feminine ^nd the neuter. Nouns which denote males are of the masculine gender ; as, man, king, hero. Nouns whicn denote females are of the feminine gender ; as, woman, queen, mother. Nouns which denote neither males nor females are of the neuter gender ; as, tree, rock, paper. Rem. 1. — Some nouns may denote either males or females ; as, parent, child, cousin. These are sometimes said to be of the common gender ; but as the gender of such nouns may generally be determined by the connec- tion, there seems to be no necessity for the distinction. Rem. 2. — By a figure of speech, called Personification, the masculine or feminine gender is applied to inanimate obj ects ; thus we say of a ship, " She sails well;" of the sun, "He rises in the east." The use of this figure imparts peculiar beauty and animation to language. "Tier flag streams wildly, and her fluttering sails pant to be on their flight." '* Thn meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews." Rem. 3. — In speaking of the inferior animals, and sometimes even oi ETYMOLOGY GENDER. 2*3 infants, the distinction of sex is not observed; as, ** And it became a ser pent, and Moses fled from before it." u Tbe child was lying in its cradle." Hem. 4. — Collective nouns, if they convey the idea of .unity, or take tbe plural form, are neuter; as, " The army, on its approach, raised a shout of defiance." But if they convey the idea of plurality without the plural form, they take the gender of the individuals which compose the collec tinu ; as, " The jury could not agree upon their verdict." There are three methods of distinguishing the sexes :— - (1.) By using the different words : — Examples. Bachelor, maid; beau, belle; boar, sow; boy, girl; broth- er, sister ; buck, doe ; bull, cow ; cock, lien ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; father, mother ; gander, goose ; horse, mare ; husband, wife ; king, queen ; lad, lass; lord, lady; male, female ; man, woman; nephew, niece; ram, eive; son, daughter; stag, hind; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; dog, bitch; mottk, nun; hart, roe ; master, mistress; Mister, Mistress, (Mr., Mrs.;} papa, mamma; sir, madam; sloven, slut; steer, heifer; youth, damsel, twain, nymph. Rem. — Some masculine nouns have no corresponding feminines ; as, baker, brewer, porter, carrier; while some feminine nouns have no cor. responding masculine ; as, laundress, seamstress. (2.) By a difference of termination : — Examples. Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; administrator, administra trix ; adulterer, adultress ; ambassador, ambassadress ; autfwr, authoress ; baron, baroness ; bridegroom, bride; benefactor, benefactress; count, count- ess ; dauphin, dauphiness ; deacon, deaccmess ; director, directress; duke, duchess; emperor, empress; executor, executrix ; governor, governess ; heir, heiress ; hero, heroine ; hunter, huntress ; host, hostess ; instructor, instruct- ress; Jew, Jewess ; landgrave, landgravine ; lion, lioness; marquis, mar- chioness; monitor, monitress ; patron, patroness; poet, poetess; priest, ss : prince, princess ; prophet, prophetess ; shepherd, shepherdess ; tes- tator, testatrix ; t'ujer, tigress ; tidor, tutoress ; widower, widow ; god, goddess; giant, giantess ; negro, negress ; songster, songstress; sorceier, sorceress. ' (3.) By prefixes and suffixes. Examples. "Landlord, landlady; gentleman, genueicoman ; -peacock, peahen; he-goat, she-goat; man-servant, ma/d-servant ; ma/e-child, fs- male-child; cock-STp&rrovr, Aen-sparrow ; grandfather, grandmother; Eng- lishman, Englishioo/non; merman, mermaid; schoolmaster, schoolmistress. EXERCISE. Tell which of the following nouns are masexdine, which feminine, and which neuter : — Picture, walnut, duch ass, philosopher, Spaniard, door, letter, cap, sailor, 3ueen, priest, curtain, lioness, nun, captain, bridge, widow, hind, wizard, eacon, hospital, fort, banner, doe, brother, countess. Give the feminine gender to the follmoing nouns : — Man, abbot, horse, hero, tiger, heir, prophet, Jew male, lord, widower, nart, Lusband, beau, uncle, author, host, shepherd, poet, gander, sultan, banter, master, drake, king, patron, brdegroom, stag prince, peer, nephew 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Give the masculine gender of the following : — Empress, songstress, ewe, mother, sister, marchioness, maid, actress. woman, she-goat, electress, witch, doe. Fill the blanks in the following examples ; the first five with common nouns in the masculine gender ; — is patient. loves his master. reigns king of beasSR. exposes his wares for sale. should venerate the eld. The next five ivith proper or common nouns in the feminine gender : — was Queen of England. entertained her guests with grace. was a distinguished poetess. was the nightingale of Sweden. loves her offspring. T/ie next five with collective nouns, and tell tlie gender : met at the house of a friend. brought in a verdict. - were appointed by the chair. must obey its leaders. listened with delight. CASE. OUAL EXERCISE. Will you say or declare something of a pent a, dog? a horse? a bee? a tree ? Thus, " The pen is poor." Now, suppose, instead of saying something, you had done something to each of these ; how would you speak of it ? Ans. " I broke my pen." 1 Is pen in the same relation or case as before ? Ans. It is not. It was then the subject; it is now the object. (See Introduction, Proposition enlarged.) Now, when we use a noun in the relation of subject, it is in the nomina- tive case ; then in what case are these nouns ? George writes. The cfoudt are black. The smoke ascends. The wind blows, when we use a noun in the relation of object after a verb or a preposition, it is in the objective case. In what case are these nouns ? I saw a man. He broke the window. They walk in the garden. She sits on the sofa. Suppose Henry owned a sled ; how would you tell whose sled it was ? Ans. Henry's sled. Henry is now in the relation of a possessor, and the word Henry's is said to be in the possessive case. Tell in what case the following words in Italics are : John came yesterday. I saw a hen. Hum- phrey's clock. The cat caught a mouse. Herbert's dog worried his broth- er's cat. Will you mention the name of some object in this room ? Ans. Chair Now say something of the chair. " The chair stands on the floor." CASE. Case denotes the relation of a noun or pronoun to other words. There are three cases — the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. The nominative case is the simplest form of the noun, and is commonly used as the subject of a proposition ; as, * George speaks." " The door was shut." Besides being the subject of a proposition, the nominative case may btf Used, 1st, as the attribute of a proposition ; 2d, it may be used to id he subject or attribute ; 3d, it may be independent of any other word. ETYMOLOGY — DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 2& The possessive denotes the relation of property or posses- sion ; as, " David's harp." The possessive singular of nouns is regularly formed by adding an apostrophe (') and the letter s to the nominative ; as, man's, Davids. When the plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is added ; as, boys\ ladies\ But the (') and s are added when it ends in any other letter ; as, men's, women's, brethren's. Rem. 1. — When the singular ends in s, or a letter or combination of letters having the sound of s, and the addition of a syllable would be harsh, the (') only is added ; as, goodness* sake, conscience' sake, Moses' seat, Cockatrice' den. Rem. 2. — Some difference of opinion prevails among writers respecting the form of the possessive in other cases where the singular ends in s, some adding the (') only, and some the (') and s. Thus we have Adams' express, or, Adams's express ; Otis' letters, or Otis' s letters. The weight of authority seems to be in favor of the additional s, whenever the laws of euphony will admit ; especially if a syllable is added in pronouncing the word ; as, Bates's Sermons. When a noun follows a transitive verb or a preposition, it is in the objective case ; as, " Thomas opened his knife." " The bird sat on the tree." Rem. 1. — The nominative case answers the question Who? or JVJiat? as, " Who writes ? " " John writes." " What alarms him ? " " The storm alarms him." The possessive answers the question W/iose? as, " Wlwse book have you ? " " I have my brother's book." The objective case an- swers the question Whom ? or M hat ? as, " Whom do you see ? " "I see the captain." " On ichat does he stand ? " " He stands upon the deck." Rem. 2. — The possessive case may be known by its form. But the forms of the nominative and the objective are alike ; hence they must be determined by their relation to other words/ DECLENSION OF NOUNS. The declension of a noun is its variation to denote num ber and case. EXAMPLES 1. Boy. Sing. Nam. Poss. Obj. Boy, Boy's, Boy; Plur. Boya, Boys', Boys. 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Nam. I'oss. Obj. Norn. Poss Obj. Fly. Sing. Fly, Fly's, Fly; John. Sing. John, John's, John : Plur. Flies, Flies', Flies. Plur. Wanting. Norn. Poss. Obj. Goodness. Sing. Goodness, Goodness', Goodness : Phir Wanting. PARSING. Parsing consists, — (1.) In telling the part of speech. (2.) In telling its properties or accidents. (3.) In pointing out its relation to other words, and gif lug the rule for its construction.* In parsing a noun, say, — (1.) It is a noun, and tell why. (2.) It is common or proper, and tell why. (3.) It is of the 1st, 2d, or 3d person, and tell why. (4.) It is of the singular or plural number, and tell why. (5.) It is of the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and ten why. (6.) It is of the nominative, possessive, or objective case, and tell why. (7.) The rule * for construction. EXERCISE. The following nouns are in the nominative case. " George writes." Parse them thus : — . George is a noun, it is the name of an object ; proper, it is the name of an individual object; of the third person, it denotes the person spoken of; singular number, it denotes but one ; masculine gen- der, it denotes a male ; nominative case, it is used as the subject of the proposition " George writes." Rule I. " A noun or pro- * The pupil who has been thoroughly drilled on the Introductory Course may Be able to introduce this third element of parsing, if the teacher choose. The Rule* of Syntax will, of course, be anticipated, if applied here. The teacher can omit ui tee the riles, as he may think best. ETYMOLOGY CASE. 31 noun used as the subject of a proposition must be in the nomi- native case." Trees grow. Rain falls. The ice melts. The serpent crawls. Susan sings. The coal burns. The stars shine. Wisdom is profitable. Dogs bark. T^o cars arrive. Smoke ascends. Columbus sailed. Mary studies. The following nouns are in the nominative case. Those in Itaitcs are the predicate-nominative. Parse the latter thus : — " Henry was a scholar." Scholar . is a, noun, (why?) common, (why?) third person, (why?) singu- lar number, (why?) masculine gender, (why?^ nominative case ; (why ?) it is used as the attribute of the proposition, " Henry is' a scholar." llule II. **-A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of a proposition must be in the nominative case." Fetei was an apostle. Gold is a metal. Demosthenes was an orator. Horses are animals. Borneo is an island. Algebra is a science. Air is a fluid. "Water is a liquid. The earth is a globe. The Stars are suns. The moon is a satellite. The following nouns are in the nominative. Those in Italics are in the nominative by apposition. Parse them thus : — " The Emperor Nero was a tyrant." Nero . . . is a noun, (why ?) proper, (why?) third person, (why?) singular number, (why?) masculine gender, (why ?) nominative case ; it is used to identify or explain Emperor. "Rule VI. (Repeat it.) The psalmist David was a king. Paul the apostle was a martyr. The lisciple John was beloved. Washington the general became Washington the statesman. Milton the poet was blind. Henry the scholar was crowned king. The following nouns in Italics are in the nominative independent. Parse them thus : — " James, bring me a book." " John, come." James . . is a proper noun,* second person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case ; it denotes the person addressed. Rule X. The following nouns in Italics are in the p>Qssessive case, as may be seen by the sign ('s). Parse them thus : — " The pupil's task is easy." Pupil's . is a noun, (why ?) common, (why ?) third person, (why ?) singu- lar number, (why ?) masexdine or feminine gender; it denotes either a male or a female ; possessive case ; it denotes the relation of property or possession, and is used to limit task. Rule VII. " A noun or pronoun used to limit another noun or pronoun by denoting possession, must be in the possessive case." The boy's hand was injured. The king's command was issued. The rook's nest was destroyed. The bird's beak was broken. The s^pent's fang is poisonous. The. elephant's tusk is white. Rufus's garden i3 watered. Mary's work is agreeable. * it vill be wo 1 at times to omit the definitions, and shorten the formulas foi pursing 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The following nouns in Italics are in t/ie objective ;ase. Parse them thus : — " We visited Washington, the capital, in the District of Columbia." Washington is a proper noun, third person, singular number, neuter gen der, and objective case ; it is used as the object of visited, ac- cording to Rule VIII. " A noun or pronoun used as the object of a transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective case." Capital . . is a noun, &c, in the objective case, and is used to identify or explain Washington, which is in the objective case Rule VI. (Repeat it.) District . . . is a common noun, &c, in the objective case, and is used as the object of the preposition in, according to Rule XIV. " A noun or pronoun used as the object of a preposition, must be in the objective case." Columbia . is a proper noun, &c, object of of. Rule XIV. Put the following nouns in Italics into the znssessive case, and let each expression be written on your slates, thus : — " The carpenter' axe. The carpenter's axe." Abraham son. David harp. Moses law. Adams Arithmetic. Web ster Dictionary. Peter coat. The teacher book lies upon the pupil desk. The coachman dog barked at the herdsman sheep. The lion roar aroused the shepherd dog. The farmer corn was destroyed by his neighbor cow. Parse each possessive noun on your slates, and give the rule for forming the possessive case. Write the following nouns in the possessive plural, and place some appro- priate noun after them, thus : — " The tailors' shears." " The men's apartment." Tailor, seaman, captain, doctor, lawyer, judge, gardener, shoemaker, blacksmith, hunter, laborer, fireman, engineer, conductor, superintendent, director, president. Tell the case of each noun in the following examples : — John's hat lies on Peter's table. The pastor's visit consoled the moth- er's heart. The love of truth should be cultivated in childhood. Correct the folloioing examples and parse the nouns from your slate : — The huntsman horn alarmed the shepherd dog. The pilot wife saw het husband bos t. The jailer child approached the prisoner cell. We sat on the boatman oar. Select ten objects capable of action, and assert some appropriate action of each. Then individualize (Introduction) or limit both the object and the lotion, observing the rules of criticism. Correct the following sentences : — let me have my Slate. If you wil corect this .sentence, i wil thank you ; — every sentence should begin with a capital. John seperates a silab- »e at the end of a line, if you rite this exercise without refering to the ni'.a for doubbling the final leter, you may misspcl too words, o, i have made a mistake in the use of capitals. Had'nt sarah ought to begin all proper names with a capital, george reads wrights syfers spels and studyi raphy, but he does not put his commys where he'd ought to ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 33 ADJECTIVES. ORAL EXERCISE. When I say " birds," I may mean all the birds in the world. How can [ speak so as to limit the number of birds to ten ? Ans. By placing ten before the word birds ; thus, ten buds. We limit the number by adding something to the word birds. What shall we call the word thus added to a noun ? Ans. An adjective, (added to.) Which represents the greater mimber of horses, horses — or white horses ? Ans. Horses. What word has thus diminished the number of horses ? Ans. White. Does white show a quality as well as limit the number ? Ans. It does. Which represents the greater number, books — or jive books f Ans. Boolcs. Does jive show a quality of the books, as, good, useful, bad, at the same time that it limits the number ? Ans. It does not; it limits without showing any quality. What is the difference, then, between jive and white f Five limits without qualifying, and white limits by qualifying. What kind of adjectives are these in Italics t Good scholars, bad pens, old houses, faithful servants. Ans. They are adjectives expressing quality. What kind of adjectives are these ? Ten stoves, the^Vs^ class, yonder orchard, this hat, every day. Ans. They arc adjectives which limit, but do not qualify. (See Introduc- tion, " Objects Individualized.") Now study carefully the following def- initions and mark the distinctions : — An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify a noun ; as, " a good school ; " "a diligent boy ; " " this table ; " " ten men ; " " the box." Rem. — All words which have the construction of the adjective are here considered under the head of adjectives. The article, like the ad- jective, belongs to the noun ; it has the same construction as the adjective, and is hence placed among adjectives. Every adjective is a dependent or subordinate word, and must belong to some noun or pronoun as its principal. Rem. 1. — When the noun or pronoun to which the adjective belongs has been previously used in the same sentence, or is some indefinite word, as, person, some one, or some thing, it may be omitted ; as, "I wiU give ~'.u this book, if you will give rxe'that." " The kingdom of heaven suf- -«reth violence, and the violent [persons] take it by force." _3,EM. 2. — An adjective belonging to a noun understood, or omitted, takes the place of the latter, and is said to be an adjective used as a noun. /°se model for parsing that and violent, p. 39.) CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. Adjectives are divided into two classes — limbing and qualifying. A limiting adjective is used to define or restrict tb«> mean- ing of a noun, without expressing any of its qualities ; as, " the house ; " "five books ; " " this pen." Limiting adjectives are divided into three classes — (trti ties, -pronominal adjectives, and numeral adjectives. 54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ARTICLES. The particular limiting adjectives, the and a, or an are called articles. The is called the definite, because it points out some par- ticular thing ; as, " the desk ; " " the sun." A, or an, is called an indefinite article, because it does not point out any particular thing ; as," a pen ; " " an orchard.'* An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a conso- oant sound ; as, u an apple ; " " a pin ; " " an hour ; " " a union ; " u an honor." Rem. — Although the article is intimately connected with the limitation of no ans, it is to be regarded rather as the sign of limitation than as it- self a limiting vrord. When one says, " The man," the gives notice to the hearer that some particular man is regarded in the mind of the speaker. He will point out, by limiting or individualizing, who that particular man is. A, or an, again, is a sign that the speaker, in regarding a multitude of objects of the same kind, thinks of one, but no specific or particular one The object may be limited to show what class or description of objects is meant, but not to show any particular individual. A, or an, however, may be said to limit whenever it prevents a noun from being used in its wides* sense ; as, man = the whole human race ; a man = one man, but no par- ticular one. The, again, may be said to extend the meaning of a noun in the singular, when it is used in such examples as these : " TJie horse " = " all horses." " The dog," &c. EXERCISE. Point out the articles in the folloiving examples ; tell which are definite and which are indefinite : — The hat, a book, a knife, a box, an heir, an ox, a plough, an orchard, an industrious man, an honest man, a good citizen, a hill, a huge round stone, the enemy, the union, the ewe. Correct the folloxoing examples in all respects; write them on your slates : — I have got an hat. We have an horse. We saw many an one. Wc went a snowballing. I dun it ttiis mornin'. I saw any quantity of slays. I seen him do it. I board an hole with my uncles gimblet.* * Suggestion to thk Teacher. — It is fi.e design of these examples, interspersed among others, to keep alive the spirit of < ru'eism, and to root out hy practical exer- cises those incorrect expressions which children have imbibed from early associations Many of them may be corrected by principles already acquired. Others will antici- pate the rules yet to he given. And others, still, can never be reached by the rules of grammar ; they must be corrected by the laws of good usage. (See Rem. page 1 ) What rule of grammar will correct such an expression as " I disremember what lie Baid ? " Cannot every word be parsed r Does grammar correct this? " I proper* (purpose) to visit my friends." Every improvement in the expressions of the learner U a decided gain, whether it be made by rule, or by observing the custom of good speakers or good writers. Correct all faulty expressions by the rules of grammar, it possible, but at all events correct them. ETYMOLOGY ArJECTIVES. » j PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. Tiiose limiting adjectives which may, without U< !/J •*« the article, represent a noun when understood, ai called pronominal adjectives ; as, " That (book) is his , this i? yours." The principal pronominal adjectives are, this, that, these those, former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, neither, some, one, none, any, all, such, much, loth, few, fewer, fewest , first, last, little, less, least, many, more, most, own, same several, sundry, enough. Rem. 1. — When such adjectives represent a noun understood, they are generally called pronouns. They may more properly be called limiting adjectives, (pronominal adjectives,) used as nouns ; as, " This is my book." The articles never represent a noun understood. Rem. 2. — Qualifying adjectives may also represent a noun when under stood, but the article must be prefixed ; as, " The good are happy." Rem. 3. — All is sometimes a noun ; as, " He robbed me of my house, my goods, my home, my all." Both is frequently a conjunction ; as, " 1 both saw and heard him." Rem. 4. — Each, every, either, neither, are used distributively. This and that, with their plurals, these and those, are used demonstratively. None, any, all, such, ivhole, some, both, one, other, another, are used indefinitely. Rem. 5. — These, those, all, many, both, few, feioer, fewest, several, sundry, usually require a noun in the plural ; as, " These days." " Those plants." Rem. 6 — One and other are declined thus : — Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. Nom. One, Ones, Nom. Other, Others, Poss. One's, Ones', Poss. Other's, Others' Obj. One; Ones. Obj. ' Other; Others. EXERCISES. Point out the pronominal adjectives in the folloioing sentences : — This rule is preferable to that. These scholars are more studious thai, those. The former plan has yielded to the latter. Each exercise was well written. Every accused one was acquitted. The first method is better than the last. Many of our hopes are blasted. Few men are of the same mind. Much remains to be said upon all these points. Our own wishes must often be yielded to those of others. More were present than were expected. Little hope was entertained of his recovery. Neither remark was just. The same course was pursued by several of the members. Much harm arises from imprudence. I am less than the least of all saints Correct the following in all respects: — Those sort of cherries aint srood, these exercises is not corect in somt 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. respect, tlie Times t£ very hard, our dutys must Be performed. Sever' pupils come in late yesterday None has came, ll'aint you seen them men ? he said he hadat none. James thinks thats right, but otherfc dozent. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. Numeral adjectives are those which express number , as, wie, two, three, first, second, &c. Numeral adjectives are divided into, Cardinal, which denote how many ; as, one, two, three, &c. ; Ordinal, whi^ii show which one of a series ; as, first, second, third. EXERCISE. Apply cardinal numbers to the following nouns ; change them to the pkiral, if necessary : — Peach, berry, box, cup, match, cork, shoe, glove, pencil, wafer, penny, mouse, goose, woman, court-martial, tooth, brother-in-law, handful, stra- •uin, index, stamen, cherub, phenomenon. Correct the following plurals, and apply to each any numeral greater tJian one or first : — Oxes, calfs, sheeps, deers, geeses, 9s, 7s, fs, cherubims, serapnims ; wines, vallies, loafs, ehimnies, journies, studys, commander-in-chiefs, pros, soloes, grottoes, ladys. Collr.it all the erroneous expression? which you have noticed to-day. and orrect tnem. Be careful to avoid them yourself QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. A qualifying adjective is one which limits the meaning of a noun, by denoting some property or quality ; as, " a virtuous man ; M "a running horse." To this class of ad- jectives belong the participles, which have the signification of the verb and the construction of the adjective. Rem. 1. — When the participle is placed before the noun which it modi- fies, it is called a. participial adjective ; as, " The rising sun." When it is placed after the noun, and is itself limited by other words, it is parsed as a participle ; as, " The sun rising in the east." Rem. 2. — When a qualifying adjective represents an object understood, r'ther definite or indefinite," the articled must be placed before it ; as, " The wise [persons ;] the benevolent [ones ;] the beautiful, the good, and the true." When the quality is used abstractly, the adjective under* goes a change in its termination ;" as, Wise ( wisdom ,• beautiful, beauty. ETI MOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 31 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. When different objects are compared with each other, the adjective expressing the quality by means of »vhich they are compared undergoes a change, called comparison. There are three degrees of comparison — the positive^ comparative, and superlative. The positive simply denotes a quality ; as, righteous , pleasant. The comparative shows that one of two objects possesses a quality in a higher degree than the other ; as, " This tree is taller than that." The superlative shows that one of several objects possesses a quality in the highest degree, when compared with all tjjjp rest ; as, " That pine is the tallest tree in the grove." FORMATION OP THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the positive ; as, wise, wiser, wisest ; hold, holder, coldest. The comparative of most adjectives of more than one syllable is formed by prefixing more or less, and the superlative by prefixing most or least, to the positive ; as* industrious, more industrious, most industrious. The following adjectives are compared irregularly: Good, better, best; bad, worse, worst ; ill, tcorse, worst ; little, less or lesser, least ; much, more most ; many, more, most ; far, farther, farthest ; near, nearer, nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older, or elder, oldest or eldest. Rem. l.-r- Adjectives terminating in ish indicate the possession of a quality in a lower degree than the positive ; as, bluish, approaching in color to blue. Rem. 2. — The meaning of the positive is also varied by the addition of such adverbs as somewliat, rather, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, ex- ceedingly, &c. ; that of the comparative and superlative by such word* as milch, far, vastly, altogether, by far, &c. Hem. 3 — Several adjectives in the superlative degree are formed by adding most to up, upper, nether, in, inner, hind, hinder, out, (contracted to \U,) outer, further, hither, top, bottom; as, upmost, uppermost, inmost. Hem 4. — Adjectives derived from proper names, numerals, pronomi nal adjectives, and such as refej to position, material and form, are seldom, If ever, compared. 4 38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES. Tell which of the following words are adjectives : — Ice, cold, soft, water, this, little, chair, knob, arise, brave, diligent, ink stand, lamp, many, former, light, white, match, rough. \ Tell which of the following adjectives are limiting, and which are quoit- ■\ing: — >' Strong, twenty, faithful, green,- this, first, are, old, former, jellow, every, such, wonderful, timid, sweet, any, fifth, the, soft, those, pure, ripe, tough, other, thirty, odious. Tell which of the following adjectives are of the positive, which of the i<-mjxi)'ative, and which of the superlative degree : — Braver, young, more, acceptable, eldest, less, useful, worst, better, most honorable, strongest, sadder, more plentiful, least worthy, last, good, thrifty, considerate, tallest. Compare the following adjectives : — Bright, active, handsome, wise, sad, able, just, diligent, beautiful, good, excellent, dutiful, little, serene, fruitful, large, obedient, warm, studious, Shble, dexterous, gloomy, industrious, honorable, hot, ample, hard, worthy. Apply limiting adjectives to ten common nouns. Apply qualifying adjectives to ten common nouns, of the masculine gender, and in the plural number. Apply qualifying adjectives, in the comparative degree, to ten common nouns in the feminine gender. Apply qualifying adjectives, in the superlative degree, to ten nouns in the neuter gender. Fill the blanks in the following examples : — men are respected. Intemperance is vice. Gold is ■■ pf metals. The sun is than the earth. Asia is grand divis- ion. The plague is the fatal of diseases. The Pacific is than the Atlantic. men sit at their doors. The south wind breathes gently forth. events cast their shadows before. The Alps are , the Andejs are , but the Himalaya are of all. men never lived. men never fought. Study the following models for parsing , and then parse any of the above examples : — In parsing an adjective, — (1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why ? (2.) Tell what kind of adjective. Why ? (3.) Compare it, and give the degree, (if a qualifying adjective.) (4.) Tell to what noun it belongs. (5.) Give the rule. MODELS FOR PARSING. " The faithful man will be rewarded." Faithful is an adjective ; it is usei to limit or qualify a nou* ; qualifying, ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 89 it denotes qunlity; It \$ compared j positive faithful, eompnm- tive more faithful, superlative most faithful ; it ia in the posi- tive degree, and belongs to man, according to Rule V. (Re- peat it.) " Her house is larger than mine." Larger . is an adjective; it is used to limit or qualify a noun; qualifying, it denotes quality; it is compared; positive large, comparative larger, superlative largest; it is in the comparative degree ;^i* shows a higher degree of the quality than the positive does, and belongs to house, according to Rule V. (Repeat it.) " She is worthy of the highest praise." Highest . is an adjective ; it is used to limit or qualify a noun ; qualifying ; it denotes quality; it is compared; positive high, comparative, higher, superlative highest ' ; it is in the superlative degree; it shows the highest degree of the quality, and belongs to praise, according to Rule V. (Repeat it.) " The rose is a beautiful flower." The ... is an adjective ; (definite article;) it is used to limit or qualify a noun; limiting ; it limits without denoting quality; it belongs to rose, according to Rule V. (Repeat it.) "A treo has fallen." A .... is an adjective, (indefinite article;) it is used to limit or qualify a noun; limiting ; it limits without denoting quality; it belongs to tree, according to Rule V. (Repeat it.) " Three birds were killed." Three . . is an adjective ; it is used to limit or qualify a noun ; limiting, (numeral); it limits without denoting quality; it belongs to birds, according to Puiie V. (Repeat it.) " Give me this apple, and I will give you that." That ... is an adjective; it is used to limit the noun apple, understood; or it is used as a noun, in the third person, singular number, and objective case, and is the object of the verb give, according to Rule VIII. " The kingdom of heaven suffcreth violence, and the violent take it by force." Violent . is an adjective ; it belongs to persons, understood ; or it is used as a noun, of the third person, plural number, nominative case, and is the subject of the proposition, the violent take, according to Rule I. (Repeat it.) PRONOUNS. ORAL EXERCISE. " David gave David's book to Ellen ; and Ellen gave David's book to Ellen's father; and Ellen's father thanked Ellen that Ellen had given David's book to Ellen's father." What word is repealed in the first part of this sectence? Ans. David's. What word can you use instead of it? 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ans II is. Repeat the expression, and substitute his in place of David's Will you give the second part so as to avoid repetition ? Ans. And shi gave it to her father. What does she take the place of? Ans. Ellen. What does it take the place of? Ans. David's book. What does her take the place of ? Ans. Ellen's. How can you better express the third part ? Ans. By saying, And he thanked her, that she had given it to him. Tell what each of these little words stands for. . Tell what words are displaced, and what part of speech they are. Now, since each new word stands for a noun, we need some word which shall mean for noun. What word can you give ? Ans. Pronoun. Then he, his, him, she, her, and it are pronouns. If a boy by the name of Charles should say, meaning him- self, " Charles is studying arithmetic," what change must he make to show that he means himself ? Ans. He must use / instead of his own name • I am studying arithmetic. What part of speech is I? What person is it ? Why ? If you were to say, Charles is studying arithmetic, what change must you make to show that you spoke these words to Charles ? Ans. You are studying arithmetic, Then, what part of speech is yout What person ? Why ? Of what person is he t she f it 1 lie f him f his t A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun ; as, " The farmer ploughs Ms field ; he reaps Ms wheat, and gathers it into Ms barn." Hem. 1. — The pronoun is used instead of the noun, — (1.) When the object referred to is both known, and has been previously mentioned; as, " David came to his house in Jerusalem." "Here is the pencil for which I was looking." (2.) When the object referred to is knoion, but not (necessarily) pre- viously mentioned; as, " /have the memorial which you gave me." (3.) When the object referred to is neither known nor has been pre- viously mentioned ; as, " Who comes yonder ? " Rem. 2. — The personal pronouns are used to represent some relation to the speaker. Those of the first and second persons can scarcely be said to represent the name of the speaker, or of the hearer at all, since they may be used when the name is unknown. They are employed to show a ^•elation rather than a name. Those of the third person represent as well the name of some person or thing as its relation to the speaker. They enable us to avoid repeating it ; they also show its relation in regard to sex, (gender,) and its syntactic relation, (case.) Hem. 3. — The noun for which a pronoun stands is called the antece- ient; as, " The world, hiivhich they are placed, opens with all its wonders upon their eyes." The antecedent may be a phrase or an entire proposi- tion ; as, " To believe the report, which is the thing you desire, would be offensive to one of the noblest of men." " The servant opened the window which was strictly forbidden." Rem. 4. — The antecedent of the personal pronouns of the first and sec- ond persons is always supposed to be present, and consequently seldom named ; that of the third person is usually expressed. Sometimes, how- ever, a personal or an interrogative pronoun is employed without an ante- cedent, and so limited by a relative and its clause, as to give to the whole the effect of a single name ; as, " He who sways the minds of men by his eioqv.erxe," i. e., the orator, " exerts the highest human power." " \V7io, that marks the fire still sparkling in each eye, but would deem their bosoms burned anew ? " Sometimes the antecedent pronoun, in such cases, is omit- ted, or included in the relative ; as, " Who would be free, themselves must itrike the blow." " Who steals my purse steals trash." ETYMOLOGY PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 41 Rem. 5. — The pronoun stands not merely for a noun, hut for a noun as restricted by modifying words ; as, " We saw the little deformed boy whc watched at the gate, and pitied him," i. e., the little deformed boy wlw watched at the gate. Rem. 6. — The antecedent, as the term indicates, is something going before ; but as an interrogative pronoun inquires for an object as yet un- known, the name of it Cannot be used before the pronoun, but must follow it. It might then more properly be called the subsequent ; as, "IVhafh&ve vdu brought ? " " The cloak." CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. Pronouns are divided into three classes — personal, rela iive, and interrogative PERSONAL PRONOUNS. A personal pronoun is used both to represent a noun, and to show whether it is of the first, second, or third person. /(plural we) is of the first person; thou (plural ye or you) is of the second person ; he, she, and it (plural they) are of the third person, masculine, feminine, and neuter, respectively. The compound personal pronouns are, first person, my self, (plural ourselves ;) second person, thyself, (plural your selves ;) third person, (masculine) himself, (feminine) hei self, (neuter) itself, (plural themselves.) To pronouns, like the nouns for "which they stand, belong; Person, Number, Gender, and Case. Rem. 1. — The personal pronouns of the first and second person repre- sent the speaker or the hearer. The gender is supposed to be known, and is not indicated by the form of the pronoun, while that of the third person is represented by one of the forms, he, she, or it. Rem. 2. — It is often used in a vague sense, as the subject of verbs descriptive of the weather ; as, " It rains." " It thunders." It is used aa an expletive, (1.) as the object of a verb; as, " Come and trip it as you go ; " (2.) to introduce a sentence whose subject is placed after the predicate. " It is pleasant to see the sun." " It has been ascertained, that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen." It is used as subject to represents noun or pronoun as attribute, of any number, gender, or person ; as, " It is /." " It is they." " It is James." " It is she." Rem. 3. — The compound personal pronouns are seldom, if ever, used *s the subject of a proposition, though they may be used in apposition with it; as, "He himself knows not whereof he affirms. When used as the object of a transitive -verb, they are called reflexive, because the act 4* 42 ENGLISH GUAM MAR. of the agent falls back upon himself; as, " The boy struck himself." Eacg other and one another in the same relation are sometimes called reciprocal pronouns ; as, " The boys struck each other." Hem. 4. — Formerly thou was used in addressing a single individual, and a corresponding form of the verb was used ; as, " Thou singest ; " but gradually you has come to take its place, till the use of thoti, except in the solemn style, is now wholly discontinued. You, therefore, is both sin- gular and plural in its application, but the verb does not change its form ; it invariably takes the plural form ; as, " You (meaning one) write," not writest.* EXERCISE. Count the words in the following sentences ; then substitute personal pro- nouns, and see hoio many words you gain thereby : — ■ The savages of North America spent the time of tJie savages of North America in hunting, and the wives of the savages of North America spent the time of the wives of the savages of North America in preparing food for the husbands of the wives of the savages of North America. Substitute the nouns and their modifying words for the pronouns in the following sentences : — At this time, the commander of the American forces and his army took post at Harlem ; he now sought to ascertain the state of his enemy's forces on Long Island. Captain Nathan Hale volunteered Jiis services ; he en- tered the British army in disguise. On his return, he was apprehended and sent to the cruel Marshal Cunningham, by whom he was ordered to execution without a trial. Alter the following sentences so as to make the szibjects represent, first the speaker, then the hearer : — John wrote a letter. Jacob loved Joseph. Paul preached at Athens. He came to the rescue. They sailed at noon. The king was sick. Susan leaves her studies. The horse ran away. Washington loved the truth. Name the pronouns in the following, and tell what words they stand for.— Jacob loved his son Joseph, and gave him a coat of many colors. Peter denied his Master ; he afterwards went and wept bitterly. Let him that thinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall. A man's heart deviseth Iris way ; but the Lord directeth his steps. Collect all the eironeotis expressions which you hear to-day, write them down, correct them, and be careful not to tcse them yourself. DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS The personal pronouns are thus declined : — First Person. Sing. Flu. Norn. I, We, Poss. My or mine, Our or ours, Obj. Me ; Us. * The Friends or Quakers still u?e thou, more commonly thee, in common conven wtion ETYMOLOGY — PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 43 Nom. Poss. Obj. Second Person. Sing. Thou, Thy or thine, Thee; Flu. Ye or you, Your or yours, You. Nom. Poss. Obj. Third Person. Masculine. Sing. He, His, Him; Plu. They, Then- or theirs, Them. Nom. Poss. Obj. Third Person. Feminine. She, Her or hers, Her; Plu. They, Their or theirs, Them. Nom. Poss. Obj. Thiri> Person. Sing. It, Its, It; Neuter. Flu. They, Their or theirs ^ Them. Nom. Poss. Obj. First Person. Sing. Myself, Myself; Plu. Ourselves, Ourselves Nom. Poss. Obj. Sing. Mas. Nom. Himself, Poss Obj. Second Person. Sing. Thyself, Thyself; Third Person. Flu. Yourselves, Yourselves. Herself, Himself; Herself; JVeut Itself, Itself; Plu Themselves. Rem. 1. — Of the possessives, my, thy, her, our, your, their, are used *hen the noun is expressed ; mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, When it is understood, and the latter must be changed to' the former -when- ever the noun is supplied. " That book is yours; this is mine." " Tha dook is your Dook ; this is my book." Rem. 2. — When mine, thine, &c, are used as in the above example, they seem to perform a double office ; first, to represent the speaker, hear* er, or person spoken of, as a possessor ; and, secondly, like other limiting or qualifying words, when the l.oun is understood, to represent or stand for M ENGLISH GRAMMAR that noun, not as a pronoun docs, but as an adjective. Thus we saj " This [book] is an arithmetic ;J/uU [book] is a geography." " The via lent [persons] take it by force." " Mine [my task] was an easy task.'' Properly, neither of the above words is a noun. The first three are adjec- tives used to limit the noun understood, which follows them, and the last a personal pronoun in the possessive case, used to limit the noun task, un- derstood. If it is ever proper to say that this, that, or violent are used as nouns, it is equally so of the word mine, not in its pronominal, but in iUr adjective office. EXERCISE. In parsing a pronoun, — (1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why ? (2.) Tell what kind of pronoun. Why ? (3.) Tell what its antecedent is. (4.) Decline it. (5.) Give the person, number, gender. Why 5 (6.) Rule for person, number, gender. Why ? (7.) Case and construction. n (8.) Rule for construction. Note. — In parsing, let the pupil follow this order, and as soon as po3si Die, without any question from the teacher. The pronoun is parsed very much like the noun. Study the following models for parsing : — "David brought his book, and laid it on the table." His . is a pronoun ; it takes the place of a noun ; perso)ial; it is used both to represent a noun, and to show whether it is of the first, second, or third person ; it refers to David's for its antecedent ; (singular, nominative he, possessive his, objective him; plural, nominative they, possessive their or theirs, objective them ;) it is of the third per- son, singular number, masculine gender, because its antecedent is . (Rule III. " A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person;") possessive case, and is used to limit book,\>y denoting possession, according to Rule VII. (Repeat it.) It . . is a pronoun, (why?) persona), (why?) it has .book for its antece- dent ; decline it ; "is of the third person, singular number, neuter gen~ der, because its antecedent book is, (Rule III.,) and objective case. Rule VIII. (Repeat the rule.) " The messenger himself revealed the treachery." Himself . is a pronoun, (why?) compound, composed of him and self, it has messenger for its antecedent ; third person, singular number, masculine gender, because its antecedent is, (Rule III.,) nomina- tive case and used to identify or explain messenger, according to RuleVt Parse the personal pronouns in the following sentences : — Joseph knew his brethren, but they knew not him. Jane dropped her fan. ana ner brother gave it to her again. We cannot see the stars when the light of the sun overpowers them. Thou shalt sec me hereafter. I Know you will receive the child and love it Our house is at your service ETYMOLOGY — RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 45 Do thyself no harm. The king found himself in great distress. We must keep c urselves from temptation. I myself will do it. Write Jive sentences, use personal pronouns in each, and then parse them Give the class, person, number, gender, (when it can be determined by tht form,) and case of the folloioing pronouns : — I, he, his, hers, mine, you, thou, they, them, us, we, myself, himself, they, herself, me, themselves, ourselves, my, thee, your, thine, herself, yourselves. Rewrite and correct the following sentences in every particular : — The carpenter broke the augur liisself. "When i went to school, me and my sister sarah were learned how to use capitals, the master teached us how to speak correctly, and the scholars, writ down meny lessons their- selves. we always had good times a-criticizing what the other scholars had wrote. It was me, that disremembered the rules for changing the y in dutys and glory fying, and f in sheafs, wifes, loafs, fust, i reckoned i knowed 'em, but it 'pears i didn't. Them words that I have here koted, "marys gownd" from marthas slate haint got no capital letter, and she don't mind the rule for the 'sessive case, nathan haint doted his eyes, nor crossed his teas, and his lines run down hill. Samuel offerred to 'sist me in my 'rethmetic if i would learn them rules for spellin'. Collect all the faulty expressions which you hear to-day, and correct them. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. A relative pronoun is used to represent a preceding noun or pronoun, called the antecedent ; as, " Those who wish for favors must assist others." Hem. 1. — The relative, when used only as a pronoun, follows the ante- cedent ; when used both as a limiting adjective and a pronoun, it always precedes it ; as, " I will give you ichat money I have." Rem. 2. — The following distinctions will show the difference between a relative and a personal pronoun : — (1.) The relative refers to an object always known, and either previously mentioned, or so clearly implied as to need no mention ; the personal pronouns refer always to an object known, and in the third person, to an object previously mentioned, but in the first and second persons, to an ob iect not previously mentioned. (2.) The personal pronouns have a distinct form for each grammatical person ; I for the first, thou or yoxi for the second, and he, she, or it for the third. The relative pronouns do not change their form to represent person. (3.) The essential difference is seen in their use in construction. The personal pronoun may represent the subject of an independent sentence ; the relative never ; as, " He is present." " Which is important." Tho first is a complete sentence ; the second needs some word, as measure., (which is important,) on which it may depend. Rem. 3. — The relative serves two purposes : one, as a pronoun to rep resent a noun in any relation ; the other, as a connective joining the rela tive clause to the antecedent. In this use it may be considered as a kind of auxiliary, employed to convert an independent proposition into a dependent 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. one, and to adapt it, as an adjective, to modify some antecedent noun ; as for example, in speaking of -a cloud, if we say," " It is dark," the expression is an independent sentence ; but if we say, " which is dark," the expression is still a proposition, but not a sentence ; it is now, by the aid of which t fitted to limit the noun cloud; thus, " The cloud which is dark." SIMPLE RELATIVES. The simple relatives are, who, which, that, and ivhat. Who is used to represent persons ; which and what, to rep* resent things ; and that, to represent both persons and things. Rem. 1. — The antecedent is the word for which the pronoun stands; it is that on which the relative clause depends, and is either a definite or an indefinite object. Rem. 2. — Wlio, which, and that usually refer to a definite antecedent ; as, " The man who came." " The horse which died." " The tree that fell." Lithe sentence, "Who steals my purse steals trash," who refers to an indefinite antecedent. What may refer cither to a definite or an in- definite antecedent; as, " I gave him what money he wanted," (definite.) " I gave him what [things] he wanted," (indefinite.) When the antece- dent is indefinite, the relative stands alone. Rem. 3. — Wliat, in addition to the other functions of a relative, per- forms that of a limiting adjective, and is, hence, placed before the noun which it limits, and which, as a pronoun, it also represents ; as, " He had what furniture was left " = He had that furniture which was left When the noun to which, as an adjective, it belongs, is indefinite, and therefore not expressed, what takes its place, and is an adjective used as 3 noun, (see Adjective used as a noun, p. 33,) and may be parsed, first, ag the indefinite antecedent, and, secondly, as a relative. Rem. 4. — The word that is a relative only when who ox which can be substituted for it ; as, " He that (who) gettcth wisdom loveth his own soul." "What private grief they have, alas ! I know not, that ftohich) made them do it." It is a pronominal adjective when immediately followed by a noun expressed or understood ; as, " That book." It is a subordi- nate conjunction when it joins a dependent clause to some part of a princi pal ; as, " I know that my Redeemer liveth." Rem. 5. — What is a relative, (1.) when it can be changed into that which; as, "It is what (that which) I wanted;" (2.) when it both limits and relates to a noun ; as, "What ore was found, was very poor" = That ore which was found, &c. It is an interrogative pronoun, when used alone (belonging to an indefinite object) to ask a question; as, " What [things] do you want ?" It is an interrogative adjective when used to limit a noun, (a definite object,) and also to ask a question ; as, " What excuse does he render?" It is an interjection when it denotes an exclamation; as. " What ! have you come?" Rem. 6. — When that is used as the object of a preposition, the latter is always placed at the end of the clause; and that must be changed to whom or which whenever the preposition precedes j as, "It was James that I depended upon" = upon whom I depended. Rem. 7. — By an ellipsis of the relative, ax, after such, many, and same, seems to take its place, and may be regarded as a relative, though, pro- perly speaking, it is never a relative ; as, " The Lord added to the church daily, such as [were those who] should be saved." ETYMOLOGY COMPOUND RELATIVES. 4* COMPOUND RELATIVES. The compound relatives are whoever, whosoever, whichever^ whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. Rem. 1. — These are formed from the simple relatives by adding the ad Verbs ever and soever. Rem. 2. — Whoever and whosoever refer to some indefinite antecedent, as he, the person, anyone, and are equivalent to anyone who ; as, " Who- ever hopes a faultless piece to see." Whichever and whichsoever refer to a definite object, to which they belong as adjectives ; as, " Whichever way you take will lead to the city." They are equivalent to any — which. Whatever and whatsoever belong, as adjectives, either to a definite or an in- definite object, and relate, as pronouns, to the same, (see Rem. 3, above;) as, " We are interested in ichatever occupation you follow." " WJaitsoever is more than these comcth of evil." They are equivalent to that — which, or any thing — which. DECLENSION OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PROxNOUNS Sing, tf Flu. Siiijr. $ Plu. Nom. Who, Which, Poss. Whose, Whose, Obj. Whom J Which. That and wJiat have no variation. EXERCISE. Learn the following models for parsing : — M The man who is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on with confidence." WJio . is a pronoun, (why ?) relative, (why ?) it has man for its antece- dent; nominative who, possessive whose, objective whom; plural, the same ; third person, singular number, tnascidine gender, be- cause its antecedent is, (Rule III. Repeat it,) nominative case, and used as the subject of the proposition, " who is attached." Rule I. (Repeat it.) " Cherish true patriotism, whose root is benevolence." Whose is a relative pronoun ; it has patriotism for its antecedent ; nomina- tive who, &c. ; third person, singular number, neuter gender, (Rule III. Repeat it,) 2X>ssessive case, and is used to limit root by d«»- no ting possession. Rule VII. (Repeat it.) « Compassion is an emotion of which we should never be ashamed." Which is a relative pronoun, (antecedent, decline, person, number, gen der, Rule III.,) objective case, and used as the object of the preposi- tion of. Rule XIII. " Here is the sofa that he sat upon." Thai . is a relative pronoun, (antecedent, decline, person, number, gen der, Rule III.,) objective case, and used as the object of the preposi tion upon. (See Rem. 6, p. 46.) 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. " I have ascertained what lesson we must learn." What , is &pro?v?tin, used both as an adjective and a pronoun ; as an adjec> tive it belongs to lesson, according to Rule V. ; (repeat it . ) as a pronoun, it is a relative, and relates to lesson for its antecedent ; third person, singular number, neuter gender, Rule III., objective case, and is used as the object of the verb must learn, accord- ing to Rule VIII. (Repeat it.) " I have ascertained what we must learn." What . is & pronoun, used both as an adjective and a pronoun ; as an ad- jective it belongs to some noun (thing) understood, and hence may be taken as a noun, (see model for parsing that, p. 39 ;) indeclinable, third person, singular number, neuter gender, objective case, and is used as the object of have ascertained. Rule VIII. As a pronoun, it is a relative, relating to some indefinite antecedent (thing) un- derstood, (see Rem. 3, p. 46,) or to what, representing thing, and re- garded as the antecedent, indeclinable, third person, singular mem- ber, neuter gender, objective case, and used as the object of must learn. Rule Vltl. " "We will furnish him with ichatever clothing he may need." Whatever is a compound relative, composed of what and ever. (Imitate the first model for what.) " "We provide tchatever may be needed." Whatever is a compound relative. (Imitate the second model for what.) Point out and parse the relative pronouns in the following sentences : — The child who is obedient will be beloved. The bird that built her nest on the tree was killed. The apples which you gave me are sour. The man whom you saw was my brother. The boat in which we sailed has been sold. The grass that was mowed by the farmer, was soon withered. The gentleman whose kindness we experienced, was a teacher. He that is slow to wrath, is of great understanding. Point out the antecedents in tlie examples above. Point out and parse the compound relatives in the following examples : — "Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them Whatever is, is right. Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it. Whoever seeks the good of others, will himself be blest. Darkness besets me, which ever way I turn. Correct the following examples : — The cow whom my father bought, has strayed away. The boy whicn sets on the seat yender hasn't got his sums did. The sun lays into our south winder beautiful. This is the man who we sent for. The boy who I see at school yesterday was e'en-a' most as tall agin as i be. ' This 'ere task of 'ritin' sentences is putty hard for one that don't know no more of the grammar book than i does, howsomever i never gives up for trifles INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The interrogative pronouns are used in asking questions. They are who, used to inquire for persons ; what and which, ETK MOLOGY PRON OUNS. 49 for things , as, " Wlio gave thee that authority " " Which house does he live in?" " What have I to do with thee ? " Rem. 1. — When a definite object is inquired for, what and which are adjectives used to limit the objects inquired for ; as, " What books do you want ? ' " Which road shall we take ? " When an indefinite object is in- quired for, the interrogative takes its place, or belongs to it, understood \ as, " What (thing) do j ou want ? " Rem. 2. — When an interrogative sentence is quoted, and incorporated into another sentence, it loses much of its interrogative character ; the interrogative pronoun becomes a connective, and as the incorporated clause is an unanswered question, the pronoun refers to some person or thing both unknoxcn and unmentioned. It may therefore be called an indefinite interrogative pronoun. Example. " Who is concealed in the garden ?" The name bas not been mentioned, and although he may be a familiar friend. *?t as the concealed, one, he is unknown. The answer, therefore, must be, ■• I do not know who is concealed in the garden." Compare this with, " I do not know him who is concealed in the garden." Here who is a relative pronoun having him for its antecedent. Rem. 3. — Besides pronouns, various interrogative adverbs are used in asking questions ; as, Why f Where f When t Hoio t EXERCISE. Point out the interrogative pronouns in the following examples . — Who has learned his lesson ? "Which seat do you prefer ? "What have you found in the garden ? For what are you punished ? Whose school do you attend ? Who went with you ? Whom do you follow ? Which way has she gone ? Tell which of the above examples are pronouns, and which adjectives. (See Rem. 1.) Tell which of the folloicing pronmvns are relative, which interrogative : — He whose image thou art. From what fountain flowed their light ? What title dost thou bear ? Whose genius had angelic wings. What readiest way would bring me to the place? Who found the flower? I am he whom ye seek ? He found the book for which I sent him. Of whom do you speak ? That which was lost is found. Correct the following examples : — Who do you want ? Whom is it ? Who do you follow ? Who are you looking for ? Rewrite the following sentences, and correct them in all respects : — Why don't you eat nothin' ? ridin' don't agree with you i guess, taint so in New York. Do you go on your own hook ? Nice go- ings on, I dare say, Mr. Caudle. The Senate has gone it strong on th« mileage. You cant ask me for nothin i haint got. She did it real nice. That was first rate. Parse the above examples according to the following models — " Who shall separate us from the love of Christ ? " Who . is a pronoun, (why ?) interrogative, (why?) its antecedent (subse- quent) is not expressed ; nominative who, possessive ichose, ob- jective whom; plural, the same; third person, singidar lumber, masculine ge?ider, because its antecedent (subsequent^, no one im- 5 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR- tlied) is, (Rule III. Repeat it.) nominative case, and used ti .ne subject of th*., proposition, " who snail separate." Itui I (Repeat it.) " W?iose books have you found ? " Whose h an interrogative pronoun; nominative who, &c., (person, num her, and gender depending upon the answer,) possessive cast, and is used to limit books by denoting possession. Rule VII. (Re- peat it.) " WJiat seek ye ? " What . is an interrogative pronoun ; indeclinable ; third person, fnumbet and gender depending on the answer, ) objective case, and used as the object of the verb. Rule VIII. (Repeat it.) " What lesson shall we learn ? " What . is a pronominal adjective, used interrogatively, and belongs to lea son for which it inquires. Rule V. VERBS. ORAL EXERCISE. Do you see me use this chalk upon the board ? What do I do ? Am. fou write. Put this answer on your slates. Now, what do you do ? Ant. We write. Let all who have written the words raise the hand. What do you do now ? Ans. We raise our hands. What am I doing now ? (The teacher walks towards his desk.) Am. You are walking. When we do any thing, as write, walk, or raise the hand, we act, and the word which expresses the action is called a verb, and the acting person or thing is called the subject. What can a lamb do ? Ans. Run, frisk, frolic, jump, play. Now write these words on your slates. What are you now doing ? Ans. We are writing. What do you call the words which you have written ? A?is. Verbs. What is the subject of each ? W T ho speaks? Ana. Ellen apeoka. What do you call speaks t What can a horse do ? Ans. Run, walk, gallop, trot, prance, eat, drink, draw, kick, sleep. What kind of words are these ? Ans. Verbs. What is the subject of each ? Tell what a bird, ajish, a dog, a toad, a bee, can do ? What are the words which tell what they do ? See thia book ; it lies upon the desk. What does the book do ? Ans. It does notJi ■ inn. True, it does nothing, but what tells something about it ? Ans. Lies. This chair stands upon the floor. What does the chair do ? Ans. Noth- ing, What tells something about it? Ans. Stands. When words are used to tell or say what state things are in, they are called verba. Wha* then, aretes and stands f Ans. Verbs. (The teacher strikes tipon hie desk.) What does the desk do ? Ans. Nothing. What was clone tc the desk ? Ans. It teas struck. (The teacher tears a piece of paper:) What does the paper do? Ans. Nothing. Very good ; but what is dont to the paper ? Ans. It is torn. These words, which teH what ia done to au object, are called verba. What does the blackboard do ? Am. Nothing. It there a blackboard ? Ans. There is. is what? Ans. Is a blackboard. Is there a desk ? Ans. There is. Words which tell what is or exista are vurbs. Tell the verbs in these examples, and then learn the definition of the verb : The boy plays. The girl sleep? The lamp is broken There is a slate in the desk. ETYMOLOGY — fZRBS EXERCISES. 51 A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state r , be, read, sleep, is loved. Rem. I. — The being, action, or state may be affirmed, assumed, uf toed abstractly; as, "George rum." "George running." "To run." When an affirmation is made, the verb is either the predicate or copula of the proposition, and is said to ha finite ; when the action of the verb is as- sumed, it takes the construction of the adjective, is joined to the subject, and is called a participle • when it is used abstractly, it is separated from the subject, and being unlimited by its person or number, it is said to be infinitive, (unlimited. ) Rem. 2. — Affirm, as here used, includes an absolute declaration; as, ** Emma learns ; " a conditional statement ; as, " If Emma learns ; " an in- terrogation ; as, " Does Emma learn ? " a petition; as, " May Emma learn ; " a command ; as, " Emma, learn." Rem. 3. — The abstract or substantive verb is the simple Be, hav- ing no other power or value than to assert some attribute of a noun. When the attribute is a quality, this verb must always be used ; as, " Lead is heavy ; " but when the attribute is an action, it may blend with the verb be, and then both become one word ; as, " The sun is rising." " The suu rises." The combined form then takes the name of verb, and undergoes inflections to represent voice, mode, tense, number, and person ; in all other cases, the verb to be undergoes these variations. These verbs are called uttributive, because to the pure verb they join an attribute. Rem. 4. — The verb to be is attributive, whenever it is used to assert ex- istence ; as, " There was a man sent from God." Whc*. thus used, the verb is commonly followed by its subject, and preceded by the expletive " there," which serves no other purpose than to introduce the sentence and indicate this peculiarity of the verb. Every finite verb represents some person or thing, as act- ing or existing in a certain state, and this person or thing is called the subject ; as, " Frank plays." " She sleeps." EXERCISES. Point oid the verbs and their subjects in the following examples : The clouds vanish. The vapor rises. The plant lives. Flowers die. Chil- dren sing. They stand. Can you see ? Here they are ! The ice melts Write appropriate verbs for the folloxoing nouns as subjects : — Samuel, the pen, the book, flowers, we, oceans, moon, the earth, forests, the king, Victoria. Write appropriate noxins, as stibjectsfor the following verbs : — Rules, is, tliinks, hopes, learns, shine, grow, dig, revolve, sits, fears blossom, arise, sink. Alter the following verbs so as to xorite them properly with their sub- jects : — Time fly. The grass grow. The rain fall. The pupil try. The officer defy. The teacher say. The gas burn. The boy do. The peasant woo. The dove coo. The tailor cut. The dog bite. Alter the folloxoing nouns and pronouns so that the verbs (as given) may unite with them: — The merchants says. The sailor see. They thinks. He play. Yo« P2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. nopest. Some persons believes. The honest farmers labors. The diligent pupil learn. The old soldiers is maintained. The pleasant tasks is done. Correct the following errors: — Mans destiny cannot be fully none, lucy has rote these lines of po'try on her slate i should be bizzy two for satan finds some mischief still for idle hands to do. CLASSES OF VERBS. Note. — Let the teacher here give an oral exercise, tbe object of which *hall be to exhibit the distinction between a transitive and an intransitive, a regular and an irregular verb. After the distinction is fully made, 'et the class attempt a statement of it, before learning the following Aefinitions : — Verbs are divided, according to their use, into transitive ind intransitive. A transitive verb requires the addition of an object to complete its meaning ; as, " The servant opened the door." An intransitive verb does not require the addition of an object to complete its meaning ; as, " The sun rises." " The horse runs." Rem. 1. — Verbs may be divided on account of their relation to the subject into, — (1.) The abstract or substantive verb Be, which represents no attribute of the subject whatever, but serves merely as a copula, or li?ik, to bind an at- tribute to the subject. (2.) Attributive or mixed verbs, in which an*" attribute denoting an action or state of the subject is blended with the copula; as, runs = is running; is being the copula, and running the attribute. Rkm. 2. — Attributive verbs, including also the copula to be, have been divided into those which represent the subject in an active state, (active verbs ;) those which represent it in a passive state, that is, in such a state as to receive or suffer an action, (passive verbs ;) and those which represent the ■subject in neither of these states, (neuter verbs,) that is, a state in which it neither acts nor receives the effect of an action. But this distinction has little to do with the construction of language. It is the relation of the verb to a succeeding term that renders a classification important ; * and hence, — Rem. 3. — The terms transitive and intransitive have been general- ly adopted by recent grammarians, as best suited to the purposes of construction. Although the ides, of an act originating in an agent, and "passing over" to an object, seems inapplicable to such verbs as have, possess, receive, acquire, and many others, still the terms, as defined above, are liable to little or no objection. * The did division is retained in the dictionaries, and the learner Fhould under- stand, in consulting a dicti mary, that v. a. after a verb is equivalent to transitive, v. n. fc intransitive. Thus, run, jly, walk, though they represent tht subjocv ir a vary a*. t>v» state, are marked r. ?». — verb ntuter. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — EXERCISES. &3 Rem. 4. — The object or complement of the transitive verb stands as an answer to the question Wliat? with the verb ; is, " The ox eats (Whatf) hay, grass, oats, corn, &c. To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, we have only to use this test : ask with it the question What t or Whomt and if the sense requires that a noun or pronoun meaning a different tiling from the subject should be added, it is transitive ; other- wise it is intransitive. Rem. 5. — When the noun or pronoun thus added means the same person or thing as the subject, it is not the object, but is a predicate-nomi native, and the verb is either intransitive, or transitive in the passive voice. All such verbs perform the office of the copula, and are, hence, called cop- ulative verbs. These are be, (the simple copula-,) become, seem, appear, stand, walk, and other verbs of position, motion, and condition ; the pas- sive verbs is called, is named, is styled, is appointed, is constituted, is elected is chosen, is made, is esteemed, is reckoned, and others. Rem. 6. — A transitive verb in a proposition necessarily implies three terms — a subject or agent, a predicate, and an object. When the verb as- sumes the passive form, the foregoing order is inverted, and we have an ibject, a predicate, and a subject or agent ; as, " The locusts (agent = sub.) devoured (pred.) the grass," (obj.J = The grass (obj. = sub.) was devoured fpred.) by the locusts, (agent.) An intransitive verb requires but two terms, a subject and predicate, and as it cannot assume the passive form, (except by the aid of a preposition,) the terms can undergo no such change as above. Rem. 7 — Many verbs are transitive in one signification, and intransi- tive in another. When the object is not necessarily impliea, ' is better to consider such verbs intransitive, and not transitive, because an ubject may be supplied ; as, " She sings beautifully," (intransitive ;) " She sings so- prano," (transitive.) Rem. 8. — Some verbs, usually intransitive, become transitive when used with a causative signification ; as, " The train usually runs at the rate of twenty-five miles an hour ; but they ran a train (caused it run) at the rate of forty." Some verbs become transitive when they take an object after them of a kindred signification ; as, " He ran a race, played z.game." EXERCISES, Tell which of the following verbs are transitive, which intransitive : — Dora loves her mother. The golden gates open. The moon silvers the distant hills. Lily has found her ring. Eleanor writes poetry. The snow melts. The icy fetters break. The innocent lamb dies. The child plays. You found the pearl. The twilight deepens. Does Cornelia live there ? The fragrant flowers bloom. The king rules. She received a letter. Write an appropriate subject and object for each of tM following verbs ; — Rings, learn, find, hide, fears, remembers, inflicts, receives, lift, hears, renews, reviews, write. Model. The sexton rings the bell. Write an appropunate verb for each of the following subjects and ob jects : — The scholar his books. The sun the snow. I the merrv sleigh bells. The lady her friends. We a reward. The h 0V _: his sled. They the tables. The little boy his rocking horse. The slave - the diamond. They charades-. 5* &4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rosy-fingered Aurora the gates of day. Milton - i^iadls* >jOSt. Substitute correct and more elegant expressions for the following in Italics : — I have got to go. Nob-'dy told me. She 7iad not ought to tell. Ain't you afraid ? I have came home. 1 done my work. I learnt her to do it. I ain't alone. In she come. He knowed his lesson. Is not this grand Weather ? Thinks says I, I will lo it. I reckon you can. It rains some shall be ten gear old come May. Do you like those kind of things 1 Sh.6 didn't knb ENGLISH GRAMMAR. fpaso • "He tOi.d me ins history " = His history was told me by Am 2- a was U Id his history by Aim. (2.) One acts, another is acted upon, and thereby transformed or made into the third ; as, " They made him an officer " = He was made an officer by them = An officer was made of him by them. In this case there are but two different persons or things. The second and third denote the same individual. Hem. 3. — When the agent is unknown, or when we wish to conceal it, by drawing attention only to the act and the object affected by it, we use the passive voice ; as, " Gold is found (by some one unknown, or known, but not mentioned) in California." But if wc wish to make the agent prominent, we use the active voice ; as, " Moses conducted the Israelites out of Egypt." Rem. 4. — Some intransitive verbs, when accompanied by the preposi- tion following, admit of a passive form ; as, " They laughed at him " = He was laughed at. So, when a verb takes two objects, one direct and the Dther indirect, the latter is sometimes made the subject of the verb in the passive voice ; as, " I told him a story " = He was told a story. Rem. 5. — Certain intransitive verbs, as come, arrive, fall, rise, &c., admit of a passive form, yet with an instransitive signification, as will be Been. by observing that the agent or actor, not the object, is the subject of the sentence in either form ; as, "Babylon is fallen" (has fallen.) This idiom is less common now than formerly, and may be regarded as an imi- tation of the French or German forms of similar verbs. EXERCISE. Tell which of the following verbs are in the active voice, which in tht passive : — The moon gives a pleasant light. The book was written by my father. The song of the bird is heard in the grove. Leverrier discovered a new planet. How doth the little busy bee improve each shining hour. Knowledge gives power. The stars were hidden by the dark cloud. The ice was melted by the warm rays of the sun. The scholars corrected the inelegant expressions which they used. The heavens declare the glofy of God. The letter was written by the lawyer. He found the money. Change in the above sentences, the verbs in the active voice into the passive, und the verbs in the passive voice into the active. Represent each of the folloioing objects as acted upon by some other object : — Pencils, paper, sound, table, looking glass, gas, chair, bell, pens, books t gold, silver, air, ceiling, hat, cane, letters, water, ice, snow. Model. Pencils are broken, &c. "Represent the folloxoing objects as acting upon some other object : — Bees, children, philanthropists, the canary birds, discipline, unagir exercise, the boy, the glass, pins, shoes, scholars, men, clouds, the wafch, ihe cat, father, teachers, ministers, jewdlers. ?»Iot)el. Bees gat-ier honey, &c. ETYMOLOGY MODE. 5*7 MODE. ORAL EXERCISE. 1 sec a dove upon the portico ; but as I approach him, he flies away. 1 now say to you, while he is yet on the wing, "The dme is flying away." Who of you would think of looking on the portico for the dove ? Ana. No one. But again, I see the dove as before, and I say to you, " The dove may fly away." Where would you now look for the dove? A us. On the portico. But have I not spoken of his flying away ? Yes, indeed, but you have not said that he is actually flying away. Then, to say some- thing about flying aicay, does not always mean actually flying away. 1 may think of a dove flying ; I may imagine one flying, but is he there- fore, flying ? Am. He" is not. So, when I wish to show what actually takis place, I have one mode of speaking, and when 1 wish to show what Has been merely thought of, or imagined, but not yet realized, or actually done, I have another mode of speaking. Thus, when I say. " The boy is playing" or " The boy may play, can ]>lay, or must play," which expres- sion shows you that he actually plays ? and which allows you to suppose him at rest) Again, suppose' I say, "If the boy play," does he play? A)ts. He does not. It only supposes him to play. If now the boy were unoccupied, and you desired him to play, how would you express that de- sire r Ana. By saying, " Come, boy, play with us." Thus you would employ another mode of speaking. All these ways of speaking are called modes. The following definitions will show you how many, and wha + the modes are : — Mode is the manner in which the action, being or state is asserted. Rem. 1. — Mode does not show the manner of the action or state, but the manner of its assertion. It may be asserted as a reality, or as something im- ayiued, that may, can, or must take place, or- as something imayiued or sup- posed, which is placed under a condition, or as something desired. The manner of the action or state is expressed by means of limiting words ; as, " The soldier fought (a reality) bravely,'''' (manner of the act ;) " The soldier may fight (something imagined) bravely," (manner of the supposed act.) Rem. l. — The infinitive is not properly a mode of the verb; for, since it docs not assert action at all, it cannot be said to have any manner or mode of assertion. The same may be said of the participles. In fact, the infinitive is a participle, partaking of the properties of the noun and the verb, as the (so called) participles partake of the properties of the adjective and the verb. There are commonly reckoned five modes — the indica- tive, the potential, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the infnitive. The indicative mode asserts a thing as actually existing ; as, u James loves." " William was struck." The potential mode asserts the power, liberty, permission, necessity, or duty of acting, or being in a certain state ; as * We can sing." " You may write." " He must read. " They -should obey the law." 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The subjunctive mode asserts a thing as conditional, or doubtful; as, " If he leave me." "Though he slay me.' The imperative mode asserts a command, an entreaty, 01 a permission ; as, " Write." " Go thou." " J3e admon- ished." The infinitive mode represents the action or state as an abstract noun ; as, " To write." " To be seen" Rem. 1. — The indicative mode is used in principal propositions, and is employed to represent what is actual, real, or absolute. It may be used in interrogative or exclamatory sentences ; as, " Has he arrived ? " " The villain has fired the dwelling! " It is often used in subordinate proposi- tions, but always to represent what is actual ; as, *' I know that he dis- covered (actually) the plot." Rem. 2. — The potential mode is also used in principal propositionst, not, however, to represent the actual, but that which, at the time of speak- ing, exists, or is supposed to exist, only in idea — that which is merely im- agined or thought of. The ideal act or state, however, is supposed to have some relation to reality. It can become a reality ; that is, there is no im possibility in the way of its realization ; no ability is wanting : it may become a r ality, that is, permission is granted, or in the final result per- haps it will >e a reality : it must become actual, that is, a necessity, or an obligation e ists. This mode may be used in interrogative, exclamatory, or supplicate y sentences ; as, " Can he leave the city in safety ? " " lie may be assassinated ! " " May the truth be victorious." It may be used in subordinate propositions, but always to represent what is ideal or what has not been realized; as, "He says that I may (I do not now) attend school." The potential may be known by the auxiliaries, may, can, must, might, could, would, should. Rem. 3. — The subjunctive mode is used exclusively in subordinate propositions, and hence its name, (sub, under, and jungo, I join.) It is joined to the verb of the principal proposition by the subordinate conjunc- tions, if, though, although, lest, except, that, save that, unless, provided that, and some o hers ; they impart the idea of doubt, contingency, or conditionality. Whatever of futurity may be implied in the subjunctive, is to be accounted for either from the fact that any thing that is conditional or contingent is yet to be realized, (if ever,) or from the influence of a sup- pressed auxiliary, such as shall or should, which imparts (though under- stood) the idea of futurity ; as, " Though he (should) slay me, yet will I trust in him." The subjunctive represents an ideal act, or a real act, conceived only as an idea, and places it under a condition accompanied with more or less doubt. As to a distinctive form of the subjunctive, it can scarcely be said to have any, unless it be found in the present tense, or present and past of to be ; and in all such cases, (with the single exception of were, in examples like " If it tvere," " If I were.") by supplying an ellipsis, they may be referred to the forms of the indicative future or the past potential ; as, " If it rain, we shall not leave " — If it should rain, &c. " Till one greater man restore (shall restore) us, and regain (shall regain) the blissful seat, sing, heavenly muse." The majority of writers, at the present time, employ the forms of the indic- ative present ; as, " If it rains ; " " If he leaves." Hence the subjunctive may be regarded as borrowing its forms from the indicative and potential modes. »Rem. 4. — The imperative mode is used in principal propositions. It \a .he mode wh Sh expresses will, or desire. It may usually be known by ETYMOLOGY — PARTICI.' LES. 59 the omissior. of the subject; as, " Read, (thou,) xcrite." The force of this mode, under the same form, depends upon the relation of the parties. If a superior speaks imperatively to an inferior, it is a command; if an equal to an equal, it is an exhortation or an entreaty ; if an inferior to a su- perior, it is a prayer or supplication. The imperative is made subordinate only in a direct quotation ; as, " God said, Let there be light." It is often elegantly p;it for a conditional clause ; as, " Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds " = Could the commons, &c, or, If the commons could but hear, &c. Rem. 5. — The infinitive is used in abridged propositions, and hence is wholly dependent, being incorporated as an element of another proposi- tion. It does not assert any thing ; it is not limited by the number and person of a subject, and hence its name, infinitive = unlimited, in distinc- tion horn finite, which is applied to all verbs used in construction with theft subjects, and thereby limited by the number and person of the latter. The infinitive is an abstract noun, and, as such, may become, (1.) the sub- test of a proposition ; as, " To err is human " = It is human to err. (2.) With the copula it may become the predicate; as, "To obey is to enjoy.'" (3.) It may be in apposition; as, Delightful task to rear the tender thought (4.) It may be the object of a transitive verb ; as, " She loves to sin;/.'" (5 ) It may be the object of a preposition ; as, " He is about to go" But while it has the construction of a noun, it is modified like a verb. It may be in the active or passive voice; as, to love, to be loved ; it may be in the present or perfect tense ; as, to love, to have loved; it may govern an ob- ject, or be limited by an adverb, like any verb, but is never qualified by an adjective, although it may have an adjective in the predicate belonging to it ; as, " To steal is base." Although the infinitive is an abstract noun, it may, nevertheless, be as- sociated with the object from which it has been abstracted ; as, " The sol- dier faints," (finite,) "for the soldier to faint" (infin. ;) "He goes," (finite,) '■'■for him to go," (infin. ;) " we told, him to go" (infin.) EXERCISES. Tell the mode of each of the following verbs : — The walk is pleasant. If it rains, I shall not go to Boston. The chil- dren went into the garden. What is a thought-flower ? May I go to the concert ? Hear the rain pattering upon the roof. I will stay at home. Be entreated by me. I love to hear music. If I send her home, she will be unhappy. Do let me help you ! The lamb is the emblem of innocence. I must not stay. Do you see the snow flakes ? How pure and white they are ! He maketh me to lie down in green pastures. Hope thou in God. Whom shall I fear ? Write a subject to each of the follotoing verbs, putting them first in thi indicative, and then in the potential modes : — Change, exalt, console, go, vary, turn, weep, mourn, lament, fear, ride, travel, exhaust, walk, hope, reconcile, grow, know pity, do, sleep. Select from your reading lessons examples of each of the modes. Correct the faxdty expressions which you have collected. PARTICIPLES. A participle is a word having the signification of a verK but the construction of an adjective ; ns, " We found him GO ENGLISH iRAMMAR. lying on the ground." " Having written his letter, he sent t to his friend." Rem. 1. — The participle is sc called from its participating the prop- erties of the verb and adjective. It is the attributive part of tbe verb alone ; it is the being, action, or state deprived of the power of assertion ; and therefore, when joined without the copula to the noun whose attribute it expresses, it must be assumed, (not predicated,) just as an adjective is assumed under similar circumstances. It has the meaning of the verb, is modified like the verb, but is used like the adjective. Rem. 2. — It is not a distinct part of speech, but is derived directly from the verb, the present by adding in//, the past by adding ed, to all regu- lar verbs, and the perfect by prefixing to the past the auxiliary having. There are, properly, two participles — the present and the perfect ; as, reading, having read ; (being) loved, having been loved. Rem. 1. — These two participles correspond to the present and perfect tenses of the verb. They are used in abridged propositions ; the former when the proposition before its abridgment was in the present, past, or future tense ; the latter when it was in either of the perfect tenses. There are, however, three forms, commonly called parti- ciples — the present, the past, and the perfect. EXAMPLES. Perf. Active Voice . loving, loved, having loved. Passive Voice . (being) loved, loved,* having be Rem. 1. — The form called the past participle may have been once the passive participle, having the same form. (See Rem. on the auxiliary Have, p. 74.) If so, it has now wholly lost its original signification and, strictly speaking, has lost its character as a participle. It never partakes of the x>roperties of the adjective; it never is used to limif a noun like that part of speech ; it is never used alone in participial con structions, that is, whore the participle, with the words depending upon it takes the place of a subordinate proposition ; it is always found in *h( predicate, either of complete or abridged propositions, and is connected with some form of have, as, have lured, had loved; having loved ; it has an active signification, and always denotes a past, completed act, and belongs as well to intransitive as to transitive verbs. Rem. 2. — The passive participle of the same form, on the contrary, )!■ limited to transitive verbs, has always a passive signification, may denote as well present as past time ; it may have the participial construction, or, with the copula, may form the passive verb in all the modes and tenses. * The passive participle does not necessarily denote past time. Of itself, it alttt ply denotes the reception of an act, complete or incomplete. The time depend.-) upo* thai of the verb with which it id associated. ETYMOLOGY PARTICIPLES. 61 Rem. 3. — Participles, in their appropriate use, take the place of depend- ent propositions, and consequently represent time in the tame manner as the propositions from -which they are derived. As the verb of the dependent clause dates from the time expressed hy the principal verb, and not from that of the speaker, the parti -iple may be present with a past, present, or future act ; as, " 1 saw a man walking ; " *'I see a man walking ; " " I shall see a man walking." So, again, the participle may denote a past act, completed at the time of a past, present, or future act ; as, " Having ploughed his field, the fanner sowed, s ->ws, tcill sow the seed." The present active participle denotes an action or state present, and in progress at the time represented by the prin- cipal verb ; as, " We find, found, or shall find him sitting in a chair." Rem. 1. — This participle always ends in ing ; it has an active significa- tion, and may be used in abridging propositions ; as, " I saw a man uxuk- ing in the meadow." It may be used wholly as an adjective ; it is then placed before the noun ; as, " The roaring billows." When thus used, it 1j called a participial adjective. It may be useti with the copula in the progressive form of the predicate ; as, " I am reading." It may be used (1.) wholly as a noun, with the preceding, and of following ; as, " The -ead- ing of the law ; " or (2.) in the construction of' the noun with the mod fica- tions of the verb ; as, " The eye is never satisfied with beholding the stu- pendous works of the Creator." Rem. 2. — Though this participle is usually active, it sometimes has a passive signification, especially when an object is undergoing a progressive change ; as, " The house is building." " New efforts are making for the ex- tension of this trade." — Webster. "This new tragedy was acting." — Everett. Recent writers of some distinction have adopted the forms, " The house is being built." " Preparations are being made." It is not the prov- ince of the grammarian to dictate as to questions of usage, but to admit and explain whatever good, national, and reputable usage sanctions. When subjected to these tests, it must be said of such forms, that they are by no means adopted by the best writers as good English, and they are of too recent origin to be regarded as idioms of the language. The present passive participle denotes the reception of an act, at the time represented by the principal verb ; a*i, " He lives, lived, will live, loved by all." Rem. 1. — This participle may be used as an adjective, or with the cop- ula, to form the passive verb ; as, " A refined taste is jwssessed only by th« cultivated." When preceded by being, it may be used as a noun ; as, " Bj being involved in one wrong act, he was soon lost to all the appeals of his friends." The perfect active participle denotes an action or state completed at the time represented by the principal verb ; as, " Having finished his speech, he sat down." The perfect passive participle denotes the reception of an act, past and completed, at the time represented by the pnn 6 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. cipal verb ; as, " Having been driven from home, he enlisted in the army." Rem. — The perfect participles are never used like the piesent, with the copula, to form the predicate They may lie used as verbal nouns ; a? " He was accused of having obtained goods on false pretences." The action or state expressed by the participle mr y bo either predicated or assumed ; as, u The horse is running through the street ; " " The horse running through tne street." Rem. 1. — The participle, when predicated, constitutes, with the copula, or auxiliary have, a form of the verb. The present participle is used in the progressive form or imperfect tenses ; the past in the complete form, or perfect; the passive, in the passive form ; as, "The farmer was plough- inq his field. "The farmer had ploughed his field." "The field was ploughed by the farmer." Rem. 2. — The participle, when assumed, is equivalent to a subordinate clause ; as, " The boat which sails on yonder lake is propelled by steam " = The boat sailing on yonder lake is propelled by steam. EXERCISES. Give the present participle of the folloicing verbs : — Find, rely, honor, obey, refuse, visit, paper, paint, exercise, study, parse, construe, join, mature, plan, inquire, cultivate. The past participle of the following verbs : Plant, ride, paint, suffer, hope, retreat, prow, mind, en- dow, resemble, suppose. The perfect participle of the following : Bind, loose, hang, perfume, make, gain,' lay, come, sit, 'dream, wind, imagine, hinder, assist, arrive, release, take, place, sing. Give the present, past, and perfect jjarticijyles of the following transitive verbs : — Trill, fill, heat, cool, weary, excite, exhaust, enchant, enjoy, dissipate remember, write, learn, ventilate. Change the participles in the last examples to the cotresponding jiassive participles. Mention any action of 'the following objects ; first predicate the act, then assume it : — Goldfish, carrier dove, chicken, peacock, horse, lamb, rabbit, squirrel, Cartridge, hen, camel, man, woodcock, mirrors, chairs, swallow, scholars, opes, (beams. Use any of the above participles with is, and write an appropriate sub- ject, thus : The singer is trilling his note. Correct the following examples in all respects, not forgetting any vrror expressed or implied in the thought : — Ella went to my house yesterday and i and her sit by the window and Bee how the sun drawed water from' my father's mill-pond, abel said how last evenm he see a star fall jest over his uncle Calebs barn. ETYMOLOGY — TENSE. C>3 peter says how his father thinks the gography hadn't ought to say that fhe Birth turns over on its exle coz we should all fall of when we get on 'tot'aer side. Hoto many errors have you heard in the school room to-day ? How many have you corrected ? How many of them are you sure you shall hereafter avoul t TENSE. OllAL EXERCISE. As I look out of the window, I see the rain falling : how can I so speak as to show that it falls now ? Ans. By saying, " It rains." But suppose I should wait till the next day, and then speak of the same thing as having happened the day before, what should I say? Ans. "It rained.'' What word has been changed ? Why was it altered ? If I felt assured that rain would fall to-morrow, what should I say in speaking of it before it hap- pened ? Ans. " It will ram." What word has been added to the word rain t Why was it added ? Then we can speak of a thing token, it hap- pens, after it happens, or before it happens. How many different times are shown by the words rains, rained, and will rain t Ans. Three. Which one shows that the raining and speaking both happened together ? Which thows that the raining happened before the speaking ? Which shows that the raining was to happen after the speaking ? If any thing happens be- fore we speak of it, we say it is past, or it happened in past time. Wnen any thing is to happen after we speak of it, we say, it is future, or it will take place in future time. Then we can speak of a thing as taking place in present time, past time, or future time. Tell the time represented in the following examples : — We sing. They run. He will ride. I act. John came. You will study. David was injured. He will walk. A farmer commences ploughing his field at six o'clock in the morning, and continues till six in the afternoon, when he finishes his work. How long is the act in progress ? Ans. Twelve hours. When did it begin ? When end ? Mention any hour when it was in progress. Mention any hour before or after it was in progress. Then the act of ploughing had a beginning, 9. progress, and an end. Now, suppose I wish to speak of the ploughing indefinitely, as we did of the rain, without reference to the beginning, prog- ress, or end ; how should I put it in present, past, or future time ? Ans. By saying, The farmer ploughs, ploughed, or will plough. But suppose I see the act in progress, and I wish to speak of it as actually now taking place, without reference to its beginning or end ; how shall I speak ? Ans. By saying, He is ploughing. How can I show the same thing in past or future time ? Ans. lW saying, He teas ploughing, he will be ploughing. Suppose, now, I shoild see him at six o'clock in the afternoon, just as he h id finished his work, and I wish to speak, not of the beginning or progreSS of the work, but of the end or completion of it ; how can I rep- resent this completion in present time ? Ans. By saying, The farmer has ploughed his field. Will you put it in past time ? in future time ? Ans lie had ploughed, he urill hare ploughed his field. Then, if we speak of an act without reference to its progress or end, we have one form of th* verb . What is the past, present, and future of it ? Ans. Present. . The farmer ploughs Past. . . The farmer ploughed. Future. . The farmer will plough. How can I so speak as to put the unfinished or progressing act in th» present ? the past ? the future .' 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR By saying, — Present. . The farmer is ploughing. Past. . . The farmer was ploughing. Future. . The farmer will b" ploughing. How can I so speak as to put the end or completion of the act in th» present ? the past ? the future ? By saying, — Present. . The farmer has ploughed. Past. . . The farmer had ploughed. Future. . The farmer will have ploughed, How many different times do we refer all actions to ? Ans. Three The present, the past, the future. How many different states of the act can we show ? Ans. Three. The act in progress, without reference to th< end of it ; the end, without reference to beginning or progress of it ; and the simple act, without reference to either. What is the time of the following acts ? The wind blows. The dog barked. The trees have bent. The grass will grow. The fire will have burned. The lesson ends. — The state of the following ? The bell is ringing. The mail has arrived. The birds had sung. The leaves fall. The fishes will be swimming. — Now give the time and state of each. Tense denotes the time of an action or event. Rem. 1. — Although tense properly denotes the time of an action or event, the tense form of the verb is made also to denote the state of an act. If an act is spoken of without reference to its progress or completion, we have the simple or indefinite present, past, or future : as, I love, I loved, I shall love. But if a. progressive and unfinished state of the act is to be repre- sented, we have another form for the present, past, and future ; as, I am writing, I teas writing, I shall be writing. If, again, we wish to represent the finished or completed state of an indefinite act, we have still another form for the present, past, and future ; as, I have loved, I had loved, I shall have loved. If we wish to represent the finished or completed state of a progressive act, we have yet another form ; as, I have been writing, I had been writing, I shall have been writing. If we wish to make the simple form emphatic, we have still another ; as, I do love, I did love, for the pres- ent and past. If we wish to show that the subject is receiving or suffering an act in present, past, or future time, we have still another form ; as, I am loved, I toas loved, I shall be loved. Rem. 2. — Tense does not mean the time which elapses from the begin- ning to the end of an act, that is, the duration of an act. But it refers either to the present, to an indefinite period antecedent to the present, or to an indefinite period subsequent to the present. The present, strictly speaking, has no length ; it is the point where the past and future meet. But for the purposes of language, any portion, as a day, a month, a year; a century, may be taken as the present, and all other time as past or future. The present progressive form is, however, always the moment of speaking. The present is the point or period of time assumed by the speaker or wri- ter, and is the epoch to which all events are referred. Whatever occurs in it, whether before or after the precise moment of speaking, is present ; whatever occurs out of it is either past or future. There are three divisions of time — the. past, the presen and the future. Rem , — Were it not necessary to make other distinctions in time based on subdivisions of these three, thqre would be but three tense forms, the pros- ETYMOLOGY — TENSE. 65 ent, the past, and the future. But it is often required tn give to an event a double refereiue : (1.) to the time of speaking, and (2. J to a given point or portion of the present, past, or future. leases which require this second point of reference are called relative tenses ; while those which have onlf a single reference to the speaker are called absolute tenses. Each division has two tenses — an absolute and a relative. There are, therefore, six tenses — three absolute and three relative ; as, (absolute,) " I write" " I wrote" " I shall write;" (relative,) " I have written" (some time to-day or this year,) " I had written" (before the boat sailed,) " T shall have written" (at noon.) Rem. 1. — The absolute tenses take their name from the division of time to which they belong. Thus we have the present tense, the past tense, the. future tense. The relative tenses affix to the name of the tense the word perfect. Thus we have the p r e sent perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect. Rem. 2. — To these six tenses may be added, with propriety, three others, called the present imperfect, past imperfect, and ftture imper- fect ; as, " I am vynting ; ** H I was writing ;" u t shall be writing." These forms are usually relative; tenses ; as, " I atn writing while you are read- ing ; " "I was writing when the coach arrived ; " "I shall be writing when you return." These are, however, called the progressive form of the verb, and may be used even in the perfect tenses, to show that a progressive act is completed ; as, " 1 have been writing," (but I am not now ;) " I had been writing" (but I was not at the past time referred to;) "I shall have been writing^' (but not at? the future time referred to.) The tenses are — the present, the present perfect ; the the past, the past, perfect ; the future, the future perfect. The present tense represents what takes place in present time ; as, " I see ; " " I am seeing ; " " I do see ; " " I am seen" Rem. 1. — By present time is meant the present of the speaker or writer, She present of the hearer is the same as that of the speaker; but that of he reader is not the same as that of the writer. Rem. 2. — This tense, in the common form, is used to denote a general • tith, or what is customary; as, " The boy attends school; :; "Vice pro- duces misery;" "Truth is powerful." In the progressive form, it ex- p osscs wnat is now actually taking place ; as, " lie is writing " Mark the difference between " He sings," that is, " He is a singer," ^but is not sing- ing now,) and " He is singing." Rem. 3. — The present is often used for other tenses. (1.) It is used f )i he past in animated narratives, where the writer or speaker seems transported to the scene which he describes ; as, " He seizes his musket ippn xches the monster, and lays him upon the ground." (2.) It. is used for tl s present perfect in speaking of authors long since dead, when their writin v,s are referred to ; as, " Matthew traces the descent of Joseph ; Luke traces 'hat of Mary." (3.) It is used for the future after relative //ro- uouns. and the subo. dinate connectives, till, until, as soon «j, when, before, 6* $6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. if , as, " We wiU pa> him when he comes." " He will devour every insect which amies in his way." The present perfect tense represents a past event com- pleted in present time ; as, " I have seen ; " " I have been seeing ; " " I have been seen." Rem. 1. — Whenever the attention is drawn to the completion of an act. the question of time refers not to the entire act, but to the end of it. If the completion takes place in a portion of time which the speaker as- sumes as present, however long that portion may be, or however remote the time of the completion may be from the moment of speaking, the tense is the present perfect ; as, " I have written a letter this year. ' The letter might have "been finished on the first of January, but the mention of it mijht have been made on the last of the following December. But should one moment intervene between the portion assumed as present fond year in the above example) and the portion in which the act took place, the past must be used if we simply refer to the act, or the past perfect if we refer to the completion of the act. Rem. 2. — This tense, like the present, is used for other tenses; as, " Shakspeare has excelled all other dramatists." " When I have finished my task, I shall return." The past tense represents what took place in time wholly past ; as, " I saw." " I ivas seeing." " I was seen." Rem. 1. — The past and the present perfect may both refer to one and the same act. If the speaker refers to an act indefinitely, that is, without regard to its progress or completion, and places it in the past, beyond any portion of what he assumes as present, he must use the past tense ; as, " I wrote this forenoon ; " the afternoon being assumed as present. " I have written (the same act) to-day ; " the whole day being assumed as present, and the completion (how it may have boen with the beginning is not material) has taken place in that present. Real 2. — The past tense, common form, is to past time what the ? resent, common form, is to present time. It refers to an act indefinitely. t denotes, like the present, what is customary ; as, " He attended school constantly." But in the progressive form it denotes a definite act in past time, but not completed ; as, " He teas writing when I came." The past perfect represents a past event completed in time wholly past ; as, " I had seen." " I had been seeing." " I had been seen." Rem. — The present perfect, the past, and the past perfect may each re- fer to the same act. Suppose a person to write a letter on Monday ; he speaks of it on Wednesday, assuming Wednesday alone as the present. lie says, (referring to the act absolutely and indefinitely,) " I wrote a let- ter." But while he was writing the mail arrived ; he now says, (referring definitely and relatively to the act unfinished, but in progress,) "I was writing a letter when the mail arrived." Again: in speaking of the same act, he says, (referring definitely and relatively to the completion of the act,) " I had written a letter before the mail left ; " or he may say, (r< definitely and relatively both to the progress and completion of the act,) ''I had been writing a letter." These fornis are used, first, because the time. mw wholly past, including no part of Wednesday ; secondly, because as ETYMOLOGY — TENSE8. 67 ndefinite absolute act in past time requires the simple past, wrote; a defi nite relative and progressive act in past time requires the pas* pro gressive form, was writing ; while a completed relative act in past time requires the past perfect, had written, and a completed progressive past act requires the past perfect progressive, had been writing. Now, let the speaker assume, not Wednesday," (though that be the day of speaking, as before.) but the wJiole week, as the present; he cannot say, "I am writ- ing,'" for the act is not now going on ; he cannot say, "I wrote," for the act is included in the time assumed as present, i. e., the time is not wholly past. But he can say, (referring to the completion of the act in the as- sumed present,) " I have written a letter," (this week ;) or, (referring bolh to the progress and completion of the act,) " I have been writing a letter," (this week.*) These forms are used, first, because the time (one week) is not wholly past, and secondly, because the nature of the act, as before, requires them. The future t3nse represents what will take place in future time ; as, " I shall see." " I shall be seeing." " I shall be seen." Rem. — The future, like the simple present or past, is used to denote a future custom ; as, " Ephraim shall not envy Judah, and Judah shall not vex Ephraim." " The lion shall eat straw like the ox." The future perfect tense represents an event as com- pleted in future time ; as, " I shall have seen." " I shah have been seeing" " I shall have been seen." TENSES IN ALL THE MODES. The subjunctive mode has six tenses — the same as the indicative. The potential mode has four tenses — the present, present perfect, past, anu past perfect. The infinitive has two tenses — the present and perfect. The imperative has only one tense — the present. Rem. 1. — Tense, in the subjunctive mode, doe* not usually mark tmie with the same exactness as in the indicative. (1.) In conditional clauses, if the thing spoken of denotes something actual, or ta- ken as actual, the tense form usually denotes the true time ; as, " If it rained, I did not know it." Rut if it refers to something merely hypothetical or supposed, the oast tense represents present time, and the past perfect, past time; as, " If I we*$ going now. (but I cannot,) I should ride." " If I had had an opportunity yesterday, t.i't I bad none,) I should have spi ken to him." * To the Teacher. — In drilling pupils on tense, it is important, first, to give t clear idea of what is assumed as present. It is not always expressed as above 'Wednesday, a week,) but is more frequently assumed without notice, mereiy implied , *s, " Fie has writt n-*' In the second place, the nature or state of the act as indefiml* pwfrftwiw, eomplird, or progressive completed, should be Cully exhibited. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (•J.) The verb to be has a distinct form for tlie past tense used hypothetical!} ar.a denoting present time ; as, " If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes." (!1.) Wer-e in this use cannot stand for would be, or would havebrcn, although in oth- er uses it may ; as," It were an impossibility to raise the requisite sum." Hud,'m like manner, is used for would or would have ; as, " I hod rather be a dog, and bay the moon, than such a Roman." " It had been better for him if he had uursucd the up posite course." Rem. 2. — The tenses in the potential mode have by no means the signification which their names denote. (1.) The present denotes present possibility, permission, ability, or necessity to per- form an act sometimes present, and sometimes future } as, " We may (now) go (to- morrow.)" " You can (now) write (now.)" " lie must (74010) leave," {now, to-mor- row, next week.) (2.) The present perfect generally denotes a present possibility, necessity, &c, that a past act was performed ; as, " I must have written " — It is now undeniable that 1 wrote (yesterday.) (3.) The past denotes (a.) a past possibility, &c, to perform an act ; as, " Can you write?" " I could write yesterday.' 1 u He would often sit the entire evening with- out uttering a word." Would, and might are now seldom, if ever, used to denote past time. (6.) It denotes the present possibility, &c, when followed by a conditional clause ; as, " I might or could go (now) if I would." " I should or would po (now) if I could." (c.) It denotes & future possibility, &lc. ; as, " I shall not go ; but if 1 should go, (hereafter,) 1 could (hereafter) walk, (d.) ft denotes a universal duty without reference to time ; as, " Children should , bnj their parents." (4.) The past perfect denotes usually a past possibility, &.c, but by no means a past completed act, as in the indicative, thus: " I could have assisted you (yesterday) if you had desired ii " — I was able to assist you. Rem. 3. — The infinitive mode has but two tenses, the present and per feet. They denote, the former an indefinite or progressive, and the latter a completed state of the act; as, " To torite." " To be writing.*' " To have written." " To have been writing." (1.) The infinitive, like the participle, may be connected with any mode or tense of the principal verb. (2.) The present infinitive denotes a time present with that of the principal verb, 3nd not necessarily present with the speaker ; as, " I intend to write." " I intended tt write." " I hail intended to writ'." " I shall hegin to write." (.'{.) The perfect denotes a past act completed at the time denoted by the principal verb; as, " She is stud to have sung." "She was thought to have written." "She will be known to have done it." Rem. 4. — The imperative has only the present tense, which denotes the time of giving a command ; the time of its performance is future. EXERCISES. Tell the tenses of the folloioing vet bs : — Did you hear the lecture ? He listened earnestly. I hope to find the study interesting. It will not rain. He had intended to go. I have heard the Irish orator. He saw the constellation of the Southern Cross. Is he confident of success "> He will have learned his lesson by the time we Irish to leave. I shall have finished my work when Sarah comes. The chil^ cried. Was the view pleasant ? Is he intelligent ? Are the notes of the nightingale sad ? Had she read the book ? She is loved by all. The hills were covered with snow. Tell the tenses of the following verbs; also which denote the reception ETYMOLOGY — FORMS OF THE VERBS. . 69 tf an act, Which the vhogkess, which the r ompeetion of an act, and which an indefinite act : — The paper is published in Boston. Is he planting the seed ? Has Frank been drawing ? She found her lost treasure. I shall be allowed to go When will she go to ride ? Have they been to the concert ? He sings. He is teaching. Happiness will be her portion. Sorrow is the common lot. Have you been taught to sew ? Had he heard the good news ? 1 wish to go. I will not be denied. He shall not forget the penalty. FLw« ers bloom. Stars fade. They will have gone when you come. He tore the book. You saw the bright star. When will you go ? What shall I do ? William has gained the prize. Have you been to Europe ? She writes easily. He has been learning to skate. He tells me pleasant sto- ries. She will always do right. He did right. He loves the right. The clock has struck. He was never known to tell a lie. He had been pro- moted. She is contented. You do not think so. You will learn to know her better. It shall not be. He is deceived. He has fallen from the tree. He broke his arm. He ran away. He was carrying the package. She had been home. FORMS OF THE VERB. Transitive verbs may have four forms — the common, the emphatic, the progressive, and the passive ; as, " I love." " I do love." " I am loving." " I am loved." Rem. — The emphatic form is confined to the present and past indica- tive, and the present imperative. The other forms are extended through all the modes and tenses. Intransitive verbs may have three forms — the common, the emphatic, and the progressive ; as, " I sit" " I do sit." " I am sitting" The common form represents an act indefinitely, as a cus- tom, or as completed without reference to its progress ; as, '« I love." " I loved." " I shall love." " I have loved." Rem. — The variations of this form, in the second and third persons,, as seen in the terminations est and eth, belong to what is called the solemn style. They are found in the Scriptures, in forms of prayer, and in various sacred books. The, emphatic form represents an act with emphasis ; as kt I do write." " I did write." Rem. — This form is used in interrogative or negative sentences without tmphasis ; as, " Do yiu write f " " Did you write t " " I do not write." The progressive form represents the progress of an un- finished act ; as, " 1 am ivriting." Rem. — In the perfect tenses, it represents the completion of a progres- sive act; as, "I have bean ivt-'tiny." " I shall have been ivriting. ?0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The passive form represents the reception of an act ; as, 4 I am loved" " I was loved" " I shall be loved." Rem. 1. — The perfect tenses of this form are used when we wish U represent the completion of a passive state; as, "I have been humored.* u I hud been honored." " I shall have been honored." 11km. 2. — The following table gives the forms for each divison of time, with a description of the state of the act : — FOIIMS FOR EACH DIVISION OF TIME. Present. Time. Present I. Act. Indefinite. Progressive incomplete. Complete. Progressive complete. Indefinite emphatic. Indefinite received.* Progressive received.* Complete received.* Example. He writes. He is writing. He has written. He has been writing. He dors write. The letter is written. The house is building. The letter has been written. Past. II. Past. Indefinite. Progressive incomplete. Complete. Progressive complete. Indefinite emphatic Indefinite received.* Progressive received.* Complete received.* He wrote. He was writing. He had written. He had been writing. He did write. The letter was written. The house was building. The letter had been written. III. Future. 1. Future. Indefinite. 2. " Progressive incomplete. 3. " Complete. 4. " Progressive complete. 5. " Indefinite received.* 6. " Progressive received. 7. " Complete received.* He will write. He will be writing. He will have written. He will have been writing. The letter will be written. The house will be building. The letter will have been written Each part of the van ms forms contributes a share towards the general meaning of the tense, and every compound tense should be analyzed. MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. We are marching. . . , Are is an auxiliary verb, denotes present lime, and asserts a thing as actual ; marching is a present participle, denoting a progressive act ; hence are marching is the present tense, indica- tive mode, progressive form. lie write Do is an auxiliary verb, denotes the present tense, asserts a thin"; as actual, and imparts emphasis ; tcrite denotes the act used indefinitely ; hence do write is the present indies*-? nrp^atv form. * By the subject ETYMOLOGY — AUXILIARIES. 71 tie will sing Will is an auxiliary verb, der. fltes future time. (simply predicts,) and asserts a thing as actual ; sing denotes the act used indefinitely ; hence will sing is in the future tense, indicative mode. He has conquered Has is an auxiliary verb, denotes present time, is a sign of completed action, and asserts a thing as actual ; conquered is the past participle of conquer, denoting a completed or perfect act ; hence has conquered is the present perfect in- dicative. / had been writing Had is an auxiliary verb, denotes past time, is a sign of completion, and with been asserts a thing as actual ; been is the past participle of the aux- iliary to be, and is used to denote completion : writing is the present participle of write, formed by adding ing, (Rule II., p. 16,) and denotes a progressive act ; hence had been tcriti^g is the past perfect progressive indicative. They will have fought. . . Will is an auxiliary verb ; it denotes future time, (simply predicts,) and asserts a thing as actual ; have is a sign of completion ; hence will havt is the sign of future completion ; fought is tho past participle of fight ; it denotes completion ; hence will have fought is the future perfect tense indicative. I may read May is an auxiliary verb ; it denotes present time, asserts a thing as imagined or thought of, (not as actual,) and gives permission; read denotes an indefinite act ; hence may read is the pres ent potential common form. If he is detained. Is is an auxiliary vert), denotes present time, and of itself asserts a thing as actual, but under the influence of if asserts a thing as doubtful and conditional ; detained is a passive participle, denoting the reception of an act ; hence is de~ tained is the present passive subjunctive. EXERCISE. In the same manner analyze the following examples : — The tempest has passed. The sun was rising. I shall be satisfied. The sailor would have been discharged, if he had not gisen a satisfactory excuse. The boys were anxious to go. The boy hoped to have finished the wcrk before the storm approached. Go to the prison. Write an an- swer. It may have been delayed. If you should write a correct lesson, you would be commended. Write three examples of the emphatic indicative past ; three of the pro- gressive past perfect ; four of the progressive potential past perfect ; alM any other which your teacher may give. Select from your Reader one example of each tense, and analyze it. Tell the mode, tense, and form of each of the following verbs:-" Shepherd, lead on. Sweet is the breath of morn. These are J .hy works. He will be coming. Silence filled the courts of heaven. A little new born spirit knelt before the Eternal Throne. Thus far shalt thou g-» He leads them forth through golden portals. Truth, crushed to earth 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ehal! zise again Do thou in secret pray ? "When the eye saw him, then it blessed him. If thy brother die, he shall live again. It is sown a nat ural body, it is raised a spiritual body. By that time he will have beei reaping his wheat Books were ready comrades, whom he could no- tire. Thou must go to rest. He sunk to repose where the red heathi are blended. He has been studying his lesson. She had seen better days I would have blessed the strand. Be exalted, ye valleys. I will love the sea because it is his grave. Pale mourned the lily where the rose had died Suffer little children to come unto me. He would hardly have known him She was sitting by the side of her friend. They were walking on the beach The sun will have set when I reach home If he will do well, he shall b rewarded. Correct the following in all respects : — Hull april first 18 hundred and 52 my deer ant i set down to inform you That i am usually well i should admire to see you we was all so glad when "Xou come to our House last febuary we was'nt a looking for you but in You come all of A sudden i go to school now and study my rethmctic and Grammar book i think i lern my grammer considerable "Well but the mas- ter says how i dont rite Grammatical i shall Be twelve Year old co me june i cant rite no more for i haint no more time to — your lovin Nef u lemuel AUX1LIAKIES. Auxiliary verbs are those which are used in conjugating other verbs. They are, — PRES. Do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, Past. Did, was, had, should, would, might, could, Rem. 1. — Do, be, have, and will (when it means to will, or to leave property by a ivill) are also used as principal verbs. Rem. 2. — The auxiliary verbs are used to form the modes and tenses of other verbs, and to give peculiar shades of meaning to the forms in which they are used. In the early stages of the language, these verbs were undoubtedly used as principal verbs followed by the infinitive of what now Is called the principal verb; as, may (to) go; can (to) read; must (to) sing. The to was at length dropped, as it is in case of the infinitives fol- lowing bid, dare, feel, see, &c. ; and finally, the infinitive came to be re- garded as the principal verb, and that on which it depended became its auxiliary. Rem. 3. — The auxiliaries should be regarded merely as form-words, or words used to form the tenses, and to show relations of time and mode, as the preposition is used to show relations of time, place, origin, cause, man- ner, property, material, &c. In fact, all words used to show a relation, of whatever nature, are a species of auxiliary. Prepositions aid in convert- ing nouns into an adjective or adverbial use, thus : " She plays with ease " = plays easily. " The oak of America " = The American oak. The rel- ative pronoun, or the conjunctive adverb, is an auxiliary used to form an adjective or an adverb out of a sentence ; thus : " The rain washed away the embankment," is an independent sentence ; but in the sentence, • The rain ivhich (\. e., the rain) washed aicay the embankment, has done much damage elsewhere ; " the former sentence, by the aid of which, has teen converted into an adjective, used to modify rain. So if we take the two sentences, " The sun rose ; " " The cars left," we may convert the for mer into an adverb by the auxiliary when thus : " When the sun rose. ETYMOLOtxVT FORMATION OF TENSES. 73 the cars left." In the progress of language, these auxiliaries have in- creased, aud-in the same ratio, the inflection of the principal word ha* diminished. An exact and familiar acquaintance with their various use* is essential to a correct knowledge of language. Rem. 4. — The auxiliaries, as such, have only two tenses; the present and the past, except must, which has no variation. They may he thus rep- resented : — CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. Present. Fast. < Singular Plural. 1st. Per. 2d Per. 3d Per. 1st Per. 2d Per. 3d Per. / Tlwu Re We You They (■Am art is are are are Do dost does do do do Have hast has have have have Will wilt will will will will Shall shalt shall shall shall shall May mayst may may may may Can canst can can can can , Must must must must must must ( Was wast was were were were Did didst did did did did Had hadst had had had had Would wouldst would would would would Should shouldst should should should should Might mightst couldst might might might might , Could could could could could FORMATION OF TENSES — USES OF THE AUXILIARIE& INDICATIVE MODE. Present Tense. (1.) The common form . . is the first or simple form of the verb ; as, love % lovest, loves. (2.) The emphatic form . . prefixes do, dost, does, to the first form of the verb ; as, do love, dost love, does love. (3 ) The progressive form . prefixes is, am, art, are, to the present partici- ple of the verb ; as, is loriting, am writing, art loritmg. (4.) T/ie passive form . . . prefixes is, am, art, are, to the passive* partici- ple of the verb ; as, is loved, art loved, are loved. Rem. 1. — Do is used primarily for emphasis It is used without emphasis in into*- rogative and negative sentences ; as, " Does he write ? " " He does not tell the tnith.' It takta also at the end of the sentence the place of the principal verb ; as, " I will go if 70a do " = go. K*m. 2. — Be, as an auxiliary, is the pure abstract verb, (Rem. 1, p. 52,) and is used The same in form as the past participie, but not in meaning. 7 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. to connect the participle, present or passive w':h the subject. It gives no shading to the meaning of the participle, as it has no meaning to impart. It does what impla inflection would do if it could be employed. Present Perfect Tense. (1.) The common form . . prefixes have, hast, has, to the past participle of the vert ; as, have loved, hast loved, has loved. (2.) The progressive form . prefixes have been, hast been, has been, to the present participle of the verb ; as, have been writing, hast been writing, has been writing. (3.) The passive form . . . prefixes have been, hast been, has been, to the passive participle of the verb; as, have been loved, hast been loved, has been loved. Rem. — Have probably once conveyed the idea of possession, governing an object winch was limited by a passive participle ; as, " He has treasures discovered," or, " lie kas (or possesses) discovered treasures." It has now lost all idea of possession, and is, in this use, a simple auxiliary ; the participle, also, having been changed from a passive, to an active -• gnification ; as, " He has discovered valuable treasures." Past Tense. (1.) The common form . . is the second form of the verb ; as, loved, lovedst. (2.) The emphatic form . . prefixes did, didst, to the first form of the verb ; as, did love, didst love. (3.) The progressive form . prefixes teas, wast, were, to the present partici- ple of the verb ; as, was writing, wast writingy were writing. (4.) The passive for ?n . . . prefixes was, wast, were to the passive parti- ple of the verb ; as, was loved, wast loved, were loved. Rem. — Did is the past of do, and has the same uses. The samo may be said of wis, which is the past of be. Past Perfect Tense. (1.) The common form . . prefixes had, hadst, to the past participle ; as, had loved, hadst loved. (2.) The progressive form . prefixes had been, hadst been, to the present participle of the verb; as, had been writing, hadst been writing. (3) The passive form . . . prefixes had been, hadst been, to the passive participle of the verb ; as, had been loved, hadst been loved. Ran — Had is the past of have, and has the same uses as the latter. Future Tense. (1.) The common form . . prefixes shall, shalt, will, wilt, to the first form of the verb ; as, shall love, shalt lore, will love, wilt love. (2.) The progressive form . prefixes shall be, shalt be, will be, toilt be, to the present pn^idple of the verb ; as, shall b* ETYMOLOGY FORMATION OF TENSES. 75 writing, will be writing, shalt be writing, wiH be writing. (8.) 17ie passive form , . prefixes shall be, shalt be, will be, wilt be, to the passive participle of the verb ; as, shall be loved, shaU be loved, will be loved, wilt be loved. Future Perfect Tense. (1.) The common form . . prefixes shall have, shalt have, will have, wili have, to the perfect participle of the verb ; as, shall have loved, will have loved, wilt have loved. (2.) The progressive form . prefixes shall have been, will have been, shalt have been, wilt have been, to the present par- ticiple of the verb ; as, shall have been writ- ing, tcilt have been, writing, will have been writing. (3.) The passive form . . . prefixes shall have been, will have been, shalt have been, wilt have been, to the passive par- ticiple of the verb ; as, shall have been loved, wilt have been loved, will have been loved. Note. — Shall and will are used to form the future tenses, and, with have, shall or will have,) to form the future perfect, in the indicative and sub- junctive modes ; as, I shall or will learn, I shall or will have learned ; if 1 shall or will learn, if I shall or will have learned. Rem. 1.— Shall and will have two significations — a primary or original, and a sec- ondary or derived. ShaU denotes, primarily, obligation ; as, n You shall do it " = You are under obligation to do it ; this obligation may be urged by the will or determination of another ; as, " You are under obligation to do it, and I will, or am determined, that the obligation shall be discharged ; " that is, " That you shall do it, is my will." Hence shall denotes obligation, and implies determination and resolution at the same t'me. But that which one is obliged to do, whether by necessity or the will of another, is not now done ; it is ?/ct to be done ; hence a secondary idea of futurity. Rem. 2. — Will denotes, primarily, volition, inclination, purpose, determination ; as, "He will go in spite of opposition "= He is determined to go. But that which one inclines, or wills, or determines to do himself, or to have another do, is not now done ; it is yet to be done ; hence will also has a secondary idea of futurity. Rem. 3. — In the present use of these auxiliaries both these elements appear. (1.) Shall and will denote a present resolution, volition, inclination, determination, promise, or purpose, with reference to a future act ; as, " / resolve that he shall write." " I will write." (2.) They denote simple futurity ; as, " / predict that he will write." " It willrain to-morrow." " I shall (contrary to my will) be overtaken." Rem. 4. — Besides that ot the speaker, two relations or parties are necessarily in volved in both these cases; the one who resolves or predicts, and the one who acts. Two cases may arise. (L) Both parties may be represented by the same person ; as, " I resolve or determine that I will write ; " or simply, " I will write." " I predict or be- Kece that I shall write ; " or simply, " I shall write." " You resolve that you will write." " You believe or predict that you shall write." (2.) Both parties may be represented one by one person, and the other by another ; as, " J resolve that you shall write ; " or simply, " You shall write." " I predict that you will write ; " or simply, " You will write." " You resolve that I shall write ; " " You predict that I shall (not roill) write." "He resolves that you shall write." "He predicts that you will write." In interrogative sentences, the same principles prevail, but the will or opinion of the •econd person is referred to ; as, " Shall he write ? " that is, " Is it your icill or res- thition that he shall write ? " " Will it rain ? " that is, " Is it your opinion or predic- tion that it will rain ? " A careful inspection of these and similar examples will justify the following rules • — Rule I. When the person who resolves or predicts is not mentioned, the first per ton is always understood in affirmative, and the second in interrogative sentences; as, "Yo'i ghall go." (/will it.) "Shall he go?" (Do yon will it?) " It will rain." 'J predict it ) " Will U sin I " (Do you predict it ?) 76 ENGLISH GRAIfMAR. Role II. Will should be used when the resolution and the action are attributed te the same person, and shall when i/tej are attributed to different persons; " I vrill go." (I myself resolve.) "Will you £0?" (Do you yourself resolve?) "He toiU go." (He himself tesolves.) " lie sbu) go." (I resolve.) " They have determined lhat you shall go." "Shall he go?" (Do you resolve?) Rule III. Shall should be used when the prediction and the action are both attributed to the same person, or in any case, provided the action be attributed to the first person ; and will should be used when the prediction and. the action {except in the case of the first person) are attributed to different persons; as, " You will be promoted." (I pre- dict it.) " I shall teach, or he a teacher." (I, he, you, or they, predict it.) " Will lie teach ? " (Do you predict it ?) " Will it rain ? " (Do you think so ?) « It will rain." 'I think so.) Note. — These rules embody all the principal uses of shall and will. But there are some exceptions and anomalous cases, which will easily be recognized. In the following sentences, do shall, and will resolve or predict ? — I will go to the party. You shall not leave the room. It will be a sad day for him. He shall do as I tell him. He will come to see me. I shall go to see my sister. I shall see him to-morrow. In the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. Thou wilt show me the path of life. He will be elected. Perhaps I shall find my book. I will fear no evil. I will dwell in the house of my God forever. Shall I go to ride ? Will she do it ? In spite of all your objections, I •will do it. The sun will shine. The clock will strike. Shall you go to the lecture ? When will the time come ? Will he do well ? Correct the following examples by giving the right use of shall and will : — I will receive a letter when my brother comes. If they make the changes, I do not think I will like them. Will we have a good time, if we go ? Perhaps you shall find the purse. I will be unhappy if you do not come. I will be afraid if it is dark. Surely goodness and mercy shall fol- low me, and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. I resolve that he will return with me. I will be obliged to you. I will be punished. What sorrow will I have to endure ! The moon shall give her light. Will I write ? He is resolved that Mary will go. If we examine the subject, we will perceive the error. I will suffer from poverty ; nobody shall help me. When shall you go ^th me ? Where will I leave you ? POTENTIAL MODE. Present Tense. (1.) The common form prefixes may, mayst, can, canst, must, to the first form of the verb ; as, may love, mayst love, oan love, canst love, must love. (2.) The progressive forn . prefixes may be, mayst be, can be, ca?ist be, must he, to the present participle of the verb ; as, may be toriting, mayst be writing, can, be writ- ing, canst be writing, must be writing. 3.) The passive form . . orefixes may be, mayst be, can be, canst be, must *, to the passive participle of the verb; ag, w ay be loved, mayst be loved, can be loved, canst be loved, must be loved. Present Perfect Tense. (I.) The czt*mon ft rm . . prefixes may have, mayst have, can have, canst nave, must have, to the past participle of the verb ; as, may liave loved, mayst hive loved, can have fovhd, canst have loved, must ham loved. ETYMOLOGY — FOBMATION OF TF.NSES. 77 (2k) The progressive form prefixes may have been, mayst have been, can have been, canst have been, must Juxve been, to the present participle of the \erb; as, may have been writing, mayst have been writing, can have been writing, canst liavebeen writing, must have been writing. (3.) The passive form . . . prefixes may have been, mayst have been, can have been, canst have been, must have been, to the passive participle of the verb ; as, may have been loved, mayst have been loved, can have been loved, canst have been loved, must have been loved. (1 ) The common form (2.) The progressive form (3.) The passive form Past Tense. prefixes might, mightst, could, couldst, should, shouldst, would, roouldst, to the first form of the verb; as, might love, mightst love, could love, couldst love, would love, wouldst love, should love, shouldst love. prefixes might be, mightst be, could be, couldst be, would be, icouldst be, should be, shouldst be, to the present participle of the verb ; as, might be writing, mightst be writing, could be writing, couldst be wriiiny, would be writing, wouldst be writing, shotdd be writing, shouldst be writing. prefixes might be, mightst be, could be, eoiddst be, would be, icouldst be, should be, shoiddst be, to the passive participle of the verb ; as, might be loved, mightst be loved, could be loved, couldst be loved, wbidd be loved, woiddst be loved, s/iould be loved, shouldst be loved. Past Perfect Tense. (1.) The common form . . prefixes might have, mightst have, could have, eoiddst have, should have, shoiddst have, would have, wouldst have, to the past participle of the verb ; as, might have loved, mightst have loved, could have loved, couldst have loved, would have loved, icouldst have loved, should Jiave loved, shoiddst have loved. (2.) The progressive form . prefixes might have been, mightst have been, could have been, couldst have been, would have been,wouldst have been, should have been, shouldst have been, to the present participle of the verb as, might have been writing, mightst have been toriting, could have been writing, couldst have been writing, should have been writing, shoiddst have been writing, would have been writing, woiddst have beeii writing. (Jw) The passive form . prefixes might have been, mightst have been, could have been-, couldst have been, would have been, wouldst have been, should have^ been, shouldst have been, to the passive participle of the verb ; as, might have been loved, mightst have been loved, could have been loved, couldst have been loved, would have been loved, wouldst have been loved, should have been loved, shouldst have been loved 78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rem. 1. — • May denotes power imparted by others that is, liberty or permission t can denotes power or ability, belonging to one's self ; must ienotes necessity. Rem. 2. — May sometimes denotes possibility ; as, " It may rain ; " "He may have written ; " sometimes a petition ; as, " Mai/ it please you." Rem. 3. — In the present perfect these auxiliaries are joined with have , as, " May, can, or must have written; " and then the entire form denotes the present possibility, &c, that a past act was performed ; as, " I may have spoken " = It is (now) possible that I spoke (yesterday.) Rem. 1. — Should and would have the same general meaning as the present tenses shall and will, and in general they are to the past tenses what shall and will are to the present or future ; as, " I think I shall write." M I thought I should write." " I think he will go" " 1 thought he would go." (See Rules for the use of shall and will.) Rem. 2. — Might and could also express in past time the same general meaning as in the present ; as, " I know I may or can go." " I knew I might or could go." Rem. 3. — Might, could, should, and woidd are used in conditional sen- tences, might in one clause answering to coidd in the other, when poioer, ability, or inclination is implied; as, " He might sing, if he coidd or would.'" So, " He could sing, if he would." " He woxdd sing, if he could." Sometimes the conditional clause is omitted. " He might write." " He could write." " He would write." In all these examples a present possi- bility, liberty, &c, is referred to. When past time is referred to, we use the past perfect tense; as, "He might have written, if he would" (have written.) Rem. 4. — Might, could, would, and should, combined with have, form the past perfect tense. It is the past perfect only in form. It is equivalent to the past ; as, " He could have written " = He was able to write. Subjunctive Mode. "With the exception of the distinctive form in the present and past, the subjunctive mode is the same in form as the indicative or potential, with if, unless, though, &c., prefixed ; as, " If I love." "If I may love." Imperative Mode. The imperative mode has but one tense, the present, which is used gen erally without the subject expressed, and in all the four forms of the verb as, Study ; be thou studying ; be thou loved ; do write. Infinitive. Mode. The infinitive mode has two tenses -— the present and the perfect. Tht present is used in the common, the progressive, and the passive form of the verb, and is formed by prefixing to to the simple verb for the common form, to be to the present participle for the progressive form, and to be to the. passive participle for the passive form; as, to write; to be ivriting , to be written. The perfect is used in the common, the progressive, and thepassive forms of the verb, and is formed by prefixing to have to the past participle of the verb for the common form, to have been to the present participle for the progressive form, and to have been to the passive participle for the pas> B.ie fornn, as, to have written; to have been writing ■ to have been written ETYMOLOGY — • VERB, ITS NUMBER AND PERSON. 79 Participles. The present participle is formed by adding ing to the first form of the *erb, (Rule III. p. 15 ;) as, writing. The past participle is formed for regular verbs by adding ed to the sim- ple verb, (Rule III. p. 15 ;) as, honored. The perfect participle is formed by prefixing having to the past participle *f the verb for the common form, 'having been to the present participle for the progressive form, and having been to the passive participle for the oassiveform; as, having written ; having been writing ; having been written. NUMBER AND PERSON OF THE VERB. The number and person of the verb are properties which ihow its agreement with the subject. Like the subject, the verb has two numbers and three persons. Rem. 1. — The first person singular, and the first, second, and third persons plural, of the present tense indicative, in all verbs, (am, are, was, tcere, excepted,) are alike. The second person singular is like the firnt, except in the solemn or scriptural style, when it is formed by adding st, or est, to the'first person ; as, " Thou lovest me not." The third person sin- gular is formed from the first, by adding s, or es : in the scriptural style it cuds in eth ; as, " He qoeth." Verbs ending in y, preceded by a consonant, rhange :/ into i, and add es, to form the thud person singular ;• as, try, tries. Hem. 2. — By a figure of enallage, the second person plural of the pro- noun and verb is substituted, in conversational and familiar style, for the second person singular ; as, " Hubert, you are sad " = Hubert, thoti art s;id Rbm. 3. — The imperative mode has usually only the second person; as, " Go thou." In some languages, the imperative has also a form for rhe first person plural, and third person singular and plural A i?w ex amplea seem to occur in English ; as, " Rise, thy sons." " Be it decreed." Most of these cases, however, can be explained by suj plying an ellipsis ; as, " Let thy sons rise." " Let it be decreed." EXERCISE. Determine the number and person of each of the following subjects, and then give the number and person of each of the following verbs : — Mary sings. George will fly his kite. I know it. She would go. Henry recites well. Who are they ? The birds picked up the crumbs. Hear tht rain. When shall you go ? The sun does not shine. The violets bloom. Roses will fade. Time flies on. Books are full of instruction. You may have your choice. What shall I give her ? Cultivate a love for all that is oeauliful. CONJUGATION. The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement of tts severa 1 modes, tenses, voices, numbers, and persons 80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rem. 1. — The only tenses which change their termination are the present and past ; as, sit, sittest, sits ; sat, sittest ; tarry, larriest, tarriea ; taxried, tarriedst. All other changes are made by means of auxiliaries. Rem. 2. — In adding s or es, observe the same rules as in the forma- tion of the plural of nouns ; as, play, plays ; fly, flies ; go, goes. So, also observe the rules (p. 15) for the changes of the radical verb ; as, drop, dropped, (Rule I. p. 15 ;) reply, replied, (Rule III. p. 15.) The principal parts of a verb are the present indicative the past indicative, and the past participle. EXAMPLES. Present. Past. Past Participle Explain, Rely, Write, Shine, Hurt, explained, relied, wrote, shone, hurt, EXERCISES. explained. relied. written. shone. hurt. Give the principal parts of the following verbs: — Sail, smile, see, shut, close, open, burn, glaze, gild, turn, try reform, renew, take, leave, make, build, hope, fold, alter, correct. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE. Note. — Let the pupil study the " Formation of the Tenses ( p. 73,) as he learns the conjugation of the different modes and tenses. INDICATIVE MODE. Singular. 1. I am, 2 Thou art, 3. He is ; Present Tense. Plural. We are, You are, They are Present Perfect Tense. Singular. 1. I have been, 2. Thou hast been, 3. He has been ; Plural We have been. You have oeen, They have been. ETYMOLOGY — CONJUGATION. SI Past Tense. Singular. Plural 1. I was, We were, 2. Thou wast, You were, 3. He was ; They were. • Past Perfect Tense Singular. Plural. 1. I had been, We had been, 2 Thou hadst been, You had been, 3. He had been ; They had been. Future Tense. Singular. Plural 1. I shall or will be, We shall or will be, 2. Thou shalt or wilt be, You shall or will be, 3. He shall or will be ; They shall or will be. Future Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1 1 shall or will have been, We shall or will have been, 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, You shall or will have been, 3. He shall or will hi ve been ; They shall or will have been. POTENTIAL MODE. Present Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may be,* We may be, 2. Thou mayst be, You may be, He may be ; , They may be. 2 Present Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. I may have been, We may have been. 2. Thou n ayst have been. You may have been, 3. He may have been ; They may have been. Past Tense. Singular Plural. 1 I might be, We might be, 2 Thou mightst be, You might be, S He might be; They might be. * t'onpgate with each auxiliary, or with all united, thus : I may. eon, or mufi be 4 f2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Past Perfect Tense. Singular. Plut al. 1 I might have been, We might have been, 2. Thou mightst have been, You might have been, 8. He might have been ; They might have beer, SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Tense. Singular. Plural 1. If I am, If we are, 2. If thou art, If you are, 3. If he is ; If they are. Present Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I have been, If we have been, 2. If thou hast been, If you have been, 3. If he has been ; If they have been. Past Tense. Singular. Plural 1. If I was, ' If we were, 2. If thou wast, If you were, 3. If he was ; If they were. Past Perfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I had been, If we had been, 2. If thou hadst been, If you had been, 3. If he had been ; If they had been. Future Tense. Singular. Plurah 1. If I shall or will be, If we shall he may return whenever she wishes. He disobeyed the rule, although he knew it was wrong. Whither I go ye cannot come. He came as boob f.s his engagements would permit. 1 will go because she wishes to sec me. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. Many adverbs, especially those denoting manner, admit i ( comparison : as, brightly, mor.e brightly, most brightly ; iwn, sooner, soonest. Rem. 1. — When an adjective undergoes comparison, it shows that two or n ore objects are compared ; but when an adverb undergoes the same change, It show's that two or more actions or qualities are compared ; as, " James Vj. eaks more fluently than George " [speaks.] Rem. 2. — The following adverbs arc compared irregularly: III or badly, h me, worst; little, less, least ; far, farther, farthest; much, more, most; tc ill, better, best. EXERCISES. Compare the following adverbs Coolly, oi Qsively Coolly, noiselessly, famously, soon, near, little, well, much, joyfully ly T..11 the degree oj comparison of the /"Hawing : — . earnestly* nearer, soonest, brightly, most, worst, comparatively, most plentifully. 9* 102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PARSING. To parse an adverb, tell, — (1.) What part of speech it is, and why. (2.) Compare it, (where it admits of it.) and tell what degre*. (3.) Tell what it modifies. (4.) Give the rule. MODEL. ".The sun shines brightly." Brightly . . . is an adverb ; it modifies the meaning of the verb ; it it compared (positive brightly, comparative more brightly, su- perlative most brightly ;) it is in the positive degree ; it modi- fies the verb shines, according to Rule IX. (Repeat it.) " Mary writes more elegantly than her brother." More elegantly . is an adverb; it modifies the meaning of the verb; it is compared, (elegantly, more elegantly, most elegantly ;) it is in the comparative degree; it modifies the verb writes, according to Rule IX. (Repeat it.) " I will go whenever you wish." Whenever .... is a conjunctive adverb, because it gives to the dependent clause an adverbial relation, and connects it with the verb will go ; it modifies both will go and wish, according to Rule IX. PREPOSITIONS. Note. — For an oral exercise, see Introduction. A preposition is a word used to show the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word ; as, " The ship was seen from the citadel." " He sailed upon the ocean in a ship q/*\var." Rem. 1. — The-preposition always shows a relation between two terms, an antecedent and a subsequent. The subsequent term is called the object •f the preposition. The preposition and object united form a dependei; element of the sentence having the antecedent term as its principal. Rkm. 2. — The preposition always shows a relation of dependence. When •? e antecedent term is a noun, the dependent phrase is of the nature of an aijective ; as, " The rays of the sun " = solar rays. When the antecedent term is a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb, the dependent phrase is of the nature of an adverb, (sometimes an i. object;) as, " The case was conducted toith skill" —skilfully. Rem. 3. — The object of the preposition is not always a single word : i1 •nay be a. phrase or clause ; as, " The city was about to capitulate wfc poleon arrived." " Much will depend on who tlie commissioners are. ' ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 103 Rem. 4. — Tlie preposition is sometimes placed .after its object; as, While its song, sublime as thunder, rolls the woods along." The prep- •sition and object sometimes precede the word on which they depend ; as ' Of sill patriots, Washington was the noblest." The following is a list of the principal prepositions in xcse : — aboard, before, for, through, about, behind, from, throughout, above, below, in, into, till, according to, beneath, 'mid, to, across, beside or 'midst, touching, after, besides, notwithstanding, toward or against, between, of, towards, along, betwixt, for, under, amid or beyond, on, underneath, amidst, by, out of, until, among ot concerning, over, unto, amongst, down, past, up, around, during, regarding, upon, with, at, ere, respecting, athwart, except, round, within, bating, excepting, since, without. Rem. 1. — According to, as to as for, out of, instead of, because of, off from, over against, round about from among, from between, from around, from before, and the like, may be regarded as complex prepositions, and parsed as a single word ; or the first word of the phrase may be parsed as an adverb. According, contrary, in the phrases according to, contrary to, are sometimes regarded as participles or adjectives modifying some noun iii the sentence. Rem. 2. — In such connections as the following, put in, go itp, go down, cut through, pass by, climb up, and the like, the preposition may be parsed as an adverb when it is not followed by an object ; also the Italicized words in such sentences as the following : " The captain stood in for the shore." " They rode by in haste." R-em. 3. — Some words, most commonly prepositions, are occasionally used as adverbs ; these are, before, after, till, until, above, beneath, for, on, in. X:c. So also some words commonly employed as adverbs are some- times used as prepositions ; as, bid, save, despite, &c. Off is usually an adverb, but may be parsed as a preposition when followed by an object. Instead, is either a preposition, or equivalent to a preposition and noun = in stead. Rem. 4. — In such expressions, as, a hunting, a fishing, and the like, if authorized at all, the a may be regarded as itself a preposition, or a con- traction of at, in, or on. PARSING. To parse a preposition, tell, — (1.) What part of speech, and why. (2.) Between what words it shows the relation. (3.) Give the rule. Froi " He went from- England to France." s a preposition ; it is used to show the relation between a noun o» 104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. pronoun and some other word ; it shows the relation Detween the noun England and the verb went, according to Rule XIII. (Repeat it.) To . . . is a preposition ; it shows the relation between the noun France and the verb went, according to Rule XIII. Point out the prepositions in the following sentences, and tell between what words they show the relation. He heard the birds sing in the morning. The buds are swelling m the sun's warm rays. The winds will come from the distant south. The bees gather honey from the flowers. I bring fresh showers for the thirsty flow- ers from sea and stream. I shall be Queen of the May. In the garden the crocus blooms. The hills are covered with a carpet' of green. We shall have pleasant walks with our friends. We shall seek the early fruits in the sunny valley. Make use of the following prepositions in sentences of your own; — Under, above, on, before, behind, from, beneath, by, except, during, around, through, ?er, past, without, within, till, towards, according to, beyond, across, in, ap, with, notwithstanding. Correct the following expression;; in oil rcsjiects : — The ship lays in the harbor. They sung very good. She laid down. Will you shut up the winder ? I have took that book from its place. They spended all then money. He begun his work. The wasp stinged him. He knowed it wasnt true. Somebody lias stole my pen. Her shoes are wore out. The sun has rose. The trees growed fast. She throwed the ball jist so high as she could. He set down. He has went away afore I come. Ive beam tell. They come right home. A dog drawed the wagon. The books are tore bad. She had fell down, and hurted herself. How many instances of incorrect expressions have you noticed to-day * CONJUNCTIONS. Note. — For oral exercise, see Introduction. A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, or the parts of sentences ; as. " The horse fell over the precipice, but the rider escaped." " The horse and rider fell over the precipice." In the first example, but connects tw« sentences; in the second, and connects the two parts, horse and rider. Rem. 1. — A pure conjunction forms no part of the material or sub- stance of a sentence ; its office is simply to unite the materials into a sin- gle structure. Rem. 2. — Besides pure conjunctions, there is a large class of word? which enter into the sentence as a part of its substance, and at the same time connect different elements or parts; as, " This is the pencil -Inch I lost." Here Wuc/t is the obje t of lost, and at the same time connects the dependent clause, which I lost to pencil. All such words are e&llod con> iiectives or conjunctive words. ETYMOLOGY CONJUNCTIONS. 105 CLASSES OE CONNECTIVES. All connectives (whether pure conjunctions ?r conjunc- tive words) are divided into two classes — coordinate and subordinate. Coordinate connectives are those which join similar or homogeneous elements ; as, " John and James were disciples." Here John and James are similar in construction, and have a common relation to tiie predicate. Hem. 1. — Two elements are coordinate, and consequently demand a coordinate conjunction, when they are placed in the same relation or rank ; as, " The insects devoured leaves and blossoms." Here leaves is dependent on devoured ; blossoms also is not only dependent, but has precisely the same sort of dependence as leaves ; hence' they are coordinate with each other. In the sentence, " The insects devoured the leaves greedily," leaves and greedily are both dependent on devoured, but they have by no means the same dependence ; hence they are not coordinate, and cannot be con- nected by and, or any other coordinate conjunction. Coordinate connectives are always conjunctions, and may be divided into three classes — copulative, adversative, and alternative. Copulative conjunctions are those which add parts in har- mony with each other; as, "The day dawned, and our friends departed." The cop llative conjunctions are, — (1.) And, a connective of the most general character, placing the con- nected parts in a relation of perfect equality, without modification or em- phasis. (2.) So, also, likewise, too, besides, moreover, furthermore, now, hence, whence, therefore, wherefore, consequently, even, connectives associated with and expressed or understood, and used to give emphasis, or some additional idea ; as, " She sings ; [and] besides she plays beautifully." (3.) Not only . . . but, but also, but likewise, as well . . . as, both . . . and, first . . . secondly, thirdly, &c. ; connectives employed when we wish not only to make the second part emphatic, but to awaken an expectation of some addition. As these parts correspond to each other, these connee tives are called correlatives. Adversative conjunctions are those which unite parts in opposition to, or in contrast with, each other ; as, " The fish was brought to the shore, but plunged into the water again." Rem. — Adversative conjunctions are employed, (1.) "When the second part is placed in opposition to the first; as, '"'It doe* not rain, but it •nows." (2.) When the second partis placed in opposition to a suppose* 1 106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. inference from the first ; as, " The army was victorious, but the general was slain. Here, lest the inference should be that all was prosperous, the sec- ond clause with but is added. The adversative conjunctions are, — (1.) But, which simply shows opposition without emphasis ; as, " I shall go, hut I shall not walk." (2.) Yet, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding, however t now, and some olii rrs, which are associated with but, either expressed or understood, and give emphasis or some additional idea ; as, " The delinquent has been repeated- ly admonished, (but) still he is as negligent as ever." Alternative conjunctions are those which offer or deny a choice between two things ; as, " We must fight, or our lib- erties will be lost." " She can neither sing nor play." The alternative conjunctions are, — (1.) Or, which offers, and nor, {not or,) which denies a choice. (2.) Else, otherwise, associated with or for the sake of emphasis. (3.) Either and neither, correlatives of or and nor. Note. — Parts standing in a causal relation to each other are some- times coordinate ; but usually there are, in such cases, two connectives, one expressed and the other understood; as, "The south wind blows, [and] therefore, there must be rain." Subordinate connectives are those which join dissimilar or heterogeneous elements; as, "I shall go when the stage arrives." Here when joins the subordinate clause, when the stage arrives, to tie verb shall go It is a part of the clause itself, being equivalent to at the time in which. Hence it should be introduced in naming the clause ; but not so with the pure coordinate conjunctions. Rem. 1. — The second element is always a proposition ; it is subordinate, and consequently demands a subordinate connective, because it becomes merely a limiting expression of the antecedent term on which it depends. It is unlike the part with which it is connected in its form, in its relation or rank, and in its grammatical character. ItSM. 2. — A subordinate connective, like a preposition, always shows a relation of dependence. But the second term is a proposition, instead of a noun or pronoun. Subordinate connectives are divided into three classes — ihose which connect substantive clauses, those which con- nect adjective clauses, and those which connect adverbial clauses. (1.) Substantive clauses containing a statement are connected by the conjunctions that, that not, and sometimes but, but that. Substantive clauses containing an inquiry are connected by the interrogatives who which, tohat, where, whither, whence, when, how long, how often, tchy wnertfore- how n. ETYMOLOGY CONJUNCT ONS. '.0 i (2.) Adjective clauses are connected by the relative pronouns who, which, what, that, whoever, xohosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever, and sometimes the relative adverbs why, when, where. (3.) Adverbial clauses are connected by the conjunctive adverbs where, whither, whence, wherever, whithersoever, as far as, as long as, farther thin, which denote PLACE; ichen, ivhile, whilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until since, whenever, as long as, as soon as, the moment, tfie instant, as frequently as, us often as, which denote TIME; or the conjunctions because, for, as, where- as, since, inasmuch, (causal,) if, unless, though, lest, except, provided, pro nitled that, (conditional,) that, that not, lest, (final,) though, although , notwithstanding, however, whatever, whoever, ichichever, while, with the correlatives yet, still, nevertheless, (adversative,) which denote CAUSAL re- I'd ions; as, just as, so ... as, same . . . as, (correspondence,) so . . . that, stick . . . that, (consequence,) as . . . as, (comparison of equality,) the . . . the, the . . . so much the, (proportionate equality,) than, ?nore than, less than, (comparison of inequality,) whim denote MANNER. PARSING. In parsing a conjunction or connective, tell, — (1.) What part of speech, and why. (2.) To what class it belongs. (3.) What elements it connects. (4.) Give the rule. M Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers." And ... is a conjunction ; it is used to connect sentences, or the parts of sentences ; coordinate, because it connects similar elements ; it connects Socrates and Plato, according to Rule XI. (Re- peat it.) " Wisdom is better than riches." . . is a conjunction, (why ?) subordinate, because it connects dissimi- lar elements ; it connects the proposition than riches (are) with better, according to Rule XV. (Repeat it.) " We must either obey or be punished." Either . is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative,) used to awaken expec- tation of an additional element, and also to introduce it with emphasis. (>* . . . . is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative,) and with its correlative either is used to connect the element be punished with must obey. Rule XI. (Repeat it.) " Though he slay me, yet -will I trust in him." though . is a subordi?iate conjunction, (adversative,) used to awaken ex- pectation of an additional idea.. Yet ... is a subordinate conjunction, (adversative,) and with its correla tive thouqh is used to connect the subordinate clause, " he slay me," with the principal one, " will I trust in him," according to Rule XV. 108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR EXERCISES. Point out the conjunctions in the following examples : — The moon and stars are shining. David or his sister will come. Tht king and queen were on a journey. He neither went himself nor allowed his friends to go. Let us go and play. Come with us, and we will do you good. Tell which of the following connectives are coordinate, and which are sub' ordinate : — The pen and ink are poor. The horse and the rider were plunged into the water. If ycu come, I shall have the work in readiness. When the million applaud, seriously ask yourself what harm you have done. He knew that he had disobeyed instructions. That which cannot be cured must be endured. Take heed lest ye fall. Parse the connectives in the following sentences : — I have found a knife and fork. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. He can neither stand nor walk. They stopped where night overtook them. Truth is powerful, and will prevail. If you have nothing to say, say nothing. Write appropriate connectives in place of the dashes in the following : — it should rain, I shall not go. the cat is away, the mice will play. Samuel his brother came to town. We learn to read write. INTERJECTION. An interjection is a word used to express some strong or sudden emotion of the mind. " Alas ! I then have chid away my friend." Rem. 1. — As the interjection is not the sign of a thought, but merely an expression of emotion, it cannot have any definable signification, or grammatical construction ; but as it is of frequent use in colloquial and impassioned discourse, it should not be omitted in parsing. Note. — Interjection is derived from the Latin word interfectus= thrown between. Rem. 2. — The most common interjections are, hey, hurrah, huzza, ex- pressing joy or exultation ; aha, hah, ah, expressing surprise ; ho, lo, halho % hem, calling attention ; fie, pshaio, pugh, tush, fon, expressing aversion or contempt ; alas, woe, alack, O, expressing sorrow, grief, or compassion ; hist, hush, mum, expressing a wish for silence ; heigh-ho, heigh-fto-hum, expressing languor ; ha, ha, he, he, expressing laughter. Rem. 3. — Some words used as interjections should be parsed as verbs, nouns, or adjectives ; as in the sentence "Strange! cried I." Strange is an adjective, and the expression is equivalent to " it is strange ; " and iit the sentence, " Behold ! how well he bears misfortune's frowns ! " behold Is a verb in the imperrsave, equivalent to behold ye. ETYMOLOGY INTERJECTION. 109 PARSING. To parse an interjection, tell, — (1.) What part of speech, and why ? (2.) Give the rule. " O, lightly, lightly tread." . . is in interjection ; it is used to express some strong or sudden emo- tion of the mind ; it has no grammatical connection wi£n any othec word. Rule X. EXERCISE. Point out and parse the interjections in the following sentences : — O, I shall love the sea "because it is his grave. Hark ! they whisper, an gels say, " Sister spirit ! come away ! " He died, alas ! in early youth Long live Lord Robin ! huzza ! huzza ! GENERAL EXERCISES. ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH. Parse the words in the folloicing examples : — The wedding will take place to-morrow. The school was dismissed at five o'clock. Every tndeavor to do right brings its own reward. They heard the music of the band. Ask them to come and spend the evening with us. The hero of a hundred battles is no more. He must study, for without attention he cannot improve. O, why did you deceive me ? The hour of retribution has at length arrived. Could he do this, and I remain silent ? He sacrificed every thing he had in this world : what could we ask more? If he confessed it, then forgive him. The effect of this devotion of ele- gant minds to rural occupations has been wonderful on the face of the country. The low of herds blends with the rustling of the heavy grain. The Creator of all things is infinitely good. On the sad evening before the death of the noble youth, I was with him. The ship leaps, as it were, madly from billow to billow. Man, we believe never loses the sentiment of his true good. How different would have beon our lot this day, both as men and citizens, had the revolution failed of success ! He that loveth not his brother, whom he hath seen, how can he love God, whom he hath not seen ? We one day descried some shape- less object drifting at a distance. The most exalted virtue is often de- spised. They resided for along tira ? in Italy. The nightingale sings most anect- ly when it sings in the nigh * Think on me, when it shall Is well *jtk 10 110 ENGMSH GRAMMAR. SYNTAX ORAL EXERCISE. When [ have a single idea in my mind, as that of a lamb, how rnani wuris do I use to express it ? Ans. One. But if I have an idea of a lamb and also an idea of its playing, how many ideas have I ? Ans. Two. Hon many words must I now use ? Ans. Too, lamb and playing. But when 1 think of tite lamb and the playing, I think of them both together. I can not see the playing without seeing the lamb. How can I show that they are both united ? Ans. By uniting the words a playing lamb. But when 1 wish to tell you, or say to you what the lamb does, and not to express what kind of a lamb I see, what should 1 then say ? Ans. The lamb plays. Then, in either case, I must put the words together. What is this nutting words together called ? Ans. Syntax = putting together. Now, when we 5mt two words together so that one merely describes the other, as, blooming ily, we show that the ideas are connected ; also when we put them together so as to tell or declare what we think or judge, as, " The lily blooms," we show a connection ; but what else do we express ? Ans. A thought or judg- ment. Now sentence (sententia = thought) means a thought; what, then, shall we call such expressions as dogs bark, trees grow, jknoers fade? Ans. Sentences. Which of the following are sentences, and which are not ? — Flowing water, water flows ; melting ice, ice melts ; falling rain, rain falls ; the fierce dog, the dog is fierce ; the white sheep, the sheep is white. Syntax treats of the construction of sentences. A sentence is a thought expressed in words ; as, " The winds blow." " The snow melts." To understand a sentence we must attend to its construc- tion, its analysis, and the principles or rules by which its parts are combined. I. CONSTRUCTION— Sentence-making.* Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate ; as, Trees (sub.) grow (pred.) As every structure must have a foundation, so every sentence must htrs % subject, (subjectus = thrown under as a foundation,) or something of * To the Teacher. — The object of the teacher in this important department of syntax should he to draw the attention of the pupil to the parts of a sentence ;i> t ley cluster around the Btibject and predicate. Although it implies a species of ai to be able to point out the parts as in the exercises under " ("(instruction," yet the spe- cific rules and models for analyzing are placed, for the sake of convenience, in a sepa- rate division. The following examples are classified according to certain peculiarities, «hich will, in the pupil's progress, become obvious ; but at first it will be best for tue teacher to be guided by the order of thought, regardless of the forms of evm SYNTAX WORDS — SUB. AND PRED. UNMODIFIED. 1 1 1 which we speak Again : as a foundation is not a complete building, so a Bubject alone does not form a complete sentence ; a predicate must be add- ed to show that something is said of the subject, thus : if we have tree* for the subject, we must unite with it something, as grow, for the predicate, to show what is said of trees. In the same manner we have water Jiows, <ther parts depend. Hence it is scarcely correct to say that to, for, or that, in such uses, shows a relation, although each is a relation-word ; as, " To err is human." " For you to deceive is surprising." " That you should deceive is surprising." A. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE NOT MODD3TE1) Here, again, the simplest possible sentence contains only two parts — a subject and a predicate. When the unmodified subject consists of two words, it must be the infinitive, or first form of the verb, with " to " pre- fixed ; as, " To deceive is criminal." When the unmodified predicate consists of two parts, it is composed of the copula (link or connective) and the attribute. The attribute may be either a participle, an adjective, or a noun or pronoun in the nominative. In the predicate two classes of relations should be distin- guished, (1.) A predicate relation expressed by the copula, or some copulative verb, (Rem. 5, p. 53,) and (2.) A rela lion of time and mode expressed either by the form of tho verb, or by some auxiliary ; as, " We were successful." 1 We shall have written." Note. — When the attribute is an adjective, a noun, or an active or passive parti ciple, the former relation is shown by the copula, and the latter by the various form* of the copula j as, " He was active, has been active, may haw. been active," &c. EXERCISES. Point out the subject and predicate in the following examples, and thovt which has a connective : — I. Only one Connective. (1.) (Subject having a connective.) To love exalts. To exercise strength- ens. To walk invigorates. To forgive ennobles. (2.) (Attribute having a connective — participle.) The boat is approach- ing. The fruit was destroyed. The ceremony was performed. The prunes were purchased. Her health is improving. Night is coming. Hopes were frustrated. Imagination was painting. Property was inherited. Estates are entailed. Science is progressing. (3J (Attribute an adjective.) Medicine is nauseous. Coffee is fragrant SYNTAX — ■ SUBJECT AND PREDICATE NOT MODIFIED. 12\ Oranges are delicious. Games are pleasant. Questions are hard. Heat is oppressive. Appearances are deceitful. Scholars are docile. Study is delightful. Geometry is difficult. Teachers are faithful. Mines are dark. (4.) i Attribute, a noun or pronoun.) Gold is a metal. It is I. Otho ia a kinu. He is the superintendent. You are my brother. Mary is hei cousin. He is our physician. The gentleman is a politician. Dickens is an author. It is she. He is a merchant. Ireland is an island. Aspin wall is a city. Panama is an isthmus. (5.) (Copulative verbs, page 53.) He seems inattentive. She was es» teamed a lady. General Pierce is elected president. He became poor. The ore is called silver. I walk a queen. Aristides was called the Just. Pisistratus was called a tyrant. Moses was esteemed faithful. The prop- osition remains true. Give the mode and tense of the folloioing predicates, and explain the use of the auxiliaries, then change them to other modes and tenses : — (6.) (Simple relation's of time and mode.) They have written. He may come. Stop. You have returned. I went. She will play. They may attend. It will be. You can reply. I have heard. I study. You re- ceived. They might have known. I have exercised. We win promise If he had thought. It can be done. He expelled. You will record. He bade. We walked. You might have been riding. Point out the copida and attribute, and give the mode and tense of tJie copula : — (7.) (Predicate relation, and relations of time and mode combined.) He may have been sick. You have been ricli. That may be true. The storv is false. Knowledge is power. It would have been wise. He should have been rewarded. It mil have been finished. The relation is sustained. You were angry. The truth must be acknowledged. The man was wick- ed. It must be the same. He is alive. She will have been esteemed good. (8.) (Subject omitted.) Be active. Be industrious. Be a man. Become wise. Appear calm. Remain standing. Be kind. Fill the following blanks with approirriate words : — (9.) (Subject wanting.) is sitting. is a scholar. is delayed. are mended. ; was pleasant. should be writing. was grateful. is freighted. has been neg- lected. is fulfilled. had been allowed. will be man- ufactured. may be lost. (10.) (Attribute wanting.) David was . Thou art . The vessel would have been — . The cargo was . The port will be . The harbor is . The freight is . The machinery was . The lifeboat was . The passengers had been . The state rooms would have been . The wheeDiouse was . TLf berths are . The waiters will be . (11.) (Copida wanting.) The wind boisterous. The rocks dangerous. The danger unheeded. The storm terrible. Th« pumps leaking. The waves mountain high. Hope abandoned. They clinging. Many despairing. No on* left. All quiet. The sea peaceful. They lost. Friends mounting. (12.) (Subject and attribute wanting.) might have been ■ was . is . could have been' '. • must have oeen . — wert . wast — - — • 11 122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. art will be . will have been •would have been regarded . might ha-v e been coa kidered II. Two Connectives. x 13.) (Subject an infinitive.) To err is human. To forgive is divine, T > lie is wicked. To cheat is mean. To tattle is disgraceful. To betraj is infamous. (14.) (The last examples changed.) It is human to err, &c. (15.) (Predicate an infinitive or preposition and noun.) His expectation is to ride. Her hope is to return. Her desire is to leave. The child is ia good health. The pupil is without books. The lady is in sorrow. III. Three Connectives. (16.) (Subject and predicate infinitives.) To pilfer is to steal. To love is to obey. To pray is to supplicate. To be good is to be happy. B. SUBJECT MODIFIED. The subject may be modified, — (1.) By a single element — a phrase. (2.) By two or more elements, one of which is a phrase. When the unmodified adjective element consists of two words, it is either an infinitive, or a phrase composed of a preposition, (connective,) and its olject. The object is either a noun, pronoun, or participle in the objective. We have here, as in Section L, two cases : first, when both elements are added directly to the subject ; and second, when they are first added to each other, and then added to the sub- ject, forming a complex adjective element. If the basis or principal element is of the first class, the complex element is of the first class, whatever the additions to it may be. So, again, if the basis is of the second class, the entire complex element is of the second class. Rem. — When two elements are added together, three cases may occur The first, that is, the basis, or principal element, may have a connective, and the second may have none ; the second may have a connective, and the basis none ; both may have a connective ; as, " The hope op great wealth." " William, Pkince of Oraruje." " A collection of books oj travels." In the second example, " AVilliam " is modified by a complex adjective element o' the first class, because " prince," the basis, is joined *l " William " will out a connective. In the first example, " hope " is SYNTAX PHRASES ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 123 modified by a complex adjective element of the second class, because the basis "of wealth " has its connection represented by " of." To this is addeil an element of the first class, " great." In the third example, both the basis and itt. dependent element are of the second class. An element is said to be transformed, when it is changed from one form or class to another ; as, " The dews of the. morning have passed away " = The morning dews have Di=sed away. EXERCISES. Point out the adjective element in the following examples, and explain the ctmjjicx subject : — I. Only one Added Element. (I ) ( 0? ie adjective element — a phrase.) Statues of marble were chis- elled. Works on history were consulted. Men of science have appeared. Days of fasting were appointed. Bouquets of flowers were presented. Fields of grain were waving. (2.) (Adjective elements of Exercise, (1.) transformed.) Marble statuea were chiselled, 9 s. II. Two on Moiie Added Elements. Case I. Both elements addtd directly to the subject, (3.) (Tioo or more adjective elements of different classes.) The laws of England were established. The first settlers at Plymouth were called Puri- tans. The £reat bard of Avon sleeps. Huge waves of the ocean over- whelmed. Many men of distinction arose. (4.) {The adjective element of the last exercise transformed.) The Eng- lish laws were established, &c. In the following transform the adjective clement of the first to an adjective element of the second class : — (5.) (Adjective clement tra?isformed.) Brazen hinges were made =2 Hinges of brass were made. Solomon's temple was destroyed. A teacher's meeting was held. The lecturer's voice was heard. The convent's gates closed. Tsew year's day has passed. An hour's delay occurred. The shepherd's dog barks. The huntsman's horn resounds. Add to the following subjects an adjective element of the second class, and then change it to one of the first : — (6.) (Adjective element wanting.) Men were appointed. The resemblance was striking. The office was closed. The fate ■ was unknown. Men will be rewarded. Gems were found. The voice was heard. The truth was corroborated. The size was great. The morals improved. i24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Case II. Added elements joined to each other — complex adjective elements. Point out the complex adjective element in the following, and describl it: — (7.) (Basis or principal element of the first class — added element of the second.) Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, was imprisoned. An army, confident of success, is invincible. Peter, moved by the Spirit, became fearless. The duke, the general of the allied army, was distinguished. Hortense, the daughter of Josephine, was beautiful. The maiden, the beauty of the village, was chosen. George, the elder of the brothers, won the prize. ( 8. ) ( Principal element of the second — added one of the first. ) A disease of great malignity prevailed. A king of great distinction succeeded. The father of the lost, prince never smiled. The man of many sorrows lived. The wind of the winter night moaned. The sufferings of the beautiful child were ended. The grave of little Nelly was visited. Flowers of many hues were described. (9.) (Both elements of the second class.) Jewels of gold from California were made. An observation of the sun in 'the meridian was taken. The brother of Richard I. of England reigned. A king of the house of Bruns- wick was insane. A jailer of the dauphin of France was named Simon. The friend of the son of the king was pardoned. (10.) Fill the following blanks with the appropriate complex elements : — The genius - demands it. The diamonds spar- kle. The treasures were seized. The jealousy was annoying. The parents were unknown. The bells ■ were chiming. The analysis was perspicuous. The jrass is mown. C. PREDICATE MODIFIED. The predicate may be modified, — (1.) By a single phrase, (preposition and object.) (2.) By two or more elements, one of which is a phrase. The simple objective or adverbial element when a -phrase is either an infinitive, or is composed of a. preposition and its object. We have here, as in Section I., two cases: first, when both elements are added directly to the predicate ; and second when they are first added to each other, and then added to the predicate, forming a complex objective, or a complex ad verbial element. SYNTAX — ADDED ELEMENTS. 125 EXERCISES. Poivt out the complex predicate in the following examples, and explain the effect of the added elements : — I. Only one Added Element. (1.) (Objective element * direct.) He hoped to succeed. She desired to write. Thev wished to do right. He seeks to excel. You are expected to attend. I am trying to learn. She means to obey. I hope to traTel. Tl e watch needs to be repaired. They like to travel. She wills to do it. The book deserves to be read. The man ought to be imprisoned. (2.) (Objective element, indirect.) I spoke to him. We heard of his suc- cess. They gave it to the church. Speak to him. They know of the opportunity. (3. ) (Adverbial element — place.) She came to the party. The plums fell from the tree. The ball lay on the hearth. Anna sat in the carriage. His thoughts were concentrated on the subject. The letter was found in the post office. The express will come from New York. The cucumbers are abundant on the vines. (4.) (Adverbial element — time.) In the morning it flourisheth. I shall go in the evening. It will be finished in a fortnight. Caesar fought on the next day. The book will be finished in four weeks. Come on Tuesday. (5.) (Adverbial element — cause.) She cried from fear. We remained to hear the report. The man suffered from poverty. The children were speechless from delight. Christ was betrayed for money. Tne party were travelling for pleasure. The martyrs suffered for Christ's sake. (6.) (Adverbial element — manner.) The dove flew with rapidity. The messenger came in haste. He writes with accuracy. The world was made by him. James walked with his sister. The Greeks succeeded by strata- gem. Milk is good for children. She was diffident to excess. Emily was delighted with her present. II. Two ok More Added Elements. Case I. Both elements added, directly to the predicate. (7.) (Two direct objects, one first mid one second class.) He urged him to go. He sought friends to help him. The doves besought the hawk to defend them. Martha invited Emily to visit her. I saw the rain [to] fall. He bade me tell you. Let us sit. They made the man labor. (8.) (Direct object, first class, indirect second.) George gave a book to me. Charles t$d him of his father's death. He begged a favor of me. Mary brought a present to me. He taught writing to me. Send the bracelet to me. You may throw the ball to me. You promised a reward to the best scholar. They played games for us. I lent a book to father. Note. — Let the pupil rewrite these examples, anil place the indirect object first, and dispense with the preposition, thus : "I lent father a book.' ; (9.) (Objective of the first, adverbial of the second class.) We heard their songs in the grove. We left our home in the morning. You wrote the * See Rule VIII. - Rem. 1. 11* 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, letter to hasten Ids coming. T'hcy learned to sins? in their childhood. W* gathered the wild flowers in the meadow. He made the effort for their good. He faughl Uic Bible class with great earnestness. FiU the following blanks with appropriate adverbial elements of time, place, cause, or manner : — (10.) (Adverbial element wanting.) The kangaroo lives . A treaty of peace was concluded . The consul resides . They wished to go . The cars will arrive . The visit was anticipated . My dear friend came . Cornwallis surrendered . He mar- ttged . Past events were recalled . The young lady was ad- mired . I have been here . The work must be completed . We were sitting . The horse ran . Case II. The elements added to each other. (11.) (Objective first class, adjective, second.) I found masses of rock. They made a fire of coals. They elected a professor of history. She threw the apple of discord. They asked the son of Priam. He awarded the prize of beauty. He tended the flocks of sheep. He admired the beauty of Helen. (12.) {Indirect objective second, adjective second.) The book was given to the chairman of the committee. He wrote to the friend of his sister. He sought for the truth of the report. The arrangement was made for the child of my brother. (13.) (Infinitive and adverbial, first or second.) He desires to write elegant- ly. They attempted to remain at home. He seems to sleep quietly. Chil- dren love to change constantly. We hope to see clearly. I hope to write with great diligence. I wish to return in two years. We strive always to excel. He loves to rise with the early dawn. (14.) (Adverbial second, adjective first.) The bear came from a dense for est. The child returned after a long absence. The governor departed for his southern tour. The experiments were made in a mysterious manner. The room was filled with the sweet perfume. He departed in the early morn- ing. The fruit must be gathered before next week. ( 15. ) (Adverbial seco7id, adjective second.) Moses stood on the summit of Pisgah. The city was situated at the head of the bay. We left on the morning of the new year. The Bible was translated by men of learning. Napoleon was banished to the Island of St. Helena. We sailed around the Island of Juan Fernandez. I stood on the steps of the Capitol. Construct sentences of your cwn illustrating any of the above elements* ». SUBJECT AND PKEDICATE MODIFIED. A sentence may contain a subject and a predicate, each modified in any of the above ways. * The teacher should multip>v and vary these exercises according to the wants « the learner SYNTAX COMPLEX SENTENCES CLAUSES, ETC. 127 EXERCISES. Point out the subject and predicate, and point out the various modifications in the following : — The news of his death filled his mother's heart with sorrow. To be- nme an admiral was Nelson's noble resolution in his childhood. It is the work of a lifetime to become truly good. The children of my brother have some to visit me. The son of the king succeeded to the throne. The authorship of the book has never been ascertained with certainty. Add elements to the following subjects and predicates, so as to illustrate any of the foregoing cases : — The watch was given . He attempts . She manages . William brought . Lucy sought — . The pigeon flew . He remained — . "We spoke . Mary came . Grass grows . Come . Robert seems . They love . The three women . Peter denied . John learned . Thou rarest . Ruth was . The storm caused . The church has been built . My sister came . The news was received . The minister has gone . The time is coming . SECTION III. COMPLEX SENTENCES — CLAUSES — RELA- TIONS REPRESENTED. The propositions which unite to form a sentence are called its clauses; as, "The wicked flee — when no man pur- sueth ; but the righteous are bold — as a lion [is.] " A proposition standing alone, or not affected by a connec- tive, is a simple sentence. il Vice degrades." A proposition under the influence of a subordinate con- nective is called a subordinate or dependent proposition or clause ; as, " When spring comes, the flowers will bloom." Here, " when sprint? comrs " is a subordinate proposition. The subordinate connec- twe when changes trie simple sentence "spring comes " to a mere element of the other proposition to which it is joined. And as it is made to take the place of an ad verb of time, it is called an adverbial proposition. The proposition on which the subordinate one depends is called the principal proposition or clause ; as H When spring comes, the Jlowers will bloomy An entire sentence, consisting of a principal and a 128 ENGLISH GRA ffMAR. subordinate clause, is called a complex sentence , as, " I will remain until you return." The dependent proposition, consisting of the connective and the subject and predicate following it, constitutes an ele- ment or component part of the complex sentence. It is called an element of the third class, to distinguish it frcra those of the other two classes. When the subordinate clause takes the place of a noun, it is called a substantive clause ; when it takes the place ot an adjective, it is called an adjective clause ; when it takes the place of an adverb, it is called an adverbial clause. A. SENTENCES HAVING A SUBJECT AND PREDI- CATE ONLY. A sentence may have for its subject, or for the attribute In the predicate, a dependent proposition; as, " That the earth revolves on its axis has been proved.'" " My hope ; s, that you will recover your losses." EXERCISES. (1.) (The subject a substantive clause.) That you have wronged me doth appear. Who wrote Junius's letters is uncertain. Why lie left the city is a mystery. "When the assembly will rise is unknown. Where the villain has" gone has been ascerts mod. How shall we escape? is the question. (2.) (The attribute a substantive clause.) My desire is, that you may succeed. His pretence was, that the storm of the preceding evening pre vented his attendance. Our hope is, that no such results will follow. Your belief is, that the enemy has crossed the mountain. My determina- tion is, that you shall attend school in the country. Fill the blanks icith appropriate clauses in the following : — (3.) (Subject wanting.) is apparent. cannot be denied is desirable. — is deplorable. is determined. ■ is believed. is amusing. is undesirable. is unac- countable. Note. — Let the learner change these examples and those in Exercise (1.) by using "it" as an introductory word to the sentence, placing the subject after the predicate, thus : " It doth appear that you have wronged me." SYNTAX CLAUSES SUBJECT MOI /FI ED. 129 (4.) {Attribute wanting.) My determination is . His decision was . Her complaint was . Our hope is . Their ex • pectation is . The remark was . The suggestion is B. SUBJECT MODIFIED. The subject may be modified, — (1.) By a single subordinate clause. (2.) By two or more elements, one of which is a clause. We haye here, as before, — Case I. Where both elements are added directly to the. subject. Case II. Where the elements are added together, and then added to the subject, forming a complex adjective element. Rem. — When two or more elements are added together, a variety of cases may occur. The basis may be a single word ; this may be modified by a phrase; this again by a clause; as, "The pear, fruit /row a tree which he had grafted, was found most delicious." Some seven or eight other combinations may take place. These can easily be formed by chan- ging the order of the elements. EXERCISES. I. Only one Added Element. Point out the adjective clauses in the following examples : — (1.) {Added element, an adjective clause.) Evils which cannot be cured, must be endured. Rays which fall perpendicularly upon the earth, are called vertical. Lines which are drawn parallel to each other, will never moot. Money which is easily acquired is, for the most part, easily spent. Who steals my purse, steals trash. Whatever is, is right. Whoever sins, must sutfer. Transform the adjective clauses in the above exercises. (2.) {Adjective element transformed.) Incurable evils must be endured. Rays falling t &c. II. Two or More Added Elements. Case I. Added elements joined directly to the subject. (3.) {Adjective, and adjective clause.) That lesson which caused him st much trouble, has since been mastered. The missing vessel, which he looked for so anxiously, has at last arrived. The unwearied pains which *ie took to accomplish 1 is plans, injured their success. The distant land 130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. which, lie discovered, was rich in mineral wealth. The bright sun, which foretells warmer weather, comes nearer to us in his course. The parlor tire, which burns so brightly, gives a cheerful light. Transform the above adjective clauses. (4 ) (Adjective clause transformed.) That troublesome lesson has since been mastered, &c. Convert the following adjective elements in Italics into clauses : — (5.) (Adjective element tra?isformed.) Trees growing at the foot of the mountain lire taller than those on the summit. A persevering man will overcome obstacles. Thep?vmised rewards shall be given. A discontent' ed man cannot be happy. The great globe is only a planet. Milton, the poet, was blind. The house of my father stands near the road. My brother's dog was killed. Honorable men presided. Fill the blanks in the following examples with adjective clauses : — ( 6.) (Adjective clause wanting.) The journey was delightful. The opinion seems to prevail. The reason has never been satis- factorily given. The man desires to please. Cicero was put to death. Socrates was a great philosopher. The scholai • should be commended. The pride is contemptible. A man will be rewarded. The tabernacle contained the ark. Case II. Added elements joined to each other* — complex adjective element. Point out the complex adjective element in the following examples, and explain its parts : — (7.) (The basis an element of the first class.) Thucydides, living when Pericles did, wrote a history of that splendid era. Peter the Hermit, who preached the first crusade, was a native of Amiens, in France. The phy- sician, knowing that his advice was needed, hastened to visit his patient. The agent, suspicious that all was not right, examined the matter closely. (8.) ( The basis an element of the second.) The reply of the queen who came to prove the wisdom of Solomon was, that the half had not been told her. A desire to dwell where her mother-in-law dwelt induced Ruth to follow Naomi. The hope of Esther, who was the beautiful queen of Ahasuerus, was to save the Jewish nation. The mother of Samuel, who was devoted to the service of the Lord, brought him each year a little coat. The dreams of Joseph, who was the favorite son of Jacob, were the occasion of much ill will. (9.) (One of the first, one of the second, and one of the third.) The bird, singing on the tree which stands in the garden, fills the air with its melody. The boy, eager to stand where he could witness the show, fell from the roof. The plan, changed in the manner which we have described, was unsatisfac- tory to the architect. The friend, coming at a time which was unexpected, was cordially received. (10.) (Ttco of the third.) The stream which flows from the mountain range that bounds the valley on the east, takes its name from an early custom of the inhabitants. JEneas, who resided in Troy until it was de- stroyed by the Greeks, is said to have sailed to Italy. The ten command- ments, which were given to Moses when he was upon the mount, were written on tables of stone. Cecrops, who founded Athens, to which after- wards Solon gave laws, is said to h we been an Egyptian. SYNTAX CLAUSES PREDICA1E MODIFIED. 131 C. PKEDICATE MODIFIED. The predicate may be modified, — (1.) By a single element of the third class. (2.) By two or more elements, one of which is of the third class. We have here, as before, — - Case I. Where both elements are added directly to tht predicate. Case II. Where they are added together, and then added to the pi edicate. EXERCISES. I. Only one Added Element. Point otd the complex predicate in the following examples, and explain ths effect of the added clause : — (1.) {Substantive clause — objective.) Will you tell why you are sad? He inquired, " Who knocks at the door ? " Do you know that you have injured your friend ? I thought that he was sincere. Many suppose that the planets are inhabited. lie showed me wherein I had done wrong. Fill the following blanks xoith substantive clauses in the objective : — (2.) (Objective clause wanting.) He heard . The insane imagine . Who said ? You may explain . The Stoics believe The ancients believed . I forgot . I wish He announced . The good ask . The farmer declared . Transform the following tcords in Italics into objective clauses : — (3.) (Object transformed.) I do not remember the time of the lecture. Show the manner of its operation. Will you tell the object of this meeting i We asked him to stay. The ancients believed the earth to be a vast plain. He anticipated a pleasant evening. Did you hear of his success t Tha general commanded the army to be in readiness. Thus, I do not remember when the lecture will take place. (4.) (Adverbial clause — place.) Where your treasure is, there will youi heart be also. Where thou goest, I will go. Whither I go, ye cannu* come. As iax as the east is from the west, so far hath he removed oui transgressions from us. They were sitting where the branches of a spread ing elm protected them from the burning rays of the noonday sun. Fill the following blanks with adverbial clauses denoting place : — (").) ( Adverbial clause wanting.) , 'tis haunted, holy ground. I travelled . , there is no transgression. nothing can be magnanimous. The soldier stopped — , I wall go . We musl follow . He sank to repose . 132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (6.) (Adverbial clans? — time.) We talked earnestly, as we were walking together. While I was musing, tha fire burned. When two lines cross each other, the opposite angles are equal. The truth of the theorem will be acknowledged when you have proved it. I will write until he returns. I was sad when I thought of the changes that must come. Whilst 1 live, I will bless thy name. Fill the following blanlcs with clauses denoting time : — (7.) (Adverbial clause wanting.) You may go . We should assist the poor . He will return . I understood as a child . She sits . I was pained . The company separated „ Supper was ready . They rejoiced . (8.) (Adverbial clause — cause.) Ye shall not see me, because I go unto my Father. You should honor your parents, for this is the command of God. Cultivate agreeable maimers, since these make you attractive. If you will read the report, you can judge for yourself. Should he stay late, I shall regret it. I have brought the work, that you may see it. I went myself, that 1 might ascertain the truth We should take exercise, that we may be healthy. Though it was cold, the walk was pleasant. Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. I love him, not- withstanding he is in error. Fill the following blanks with clauses denoting cause : — (9.) (Adverbial clause wanting.) The children sing • . Many men live idly . He is a useful man . Take heed . We have uo other means . Water will become ice . The plants mil not grow — . I will cut down this tree . Love your enemies — . I shall stay at home . I shall see him . Will you answer my letter ? How old would he have been ? Note. — It will he well for the teacher to give adverbial clauses of different kinds and require the pupil to write, or give orally, a suitable principal clause, thus: Give a suitable principal clause for the following: "When the storm has subsided.' " We ahull leave when," &.c (10.) (Adverbial clause — manner.) The traveller was so weary that he fell asleep. Speak as you think. You may do as you said you should. Mary is as old as her cousin. The rose is more beautiful than the thistle. Happiness is more equally divided than some suppose. The more pru- dent one is, the more cautious he is. Can you describe the scene, as she can ? Our lesson is the same as we had yesterday. Fill the following blanks : — (11.) (Adverbial clause wanting.) As a man thinketh . Wili you be so good ? The pupil wrote the copy just as . Make the mark just as . The hour seemed so long . It is so cold . 1 am so lonely . This apple is larger . The streai is as deep . The more I read it . II. Two or Moke Added Elements. Case I. Added elements joined directly to the predicate. (12.) (Objective element, third class, adverbial first or second.) He was soon convinced that the supposed object was an optical illusion. I at first believed that all these obj sets existed, within me. During this moment of darkness, I imag ned thai I had lost the greatest part of my being. By SYNTAX CLAUSES — PREDICATE MODIFIED. 133 this exercise, I soon learned that the faculty of feeling was expanded oyer every part of my frame. (13.) (Adverbial element, third class, objective element, first class.) The nhepherd gave the alarm when he discovered the approach of the wolf. He closed his career before he had completed his thirty-sixth year. I have brought a passage that you may explain it. He visited the springr. that he might improve his health. He would pull a mote out of his brother's eye, while he has a beam in his own. Place the package where it will not be injured. (14.) ( Two adverbial elements, thirdclass.) Although it was very incon- venient, he came to see me when he was requested to come. Aj he passed cu he felt his strength diminish from day to day, though his suffering'} were by no means severe. Had he reformed, I would have assisted him, as I encouraged him to hope. If he can arrange his affairs, he will sail for Europe when the next steamer leaves. (15.) (Tico elements of the thirdclass, one objective, one adverbial.) If such be the character of the youthful mind, am I to ask you what must be the appearances of riper years ? When the farmer came down to break fast th;it morning, he declared that his watch had gained half an hour in the night. Although he had labored diligently, he found that his efforts were unavailing. Case II. Added elements joined to each other — complex objective and complex adverbial elements. Note. — A word or phrase may first be added to the predicate, and a clause may be added to either of these, or the clause may be added directly to the predicate, and a word or phrase may be added to that. Hut it is generally best to regard a modified proposition as a simple element, unless one of the modifying elements is itself a prop- position. Thus, m the following sentence, the clause in Italics may be regarded as simple : " We knew that the heavy sturmmust do much damage to the harvest." But in :he folkjwing the clause in Italics is complex : " We are persuaded that the work will Advance as soon as all obstacles shall have been removed." Point out the complex predicate, and tell to which class it belongs. (1G.) (Complex objective element, basis first.) I soon perceived the fact that the study of geometrv strengthened my reasoning poweis, so that I could more readily trace relations of cause and effect. I experienced a pleas- ure which I cannot describe. You cannot understand the view which I take of the subject. They improved the opportunities which they enjoyed. Celsius invented the centigrade thennometer, which is considered tb e "best by scientific men. (17.) {Complex adverbial element, basis second.) He was saved by ropes which were thrown from the ship. The bard dwelt on those high lands which overlook the sea. Temptation comes at the time in which we are least prepared to meet it. He came for a purpose which will be satis- factorily explained. Construct examples of your own, illustrating any of the previous element*, tnd take subjects from history or geography. 12 134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. D. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE MODIFIED The subject and predicate may both be modified by sub ordinate clauses. EXERCISES. Point out the subordinate clauses in the following examples, and tell what they modify : — The views which we have now unfolded show that a vigorous action of the Olind is dependent upon a healthful condition of the physical functions. The letter which she expected came, as she had anticipated. A report that the enemy had capitulated was circulated before the embankments were completed. Add subordinate clauses to the subject and predicate of each of the follow- ing sentences : — He must believe . Many were journeying The reason was so unsatisfactory . Oranges are found . The wicked will be punished . The pretensions convinced us . The wind causes . The ques tion was so answered . They shall receive . He will learn . Oxygen is the agent . Co7istruct sentences containing either substantive, adjective, or adverbial clauses. Sag something about domestic affairs — something about the growth of flmc&fi — something about the cultivation of silk — something about geog- raphy — relate some incident in the life of Washington, Franklin, Richard I., Queen Elizabeth, or write about any other subject which your teacher shall mention. SECTION IV. COMPOUND SENTENCES — SIMILAR PARTS COM BINED. Note In tlie foreeoinjr sections the parts of a sentence are united — an adjective, a veib, or a noun to a noun ; a noun or pronoun to a verb or adjective ; an adverb to a verb, an adjective, or an adverb ; and the relatione in Sections I!, and III. are represented by connectives, while in Section I. the same relations are unrepresented, being indicated either by the position or altered form oi the element itself. The parta united' are, foi the most part, different parts of speech — d liferent in the functions which they perform , different in the rank which they hold, one being principal, and the other subordinate to it ; and often different in form or class, one being a single word, another a phrase or clause. But it often happens that we wish to unite two elements which shall be the name part of speech, which shall stand in the same relation to some other element, which shall be of the same form or class, and perform the same functions. Such e.le men a are united by a peculiar class of conjunctions, called Coordinate Conjunction*, (See Conjunctions, p. 104,) because they join parts coordinate with each other. Instead of parts, one of which depends upon and modifies another, we may u'rite two or more similar elements, bv SYNTAX — COORDINATE ELEMENTS. 136 placing them in the same relations to some other element as, " Peter and John went up to the temple." Hera Peter and John are both nouns, both used as subject, and both in the same re- lation to the predicate, and in respect to eacli other they are placed in a reiatica of perfect equality. Hence they are coordiiaw, that is, in the same rank. Two cases may occur — (1.) The coordinate parts may be either of the five elements of a sen- tence, the combination being called a compound element ; as, " She reads and writes." (2.) The coordinate parts may be entire propositions, the combination being a compound sentejiee ; as, " Exalt her, and she shall promote the*.'' Case I. Coordinate elements. EXERCISES. Point out the compound elements in the following examples, and fill the blanks wherever elements are worsting : — ( 1. ) ( Compound subject, first class.) Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each other. John and James reside at home this summer. The rocks and hills of New England will remain till the last conflagration. And the chief priests and scribes stood and vehemently accused him. (2.) (Compound subject , second class.) To be or not to be, that is the ques» tion. To soothe thy sickness, and to watch thy health, shall be my pleasure. To toil for, and yet to lose, the reward of virtue, is the hard lot of man. Tc deprive me of liberty, to torture me, or to imprison me, is not your right. To live temperately, to avoid excitement, and to take alternate exercise and rest, are essential to health. (3.) ( Compound subject, third class.) That their poetry is almost uniform- ly mournful, and that their views of nature were dark and dreary, will be allowed by all who admit the authenticity of Ossian. Why we are thus de- tained, or why we receive no intelligence from home, is mysterious. Where he will obtain the means, and how he will be relieved from the pressure, ia extremely uncertain. (4.) {One component part wanting.) Wit and are capti vating. Eloquence and are gifts of nature. Love and min- gled in the regard of Helon's eye. Why , or why , interest* mc very much. That the book will be successful, and that , will be shown by its extensive circulation. (5.) (Compound predicate, relation not expressed.) And the king went up to the chamber over the gate, and wept. No fascinated throng weep, and melt, and tremble at his eloquence. Approach, and behold, while I lift from his sepulchre its covering. (5.) (ComjMund predicate, relation exjyressed.) The present life is net wholly prosaic,* precise, tame, and finite. This is per.ee, and the true * In coordinate constructions, the connective, or any commrn part, Is omitted afta the first element. (See Ellipsis, p. 193.) J 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. happiness of man. He is willing to risk his life in its defence, and is con- ecious that he gains protection while he gives it. J can be contented and fully happy in the good which I possess. (7.) (Compound predicate, third class.) My proposition is, that your son shall be sent to college, that you shall go abroad, and that the house shall be closed during your absence. His direction was, that the patient should take a great deal of exercise, that his diet should be very carefully attend- ed to, and that every thing of an exciting nature should be avoided. His answer was, that he approved the plan of the measure, and that ho was confident of its success. (8.) (Adjective element, compound, first class.') The middle, the fairest, and the most conspicuous places in cities are chosen for the erection of statues and monuments. Wise and good men are frequently unsuccessful. A bright and glorious prospect is opened by Christianity. Lord Corn wallis, the English peer and general, surrendered at the battle of Yo'k- town. (9.) (Adjective element, compound, seco?id.) The parting of Hector and Andromache is beautifully described by Homer. The reign of William and Mary commenced with the glorious revolution of 1688. The tops of Olympus and Parnassus reached above tbe clouds. The grating of th<5 old-fashioned bars and bolts was answered by the clash of chains. (10.) (Adjective element, compound, third.) A cottage which is shaded with trees, and which is situated far from the noise and bustle of the city, is a very pleasant retreat. That faith which is one, which renews and justi- fies all who possess it, which confessions and formularies can never ade- quately express, is the property of all alike. The baron, who knows our manners, and lives near our country, will apprise you of the time and means to be their protector. (11.) (Adjective element wanting.) A and behavior makes a person contemptible. Her and hands helped to bar the door against want. Every or thought is a violation of our obligation to our Maker. A and influence breathes around the dwellings of the dead. The artist who , and , is coming to reside in the city. (12.) (Compound objective element, first class.) And he said, Behold my mother and my brethren. 1 examined its form and its color. I note his dress, the sound of his voice, and the turn of his countenance. Pope wrott the Messiah, and the Essay on Criticism. (13.) (Compound objective element, second.) It teaches us tc be thankful for all favors received, to love each other, and to be united. He chooses to die, and to redeem his friend. She is led to engage in calmer pursuits, and seek for gentler employment. (14.) (Compound objective element, third.) He heard that his wife had fallen a lingering sacrifice to penury and sorrow ; that his children were gone to seek their fortunes in distant or unknown climes ; and that the grave contained his nearest and most valuable friends. He found that every thing was changed, that strangers inhabited the home of his child- hood, and that he was alone in the world. I know that the eye of the public is upon me, and that I shall be held responsible for every act. (15.) (One objective element wanting.) I have neither wit, nor , nor ■ It gave him the manners and of the most perfect gentle- man. The warm sunny days will cause the grass to grow, and . He 'ound that the lecture was postponed, and . (16.) (Adverbial element, compound.) How bright and goodly shines the SYNTAX — COORDINATE CLAUSES. 137 aaoon ! When and where he lived, I cannot tell you. The voice of the preacher grew fainter and fainter. (17.) {Co7tipound adverbial element, second.) With trembli .g limbs and faltering steps, he departed from his mansion of sorrow. I have spent n.y days, in darkness and error. I see new meaning, every hour, in his arch eye and speaking face. With surprise and joy, she espied a monk support- ing Marmion's head. (18.) {Compound adverbial element, third.) When a few more friend* have left, a few more hopes deceived, and a few more changes mocked us,; we shall be brought to the grave, and shall remain in the tomb. He takej us from earth that he may lead us to heaven, that he may refine our nature from all its principles of corruption, that he may share with us his own immortality, that he may admit us to his everlasting habitation, and thai he may crown us with his eternity. (19.) ( One adverbial element wanting.) She studied diligently and . The great Scipio treated his captives with magnanimity and . How- ird spent his life in relieving the distressed, , and . Every •jne rejoices when spring comes, , and . She will return be- fore we expect her, and . (20.) {Elements both complex and compound.) To carry on with effect an expensive war, and yet be frugal of the public money ; to oblige those to serve whom it may be delicate to offend ; to conduct, at the same time, i complicated variety of operations; to concert measures at home, answer- able to the state of things abroad; and to gain every valuable enu m »pite of opposition from the envious and disaffected, — this is more difficult u .han is generally thought. Case II. Coordinate clauses. (21. J {Copulative clauses.) I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat. "Green is the most refreshing color to the eye ; hence Providence has made It the common dress of nature. It is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. Not only am I instructed by this exercise, but I am also invigorated. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. We shall feel the same revolution of seasons, and the same sun and moon will guide the course of our year. You know I love a country life, and here we have it in perfection. Submission and obedience are the lessons of her life, and peace and happiness her reward. (22.) {Adversative clmises.) She took them, but she could not tear them from me. The man was communicative enough, but nothing was distinct in his mind. We must not expect that our roses will grow without thorns ; but then they are useful and instructive thorns, which, by pricking the fingers of the too hasty plucker, teach future caution. The tunes are ex- tremely gay and lively, yet they have something in them wonderfully soft. I believe there are few heads capable of making Sir Isaac Newton'8 calculations, but the result of them is not difficult to be understood by a moderate capacity. (23) {Alternative clmises.) Never utter any profane speeches, nor make a jest of any Scripture expressions. Learn your lesson, otherwise you must tose your rank. I neither learned wisdom, nor have I a knowledge of the holy. Either he will hate the one, and love the other, or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Neither hath this man sinned, tor his parents. (24.) {Compound setxtemes with complex tnembers.) When he rose ererj 12* l68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. sound was hushed, and when he spoke every eye was fixed upon him. If the means were in themselves bad. you would not say that the end justi- fied them ; or if the means were good, you would not sf.y that they justified all the results which might flow from their use. You take my house, when vou do take the prop that doth sustain my house ; you take my life, when you do take the means whereby I live. Employ thy time well, if thou meanest to gain leisure ; and since thou art not sure of a minute, throw not away an hour. If you would have your business done, go j if not, send. ELEMENTS. Note. — A careful examination of the preceding sections, with a proper attention to each construction, will prepare the learner for the distinctions here to be made. Each definition should be verified by a reference to the section and exercise which illus- trates it An element is an expression which represents an idea and its relation ; as, " He walked in the gar- den." Rem. — An element of a sentence is either the subject or predicate, or some nart immediately connected with one of these. Every remote ele- mer.o, that is, one not immediately connected with the subject or predicate, is to be regarded as a component part of a complex element of the sentence ; as, " He walked in the garden of the prince." Here, of the prince is a remote element, dependent immediately on garden, and is a component part of the complex element, in the garden of the prince. CLASSES OF ELEMENTS. Elements may take three different forms, called the first, (1.) When the relation and idea are both represented by one word, with- out a connective, we have an element of the first class ; as, " John — — writes." (2.) When the relation is expressed by one word, and the idea by anoth- er, forming a phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, or an infini- tive, we have an element of "the second class ; as, " John lives in hope." " He desires to improve." (5.) When the relation is represented by one word, and the idea or thought by a proposition, forming a clause consisting of a connective, a subject, and a predicate, we have an element of the third class; as, "I know — that he told me the truth." EXERCISES. Point out the elements in the following sentences, and tell to what class they belong : — On a sunny bank buttercups are bright. The trees are leafless. Tha gath ering darkness of night comes on. A life of prayer is the life of heaven. Thy brother shall rise again. The ransomed shout to their glorious King, SYNTAX ELEMENTS, PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE. 139 where no sorrow shades the soul as they sing. The darkness waved wider its sable wings. With these words I quitted him. She appears to know every tiling. Swans sing before they die. The elements, according to their rank in construction, are either principal or subordinate. A principal element is one on which others depend ; as, " A good man honors any calling." Here, man and honors are principal elements. A subordinate element is one which depends upon a principal. A, good, calling, and any, in the above example, are subordinate elements. The principal elements are the subject and the predicate , as, " Time flies." Rem. 1. — The subject naturally takes the first rank, and is the only element which is, strictly speaking, independent. The predicate, being an attribute of the subject, is naturally dependent upon it, borrowing its number, 2>erson, and case, and in some languages its gender also, directly from the subject. Yet in the construction of a proposition, there is a mu- tual dependence ; there can be no subject without a predicate, and no predi- cate without a subject, and no sentence without both. Hence they may well be called principal elements, although there is in the nature of things a dependence of the one upon the other. Rem. 2. — The subject may be known by its answering the questions, Who? or What? with the predicate; as, Who wrote? Ans. "Frank wr»te." What was written ? Ans. " A letter was written." Rem. 3. — The subject may be, — (1.) A noun ox pronoun; as, " Angels appeared." "J7ewept." (2.) The adjective or participle used as, a noun; as, "The wise protect themselves." " The persevering will conquer." (3.) Any word, syllable, or letter, used as a noun ; as, " Is is a verb " " A is a vowel." " Re is a prefix." (4.) An infinitive; as, " To labor is to exert ourselves." (5.) A proposition ; as, " That this story is true, is very evident." R >3M. 4. — The predicate may be known by its answering the question, What is said of ? What dc, or doing? as, What is said of the water? Ans. " The water is clear." What is George doing? Ans* *' George is reading." Rem. 5. — The predicate consists essentially of two parts — the copula and attribute; as, ".The ocean is deep." Rem. 6. — The copula is some modification of the verb to be, {am, %», was, were, &c.) Rem. 7. — The attribute may be, — (1.) A participle ; as, "I am walking." " He is loved." (2.) An adjective ; as, " The moon is pale." (3.) A noun or protwun ; as " Gold is a metal." ' I am He." 140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (4.) An infinitive or phrase ; as, " He is to sail." " George is to ie edu tated" " Ihey are without money.''' (5.) A subordinate proposition ; as, M My intention is, that t \e whole \eork shall be completed before the appointed time." Rem. 8. — When both parts are blended, the word which represents them is always a verb ; as, " He is walking " = He walks. The subordinate elements are the adjective element, the ob- jective element, and the adverbial element ; as, " The good man performs his duty faithfully ." Rem. 1. — The adjective element may be known by its being connected with a noun or pronoun, without an assertion, and by its answering tbe questions What ? Wliat kind off How many f Whose ? Of what ? Which? as, What kind of hat? Ans. " A black hat." Rem. 2. — An adjective element, when both the relation and idea are expressed by one word, is either an adjective or a substantive. When the relation and idea are expressed separately, it is either a phrase, consisting of a preposition and object, or an infinitive, or a subordinate proposition. Rem. 3. — The objective element may be known by its being connected with a transitive verb, and by its answering the questions What or Whom? as, What has he brought ? Ans. " He has brought an orange." Whom do you see ? Ans. " I see David." Rem. 4. — The objective element, when both the relation and the idea are expressed by one word, is a noun or proiwun. When the relation and idea are expressed separately, it is either an infinitive or a subordinate proposition. Rem. 5. — The adverbial element may be known by its answering the questions Where? When? Why? How? with a verb, adjective, or ad- verb ; as, How does she play ? A?is. " She plays correctly." Rem. 6. — The adverbial element, when both the relation and idea are expressed by one word, is an adverb. When the relation and idea are expressed separately, it is a preposition and object, or a subordinate prop- osition. EXERCISE. Poi?it out the different elements in the following sentences : — The flowers of the meadow she plucks no longer. He was not clad in costly raiment. Such was the state of Eden when the serpent entered its bowers. Our life is compared to a falling leaf. He who has tamed the elements shall not live the slave of his own passions. We love liberty. The crow, which had found the cheese, signified her joy with a loud voice Ariovistus replied that he had crossed the Rhine, not by his own will, but entreated and hired by the Gauls. The boy begged that they would come to his assistance. Aside from connectives, the elements, in regard to their nature, are either substantive, adjective, or adverbial. Rem. — This classification supposes the pure verb (copula) to be only a oennective, and whatever is united o • blended with this verb, making \i a mixed voxb, to be of the nature of an adjective SYNTAX — ELEMENTS, SIMPLE, COMPLEX, ETC. 141 We have, therefore, — (1.) Substantive words, phrases, or clauses ; as, man, to sing, that he ould be detected. (2.) Adjective words, phrases, or clauses ; as, wise man, a man of vsu- ttom, a man icho is wise. (3.) Adverbial tcords, phrases, or clauses ; as, rising early, rising at tun- rise, rising before tlie sun rises. EXERCISE. Point out the substantive, adjective, and adverbial elements, and tell wheth* er they are words, phrases, or clauses. We went to ride in the early morning. The beautiful rose bears the name of the " Cloth of Gold." The invitation was accepted with great pleasure. He labored diligently to complete the work. It is easy to main- tain authority where it is once established. He was a youth full of prom- ise. They mourned his untimely death. Shonstnne wrote the " Village Schoolmistress," to immortalize the teacher of his boyhood. He improved rapidly under the tuition of so distinguished a teacher. He thought that she would do much good. The adage, " Knowledge is Power," is verified by experience. Elements, in regard to their state or condition, may be sim- ple, complex, or compound. A simple element is a single expression for an idea and its relation, without modification or addition ; as, " We left early." " We left at dawn." " We left as day dawned." A complex element is a simple element modified by another element subordinate to it ; as, " We left very early." M We left at early dawn." ** We left as the day first dawned in the east." Rem. — So a complex sentence is a simple sentence modified by another sentence subordinate to it; as, "I perceived that the party h&d separated." A compound element is a combination of two or more coordinate simple or complex elements. ; as, " We work -early and late." "We are employed in the morning, at noon, and at night." ' We were travelling when the wind was blowing, and when the storm was heating against our carriage." Rem. — So a compound sentence is the combination of two or mow simple or complex sentences; as, "He that trusteth in his riches snal' fall; but the righteous shall flourish as a branch." 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, EXERCISE. Point out the simple, complex, and compound elements in the following ;—> " How have you secured this good order ? " said we to the teacher. In early childhood, the conscience is most active. During three years, he made surprising progress in useful knowledge. Peace, tranquillity, and innocence shed their mingled delights around him. Every door, and por- tal, and avenue is thrown open. He thinks not of duty, or of future use- fulness. When the poor aud needy seek water, and there is none, and their tongue faileth for thirst, I, the Lord will hear them, I, the God o! larael, will not forsake them KELATION OF ELEMENTS. All ele nents or parts of a sentence, are united in one or the other of two general relations — a relation of equality, or a relation of dependence. The former subsists between coordinate elements ; the latter between a subordinate element and its principal ; as, " The sun and the moon stood still." When an element is brought into a coordinate relation with another, the former has no control over the latter ; but when an element is placed in a subordinate relation to anoth- er, the latter, as principal, often controls the case, mode, tense, number, or person of the former, regarded as its sub ordinate. When the influence of the principal element is such as to cause the subordinate to take its own modifications, (number, person, case,) the latter is said to agree with the former • when the subordinate element is made to take a certain form, as the possessive or objective case, it is said to be governed by the principal, or by the word which shows the dependent relation, as the preposition, for example. Rem. 1. — The relation between the subject and predicate is called the predicate relation, (See Rem. 1. p. 139 ;) that of the noun and the adjec- tive element is called the adjective or attributive relation ; that of the objective element and the transitive verb is called the objective relation; and that of the adverbial element and the verb, adjective, or adverb, is tailed the adverbial relation. The last three arc always dependent relations. Rem. 2. — Any element in a ubordinate relation may h^ve auothei in SYNTAX RELATIONS. 143 the sarce subordinate relation joined to it co5rdinateiy ; as, " A good and faithful servant. " .Relations may be either represented or unrepresented , as, " The Doy was running with rapidity " =r The boy ran rapidly. Hem. — In elements of the first class, the dependent relations are a] ways unrepresented. (See " Construction," Sec. I.) In thoso of the set ond class, the dependeit relations are expressed by appropriate connec tives, called. prepositions. (See " Construction," Sec. II.) And in those of the third class, the dependent relations are expressed by conjunctive words called subordinate connectives. (See " Construction," Sec. III.) Coordi- nate relations are always expressed by a class of connectives called coQrdv- nate conjunctions. (See " Construction," Sec. IV.) EXERCISES. In the following sentences, point out the different relations ; tell whether they are represented or unrepresented : — The pope went to Paris to crown the emperor. If it should storm, the lecture will be postponed. The latest intelligence was repoited by the telegraph. I do not fancy the picture. \Ve hear of several removals in the different departments. The president's levee was thronged, and was a very brilliant affair. The statement that the treaty was concluded, was a mistake. He only asks their sympathies. Let agri- culture clotha our vast wastes with waving plenty. I wish to speak with some reserve upon this subject. Providence has placed us between the two great world oceans, and we shall always be a maritime power of the first order. In the following sentences, trace the relation of the last word back to the subject, describing each as you pass : — It was not thus with the places I visited during the short space of cessa- tion from task and toil that the week allowed. I have lately traversed my native village without discovering one familiar face. Our early recollec- tions are pleasing to us because they look not on the morrow. Thus, in the sentence, " I will simply say that the story I am about to relate has its foundation in an old legend of the first settlers of the coun- try," country is a subordinate element, related to settlers by means of of, settlers is an element subordinate to legend, and having its relation repre- sented by of; legend is subordinate to foundation — its relation is rep- resented "by" in; foundation is related subordinately to has — its relation is unrepresented; has is related to story ; they are mutually dependent apon each other — relation unrepresented. Combined as a proposition, the) are related subordinately to will say, by that, and will say is related to /, winch stands as the subject of the sentence. Reverse the order, and trace the relation of the subject down thrt ugh th* predicate to the remotest term. Any te> m being given, state, in connection wUh it, its antecedent, or prin >ipal term. Thus, in the sentence above, ' country " being given, sat 4 Settlers of the country." 144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. ENTIRE SENTENCES. A sentence, considered as an entire structure, either <&> dares something^ asks a question, expresses a command, traded complex) by abridging its subordina e clause ; as, " When the shower had passed, we resumed our journey " — The shower having passed we resumed our journey. Rem. — A proposition is abridged by changing the predicate to a parti- ciple, or an infinitive; as, " The winds bloio = Thc winds blowing or to blow. The predicate relation is destroyed, and the attribute is placed in an adjective relation to the subject. For" the mr .hod of disposing of the sub- ject in such constructions, see Abridged Propositions, page 185. (4.) A simple sentence may be changed to a complex by expanding any of its elements into a proposition ; as, " A m- rcif'al man is merciful to hia beast " ss A man who is merciful, is merciful to his beast. (5.) A complex sentence may be changed 1 1 a compound, by raising the subordinate clause to an equal rank with the principal, and changing the subordinate connective to a coordinate; as. " When spring comes, the flowers will bloom " == The spring will come, and the flowers will bloom. (0.) A compound sentence may be changer, to a complex, by depressing one of its propositions into a subordinate r?nk ; as, "Man lias a moral sense, and therefore he is an accountable be'oig " ss Since man has a mor- al sense, he is an accountable being. (7.) A question for gaining assent may be changed into a declarative sentence, or a declarative sentence maybe (hanged into a question for gaining assent ; as, " Will he plead against me with his great power ? " = lie will nut plead against me with his great p->wer. Rem. A question for gaining assent, or a question of appeal, is employed, not when the speaker is in doubt, but when ic wishes to gain the assent of the hearer, and, as it were, commit him to his own views. Hence, when the speaker expects a negative answer, he or, .its the negative in the ques- tion ; and when he expects an affirmative answer, he inserts the negative in the question.' In the declarative senten-c, the opposite of this rule should prevail. See example above. (8.) Any sentence is said to be reconstmcti i, or recast, when the former construction is wholly disregarded; as, " That which agrees with the will of God should please'us " = We should be phased with whatever is agree able to the will of our heavenly Father. EXERCISES. (1.) Use the active for the passive, and the passive for the active^ m tl following examples, supplging the agent whenever omitted : — He has bestowed a great many favors upo-i us. Gold has been disc < ered in Australia. I will call you in the morning. The work was rinis' 0d at the appointed time. A battle was fought at Waterloo. He was b? »ed in Westminster Abbey. They spent the summer at the sea shore. He made great progress in his profession. (2.) In the folloioing examples, change ary element of the first c js U one of the second, and the reverse : — SYNTAX — ELEMENTS SUPPRESSED. 147 A morning walk is conducive to health. A marble statue was placed in the grove. Joseph's father gave him a coat of many colors. Jonathan ivas the friend of David, lney reached the top of the mountain. Achilles Was a Grecian hero. The <.iege of Troy continued ten years. The city of Corinth was taken by Mammius. Her sister's death was a great afflic- tion. The gentleman's ch;< vacter is above suspicion. My son, hear the in Btruction of thy father, anc. forsake not the law of thy mother. (."M Change the following complex sentences to simple or contracted com- phx i mtences by abridging the subordinate clause : — Si ice such is the fact, you have no cause for solicitude. When you look into the Bible, you see holiness and purity its great characteristics. Be- cause I tell you the truth, ye believe me not. A man who is deceitful can Dover be trusted. A short time since, and he who is the occasion of our Borrows was the ornament of his country. Happy is the man that findeth wisdom. I do not know where he is concealed. (1.) Expand the Italicized elements, in the following simple sentences, into subordinate clauses : — The crocuses, blooming in the garden, attracted the bees. Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, conquered the Romans in four battles. Having ac- cumu/itted a fortune, he will retire from business. We told him to leave. Gliding along the edge of the horizon, a distant sail attracted our attention. He should have perished upon the brink, before attempting to cross it. The body, having reached its maturity, falls inevitably into decay. (5.) Change the examples in exercise (3) into compound sentences, and then back again to complex. MODEL. Such is the fact, and therefore you have no cause for solicitude = Since such is the fact, you have no cause for solicitude. (6.) Change the following sentences, the declarative into interrogative, and the interrogative into declarative ; — He listened to the music of the running brook. He found pleasure in giving instruction. He made the experiment successfully. Were thev not gone longer than you expected ? Was not the lecture interesting ? Hast thou commanded "the morning since thy days, and caused the dayspring to know his place ? Have the gates of deatli been opened unto thee? De- clare, if thou knowest it all. You may be allowed to speak. (7 ) Reconstruct the following • — He left the home of his childhood. He came unexpectedly. Death if the common lot of all. The season for the singing of birds is near. Honest 1 is the best policy. Reverence the aged. A river in France is called th» Loire. Cold is the hearth within their bowers. He paused upon the brink Let me have leave to speak. It was the night of the soul. Like a spc tre in the night, the grandeur of Rome nas vanished. Beauty dwells is all our paths. II. Elements Suppressed. — Ellipsis. When the construction requires the repetition of any par of the sentence, that part, if the meaning is sufficiently evi- dent, may be suppressed or omitted by ellipsis. 148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note. — For all the varieties cf ellipsis, see " Peculiarities and Idioms,' By an ellipsis of a common part, a compound sentence may be reduced to a partial or contracted compound sen- tence ; as, " Bacon was a distinguished writer, Shakspeare was a distinguished writer, and Butler was a distinguished writer" = Bacon, Shakspeare, and Butler were distinguished writers. By supplying ellipses, any contracted compound sentence may be changed to a complete compound ; as, " The king and queen were absent " = The king was absent, and the queen was absent. EXERCISES. Take any of the examples in " Construction," Sec. IV., and convert them into complete compounds ; then change them back to partial or contracted compounds. III. Elements Transposed. The arrangement of the elements is the position which they take in the sentence. There are two kinds of arrangement, the natural and the inverted or transposed. In a proposition, by the natural order, the subject is placed before the predicate ; the adjective element is placed before the noun when of the fir»* class, but after the noun when of the second or third , me objective element is placed after the verb which governs it ; and the adverbial element com- monly follows the objective element ; us, " The good boy studied his geography attentively." u The kingdom of Sar- dinia is situated in the south of Europe." An element is transposed whenever it is placed out of its natural order ; as, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." " Copernicus these wonders told." " Wisely were his efforts directed." SYN TAX ANALYSIS. 149 EXERCISES. Putiit out the elements which are transposed in the following sentences %nd then arrange the»i in their natural order : — Welcome thou art to me. From the king I come to learn how you have dealt with him. For now his son is duke. Unto my mother's prayers, I bend the knee. Infected be the air whereon 'they ride. Accursed be the tongue that tells me so. How bright and goodly shines the moon! How beautiful is all this visible world ! Transpose any of the elements in the jolloxcitvj ; tell whether the sen- tence is thereby improved or not : — A 6hort time since, and he who is the occasion of our sorrows was the or- nament of his country. Approach, and behold, while I lift from his sepul- chre its covering. 'Where is the mother who would willingly forget the infant that perished like a blossom from her arms, though every recollec- tion is a pang ? But, as if this were not enough, the unfortunate victims of this law are told, in the next place, that, if they can convince the presi- dent that his suspicions are unfounded, he may, if he pleases, give them a li cense to stay. Man, we believe, never loses the sentiment of his true good. II. ANALYSIS. Analysis consists in resolving a sentence into its elements, and pointing out the offices and relations of each. Parsing consists in naming the parts of speech, giving their modifications, relations, agreement, or government, and the rules for their construction. Note. — The learner having now, by the process of construction, become acquaint- ed with the various kinds of sentences, their componerjl parts in ail their relations and forms, is prepared fur the opposite process of taking i.i pieces What lie has learned to build up. He should proceed carefully at first, mastering each sentence as he advances, it will be well for him to mingle the two exercises of constructing and analyzing, and in all cases to keep up the habit of parsing according to the nior.e' already given. Lei any or all of the examples in Construction be analyzed by t pupil. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. In analyzing a sentence, the learner should observe th following directions : — (1.) Read the sentence, and determine whether it is declarative, inter togaiive, imperative, or exclamatory. (2.) Endeavor to realize all the ideas in the sentence, by thinking or im« agining what the writer describes as if you were with him, and could see with the mental eye just what each word represents. 13* 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. <3.) Arrange '■'•<■ sentence, if inverted, in the natuial order. (4.) If necess iry, supply ellipses. (5.) Find out the fewest possible words which make the principal where." It is a complex sentence, because it contains two dis- similar clauses. "A man seeks for it in vain else- where " is the principal, and " who finds not satisfac- tion in himself is the subordinate adjective clause. bJan is the subject of the principal clause. .Set/i.' is the predicate. The subject .... is limited by •' a," also by the adjective clause, "who finds not satisfaction in himself," which describes " man." The complex subject is " A man who finds ;iot satisfaction in himself.' The predicate ... is limited by " for it," "in vain," and "elsewhere." The cemplex predicate is "seeks for it in vain elsewhere." W7to is the subject of the adjective clause. Finds is the predicate. The pjtdicate • • • * s limited, first, by'"not; " secondly, by "satisfac- tion ; " and thirdly, by " in himself." Who is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, according to Rule V. ; it is the subject of the proposition, "who finds," See., ac- cording to Rule I., and connects this proposition with "man," the subject of the principal clause, according to Rule XVI. " Do you know that you have wronged him ? " It is a complex sentence, because it is composed of dissimilar clauses; interrogative, because it asks a question ; direct, because it can be answered by yes or * Btrklty speaking, "Who 7oas author" is tlie grammatical, and " Who teas the au- thor tf Jim**'* Letters " the logical subject. i?i> ; , unless great accuracy is required, the entire proposition may bo regarded as simple, except when it contain? in itself a subordinate proposition. 156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. no. " Do you know " is the principal, and " that you have wronged him," the subordinate substantive clause. You is the subject of the principal clause. Do Know is the predicate. fhc predicate ... is limited by " that you have wronged him," an ob- jective element, denoting what is known. It is used as a noun, third person, singular number, neuter gen- der, and is the object of " do know," according to Rule VIII. " Do know that you have wronged hun " is the complex predicate. You is the subject of the subordinate clause. Have wronged ... is the predicate. The predicate . . . is limit* 1 by "him," a simple objective element, show ing whom. That is a subordinate conjunction, and connects the sub- stantive clause, " you have wronged him," to the predicate of the principal clause, " know," according to Rule XV. " W hen the wicked are multiplied, transgression increaseth." It is a complex sentence. (Why ?) " Transgression increaseth" is the principal, and " when the wicked are multiplied," the subordinate clause. Transgression ... is the subject of the principal clause. Increaseth is the predicate. The predicate ... is limited by " when the wicked are multiplied," an adverbial clause denoting time. (See Rule IX.) The complex predicate is, " increaseth when the wicked are multiplied." Wicked is the subject of the subordinate clause. Are multiplied ... is the predicate. When is a subordinate connective, (conjunctive adverb of time,) and joins the adverbial clause, which it intro- duces, to the predicate of the principal clause, accord- ing to Rule XV. It limits "are multiplied " and "increaseth," according to Rule IX. " The Cynic who twitted Aristippus, by observing that the philosopher who could dine on herbs might despis* the company of a king, was well replied to by Aris- tippus, when he remarked, that the philosopher whG could enjoy the company of a king might also des- pise a dinner of herbs." This is a complex sentence, containing seven clauses, one principal, and six subordinate. (1.) The Cynic was well replied to by Aristippus, (2.) Who twitted Aristippus by observing, (3.) That the philosopher might despise the company of a king, (4.) Who could dine on herbs, (5.) When he remarked, (6.) That the philosopher might also despise a dinner of herbs, (7.) Who can enjoy the company of a king. The first is the principal claus ?, and the others are subordinate. tynic is the subject of the principal clause. SYNTAX — CLAUSES — MODELS. Was repned to ... is the predicate. The subject, Cynic, is limited by • who twitted Aristippus by observing, &c, a complex adjective element of the third class , "who "is the connective and subject, " twitted " is the predicate, and is limited, first, by " Aristippus," a simple objective element of the first class, and also by " by observing that the philosopher might despise the company of a king," a complex adverbial element of the second class ; " by observing " is the basis, " by" is the connective, and " observing " is the object; "observing" is limited by "that the philosopher might despise the company of a king," a complex objective element of the third class, of which " that" is the connective; "philosopher" is the subject, and is limited by " who could dine on herbs," an rdjective element of the third class ; " might despise " is the predicate, and is limited by "the company of a king," a complex objective element of the first class. The predicate, was replied to, is limited, first, by " well," a .simple adverbi- al element of the first class, and by " by Aristippus," an adverbial element of the second class', and also by tho clause " when he remarked, that the philosopher," &c, a complex adverbial element of the third class, of which " when " is the connective, " he " is the subject, and " remarked" is the predicate ; " " remarked " is limited by "that the philosopher," &e., a complex objective clement of the third class, of which " that" is the connective, " philosopher " is the subject, " tho philosopher who could enjoy the company of a king" is the logical subject, " might despise "is the predi- cate, and "might also despise a dinner of herbs " is the logical predicate ; the subject, " philosopher," is limited by the clause " who could enjoy the company of a king," a complex adjective element of the third class, of which " who " is the connective and subject, " could enjoy " is the predicate, and is limited by " the company of a king," a complex objective element of first class ; the predicate "might despise" is limited oy " a dinner of herbs," a complex objective element of the first class, of-which "dinner" is the basis, and # is limited by "of herbs," a simple adjective element of the second class. EXERCISE. Analyze any of the sentences in " Construction," Sec. III. " A ship gliding over the waves, is a beautiful object." This is a simple sentence, or, more properly a con traded, complex. Ship is the simple, and A ship gliding over the waves is the complex subject. Is object ...... is the simple, and Is a beautiful object is the complex predicate. The subject, ship, . . is limited by "gliding over the the waves," a complex adjective element of the first class; it is equivalent to " which glides over the waves," and is therefore an abridged proposition, obtained by drop oing the subject 14 15S ENGLISH liRAMMAft. and connective " which," and chancing "glides," th« predicate, into the participle " gliding." Object is limited by M a " and "beautiful." IV. Sentences having Coordinate Parts. " Socrate3 and Plato were distinguished philosophers." It is a partial or contracted compound sentence.* Socrates and Plato . form the compound subject, because they are united by " and," and have a common predicate, " we^» philosophers." The subject .... is not limited. fhe predicate ... is limited by " distinguished," an adjective element of the first class, used to describe " philosophers." And is a coordinate conjunction, and connects the two sim- ple subjects, according to liule XL " You may buy books or slates." It is & partial or contracted compound sentence.* You is the subject. May buy is the predicate. Ymi is not limited. May buy is limited by "books or slates," a compound objec- tive element of the first class, showing w hut may be bought. Or . is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative.) showing that a choice is offered between " books " and "slates," which are connected bv it, according to Rule XI. '* If men praise your efforts, suspect their judgment ; if they censure them, your own." It is a compound sentence, consisting of two coordi- nate parts ; each part consisting of a principal and a subordinate clause. The natural order would lie. " Suspect the judgment of men, if they praise your efforts ; your own, if they censure them. There is an ellipsis of the principal clause in the second part ; this, if sup- plied, would be, " If they censure them, suspect youi own judgment." In the first part, "suspect their judgment" is the principal clause, and, "if men praise your efforts" the subordinate. In the second part, after the ellipsis is supplied, "sus- pect your own judgment*' is the principal clause, and 'if they censure them " is the subordinate. " You" (understood) is the subject of the principal clause in liie first part, " suspect " is the predicate ; it is lim- ited, first, by " their judgment," a complex objective element of the first class, used to answer the question " What? " ana also by " if men praise your efforts," an adverbial element of the third class, denoting con- dition. (Analyze according to the model.) * Let the pupil become accustomed to completing such sentences by Btipplyinf «4Ji; ses. tfcus : Socrates vas a distinguished philosopher, and Plato was a ii 'stinguishaa philosopher. SYNTAX KULES. I5H M You" (understood) is the subject ot the principal clause in the second part; " suspect " is the predicate; it is limited by "your own judgment," a complex objective elemeu* of the first class, and also by " if they censure them.,** an adverbial element of the "third class, denoting coa- dition, &c. Die two coordinate parts of the sentence are connected by the adversatire conjunction "but" understood, which denotes op- position or contrast. EXERCISES Analyze and parse the following sentences according to the models • — A r.oble income, nobly expended, is no common sight. Hu man foresight often leaves its proudest possessor only a choice of evils. Applause is the spur of noble minds ; the end and aim of weak ones. Grant graciously what* you cannot refuse safely. Most men know what they hate ; few what they love. lie who openly tells his friends all that he thinks of them must expect that they will secretly tell his enemies much that they do not think of him. That nations sympathize with their monarch's glory, that they are ira- {>roved by his virtues, and that the tone of morals rises bitach when he that eads the band is perfect, are truths admitted with exultation, and felt with honest pride. Highly elated by his unexpected good fortune, he returned home. Sav- ing carefully the fruits of his labor, he at length was able to purchase a farm. A pretended patriot, he impoverished his country. III. RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION. Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a prop- osition must be in the nominative case. Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of a proposition after the finite verb to be, or any intransitive or passive verb, must be in the nominative case. Rule III. A pronoun must agree with fts antecedent in gender, number, and person. Rule IY. The verb must agree with its subject in num bcr and person. * What, as antecedent, is the objective clement of the principal clause, and as rela- te, is the objective element of the subordinate clause. 160 ENGLtSH GRAMMAR. Rule V. An adjeztive or participle must belong to some noun or pronoun. Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same case. Rule VII. A noun or pronoun used to limit another noun hy denoting possession must be in the possessive case, Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as the olject of a transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective case. Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, participles, adjectives, and other adverbs. Rule X. The nominative case independent, and the in- terjection, have no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence. Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect similar elements. Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to two 01 moie nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, — (1.) If it agrees with thera taken conjointly, it must be in the plural number. (2 ) But if it agrees with them taken separately , it must be of the same number as that which stands next to it. (3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take the numbei of that one. Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show the relation of its object to the word on which the latter depends. Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a preposition must be in the objective case. Rule XV. Subordinate connectives are used to join dis similar elements. Rule XVI. The infinitive has the construction of tho noun, with the signification and limitations of the verb, and when dependent, is governed by the word which it limits. Rule XVII. Participles have the construction of adjee- ttva<'< and nouns, and are limited like verbs. SYNTAX RULE I. REMARKS. 161 RULES, CAUTIONS, AND REMARKS. Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a p. ^position must be in the nominative case ; as, " Ccesar conquered Gaul." " To see the sun is pleasant." ' That there will be an eclipse of the moon, has been predicted." Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — We found the simple cottage of the artist. The gardens are full of ibs freshness and beauty of morning. Would you see in what peace a Chris.- tian can die ? Our steamer staggered in the current. A curious echo is here. The accused was reconducted to his prison. 1 could not sustain the picture of confinement which my fancy had drawn. * rose, and prepared to leave the abbey. The must come, when the shall twine round the fallen columns. Now fades tin glimmering on the sight. That the king can do no wrong, is adi lifted without reluctance. To conquer Gaul was Caesar's purpose in his campaign. Construct, analyze, and parse — Five Examples in which the subject shall be a noun or pronoun, mas- culine, singular ; five in which it shall be feminine, plural ; five in which it shall be neuter, singular ; five in which the subject is a group of words. Caution. Never use the objective as the subject of a finite verb. Say, I did it, not me did it. Examples to be corrected and parsed : — You and me will go together. Him that is studious will improve. She found the place sooner than us. Them that seek wisdom will be wise They are people whom one would think might be trusted. Who told you the story ? Him and her. I know it as well as him or her. Who saw "the eclipse ? Us. Here's none but thee and I. They have more friends than me. Them are the ones. Model. — " You and me will go together " is incorrect, because the ob- jective pronoun me is made the subject of the verb will go ; but by Cau- tion I., the objective should never be used as the subject of a finite verb. Correct, " You and I will go together." Rem. 1. — An infinitive, a sidistantive clause, or any thing that may be used as a noun, may be the subject; as, " To steal is base." " That you have wronged me doth appear in this." " S is a consonant." Rem. 2. — Although every subject of a finite v-^rb must be in the nom- inative case, every nominative .case is not the subject of a verb. 1 he predicate noun, or pronoun, after a finite verb, is put in the nominative; A noun or pronoun, in apposition with the subject or predicate nominative, is put in the nominative ; the noun denoting the person addressed is put in the nominative ; a noun with a participle or an infinitive, in an abridged proposition, may be in the nominative ; a noun used in a mere exclamation is put in the nominative. See Rule X. Rem. 3. — The subject is usually omitted in the imperative mode, and * When blank* occur, words are to be supplied and parsed bv the pur-Q li* 162 ENGLISH GRAMMA H. after than, while, when, if or though, as, when the verb is made otic of the tonus of comparison ; as, " Arise." " Go." "He reads as well as [he] writes." " We shall go, tf [it is] possible." Rem. 4. — The subject is commonly placed before the predicate, but is sometimes placed after it; as, " Were I not Alexander, I would bo Diogenes." Hem. 5. -—In an abridged proposition, the subject may remain un- changed, may be changed, or may be wholly dropped. (1.) It remains unchanged when it denotes a different person or thing Crorc that of the principal clause, and (though logically it is still the sub- ject) is said to be in the nominative case absolute, with the participle of the predicate ; as, " When shame is lost, all virtue is lost." " Shame being lest, all virtue is lost." (2.) It is changed to the possessive case when the abridged predicate, as a noun, becomes the object of its possession ; as, " I was not aware that he was going." " I was not aware of his going." (3.) It is cnanged to tl e objective case when it follows a transitive verb, and is followed by the infinitive of the predicate, or (when the infinitive is omitted) by the attribute of the predicate ; as, " We supposed that he was writing, was honest, or was the commander." " We supposed HIM to be xrriting, to be honest, or to be the commander ; " or, (omitting the infini- tive,) " We supposed him writing, supposed him honest, supposed HIM the commander. (4.) It is dropped when it represents the subject or object of the princi- pal clause, or, in general, when it represents the noun which the subordi- nate daise limits ; as, " 1 wish that I might go." " I wish to go." " Re- proof WHJCTf is given in public hardens the heart." " Reproof given in public hardens the heart." See "Abridged Propositions," page 187. Rem. 6. — The nominative case absolute is sometimes omitted; as, " Allowing tins to be so, what then ? that is, " We allowing." Rem. 7. — The object of the verb in the active voices becomes its subject in the passive voice ; as, " John granted the Magna Charta" = The Magna Charta was granted by John. Examples to be corrected and parsed by the Remarks under Rule /.* A is an article. We shall return as soon as possible. Repeat the lesson as I shall dictate. They sins as well as play. Silver and gold have I none, but such as I have give 1 thee I was not aware of his being her cousin. We supposed that lie waa go- ing We supposed him to he going. His work being finished, he will be able to leave May siic lit- happy Who broke this knife? J\lc. You are as old as her Paul was there [know sayest it ; says thy life the same? The t's are not crossed. Jt u certain that the offender will be punished. Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of a proposition, after the finite verb to be, or any intransitive or passive verb, must be in the nominative case ; as, " 1 am he.*' " He is a scholar/' * To thi Teacher. — It is recommended that the exercises on the Remarks be de ferred till tb.9 pupil shall go through the book a second or third time. The words i?j Italics are to be corrected. The blanks are to be filled. The sentences are to be ana- lyzed, and any or all of the words to be parsed. It is thought best to throw in the examples promiscuously without a definite reference to the Remarks, that the pa- oil may learn to search and apply for himself, as he is now supposed to have acquired tome skill in analyzing and parsing. SYNTAX RJLE II. REMARKS. 10.1 Examples to be parsed : — A life of prayer is the life of heaven. lie returned a friend who came a foe. Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he ? No contemptible orator he was. The tree w»d called the " Charter Oak." John was called the beloved disciple. He was elected governor by a large majority. He died a madman. It will remain a monument of his greatness. You are my friend. It could not be she. Has he been a studeut ? His meat was locusts and mid honey. Construct, analyze, and parse — Five Examples in which the noun or pronoun shall be masculine plu- ral ; fice in which it shall be feminine singular ; jive in which it shall be a noun, or a group of words, neuter singular. Caution. The attribute after a finite verb should never le in the objective. Say, It is I, not me. Examples to be corrected : — It is me. It is them that must be blamed. I would do so, if I were him. Whom do you think it is ? It may have been her. I do not know whom it is. It is not me ; it is her. Whom do men say that I am ? Rem. 1. — The predicate nominative always denotes the same person or thing as the subject, and must agree with it in case. When the predicate nominative denotes a person, it usually agrees with the subject in gender number, and case. Hem. 2. — By a peculiar idiom of the English language, the neuter pro- noun it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun as predicate of any number, person, or gender; as, " It is I." " It is they." " It is James." '"It is she." REM. 3. — This rule applies when copulative verbs are used; as, " He is becoming an artist." Rem. 4. — An infinitive or substantive clause may be used as the predi- cate nominative; as, " To live is to exist." "My impression is, that he null come." Hem. 5. — In an abridged proposition, (see "Abridged Propositions," page 185,) the predicate nominative may remain unchanged, may hf changed, but can never be dropped. (It) It remains unchanged in the nominative when the suc/ect remains in the nominative ; as, " As a youth was their leader, what could they do?" " A youth being their leader, what could they do ? " Here leader is in the nominative, after the participle being, because youth is in the nominative. (2.) It remains unchanged in the nominative, relating logically (not grammatically) to the omitted or altered subject, when, in connection with the infinitive, or participle of the copula, it forms a verbal noun : as, u That one should be a thief, is strange." " Being a thief, or to be a thief, is strange." " I was not aware that it icas he." " I was not aware of ITS being he." Here thief and he are in the nominative after be- ing, or to be, because the subject, being either changed to the possessive or dropped, has no power over the predicate noun. (3.) It is changed to the objective when the subject is changed to the objective, or when the noun which the omitted subject would represent (see Rem. 5. (4) Rule I.) is in the objective ; as, " I believed that it teas he." «' 1 believed it to be HIM." " We found a plant which is called the lilac." ** We found a plant called the lilac." Here he becomes him, because it is changed to the objective, and lilac is in the objective, because, which 164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Deing dropped, it derives its case from the antecedent, plant. Had plant been in the nominative, as in the following, " The plant which is called the lilac is fragrant," lilac would have been in the nominative, cfter the change of the adjective clause; as, " The plant called the lilac is fra- grant." RBM. G. — The form of the verb is not affected by the predicate, but by the subject nominative; as, "Apples are fruit." " His food was vege- tables." Hem. 7. — The predicate nominative is commonly placed after the verb, and the subject nominative before it; but in questions, both direct and indirect, this order is not observed ; as, " Is that the master? " " Who i% het " that is. " lie is who ? " Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule IT. Ho became his faithful . To teach is to . Mr. being tl:er: teacher, they made rapid progress. Uein^ a stranger, lie was very lonely. 1 know not who tiiou art. I believed it to lie trim. They believed it to be /. Who do you sup- pose it to be." Me was not known to be a . A man he was to all the country dear She is the person who ,. understood her to be. His pavilion were dark waters, and thick clouds of the sky. We found an animal called a weasel. Rule III. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person ; as, " Those men who are most consistent are not more unlike to others than they are at times to themselves.'''' Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your eons to love it too. Othei sheep I have, which arc not of this fold. This is the friend of whom I spoke. He who had no mercy upon others is now reduced to a condition which may excite the pity of his most im placable enemy. At sea, every thing that breaks the monotony of the surrounding ex- panse attracts attention. They found that all their efforts were unavail- ing. That life is long which answers life's great end. He is the friend whose arrival is daily expected. Construct, analyze, and parse — - Six Examples in which a personal pronoun shall be in the nominative singular ; six in which a personal pronoun shall be possessive singular ; six In which the personal pronoun shall be objective plural; six in which a relative pronoun shall be in the nominative singular, three referring to persons, and three to things or animals ; six in which the relative shall be in the possessive or objective case ; six in which an interrogative pronoun shall be used, two in the nominative, two in the possessive, and tioo in *he objective. Caution I. Avoid the use of a noun and pronoun as sul- ject jr object of the same verb, unless great emphasis is re- quired. Say, The boy did it, not, the boy, he. Examples to be corrected: — Many words they darken speech. That girl she is very ignorant. The king he was very angry. Anna, she told me so. The teacher approving "".e plan.; he immediately adopted it. Whom when they had washed, they _.;l her in an upper chamber. What he said, he is now sorry for it SYNTAX RULE 111. CAUTIONS AND REMARKS. 165 Caution II. Avoid the use of a plural pronoun having a singular antecedent. Saj , Let every one attend to his, not their, work. EXAMPLES to be corrected : — Let each schola. who thinks so raise their hands. A person can con- tent themselves on small means. Let everyone answer for themsehes. Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them upon Jacob. Can any one bs sure that they are not deceived ? Caution III. In the use of a pronoun, avoid ambiguity in its reference to an antecedent. Examples to be corrected : — Thou hast no right to be a judge, who art a party concerned. A hawk caught a hen, and eat her in her own nest. A purse was lost in the street which contained a large sum of money. There are millions of people in the empire of China whose support is derived almost entirely from rice. Caution IV. Never plate a pronoun of the first person he- fore a noun or pronoun of the second or third, or one of the third before one of the second. Say, George, and you, and I, not I, and you, and George, will go. ro M; Examples to be corrected : — I and you may go, if I and he can agree. I, and you, and Harriet ar« Father said, that I and Henry should stay at home. When will ary and you be ready ? Horace, and I, and you are invited. Caution V. Avoid the use of who, when speaking of ani- mals and inanimate objects, and of which, when speaking of persons. Say, The cat which mews, not who. Examples to be corrected : — There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. He has a soul who cannot be influenced by such motives. This is the dog whom my father bought. The lady which we saw was hi jhly educated. 'He ha* some friends which I am acquainted with. The iadge which pronounced the sentence was an upright man Those which deoire to be happy should be careful to do that which is right. Caution VI. Avoid a change of number, or a change of pronouns, when reference is made to the same antecedent in the same sentince. Examples to }e corrected : — Though thou art wise, you sometimes misjudge. Do thyself no harm, «id no cne will harm you. This is the man who discovered our distress, 166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. and that brought us relief. I know you, who thou art ti.at annoyest me at thy gate. O thou who art all-wise, and that rulest over all ! Rem. 1. — Interrogative pronouns commonly refer to objects unknown to the speaker ; and hence the gender, number, and person must be as~ turned, till the person or thing inquired for becomes known. Although the pronoun in such cases may not agree with the actual object in ques tion, consistency should be preserved in every reference to the assumed one. The following sentence is wrong, owing to a change of number in the supposed object. " Who teas not charmed with the music they heard just now ? " Was should be changed to were, or they to he. Rem. 2. — The English language being destitute of a pronoun of the third person, which may apply equally to either sex, an erroneous use of they, referring to poson, any one, or some one, has been adopted oven by respectable writers, to conceal the gender or to avoid an awkward use of he, or she, thus: "If any one would test these rules for the preservation of health, they (he or she) must persevere in all states of the weather." The want of such a pronoun is still more apparent when the speaker has a definite person before his mind, and wishes to conceal the gender, thus : " The person who gave me this information desired me to conceal name." When the person referred to belongs to an assemblage, known to be composed wholly of males, or wholly of females, the masculine or feminine pronoun should be used accordingly. But when the person be longs-to an assemblage of males and females, usage has sanctioned the employment of a masculine pronoun, thus : " Is any among you afflicted ? let him " (not them, — not him or her) " pray." Rem. 3. — When a pronoun refers to a collective noun in the singular, it should be neuter singular, if the noun conveys the idea of unity ; as, " The school was opened under favorable auspices ; but it was dismissed for want of patronage." But when the noun conveys the idea of plurali- ty, the pronoun should be plural, taking the gender of the individuals composing the collection ; as, " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief good." Rem. 4. — When things or animals are personified, they should be rep- resented as persons by the pronouns employed ; as, " Grim darkness furls his leaden shroud." " The wolf who from the nightly fold fierce drags the bleating prey." Rem. 5. — The pronoun it does not always refer to a definite object. See t: Etymology," page 41, Rem. 2. Rem. 6. — The pronoun usually follows its antecedent, but sometimes it is placed first; as, " Hark ! they whisper, angels say." Rem. 7- — Relative and interrogative pronouns are usually placed at the beginning of their clauses, even though the order of construction would assign them some other position ; as, " Patcrnus had but one son, whom he educated himself." Rem. 8. — The relative in the objective is sometimes omitted; as, ** Here is the present [which] he gave me." Rem. 9. — In disposing of a personal pronoun, two rules should be given, one for its agreement, and one for its construction : in disposing cf a relative, we should add to these the rule for it as a connective. Rem. 10. — The construction of the relative is independent of its ante- cedent. It may be in the nominative case, as subject of a finite verb — nominative absolute, jjossessive case, or in the objective case governed by a transitive verb, or by a preposition ; as, " They who speak. ' " We ordered the horses to be harnessed, which being done, we commenced our jour- ney." " He hastened to the palace of his sovereign, into whose presence his hoary locks and mournful visage soon obtained admission." " The person whom T saw." " Whom did "ou take him to be." See Rem. 10 SYNTAX RULE IV. — CAUTIONS. 167 R sle VIII. " Hie man whom they call the janitor." "This is the rule lo which we called his attention." Hem. 11. — The relative, when used in a restrictive sense, joins the prop- osition which it introduces t:> the antecedent, imparting to the chaise the qualities of an adjective. When thus used, it commonly has, prefixed to the antecedent, a correlative, such as the, this, that, these, those ; the ad- iective clause becomes a necessary adiition to the antecedent to complete the limitation intimated by these words. When not used in a restrictive scr-^e, the relative introduces an additional proposition, and is equivalent to and he, and s/ic, and it, and they ; as, " He gave me a book, which he requested me to read " = H<* gave me a book, and he requested me to read it. Rem. 12. — When the relative is governed by a preposition, it is gener- ally best to place the latter at the beginning of the clause; as, " This is the subject to which he alluded," not which he alluded to. But when the relative that is thus governed, the preposition is always placed at the end ; as, u Here is the last bridge that we shall come to." It is better not to employ that when the governing preposition is understood ; it is, however, sometimes used; as, " In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt sure- ly die." Rem. 13. — The relative that should be used, — (1.) After the interrogative who ; as, " Who that marks the fire still sparkling in each eye," kc. (2.) After an adjective in the superlative degree ; as, " He was the last that left." (3.) After wry, all, same ; as, "This is the very book that I want." " Is not this all that you ask ? " " He is the same person that I took him to be." (4.) When the relative refers to both persons and things ; as, " Here are the persons and papers that were sent for." Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule TIL She is handsome, and she has the misfortune of knowing it. Whowas not delighted with the walk which they took in the ? If any one would make progress, th- y must resist temptation. Is any one tad? let him seek the consolation of ^m gospel. Every one must judge of their own . fie met crowds, who were go- ing up the streets. The council were divided in Us sentiments. The lion said to liie ass, which had been hunting with it. He found the books which he sought. He found tint he had formed plans which could not be accomplished. He gave me an exercise, and requested me to correct it. He gave me an exercise which he requested me to cor- rect. This is the very which I need. He needs no spectacles, that cannot nee It is the same which I showed you before. Who, iclw has any regard ihi his reputation, would act thus? Many a man loses their character by such acts. I io not care who knows it. Whom the cap fits, let him put it on. Blessed is the r.au Who feareth the Lord, and who keepeth his commandments. It was that Mary ivhictl anointed the Lord with ointment, and wiped his feet with her hair, whose brother was sick Rule IV. The verb must agree with its subject in num bor and person : as, " I crm." " Thou art sitting." " Wi have come.'''' Ex A.MEI.ES to he parsed : — I do entreat thee. I do think you could contrive to find r*er employment If yoa are inclined to it. They will follow your advice. He gave up all hope of obtaining his object. Murmur at nothing. That the evidence of this 168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. tran's guilt will insure bis condemnation, is admitted. To do to others as we would have them do to us, is the golden rule. Construct, analyze, and parse — Fouu Examples in which the verb shall be in the first or second per son, present tense ; four in which it shall be in the third person, present perfect tense; four in which the verb shall be second person singular, potential, present, or present perfect; four in which it shad be present, past, or future, progressive form; four in which it shall be passive, pres- ent perfect, past perfect, or future perfect; four in which it shall be sec- ond person singular, emphatic form ; four in which it shall be use 1 inter- rogatively in the indicative or potential ; four in which shall or will simply predict. . Caution I. Avoid the use of a singular verb with a phh rail subject., or a plural verb and a singular subject. Examples to be corrected : — Where was you this morning when I called ? He dare you to do it. They was unwilling to go. Relatives agrees with their antecedents. There's ten of us going. His pulse beat quick. She have not done it. Was you certain of it ? We was allowed the privilege. Circumstances alters cases. Has those books been sent home ? On one side was sloping banks. Caution II. Never use a singular verb ivith a collective noun intended to express plurality of idea ; or a plural verb with a collective noun intended to express unity of idea. Examples to bs corrected: — The committee has accepted their appointment. The majority was dis- posed to adopt the measure which they at first opposed. Blessed is the people that know the joyful sound. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel, where afterwards it anchored. The peasantry goes barefoot with- out endangering their health. There are a flock of birds. The public is requested "to attend for their own benefit. All the world is spectators of your conduct. The regiment consist of two thousand men. The church have no power to adopt the measure which it advocates. Caution III. Never use a plural verb with a singular sub- fcet, though the latter be modified by a noun in the plural. Say, Each of his brothers is well, not are well Examples to be corrected : — Four years' interest were expected. The derivation of these words are uncertain. The story, with all its additions, were believed. The increase of his resources render the change necessary. The number of applicants increase. The general with all His soldiers, were taken. The sale of the poods take place to-m >rrow. The hope of retrieving his losses increase his diligence. Cauticn IV. Be careful not to use the wrong verb, as, set for sit, lay for lis come for go; nor the WRONG form, SYN'l'AX — RULE V. 169 *S, DONE for DID WROTE for WRITTEN, &C. , nor the WRONG! TENSE, AS, SEE for SAW, GIVE for GAVE ; nor ^PROPER CON- TRACTIONS, as, ain't for are not, &c. Examples to be corrected: — I seen him when he done it. Some one has broke my pencil Tell them (o set still. She laid down by the fire. He soon begun to be weary of the employment. I am going to lay down. Mary has wrote a letter. I see biro when he went. Ain^l it true ? We ain't going this evening. He has dxank too much. The tree has fell. You have not did as I told you. John his stole the knife. They are going to our house next week. He give me a great many books. He knowed. his lesson better than Henry. They had sang very well. I have lain your book on the shelf. Will you sit the pitcher on the table, and let it set there. The ship lays in the harbor. I done my sums first. Rem. 1. — To this rule there are properly no exceptions. The collec- tive noun in the singular may take a plural verb, but never except when the mind sees in it a collection of individuals. Rex 2. — The nominative and verb after many a (an) should be sin- gular ; as, u Full many a flower is born to blush unseen." Rem. 3. — Verbs in the imperative mod'j usually agree with thou, ye, or you, understood. Rule V. An adjective or participle must belong to some noun or pronoun; as, "The guilty man ; " == " The man wa.s guilty" Or, more specifically, — (1.) An adjective or participle used as the attribute of a proposition after the verb to be, or any intransitive or passive verb, belongs to the subject ; as, " The tree is tall." " To see the sun is pleasant." " Where the muds will be obtained is doubtful." (2.) An adjective or participle used to limit or qualify a noun belongs to the noun which it modifies ; as, " An upriy/U judge." " Five boxes." " The good old man." Examples to be analyzed or parsed: — When the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted for joy, where wast thou ? The influence of such pursuits is ennobling. He was a good man, and a just. He was a burning and a shining light. These opportunities, improved as they should be, must produce the desired results. The hopes of the whole family were centred on him. His resources were inexhaustible. To insult the afflicted is impious. Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door. Th;.t ho should refuse such a proposition, was not unexpected. Every thing which is false, vicious, or unworthy, is despicable to him. though all the world should approve it. Construct, analyze, and parse — Five Examples in which a limiting adjective shall modify the subject , five in which a qualifying adjective shall modify the predicate nominative ; five in which a limiting and qualifying adjective shall modify the object of a verb, or preposition ; five in which the qualifying adjective shall, witb the copula, form the predicate ; five in which the adjective shall be in tb# comparative or superlative degree. 15 170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Caution I. Never use the limiting adjective (article) i before the sound of a vowel, nor an before the sound of a con" zimant. Say, An appie, not a apple. Examples to be corrected: — He found a acorn in the woods. He was a honorable man It is m wonderful invention. He is an younger man than we thought. She showed an uniform adherence to truth. This is an hard saying. Caution II. Avoid the use of a plural adjective to limit ,7 singular noun. Say, This sort of people, not those. Examples to be corrected : — I do not like remarks of these kind. Those sort of people are very dis agreeable. Will you buy six pair of boots ? I have bought eight foot of wood. It cost a thousand pound. The lot is fifty foot in width. Th« water is six fathom deep. \\'c walked three mile in a short time. Hi ordered ten ton of coal. Caution III. Never use the pronoun them, for the adjec tive those. Say, Those books, not them books. Examples to be corrected : — I found them books on the table. AVhich of them scholars recites the best ? Go and tell them boys to come here. Ask them children to bring them apples here. Caution IV. Avoid the use of the adjective for the ad- verb. Say, Speak promptly, not prompt. Examples to be corrected : — She dresses neat. The time passed very quick. The ship glides smooth over the water. The stream flows silent on. It is not such a great distance as I thought it was. He behaved much wiser than the others. • Mary speaks French very fluent. I am exceeding sorry to hear such tidings. Caution V. Avoid the use of the superlative degree when two objects are compared, or the comparative when more than two are compared. Examples to be corrected • — He was the larger of them all. He was the oldest of the two brothers. He preferred the latter of the three. Which is the oldest of the tw« ? John is the wisest of the two. Caution VI. Avoid the use of double comparatives and guperlatives. Examples to be corrected : — After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee Thi« was the most uuiundest cut of all. The rose is mostlairest of all flower' SYNTAX RULE V. — REMARKS. 17 1 f e is the most kindest friend I have. Solomon was more wiser thtn any <»ther king. Rem. 1. — The appropriate use cf the adjective is to restrict the appli- cation of a noun used as x common name applicable to each individual of a class. The adjective thus used is always a dependent term, having the restricted noun as its principal. Rem. 2. — A noun may be restricted or limited in its application,— (1.) Without affecting any of its properties ; as, " Tioo men." " These books." (2.) By designating some property or quality ; as, " Good men." " In- (Htstrioas boys." (3.) By identifying it ; as, " Paul the Apostle" " Peter the Hermit." (4.) By representing it as an object possessed; as, "David's harp." The first two limitations are affected by adjectives; the last two vy %ou7is >r pronouns performing the office of the adjectivft. Rem 3. — Any word, or group of words, employed to limit a noun, is aa adjective element, that is, it is of the nature of an adjective ; as, " Indus trious men." " Men of industry." " Men who are industrious." Rem. 4. — Limiting adjectives, when used in connection with qualifying, are generally placed first; as, " The old man." " This valuable hint.*' " Ten small trees." When two limiting adjectives are used, one of which is an article, the latter is usually placed first ; as, " The ten command- ments." But after many, such, all, what, and both the article stands next to the noun ; So also, after adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or Jiow ; as, " Many a man." " Such a man." " All the boys." " What a boy." u Both the girls." " Too great, as great, so great, hoxo great, a man." Rem. 5. — A, or an, belongs to nouns in the singular number. But before few, hundred, or thousand, it seems to belong to a plural noun ; as. '• A few men." " A hundred ships." " A thousand pounds." Rem. 6. — The belongs to nouns, either singular or plural ; as, " Th* man" " The men." Rem. 7. — When two or more qualifying adjectives belong to a noun representing but one object, the limiting adjective should not be repeated ; as, " A red and white flag ; " i. e., one flag having two colors. But when two or more such adjectives belong to a nbun used to represent as many differ- ent objects as there are adjectives employed, the limiting adjective must be repeated , as, " We saw a black, a white, a red, andagray horse ; " i. e., four horses of different colors. Rem. 8. — Adjectives which imply number should agree in number wrth the nouns to which they belong ; as, " All men ; " " Several men." When two numerals precede a noun, one singular and the other plural, the plural should generally be placed next to the noun ; as, "The first fwc lines," not, " The two first lines." In such expressions as, " Five yoke of oxen" " Ten head of cattle," " Fifty sail of vessels," the plural adjective belongs to a noun in the singular. Rem. 9. — When objects are contrasted, that refers to the first, and this to the last mentioned ; as, " Wealth and poverty are both temptations ; that tends to excite pride, this discontent." Hem. 10. — By a peculiar idiom, the is used with comparatives, to de- note proportionate equality and is used adverbially; as, " The more I see it, the better I like it." Rem. 11. — The adjective is often used as a noun, the noun to which it belongs being understood ; as, " The good are respectsd." On the other hand, the noun is often used as an adjective : as. " Gold beads " See fdic matic expressions, p. 193. 1/2 ENGLISH <7 It AM MAR. Rem. 12. — One adjective often limits the complex idea expressed "by toother adjective and a noun ; as, M Two old horses." Rem. 13. — The predicate, adjective or participle, following copulative verbs, generally indicates the manner of the action, while, at the sams time, it denotes some property of the subject; as, "The boy was made sick " " The fruit tastes sweet." " The horse came galloping." Rem. 14. — When two objects, or sets of objects, are compared, the com- parative degree is generally used ; as, " George is taller than William, or io the taller of the two." " Our oranges are sweeper than yours." Rem. 15. — When more than two objects are compared, the superlative degree is used ; as, " Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks." Rem. 16. — When the comparative degree is used, the latter term should r1 wnys exclude the former , as, " New York is larger than any other city ;>f the United States." " He was wiser than his brothers." But when the superlative is used, the latter term should always include the former ; as, " Rhode Island is the smallest of the United States." REM. 17. — Each, one, either, and neither belong to nouns in the third person singular. Hence, when used as nouns, verbs and pronouns should agree wita them accordingly; as, "Each of his brothers is (not are) well." Rem. 18. — An adjective after the participle or infinitive of the copula is sometimes used abstractly, referring, it may be, logically (hut not gram- matically) io some indefinite object ; as, " To be good is to be happy." EsiiirLES to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule V. Good men will be rewarded. William the Conqueror fought at the battle of Has- tings. Shakspeare's Hamlet lias been much admired. Then they, that loved the Lord, spake often one to another. The ten commandments were given by . The old has often been repeated, He gave a thousand for the house. She wore a blue and black silk dress. You may read the two first pages. Hope is as •strong an incentive to action as fear ; this is the anticipation of good, that of evil. Of all other idle habits, idleness is the most . Let each of them be heard in their turn. He is the most of all the rest. Every one of us have our faults. Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same sase; as, "William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the Saxon king" Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. The Emperor Nero whs a cruel tyrant. James, the royal Scottish poet, was Imprisoned in Windsor Castle. In the fifth century, the Franks, a people of Germany, invaded France. Frederic William III., King of Prussia, son of Frederic William II., and Louisa, Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, was born Au- gust 3, 1770. Construct, analyze, and parse — Three Examples in which the noun in apposition shall be in the nominative, modifying the subject ; three in which it shall be in the nominative, modifying the predicate noun ; three in which it shall be in the objectr e, modifying a noun, used as the object of a verb or preposi- tion. Hsm. 1. — The explanatory noun or pronoun must denote the same per- son or thing as that which it identifies. It usually explains by showing the office, rank, rapacity occupation, or chnxacter, of the principal term; as, " Pptev the Hermit. ' ; John the Evangelist." SYNTAX RULE VI. REMARKS. ll'A Rem. 2. — When, for the sake of emphasis, the same name is repeated, It is in apposition with the former ; as, " A horse, a horse ! my kingdom for ft horse." Rem. 3. — When the limiting noun denotes a person, it generally agrees with the limited, in number, gender, and case ; as, " Paul the Apostle.'' Rem. 4. — Two nouns may denote the same person or thing, and even be in the same case, but yet not in apposition. A noun in apposition as< sumes what by the predicate noun is affirmed ; as, " Adam, the first man." "Adam was the first man." Even when two n'uns denoting the same person or thing become the objects of certain transitive (copulative) verbs, they are not properly in apposition. Compare " They called David the psalmist," with " They called David, the psalmist," that is, who was the psalmist. Rem. 5. — A noun or pronoun in the plural may be represented, not by one, but by two or more nouns, which, together, are equivalent to it ; as " The victims a brother and a sister." The reverse of this rule is equal- ly true ; as, " Intemperance, oppression, and fraud, vices of the age." In the case of the reciprocal pronouns, each other, and one another, the first words, each and one, are in apposition with a preceding plural noun or pronoun, or with two or more singular nouns taken conjointly ; as, " The boys struck one an other "= The boys struck — one struck an other; " John and David love each other " s= John and David love — each loves the other. Each and one are in the nominative case, and other is in the objective case. Rem. G. — Two or more proper names, or a title and a proper name, ap- plied to one person, though in apposition, should be taken as one complex noun ; as, " George Washington." " General Gates." Rem. 7. — The proper name of a place, instead of being put in apposi- tion with the common name, is usuauv governed by the preposition of; as, " The city of Home." Rem. 8. — A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence, and sometimes a sentence with a noun ; as, " They devoted then whole time to the promotion of our happiness — attritions which we shall not soon for- get." " The maxim, Enough is as good as a feast, has silenced many a vain wish." Rem. 9. — When possessives are in apposition, the sign of possession ('.v) is commonly used with only one of them ; as, " John the Baptist's head." " His majesty King Henry's crown." Rem. 10. Sometimes as, denoting capacity, rank, or office, intervenes be- tween two nouns, one of which is in apposition with the other ; as, *' The moon as satellite attends." In the example, " I am pleased with my posi- tion as a teacher," teacher seems to be in apposition with the expression my position-, denoting the same person as my, but taking the same case as position* Examples to be parsed and correct d by the Remarks under Rule VI. Company, villaaous company, bath been the spoil of me. Absalom, the of , died in battle. Marcus Tuilius Cicero was a great . I am going to see my mends in the country — they that we visited last summer. Queen Victoria's chil dron are carefully educated. I am pleased with her improvement as a scholar Jonathan and David loved each other. Go ye every man unto his own . Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred. He recovered — a result which was not expected. - He permitted me to make use of his , a kindness which I sh»«l not soon forjret. Rule VII. A noun or pronoun, used to limit another noun by denoting possession, must be in the possessive case 174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. us, " Stephen* * courage failed." u Their fortune was am- ple." " Wtiose work is this ? " Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The joy of his youth was great. Rotha's bay received the ship. Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace. A mother's tenderness, and a father's care, are nature's gifts for man's advantage. A chieftain's daughter seemed the majd. Yet my last thought is England's. She etooped her by the runnel's side. Hushed were his Gertrude's lips. Our harps we left by Babel's streams. Construct, analyze, and parse — Twenty Examples in which a possessive noun, o pronoun, shall limit the subject, the predicate, a noun in apposition, or a noun in the objec- tive after a transitive verb or preposition. Caution I. In writing nouns in the possessive, never omit the possessive termination. Write man's, not mans. Examples to be corrected : — On Lindens hills of blood-stained snow. It was the grand sultans pal ace. The nations hopes were blasted. Next Mars, Piazzis orb is seen., It is against the laws of Plutos empire. His brothers offence is not his. Midst glorys glance, and victorys thunder-shout. The mans story was false. If of Drydens fire the blaze is brighter, of Popes the heat is mere regular and constant. Caution II. In using pronouns in the possessive, never insert the apostrophe, nor add the letter n. Write theirs not their 's. Say his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, not hisn, hem, ourn, yourn, theirn. Examples to be corrected : — This book is your's. I listened to it's song. The slate is hisn. This map is their's. This knife is mine, and not yourn. That handkerchief is hern. These sheep are ourn. Will you drive yourn out of the pasture ? Our's is a pleasant task. Caution III. Never make the limited noun plural because the possessive is plural. Say " their decision." not their decisions, one only being meant. Examples to be corrected: — I will do it for your sakes. "We intend, for our parts, to follow his ad rice. Their healths have improved. We will submit to our lots. It was not worth their whiles to remain so long in port. Rem. 1. — The relation of the possessive is one of dependence. There must, therefore, always be (expressed or understood) the name of the ob- ject possessed on which the possessive term depends. This dependence may be shown either by a change of termination or by a preposition ; a», 4 My fattier 's house " = The h mse of my father " The kinc's court " =» SYNTAX — HULE VIII. 175 The court of the king. The possessive term always limits a noun, and nence it performs the function of an adjective, and in analyzing may be reckoned as an adjective element. Rem. 2. — The limited noun is often understood; as, "This pen is Mary's [pen]."' " We worship at St. Paul's [church]." " This is a book of my brother's [books]." " Mine [that is, my task] is a pleasant task." \fter mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, the limited noun is always understood. Hem. 3. — When two or more words are used to designate one object, ne possessive sign is affixed to the last; as, M General George Washing- ton's administration." The sign of the possessive belongs to the group, ind is sometimes applied when the last word is the object of a preposition ; *s, "■ The King of England's death." Here England is in the objective after of Rem 1. — When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected coordinately ; first, if they imply the possession of one object in common, the sign is applied only to' the last ; as, " Little and Broicn's store; " but, secondly, if they imply the possession of different objects, though of the s une name, the possessive sign should be applied to each ; as, " I have an Emerson's and a Greenleafs Arithmetic" Rem. 5. — The limited word is often a participial noun; as, "I am in favor of his bringing the dispute to a speedy close." Rem. 6. — Sometimes the possessive sign is annexed to an adjective used as a noun ; as " This is the wretched's only plea." Examples to be parsed and corrected by the Remarks under Rule VII. He is at the governor's. The Representatives House convened to-day. I assure you it is theirs. General Franklin Pierce's administration commenced on the fourth of Match, 1853. John and James's letters have been received. Day and Martin's black mg is celebrated. Lady, be thine the Christian's walk. Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective case ; as, " He found the object which he desired." Examples to be parsed: — Ambition makes the same mistake concerning power that avarice makes concerning wealth. If you have performed an act of great and disinter- ested virtue, conceal it. Imperial Rome governed the bodies of men, but did no '; extend her empire farther. In former times, patriots prided themselves on their own poverty, and the riches of the state. He endeavored to in- culcate right principles. He sought to follow the example of the good. They say that they have bought it. The truly great consider, first, how they may gain the approbation of God. He inquired, " Who comes there ? " Construct, analyze, and parse — Five Examples in which a noun, five in which a personal pronoun, five in which a relative pronoun, and Jive in which an interrogative pro- loun, shall be the object of a transitive verb ; also Jive in which two objects jhall limit either of the verbs in Rem. 9 or 12. Caution I. Never use. the nominative as the object of a transitive verb. Say, WJmm did he visit ? not who t-lQ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Examples to be corrected : — Who did yox. xce yesterday ? Who did \ie marry ? They that help us wt should reward. He who committed the o 'fence thou shouldst punish not I, who am innocent. Who should 1 find but my cousin r Will you let him and I sit together ? I did not know who to seiid. Rem. 1. — When a noun or pronoun is used to complete the meaning of a transitive verb, without the aid of a preposition expressed or under- stood, it is called the direct object ; but when it is added to a verb, either transitive or intransitive, to show that to or for which anything is, or in done, or that from which any thing proceeds, it is called the indirect ob- ject ■ as, " Ellen gave an apple to her brother." Rem. 2. — When an indirect object precedes the direct, the prepesitioa snould be omitted ; when it follows, it should be expressed as, " I lent him a book " = I lent a book to him. Rem, 3. — The indirect object is sometimes used alone witn intransitive verbs, sometimes with an adjective, and in a few instances with a noun; as, " He spoke of his trials. " To me this rule is obvious." " To the hero 8va* was a proud day." Rem. 4. — The object of a transitive verb may be an infinitive, or a sub- stantive clause ; as, " I love to write." " 1 have heard that he was sick." Rem. 5. — When a substantive clause is governed by the verb say, or its equivalent, — (1.) It is said to be quoted directly (oratio directa) when it expresses the thought of another in his own words ; as, " He said, I will go." (2.) It is said to be quoted indirectly (oratio obliqua) when it expresses the thought of another in the speaker's words ; as, " He said that he would go." Rem. 6. — Some intransitive verbs arc folloAved by an object of kindred signification ; as, " He ran a race." " She dreamed a dream." Rem. 7. — The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the {>assive ; as, "Pwomulus founded Rome" .- Rome was founded by Romu- us. Rem. 8. — To avoid ambiguity, the object should be placed after the verb, especially when the subject and object are both nouns ; as, " Alex- ander conquered Darius," not, " Alexander Darius conquered ; " but when the subject or object is a pronoun, the form usually determines the rela- tion ; as, " Him followed his next mate." Rem. 9. — The following verbs, make, appoint, elect, create, constitute, render, name, style, call, esteem, think, consider, regard, reckon, and some others, not only take after them a direct object, but predicate of it another object, which may, therefore, be called its attribute. The attributive object may be either a noun, an adjective, or a verb. " They made him an officer." " They made him sick." " They made him labor." Though it is evi- dent that the attributive object, when a noun, denotes the same per- son or thing as the first, it is by no means in apposition with it In the case of apposition, the principal noun completes the meaning of the verb, and the second limits the first; as, "They called Miles, the carpen- ter" But in the case of two objects, (the object and its attribute,) Doth are necessary to complete the meaning of the verb ; as, " They called Mites a carpenter" In one case, the second noun has no grammatical relation to the verb ; in the other, it is directly related, both to the verb and to the first noun. In the first example, " carpenter " should be parsed as a noun in the objective, put in apposition with the first, by Rule VI. In the sec- ond examph? "carpenter" should be parsed as a "noun in the objective SYNTAX RULE IX. ADVERBS. 177 forming, in connection with " Miles" the object of '' called" being also an attribute to the first object. In a similar way, parse "sick," and ' labor," 'in the above examples ; or one may be called tbe first) or principal, and the otber the attributive object of the verb. Hem. 10. — This construction, in many instances, may be traced to an abridged proposition in which the infinitive has been dropped ; as, " They considered him a poet" that is, to be a poet. In fact, the infinitive of the copula is often expressed, the first object representing, in the objective, what was the subject nominative ; the second, in like manner, what was the predicate nominative before the proposition Avas abridged ; as, " I knew that he was a scholar." " I knew him to be a scholar." In such cases the infinitive and second noun form the attributive object of the verb, the second noun being in the objective after " to be." Rem. 11. — The infinitive of any verb may be the second or attributive object; the first object being its subject, and the two together forming a kind of abridged proposition; as, "They ordered the soldiers to march." " They ordered that the soldiers shoidd march." Rem. 12. — The following verbs, buy, sell, play, sing, get, lend, draw), send, make, pass, write, pour, give, teach, leave, bring, tell, do, present, throw, carry, ask, shoio, order, promise, refuse, deny, provide, and some others, take after them, besides a direct object, an indirect object, showing to or from what the action tends ; as, " Give me a book." Rem. 13. — The indirect object is generally said to be governed by a preposition understood. Rem. 14. — When any of the above verbs assume the passive form, the direct object generally (though not always) becomes the subject; as, "A book was given me." The indirect object sometimes becomes the subject ; as, "He was asked his opinion." "I was taught grammar." Ojnnion and gra?nmar are in the objective case after a passive verb. Rem. 15. — Instead of a single word, or an infinitive, a substantive clause may become one of the objects ; as, " He informed me that the boat had sailed." Exercises to be parsed or corrected by thr. Remarks urtler Rule VIII. Practice will make her a ready writer. Yet your mistrust cannot make me a trai- tor. Give that ring to me. He spoke of the diligent efforts which lie had made. Let the end try the man. Joseph dreamed a droam. Then call we this the field of Agiu- court. Darius Crcesus conquered. 1 will glVe them an everlasting name. Thou shalt make his soul an offering for sin. But I exhort them to consider the Faerie Queen as the most precious jewel of their coronet. They denied me this privilege. I was denied this privilege. He was paid the money. You were paid a high com- pliment. He said, " If I tell you the truth, ye will not believe me." He said that he preferred to take a different course. I prayed that God would give him strength- Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, particij les, adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, " Lightning moves sxoiftljj."' Examples to be analyzed and parsed — You both are truly welcome. Speak softly, for a breath might wake her. Yet we may strongly trust his skill. How heavily her fate must weigh her down ! Freely to give reproof, and thankfully to receive it, is an indis- pensable condition of true friendship ! How happy they who wake no more . How soon man's earthly enjoyments pass away ! How easily are men diverted from a good cause ! Construct, analyze, and jmrsc — Examples in which a verb adjectm or an adverb shall be limited ot ITS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. tdvcrbs, four denoting time, four, place, four, manner, four, nega riOX, 6t DEGREE. Caution I. Two negatives should never be employed to express a negation ; as, " I have no book," not, " I haven't no book " Examples to be corrected, : — I will not take that course by no means. I did not like neither his prin- ciples nor his practice. I cannot write no more. Nothing never can justi- fy such conduct. He will never be no better. Neither he nor no one else behoves the story. I never go nowheres. I am resolved not to trust him, Deither now, nor any other time. Nj one knows neither the causes nor the effects of such influences. Caution IT. Avoid the use of an adverb when the quality of an object, and not the manner of an action, is to be ex pressed ; as, " The apple tastes siveet,'''' not sweetly. Examples to be corrected : — His expressions sounded harshly. Satin feels very smoothly. Give him a s-)on and decisive answer. Such incidents are of seldom occurrence. The then emperor issued a decree. Did he arrive safely ? She seemed beautifully. Caution III. Avoid the use of no to express negation, with a verb or participle ; as, " I shall not change my course of action, whether you do or not," not no. Examples to be corrected : — Know now whether this be thy son's coat, or no. Tell me whethei 1 shall do it, or no. I will ascertain if it is true, or no. Caution IV. Never use now before that, or instead of it ; as, " He said that he should come," not how he should come. EXAMPLES to be corrected : — He said how he believed it. She told me now that she would come if %hc could. He remarked how time was valuable. Rem. 1. — Some adverbs, instead of modifying any particular word, are either independent, or are used to modify an entire proposition; as, yes, »w, nay, amen, likewise truly, etc. " Will you go ? Yes." " Tridy, God is good to Israel." Rem. 2. — Anv word or group of words performing the office of an ai verb is called an adverbial element or expression. If it be a group of words, it should first be disposed of as an adverb, and then resolved intl its component parts. See Analysis. Rkm. 3. — An adverb or adverbial expression should be placed so neai the word which it limits as to make its relation obvious ; yet no element of the sentence can be so easily transposed without causing ambiguity aa SYNTAX — IU?LE X. 179 the adverbial. It may be placed at the beginning, m the middle, or at the end of the sentence ; as, " He carefully examined the document " = Care- fully did lie examine the document. lie examined the document carefully . Rem. 4. — Adverbs are used sometimes to limit the meaning of a prep- osition, sometimes a phrase ; as, " He held his hand exactly over the place." " We were absent almost a year." Rem. 5. — Adverbs are themselves sometimes modified by phrases, or clauses ; as, " He left four years afterward*." " He came rome time ago" " He run faster than his brother.' - ' Rem. 6. — Conjunctive abverbs are complex words usually modifying two words, and at the same time joining an adverbial clause to the word on which it depends ; as, " We shall be present when the boat arrives " = We shall be present at the time at, or in which, the boat arrives. Here, when modifies present, instead of at the time, and arrives, instead of in which. It also connects " the boat arrives " to present. Examples to be parsed by the Remarlcs under Rule IX. Did ye not lieat it? No. Tie remained where (lie days of his ywuth were passed. He arose before the sun. Tlie stream flowed silently on. Tliey will be absent almost three years. It is impossible continually to be at work. He beard the news some time rum. And the rest will I set in order when I come. Verily I say unto you, Remember thy Creator in the days ot'tliy youth. Rule X. The nominative case independent and the in- terjection have no grammatical relation to the other parts of the sentence. Five cases occur in which a noun or pronoun may be independent or absolute. It may be so — (1.) By direct address ; as, " Plato, t.vou reasonest well." (2.) By mere exclamation ; as, " my misfortune!" (3.) By pleonasm, or when the attention is drawn to an object before any thing is said of it ; as, " Harry's flesh, it fell away." " Gad, a troop shall overcome him." (4.) When in connection with a participle, it is equivalent to a proposi- tion, of which it was the subject befopc the former was abridged ; as, " He having a**-'*^, we returned." (5.) When, in an abridged proposition, it follows the infinitive or parti- ciple of the copula, and is uncontrolled by a preceding noun ; as, "I waa not aware of his being a scholar." " To be a scholar requires industry and perseverance." Examples to be analyzed arid parsed : — Fair daffodils ! we weep to see you haste away so soon. Odayrrost calm k most bright ! the fruit of this, the next world's bud ! the week were dark but for this light. The pilgrim fathers, where are they ? He having given us the direction, we departed. I was not aware of his being the preacher O the times ! O the manners ! Ah, father ! these are wondrous words The savage rocks have drunk thy blood, my brother ! Construct, analyze, and parse — FIVE Examples containing an interjection, and two for each of the five cases of nominative absolute, or independent. Rem. I. — In the ast two cases, though the noun is absolute, the group 180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. if words to which it belongs, including the participle or infinitive, ha* •orne connection with the rest of the sentence. Rem. 2. — In ease of the nominative absolute, that is, the nominative preceding a participle, sometimes the noun or pronoun is understood, and sometimes the participle ; as, " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as cold; " that is, toe, or one, speaking properly. " This done, and all is safe; " that is, being done. " This matter at an end, we will proceed; ' ksing at an end Rem. 3. — Both of the last two cases result from abridging a dependent clause. The abridged construction may usually be resumed to a corj&p.ete proposition. Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule X. Whose gray top shall tremble, Aim descending. And me, what shall do? IViis done, and wo are sure of success. The prophets, do they live forever? This Blatter finished, we will proceed. There all thy gifts and graces we display, toe, siily thee, directing all our way. These matters arranged, the company separated. Fair pledges of a fruitful tree, why do ye fall so fast? Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect similar elements ; as, " Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were Jewish patriarchs." Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — Mrs. Unwin and Lady Hesketh were friends of Cowper. Clouds and darkness are round about him, righteousness and judgment are the habita- tion of his throne. They were united by ties of friendship and of kindred. I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the barbarians. Construct, analyze, and parse — Ten Examples in which either of the different kinds of coordinate con- junctions, connect only elements; ten in which they connect clauses. Caution I. In a series of coordinate terms, unless great emphasis is required, never use the conjunction, except between the last two. Examples to be corrected : — They confess the power, and wisdom, and love, and goodness of their Creator. John, and James, and Henry, and Charles will return this even i/ig. His conduct was unkind, and unjust, and unmerciful. Caution II. Avoid dissimilar and disproportionate coordinate terms. Examples to be corrected : — He neither came nor was sent for. We pervert the noble faculty of speech when we use it to the defaming, or to disquiet our neighbors. We hope that we shall hear from him, and that he has returned. I always have, and I always shall be of this opinion. The work was executed with rapidity ar.d promptly. 1* is a region distinguished by many charming SYNTAX — RULE III. — REMARKS. 181 rarieties of rural scenery, and which may le termed the Arcsiia of Soot land. Rule XIL When a verb or pronoun relates to two or ir.cre nouns connected oy c coordinate conjunction, — (1.) If it agrees with them token conjointly, it must be in the plural number. (2 ) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it mi 5 ** be of the same number as that which stands next to it. (3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take the number of that one. EXAMPLES. " Charles and his sister were absent, but they were sent for." " Charles or his sister was absent." " Charles or his sisters were absent." " Charles, and not his sister, was absent." Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — Where was it when winds and clouds were its only visitors, and where the sun and blue heaven by day, and the moon and stars by night, alone looked down and beheld it, the same as they behold it now ? " One day the poor woman and her idiot boy were missed from the market-place. Neith- er his vote, his influence, nor his purse, was ever withheld from the cause in which he had engaged. Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved. Whether one person or more were concerned in the business does not appear. Construct, analyze, and parse — Four Examples in which a plural verb must agree with two singular nominatives, four in which a pronoun in the singular shall relate to two or more singular nouns. Rem. 1. — In the following cases, nouns in the singular seem to be taken conjointly, and yet the verb and pronoun should be singular : — (1.) When the coordinate nouns denote the same person in different ca- pacities; as, "This great statesman and orator died lamented by all Aw friends." (2.) When the coordinate nouns are considered separately, by means of such limiting words as each, every, ox no; as, "Each d?.y and each hour brinys its own duties and trials." " Every apple and every pear teas take U from its place." " No book and tio slate should be left out of its place.' 1 (3.) When the coordinate nouns are distinguished with emphasis by means of not, only, too, as toell as, or when there is an emphatic enumera- tion of individuals ; as, " George, and not James, is at his task." " Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake." " The man, and ids servant too, was rewarded." " The father, as well as his son, uxu in fault." " Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory." (4.) When the coordinate nouns are regarded by the mind as represent- ing one thing ; as, " Bread and milk is excellent food for children." " Th» borse and chaise is in its place." Rem. 2. — The Rule and Rem. 1 have reference only to the number of 16 -82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the verb and pronoun. It often happens that the coordinate words aie of different persons. When the coordinate parts are of different persons, tlio verb or pronoun agrees with the first rather than the second, and with tkt second rather than the third ; as, " Thou and thy sons Avith thee (that is, ye) shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood." "John, thou and / (that is, loe) are attached to our country." Rem 3. — When the coordinate parts are each singular, and of different genders, several cases may arise : — (1.) Ihe verb may relate to them conjointly, while the pronoun may relate to but one; as, "James and his sister tcere destroying her bonnet" u James and his sister were destroying his cap." (2.) Tne pronoun may relate to them taken conjointly, while the wrl relates to them taken separately ; as, " James or his sister lias destroyed their dictionary," the dictionary being theirs by a joint ownership. (3.) When the pronoun has a common reference to both coordinate nouns taken conjointly, the gender cannot be distinguished by the pro- noun, since the latter is plural, and consequently has, in English, the same form for all genders. (4.) When the pronoun refers to two or more coordinate nouns taken separately, there is no personal pronoun, in English, applicable to each, and there is an inherent difficulty in constructing the expression properly ; as, " John or Ellen has lost his or her pencil." To use his alone or her alone would reveal the ownership, which is supposed to be unknown. Hence it does not avail to say that the masculine is preferred to the feminine, and the feminine^to the neuter ; for either would become explicit, as in case (1.) To avoid this difficulty, it is best to recast the sentence, or so construct it aa to escape 'such a dilemma. Yet, contrary to the general rule, frequent instances occur in which the pronoun, in such cases, is put in the plural, and thus the gender is concealed; as, "Then shalt thou bring forth that man or that woman unto thy gates, and shalt stone them with" stones, till they shall die." Rem. 4. — When each of the coordinate parts is denoted by the same word, and that a singular noun referring to different objects, and each, ex- cept the last, is understood — being represented by some modifying word, the agreement of the verb or pronoun follows the general rule ; as, " A Webster's, a Worcester's, and a Richardson's dictionary were consulted ; " that is, three dictionaries. " A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor man wei'e assembled in one room." Examples to be parsed and corrected by Remarks under Rule XII. T iris philosopher and poet was banished from his country. Every limb and every appears with their respective grace. Ambition, and' not the safety of the state, toere concerned. Bread and cheese is good for a luncheon. Then I, and you, smi all of us fell down, whilst bloody treason flourished over us. John and Mary at* taking care of her garden. Charles and Ellen are learning their lessons. Neither be r..ir I am capable of it. Wayland's and Upham's Moral Philosophy was consulted. if efined, educated, and people present. Has not sloth, or pride, or ill t«-»;per, or sinful passion misled you from the path of sound and wise conduct? ltut,S XI11. A preposition is used to show the relation of its object to the word on which the latter depends ; as 11 George went into the garden" " A life of virtue is a life of happiness." Examples to be analyzed and parsed: — ■ cail to you with all my voice. From end tc end, from cliff to lake, 'twat &YNTAX RULE XIV. 183 free. Her tears were now flowing -without control. She is like seine ten- der tree, the pride and beauty of the grove — graceful in its form bright in its foliage, but with the worm preying at its heart. Construct, analyze, and 'parse — Five Examples in which the preposition and object shall limit a noun; five in which the phrase shall limit a verb, and five in which it shall limit an adjective or adverb. Rem. 1. — The noun or pronoun following the preposition is always de- pendent on some term, usually a preceding one, and the preposition is used to shore that dependence. Properly speaking, the objective is not the object of the preposition, but of the preceding term. In the case of the transitive verb, there are two terms, the verb itself and the objective, and the relation be- tween them is closer, if possible, than between those in which the preposi- tion is used ; the objective is not called the object of that relation, but rather of the antecedent term, the verb. Yet custom makes the noun the object of the preposition. Rem. 2. — Sometimes the antecedent term is omitted, and sometimes the subsequent ; as, " In a word, he is ruined " — To express all in a word, &c. He looked arottnd [him.] When the object is understood, the prep- osition is usually parsed as an adverb. For, used before an infinitive and its objective subject, when the group is taken as the subject of a proposi- tion, has no antecedent, term; as, '* F(tr him to lie is base." The Lj of the infinitive, when both together constitute the subject, represents no re- lation to an antecedent term ; as, " To lie is base." Rem. 3. — Between and betwixt refer to two objects ; among jpiAanwnqsi to more than two; as, " He walked between the trees," (two trees.) "He walked among the trees," (many trees.) Rem. 4. — ("are should be observed to employ the proper preposition to show the relation intended. The proper use of the prepositions is best learned from a careful observation of the custom of good writers. Exercises to he parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Ride XIII. He was well known to all tlie country round* In vain lie tried every remedy. For him to take such a course was not unexpected. Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear. I am disappointed 0/ the work. The story is founded in facts. I left my hooks to home. I entertain no prejudice to him. That was agreeable with his principles. They resided at Italy. There is eternal war between me and thee Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a preposition must be in the objective case ; as, u The ruins of the Parthenon stand upon the A'cropolU in the city of AtliensP Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — A similar improvement may be made of the memory of our good deeds What ground of hope is there so sure to his spirit, next to the mercy of his Gcd, and the intercession of Christ, his Savior ? It was not long be fore he returned with his man, whom he introduced to me as a person of exceeding honesty ; and we went into the yard all together. Construct, analyze, and parse — (1 ) Examples in which of, or any other preposition with a noun, shall describe another noun. (2.) Examples in which in, at, during, since, about, after, bqfore. ifr4 El GLISH GRAMMAR. between, oy, ere, from, till, to, and toward, with a noun, shall denote the time of an action, or answer the question When? How longt or Hoio often f (3.) Examples in which aboard, about, above, across, against, along, amidst, among, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside,, beticeen, beyond, by, down, from, in, into, on, out of, over, round, through. throughout, to, toioard, under, underneath, up, upon, with a noun, t-:hall denote the place of an action, or answer the question Where ? (4.) Examples in which from, for, by, out of, with a noun, shall dtr.ote tho cause, source, or origin of an act, answering the question Why f On what account 1 or From what source t (5.) Examples in which loith, without, in, on, by, within, with a noun, shall shoAV the manner of an action, or answer the question How f Rem. 1. — The preposition is omitted, or rather seldom, if ever, used, before nouns denoting time, measure, distance, value, or after the words like, near, nigh, worth; as, "The wall is six feet high." "We walked t.venty miles that day" " He helped a worthy man, and is not a penny poorer." " He is like [to] his father." " They live near [to] the city.* "We came nigh [toj the gale." "The book is worth a dollar." The word worth is by some called a preposition ; but it can be predicated of a noun, like an adjective, and it can be qualified by an adverb ; as, " The matter is well worth your attention." True, it is not easy to supply a prep- osition after it, nor is it after high or revolves in the following examples : " The house is forty feet high." " The wheel revolves ninety times in a minute." Rem. 2. — Prepositions are sometimes followed by adjectives or adverbs, an object in some cases being understood; as, "In vain" = In a vain manner, on high, in secret, at first, at once, from thence, from above, till noiv, forever, till lately, &c. Rem. 3. — Than before whom seems to perform the office of a preposi- tion; as, " Than whom none higher sat." This construction is rare in modern usage, and should be avoided as anomalous. Exercises to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule XIV. We walked a great distance this morning. The child is like his mother. Pray to thy Father, which is in secret. Tliey could not be convinced at first. That has never occurred until recently. It was worth the money. Near yonder copse, the village preacher's modest mansion rose. I was resolved, at least, to know my let ters. He came from afar. He lived in the country, near the city. RtjLE XV. Subordinate connectives are used to join dis- similar elements ; as, " He that hath pity on the poor lend* eth to the Lord." Examples to be analyzed and parsed : — We have brought nothing into this world ; therefore we shall take nothing out. While there is life, there is hope. However friendly he might ap- pear, his heart was full of anger. Herod wished to know where the' star had appeared. Whether the moon has an atmosphere has not been ascer- tained. He that plants trees loves others beside himself. What comes from the heart goes to the heart. Time will bring to light whatever is hidden. The more we serve God, the better we serve ourselves. As far as the eye could see, all was ruin and desolation. Work as long as you can. The more one has. the more he requires. Revenge always costs more than it is worth. That you may be loved, be deserving of love. If you would thrive, you must rise at five. ST* TAX — ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 18& Construct, an aly ze, and parse — Five Examples in which who, which, and that shall join an adjective ■lausc to the subject ; five in which they shall join the clause to the cnject of a verb or preposition ; five in which they shall join the clause to the predicate nominative. Five Examples in which who, or whoex^er, shall connect an adjective chaise to some indefinite subject or object (he or any one) understood. Five Examples in which what, which, whatever ; whichever, whatsoever, whichsoever, shall first limit, as an adjective, a. definite noun expressed, and then connect to it an adjective clause ; five in* which they shall limit cr represent an indefinite noun (thing) understood. Tex Examples in which that, whether, when, why, where, how, who, which, what, introduce substantive clauses used as the subject ; (see Rem. 1 ;) ten in which they are used as an object of a transitive verb. Tex Examples in which where, whither, whence, wherever, whitherso- ever, as far as, as long as, farther than, shall connect an adverbial clause of place to a verb or adjective. Fifteex Examples in which when, while, whilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until, since, whenever, as long as, as soon as, the moment, the instant shall connect adverbial clauses denoting time to a verb or adjective. Examples for each of the following catisai connectives : because, for, Q3. whereas, since ; (conditional,) if, though, except, provided that; (pur- pose,) that, that not, lest ; (adversative, ) though, although, notwithstand- ing, however, while, and as, (with an adjective — " Hard as it was") Examples for each of the following, denoting manner : (correspondence,) as, just — OS, so — as ; (consequence,) so — that, such — that ; (comparison of equality,) as — as ; (comparison of inequality,) than, more — than less — than; (proportionate equality,) the — the, the more — the more, or the less. Rem. 1. — That, whether, or the various interrogatives when, where, &c, when used to introduce a substantive clause employed as the subject of a proposition, do not connect the clause to an antecedent term, since the subject can be subordinate to no other part of the proposition. These connectives thus used serve to convert a principal proposition into a sub- ordinate substantive proposition which, like any other noun, may be used as the subject. Rem. 2. — In many cases the subordinate connective has a correspond- ing word in the principal clause called the correlative ; as, " Then— when, there — where, if — then, though — yet, so — that, so — as, as — as, the, this, that, these, those — who, that] or which. Rem. 3. — The subordinate connective alway? unites the clause which it introduces to the word which the clause limit: ; as, "I perceive that you need assistance." Rem. 4. — Subordinate connectives are a kind of proposition placed be- fore a sentence which is to be converted into a no\m, adjective, or adverb Hence their piosition is almost invariably at the head of the clause. ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. A proposition is said to be abridged when its predicate is changed to an infinitive or to a participle, the former partak* 16 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. mg of the i-ature of a noun, the latter parte King of the nature of an adjective ; as, " The light shines." " The light to shine" or " for the light to shine." M The light shining" or u having shined '' A complex sentence may be reduced to a simple, or a contract ed complex sentence, by abridging its subordinate clause ; as, • A man who perseveres will prosper " — A persevering man will prosper. " When we entered the city, we found all in commotion w rr On entering the city, we found all in com- motion. " I knew he was an honest man " = 1 knew him to be an honest man. Rem. — The connective of the subordinate clause is dropped ; as, " 1 thought that he was alone " — I thought him alone. But in such ex- amples as, " I know not what to do ; whom to send — which to leave — where to go — when to stop — how to begin, the connective is not dropped, since it contains something material to the sense, not previously expressed. See page 104, Rem. 2. The infinitive is commonly employed in abridging a sub- stantive clause, and the participle in abridging the adjective or adverbial clause. When the predicate consists of the copula and attribute, the infinitive or participle of the copula indicates the abridg- ment ; and the attribute remains unchanged, unless some- thing in the dependence of the abridged expression causes a change. EXERCISE. Abridge the dependent clauses in the following complex sentences : — Vapors rise, because they are light. If wishes were horses, beggars would ride. If we subdue not our passions, they will subdue us. That fine feathers make fine birds, we can see every day. Therein consists our true merit, that we fulfil our duties. Our own conscience will tell us whether our actions are right. Those who play with edge tools must ex- pect to be cut. He should have silver on his tongue whose purse is «mpty. When we shall die is kindly concealed from us. The sluggard knows not how sweet is repose after labor. Whom we love we also esteem. Superstitious persons imagine that there are ghosts. Never expect other* will always do what they promise. SYNTAX RULE XVI. 187 THE SUBJECT IN THE ABRIDGED EXPRESSION. I. The subject of the dependent proposition is retained m the abridged expression, when it has not been expressed in the principal clause, — (1.) In the nominative absolute, (see Rule X.;) as, " When the party arrived, the dinner was prepared " = The parti/ having arrived, the dinner Was prepared. (2.) In the possessive limiting the abridged predicate used as a noun; •s, "I was not aware that David had come " = I was not aware of D you think of his writing a letter — his being a writer ? " Foi this last, see I. 3, above. EXERCISE ON THE PARTICIPLE. A far more interesting personage in their mythology was the god of the air. It is doing injustice to the heroic war god of antiqtiity to identify him with this monster. We expect the dancing master to teach, our chil- dren " manners," as well as the act of cutting awkward capers to music Why is the experiment of an extended republic to be rejected ? He came near being devoured by a panther. These islanders are far from being cannibals. The ease is well worth considering. They came upon him with- out his being apprised of their approach. The urchin's becoming so re- spectable a man surprised every one. The gentleman's reputation as a scholar was the cause of his being appointed professor of rhetoric. They narrowly escaped being taken prisoners. Being convinced of his guilt, we resolved to punish him. We descried a vessel stripped of its masts. Having declined the proposal, I determined on a course suited to my own taste. They have said, Come, and let us cut them off from being a nation. He had been there but a short time, before the old man alighted from his gig, with the apparent intention of becoming his guest. Such persons commence by being their own masters, and finish by being their own slaves. He had just been reading a book called the "Young Alan's Guide." I cannot understand adding three columns at once. On our arriving at the pier, all was commotion. PECULIARITIES AND IDIOMS. I. IN THE CLASSIFICATION, USES, AND PROPERTIES OE WORDS AND SENTENCES. A.. The same Word as different Parts of Speech. What is (L) An interrogative pronoun ; as, " What do you see ? " (2.) A compound relative ; as, " He received what he wanted " (3.) An interjection; as, " What! have you come ? " (4.) A limiting adjective; as, "He gave me what books I needed." • (5.) An adverb; as, "The enemy having his country wasted, what (partly) by himself, and what (partly) by the sol diers, findeth succor in no place." *HAT I« (1.) A subordinate conjunction ; as, " I know that he is faith ful." (2.) A relative pronoun ; as, " An idler is a watch that ^which , wants both hands." (3.) A limiting adjective ; as, " That book is soiled." Afi ib (1.) Part of a compound pi'eposition ; as, 'Ms to that, said tht pendulum.' (2). \ subordinate vnnective, when it denotes, — 192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (a.) Manner ; as, " Speak as you think." (b.) Comparison of equality ; as, " He is as large as hia brother." (c.) Time ; as, " I arrived as (when) he was taking hiu leave." {d.) Cause or reason ; as, " As (since) a youth was theij leader, what could they do ? " (e.) Correspondence ; as, " As the door tunieth on hi hinges, so doth the slothful man upon his bed.'' Non — Besides the above Uhes, it takes the place of the relative pronoun (thoi gh never properly a relative) after such, same, and many; as, " Such as I have, gi\e 1 tusto thee." (3.) A mere index of apposition, or of a peculiar relation of some property to its object; as, " The moon as satellite attends." " They regarded him as innocent." BUT 18 (1.) A coordinate conjunction; as, " He is not sick, but faint* (2.) A preposition ; as, " They gave him all but (except) one.'" (3.) An adverb; as, " We saw him but (only) twice." Much is (1.) A noun ; as, " Where tnuchis given, much is required." (2.) An adjective ; as, " Much ado is made." (3.) An adverb ; as, " I was much pleased with the visit." Fob is (1.) A subordinate connective ; as, " The battle ceased along tho plain, for the bard had sung the song of peace." (2.) A preposition ; as, "The soldier fought for glory." Note. — The same is true of after, before, since, till, until, &c. When is (1.) An interrogative adverb; as, " When did you arrive ? " (2.) A subordinate connective ; as, " When sinners entice thee, consent thou not." Note. — The same is true of all the interrogatives ; as, where, why, how, &c, &.& EXERCISE. Parse the following words : — What ! have you but one book for me ? I knew that that was the tree that was girdled. As yoti have what you will need for the present, I shall give much of what remains to your sister as a reward. All but three of these rivers are navigable ; but you must recollect I shall tell you this but once ; for it is unpleasant to repeat. "B. The same Part of Speech in Different Rela- tions and Uses. I . The noun may be used, — (a.) As a noun. (1.) In the nominative as subject ; as, " Kings reign." (2.^ In the nominative as attribute ; as, " He is a pupil." 6FNTAX — SAME PART OF SPEECH. 193 (3.) In the nominative in apposition; as, " George the king reigned." (4.) In the nominative independent ; as, " 0, George, the king." (5.) In the possessive always as a modifier; as, " David's harp." (8.) In the objective as subject of an infinitive ; as, " I told John to go." (7.) In the objective as attribute after an infinitive ; as, " I took it to be John." (8.) In the objective after a transitive verb ; as, " He writes Otters." (9.) In the objective after a preposition; as, " He sits upon a sofa.'* (10) In the objective in apposition; as, "They visited John the printer." r;3.) As an adjective, or adjectively. (1.) Without a preposition; as, " A ^o/d pencil." " A safety lamp." Note — Nouns thus used should be called adjectives, [n many languages they undergo some change of termination, and in some instances in our own; as, " A brazen gate." But we say, " A brass kettle." So, " A golden censer/' hut never *' A gulden watch." See " Idiomatic Constructions." (2.) With a preposition ; as, " A man of wisdom " = A wise man. \c.) As an adverb, or adverbially. (1.) Without a preposition; as, " He did it four times a day." Note. — In such constructions, it is customary, hut scarcely necessary, to suppose o preposition understood. (2.) With a preposition ; as, " He labored with assiduity. 2, The pronoun may be used, — (a.) The personal in all resjjects like the noun. (b.) The relative and interrogative the same, with the excep- tion that they can never be used in apposition, and the relative sti- dom, if ever, as predicate nominative. ££, The adjective may be used, — (a.) As an adjective. \ (1.) To limit or qualify a noun ; as, " Good men." (2.) To denote a predicated quality ; as, " He is ivise." (b.) As a noun. (1.) Wholly as a noun, {a.) When it is taken abstractly ; as, " Good- ness," " Virtue; " (b.) When it receives the plural ending ; &b, " The blacks are abused." (2.) To stand as a noun, when the latter represents some indefinite person or thing; as, "The wicked.' "The good." "The true." f« ) As an adverb, or adverbially, when by enallage it qualifies a verb ; as, " They fall successive, and successive rise ; " or when in the predicate it expresses a quality which the subject acquires by means of an action ; as, " The bread was baked l»iwm ; " that is the bread became brown by means of baking. 17 194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. The verb may be used, — (a.) As a predicate, in the various forms, modes, ten*., *,. urn* hers, and persons. (b.) As a noun. (1.) Wholly so, wilAi some substantive termination, wrier taken. abstractly; as, "Move, 1 ' " Movement" "Act" " Acaoii." (2.) Partially so, when it has the meaning and limitations of the verb, with the construction of the noun ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant." " Seeing the sun is pleasant." (See Rules XVI. and XVII.) {c.) As an adjective, rchen the action is assumed of the subject. (1.) It may be wholly an adjective; as, " A floating population." (2.) Partially so, when it has the construction of the adjective and the limitations of the verb ; as, " The flag floating in the breeze." (See Rule XVII.) Xote. — The verbal noun can be put in all the relations of the noun, except the possessive case. 5. The adverb is used, — (a.) To limit a verb, adjective, or other adverb; as, "Speak distinct- ly." " He was very dull." " He moves too slowly." (b.) Soinetimes, though not properly, as an adjective ; as, " Thine often infirmities." 6. Prepositions are used., — (a.) To shore relations ; as, " The love of truth." (b.) As adverbs. " Will you walk in? " (c.) Rarely as adjectives ; as, " The above quotation." " The rain it o'er." 7. Conjunctions are used simply as connectives. 8. Interjections are used to express ^lotions. Rbm. — Any word, Avhatever be its classification, when used merely M a word, is a noun. The s;ime may be said of a group cf words C» The same Word, Element, or Sentence in its Different Properties.* A word may be considered, — (a.) .4* the representative of a sound. (1.) It may be classified as a monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllabh polysyllable. * The object of this division is to present, at a glance, the different methods which may be resorted to, in order to give interest and variety to drill exercises in langvage. The study of language becomes dull and dry when parsing alone is attended to "''n teacher may resort to any or all of these method?. SYNTAX — SAME ELEMENT. 195 (2.) It may be analyzed into its syllables. The accented syllable may be pointed out. As an exercise on accent, the syllables, in turn, iray be accented by the pupil. (3.) Each syllable may be separated into its vowel and consonant elements, and each may be described. r y b.) As tO its FORMATION. (1.) It may be simple, derivative, or compound. (2.) If derivative, or compound, it may be analyzed into its primi- tive part or parts, its prefixes and suffixes. The effect of each may be given, and all the alterations, or changes, which the parts undergo. ^5 ; As to its meaning or USE. (1.) What part of speech is it ? Why ? Is it ever used as any other part of speech ? Give an example. (2.) Parse it. Now, suppose it to be changed in any of its modifi- cations, as number, person, gender, case, mode, tense, voice, degree of comparison ; what other changes in the sentence must take place to correspond ? 3.) Change its relation in the sentence, or construct another sen- tence in which it shall be either a different part of speech, or in a different relation. (d.) As to its relation in construction. (1.) Is it a principal or a subordinate term, or is it both ? (2.) Point out its principal term ; point out its subordinate term. Read it with each. (3.) Is its relation represented or unrepresented? If represented, point out the relation-word, and describe it. Read it with its superior term, omitting the relation-word, thus : " Trees gar- den; " then read it, inserting the words, " Trees of the garden." "e.) As to the number of functions it performs. (1.) Does it perform but one office, requiring but one rule of syn- tax, or does it perform two or more ? How many rules are applied in parsing a personal pronoun ? A relative pronoun ? The relative what, when placed before its antecedent ? (2.) Explain it in all its functions. 'jf.~) As tO its APPLICATION. (1.) Is it correct in its application, or it is misapplied 1 ! (2.) Is it elegantly applied, or has it merely a jilain or corimon ap- plication ? (3.) Is it used figuratively ? What is the figure ? (4.) Is the word modern or antique f as, " Fetch ' = bring. " Wist " = know. " Let " = hinder. (5.) Is it low, vulgar, or provincial? If so, give the correct word. (6.) What other word has nearly the same application ? Subst* tute it, and point out the difference. •7.) Can the expression be improved ? If so, improve it- An element may be considered, — (a.) As a whole. (1.) If it is a single word, it may then be parsed; if a vhraas 196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. clattse, it may first be parsed as if it were one word, by calling it substantive, adjective, or adverbial, as the case may be, and by giving its construction as if it were a single part of speech. (2.) Its relation may be given, whether subordinate or principal; also its antecedent or subsequent term. (3.) It may be transformed by expanding or abridging it, and in ita transformed state it may "be regarded, as a whole, equivalent to the element in its former state. (6.) As composed of parts. (1.) If it is a phrase, point out the connective and object. (2.) If it is a clause, point out the connective, and analyze the clause. (3.^ If it is complex, point out and dispose of the basis, then the term depending upon this, then the next, and the next, in the order of dependence. (4.) If it is compound, point out its component parts, and dispose of them separately, giving first their relation (coordinate) to each other, and then their common relation (subordinate) to the term on which they depend. (5.) If it is transposed, restore it to its natural position. (6.) If elliptical, supply the ellipsis. (7.) If incorrectly constructed, point out the error, and correct it. (8.) If it is left blank, or given as an exercise to be constructed, construct it, in the relation, form, condition, or modification required. A sentence may be considered, — (a.) As a whole. (1.) Is it declarative) interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory? (2.) Is it simple, complex, or compound f (3.) Is it close or loose in its structure ? (4.) Transform it from declarative to interrogative, &c. ; from com- pound to complex, &c. \b.) As composed of parts. (1.) Analyze it into its elements. (2.) Trace the relation of the most remote word up to the subject, or the relation of the subject down to the most remote term, pointing out all the connectives or relation-words. (3.) Reconstruct the sentence ; take some other noun or pronoun, standing in a remote relation, and make that the subject, or change it for the purpose of improving the arrangement, unity, or harmony of its parts. (4.) Construct a sentence so as to make it represent a scene or men- tal pictwe, relating to clouds, dew, vapor, rain ; a meadoio, a vaUey, a stream of water, a flower, a flock of birds, &c, &c., &c. Note. — By exercises varied as above, and in many other ways, such as the in- genuity of the teacher will suggest, the whole subject of language may be made in- tensely interesting to children. It will be well, at length, to analyze whole paragnphs into the sentences which compose them, pointing out the relation of rach semesK-e lo the general thought. SiNTAX — FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. \91 11 PECULIARITIES IN THE FORM, CONSTRUCTION, AND APPLICATION OF WORDS. These peculiarities are called figures. A. figure is a deviation from the ordinary form, construction, and application of a word. Hence figures are divided into those of Etymology Syntax, and Rhetoric. FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. A figure of Etymology is a deviation from the ordinary form of a word. Figures of Etymology consist either in a defect, an excess, or a change, in some of the elements of a word. Aphccresis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, for against, began. Syncope removes a letter or syllable from the middle of a ivord ; as, o'er, e'er, lov'd, for over, ever, loved. Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of a word ; as th\ tho\ for the, though. Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a word ; as, adown, enchain, for down, chain. Epenthesis adds a letter or syllable to the middle of a word ; as, preventative, retractation, for preventive, retrac- tion. This figure seldom occurs in English. Paragoge adds a letter pr syllable to the end of a word ; as, withoutew, bounden, for without, bound. Synavresis contracts two syllables into one ; as, thoiCri 'tis, for thou art, it is. Dicer esis separates two vowels which otherwise might foim a diphthong ; as, coordinate, zoology. Tmesis separates a compound word by inserting a word between its parts ; as, to us ward, for toward us. EXERCISE. f*oint out the figures in the following examples : — Around 'qan Marmion wildly stare. 17* 198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The 1. "> 'pg shone o'er fair women and brave m*n Did yc not hear it ? No : 'twas but the wind. Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffus'd. O, what's the matter ? what's the matter ? What is't that ails young Harry Gill ? A heart has throbb'd beneath that leathern breast, And tears adown that dusky cheek have rolled. He led, I wot, the softest way to death, And taught withouten pain and strife to yield the breath. What figures would you employ to render the following lines \ar monious ; — It is the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. For ice have sworn, by our countries assaulters, By the virgins they have dragged from oui altars And every tempest howling over his head Renders the savage wilderness more wild. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the ordinary con- struction of a word. Figures of Syntax consist in a defect, an excess, or a change in some of the elements of a sentence Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, or clause, which is necessary to complete the construction ; as, " We were absent [during] one day." It should be understood that the words omitted by this figure as truly belong to the sentence, grammatically considered, as those which are expressed. They are omitted for rhetorical effect, that is, to render the sentence more agreeable and forcible. Ellipsis generally takes place, — 1. In coordinate constructions, to avoid the repetition of •ome common part ; as, — " There are some who write, [and who] talk, [and who] think so much about vice and [about] virtue, that they have no time to practise either the one or the other." 2. In certain sul 'ordinate constructions, especially those which denote comparison, for the same reason ; as, — " Revenge is a stronger feeling than gratitude [is.]" "Our hiil'iS ar« jia different as our faces [are.] " SYNTAX — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. ■ 199 3. In cert tin idiomatic constructions : — (l.J In elements of the first class — the subject of imperative sen- tences ; as, "Go [thou.]" "Awake [ye.]" The noun after adjectives or after the possessive case ; as, "The violent [persons] take it by force." " This book is mine" i. e., my book. (2.) In elements of the second class. The connective may be omitted. Examples. The to before the indirect object ; as, " He gave [to] me a book." The to of the infinitive after bid, dare, let, make, hear, need, feel, see. jT; or unto after like, near; as, like [to] his father, near [to] the house. During, over, for, in, or on, before nouns, denoting time, the measure of distance, magnitude, or excess; as, " They left [on] Monday." "They travelled [through] twenty miles." The object may be omitted; as, "The leaves were scattered around [us.] " In such cases, the preposition is usually called an adverb. (3.) In elements of the third class. The connective may be omitted in substantive clauses in the objective ; as, " My heart whispers [that] God is nigh." In adjective clauses when the relative is in the objective; as, " The paper [which] we purchased is damaged." " The house [which] we went to stands on a hill." The subject and copula in expressions like " If [it is] possible, if neces- sary, if convenient, when agreeable, while absent, &c. The whole clause between as and if, as and though ; as, " He seemed as [he would seem] if [he were] deranged." 4. In exclamatory sentences, m responsives, in inscrip- tions, and titles ; as, " [It is] strange ! " " Whom did you see ? [1 saw] George.'" " [This is] the New Testament. 1 ' Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words ; as, " I know thee who thou art." Pleonasm is the opposite of ellipsis, and may be said, in general, to take place where ellipsis should, but does not, take place. Feonasm takes place, — (l.) "When the same idea is repeated in the same or in different words ; as, " Verily, verily, I say unto you." " All ye inhabitants of the world, and dwellers on the earth." (2.) When a noun is introduced into a sentence, and then immediately represented in the same relation by a pronoun ; as, " Now Harry he had long suspected." (3.) When a noun or any other word is repeated in the same relation for the purpose of modifying it; as, " That great God whom jou see me daily worship ; — * — * — that God who created the heavens and the earth ; — — * — * — this God who has done all these great things — * — * — this great God, the Creator of worlds, of angels, and men, is your Father and Friend." Enallage is a change of one part of speech for another, or some modification of a word for another ; as, " They fall successive [ly] and successive [ly] rise." So when a smglo 200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. individual says, " We have done so and so," he uses the plural number for the singular. HyperbaLon is the transposition of words ; as, " While ite song rolls the zvoods along." EXERCISE. Siqyply the words omitted by ellipsis in the following : — Cassius. I am a soldier, I, Older in practice, abler than yourself To make conditions. Brutus. Go to ! you're not, Cassius. Cos. I am. Bru. I say yoxi are not. Write or repeat the folloioing, leaving oxd all words which may be omit' ted: — If it is possible, I will come. What would be the consequence though we tarry ? Tell what figures occur in the folloioing examples : — Anxiously did we watch every movement. Dark burned the candle. For llenard close attended at his heels. Sometimes with early morn, he mounted gay. Seven circling planets we behold. He speaks as if he were sick. Say, burst they borrowed from her father's wounds these drops t FIGURES OF RHETORIC. A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordiniry application of a word ; it is commonly called a trope. Metaphor gives to an object the appropriate name of another object, on account of a resemblance between them ; as, " Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." Simile is a formal comparison, introduced by like, as, 01 so ; as, " He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water." An Allegory is a continued metaphor, forming a Kind of parable or fable. For examples, see Pilgrim's Progress. See also the eightieth Psalm. Personification attributes to inanimate objects some of the qualities of living beings; as, " The sky saddens with me gathered storm " SYNTAX — FxGlRES OF RHETORIC 201 Metonymy is a change of name ; as, " You will address the chair ; " i. e., the president. Vision represents imaginary objects as real and present to the senses • as, — " See lofty Lebanon his head advance ; See nodding forests on the mountains dance." Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part, as a sail for a ship, a roof for a house, the head for the person. Irony is the use of a word for its opposite ; as, " He was as virtuous as Nero ; " i. e., as vile as Nero. Antithesis is the placing of contrary or opposite objects in contrast ; as, " Immortal, though no more ; though fallen, great" Hyperbole magnifies or diminishes an object beyond the truth ; as, " Rivers of water run down mine eyes, because they keep not thy law." Exclamation is used to express some strong emotion of the mind ; as, " O the depth of the riches both of the wis- dom and the knowledge of God ! " Interrogation is used to express a strong affirmation under the form of a question ; as, " Hath he said it, and will he not do it ? " Apostrophe is a taming off from the subject to address some other person or thing ; as, " Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death, where is thy sting ? O Grave, where is thy victory ? " Climax is a series of members in a sentence, each rising in importance above the preceding. EXAMPLE. " What hope is there remaining of liberty, if whatever is their pleasure it is lawful for them to do ; if whatever it' is lawful for them to do, they are able to do ; if what they arc able to do, I hey dure to do ; if what they iare to do, they really execute; and if what they execute is no way offen- sive to you ?" 202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISE. Point out the figures in the following : — " Yet at thy call the hardy tar pursued, Pale, but intrepid ; sad, but unsttbdued." He has at last assumed the sceptre. The power of appointment is vested in the crown. The garrison was put to the sword. In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat thy bread. The sea sato it and fled. Joseph is a fruit- ful bough. Devotion is a delicate and tender plant. A virtuous man. slandered by evil tongues, is like a diamond obscured by smoke. I will be to her a wall of fire. What ailed thee, thou sea, that thou fitddest f They are swifter than eagles, they are stronger than lions. Read 1 Kings, xviii. 27, and explain the figure. Canst thou by searching find out God ? Canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection ? What a piece of work is man! how noble in reason! how infinite in faculties! in action, ho v.- like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a God. III. IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. Note. — The following examples are intended to draw the attention of the teach- er to the various idiomatic peculiarities in the constructions which follow certain words or forms of words, and not to be a complete system which exhausts the subject. 1. The perfect teiises, and generally the tenses of the progressive form, are followed by some phrase or clause used to specify the time to which they relate; as, " I had finished my letter before you came." 2. The comparative degree is followed, — (1.) By an adverbial clause introduced by than, when both the compared objects are distinctly named ; as, " The ash is taller than the oak [is.] " (2.) By a phrase (preposition of) when one of the compared objects is distinctly named, and the other is involved in a general term which in- cludes both ; as, " The ash is the taller of the two trees." 3. The superlative degree is followed by a phrase, (prep. of) and shows a comparison between a single object dis- tinctly named, and all other objects with which it is com- pared ; as, " Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks." 4. Many adjectives, as able, unable, — necessary, unneces- sary, — desirable, undesirable, — agreeable, disagreeable, &c, are followed by an infinitive, or a preposition and its object, when in the positive degree. When in the compara- tive or superlative, they are also followed by the construc- tion required by the above rules, (3 and 4, above ;) as, " George was unwilling to write" " George was more un willing to write than his sister" 5. The verb " to be,' when used to predicate existence SYNTAX IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. '203 ^and not as a copula,) is generally preceded by the expletive ' there," and followed by its subject ; as, " There was light." When such a proposition is abridged, the expletive remains »s, " God said, Let Mere be light." " There being no provis ions, we were compelled to leave." " I am not sure of ther seing a supply." 6. The verbs tell, teach, say, wish, declare, order, and, ih general, those which denote some state or act of the mind, >r some declaration or statement, are generally followed, — (1.) By a substantive clause ; as, " I say, that he was angry." (2.) By a personal object and an infinitive, which together are equivalent to a substantive clause abridged ; as, " I told him to stop." 7. It is always placed at the beginning of a sentence whose subject is an infinitive, (with or without its objective subject,) or a. substantive clause, when the infinitive or clause is placed after the predicate ; as, " For you to leave me would be unkind " = It would be unkind for you to leave me, " That this measure will prevail is quite certain " = It is quite certain that this measure will prevail. This idiom usually prevails when an objective clause be comes the subject by changing the preceding verb into the passive voice ; as, " I believe that the resources of this coun- try will go on increasing from year to year " = It is be- lieved thai, the resources, &c. Another idiom in which"*' it" introduces a sentence occurs when we wish to bring forward a person or thing with em- phasis. Instead of saying, " Arnold betrayed his country," we say, " It was Arnold that betrayed his country." 8. Had before rather, as liof, and as well, seems to be an auxiliary with the present tense, instead of the past participle of the verb ; as, " I had rather be a dog, and bay the mccn." u I had as lief go as stay.'''' " You had as well stop." Pres- ent usage substitutes would. Still these expressions are often found, and are to be disposed of. It seems most probable that what we call the present tense of the verb was original- ly an infinitive governed by had ; as, " I had to go" 4 *204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. had to write ; " but when the comparative rather, or as lief was inserted, the " to " was dropped ; as, " I had rather go," *' I had as lief write" "You had as well go." Would, in the expressions, " Would to God," " Wculd God it were fo" is a principal verb, equivalent to desire, or wish. It is past in form, but present in meaning. 9. The forms resulting from abridging dependent clauses alibi d many idiomatic difficulties. Most of these are ex- plained under " Abridged Propositions." The following are some of these forms : — (1.) A predicate noun follows the infinitive, or participle of the copula without a subject, or with the subject changed to the possessive ; as, " To be a good writer requires much practice." Here writer must be considered in the nominative, unless we supply the words, "Jbr one" before it: if such were the construction, it would be in the objective. " I have no fear of his being an idler." Here nothing can be supplied to control the case of idler. It was nominative before the clause was abridged, and nothing has changed its case. (2.) " Give me something to fasten the door icith." Here it is not ap- parent how with should be disposed of. This idiom results from abridging the following proposition in Italics : " Give me something with which I may fasten the door " = Give me something with which to fasten the door = Give me something to fasten the door with [which]. (3.) Contrary to the general rule, the connective of the dependent clause is retained in such expressions ; as, I know not what to do, where to go, when to stop, hoio to wait, with what to write, with which to remain ; and in the above example, ichich, the subsequent term of the relation expressed by with, mus' be supplied. 10. Some difficulty arises from the facility with which, in English, a noun, without change of form, can be used as an adjective ; as> " An iron bar." " A variety store." Re- specting such cases, it should be observed, — (1.) That though the noun is used like an adjective, it is qualified (not ly an adverb, as is the case with a real adjective, but) by an adjective ; as, " A high pressure engine" not " A high engine ; " nor " A highly pressure engine." (2.) That this idiom may lead to ambigxious expressions, which can be avoided only by making a compound word of the two which should b .• united ; as, " A white oak pail." " A white mountain moose." Is it " a white oak-pail," or " a white-oak pail"? "A white mountain-moose," or " A white-mountain moose " ? It often happens that the defining noun is joined to the other by a hyphen, thus forming a compound noun ; as, " Barn-boor" " Brick-walk." (3.) That sometimes a noun has an adjective termination, and tben both forms may be used as adjectives, yet with very different effects; as, "A woode?i house ; " "A wood house." " A golden harvest ; " "A gold harvst " SYNTAX — THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 205 (4.) That the noun thus used must be in the singular number ; as, " A hoi'se power," not " A horses power." " A foot poie," not " A feet pole.'' (•'5.) That this last rule is observed even though a numeral adjective, which would otherwise require the following word to be plural, is added as, " A forty horse power," not " A forty horses power." (6.) That it is observed even in words which, otherwise used, have no singular form ; as, " UcweZ-complaint," not " iJo^eis-complaint." " Spen- tacfe-maker," not " Spectacles-maker." 11. A very forcible idiom arises from the formation of ar adjective out af a participle combined with some other word as, uninterestijig, unimpeached, labor-saving, heaven-dt scended These words must be regarded as adjectives, an not participles, since they have no corresponding verbs. IV. THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. In sentences containing more than one proposition, two kinds of structure prevail — the loose, and the periodic, or compact. A loose sentence is one in which the parts are related in thought, but are wholly independent of each, other in con- struction ; as, " Three days they mourned over Carthon ; on the fourth, his father died." Rem. t. — The parts of a loose sentence are called its members. The members of a loose sentence may be simple, complex, or compound ; as, ' In the narrow plain they lie; and a dim ghost defends their tomb." • On that rising ground, where the green turf looks black with fire, yes- terday stood a noble mansion ; the owner had said in his heart, Here will I spend the evening of my days, and enjoy the fruit of my years of toil." " My name shall descend with mine inheritance, and my children's children Bhall sport under the trees which I have planted." Rem. 2. — The loose sentence is to be found chiefly among compound sentences. A compact sentence, sometimes called close, is one in which the parts are closely united both in thought and con- si ruction ; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." Hem. 1. — Compact sentences maybe either complex or compound ; as, '« In order to succeed in their enterprises, it is necessary that they should \ it on, at least, the appearance of virtue." " Seek ye first the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things shall be added unto foil " 18 206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Rem. 2. — Both loose and compact sentences may hare connectives to combine their parts. When the connective is expressed, the union of the parts is considered closer than when it is omitted ; and when correlatives are used, the union is still closer. Rem. 3. — In uttering a loose sentence, the voice should fall at the end of each member ' in uttering a compact sentence, the voice should be kept up till the close. EXERCISES. Point out the loose and the compact sentences in the following exam- ples : — Morning rose in the east; the blue waters rolled in light. If the war should be unsuccessful, you will aggravate existing evils ; if successful, your enemy will have no treasure left to give our merchants. Thp first losses will be confounded with much greater, and be forgotten. The very men who charged the Indian war on the detention of the post* will call for no other proof than the recital of their own speeches. If 1 could find words for them, if my powers bore any proportion to my zeal, I wo*»'d swell my voice to such a note of remonstrance, that it should reach Pre. v h)g house beyond the mountains. PUNCTUATION. — THE COMMA. 207 PUNCTUATION. Punctuation is the art of dividing written compositior by means of points. Rem. 1. — Points, are used to separate either sentences or the elements of sentences. The elements, in by far the greater number of instances, are not separated at all. It is only when there is some peculiarity in the struc- ture, use, or condition of an element that it is pointed off. Usually, the point is employed where the position of the words may lead to a wrong connection or dependence of words, and consequently to a misapprehen- sion of the author's meaning: thus the following sentence may have sev- eral meanings according to the punctuation. James Johnson says lie has written beautifully. James, Johnson says he has written beautifully. James Johnson, says he, has written beautifully. James Johnson says he has written l< beautifully." Rem. 2. — Although a pause is usually made where a point is placed, the points mark rather the sense than the pauses. Sometimes no pause whatever should be made where a comma is required ; as, " No, sir." "Yes, sir." ' These points may be divided into two classes — those which separate the elements of a sentence, and those which separate entire sentences. The following are the principal marks used in punctuation : — The comma (,), the semicolon (5), the colon (:), the dash (— ), the parenthesis ( ), the period (.), the interrogation point (?), and the exclamation point (!). I. POINTS USED WITHIN A SENTENCE. The Comma. The comma is used principally to separate the elements of close sentences. Three rules may be given for the use of the comma. Kflf . When the elements of a sentence are simple^ an^ are arranged in the natural order, they should not be separated ; but when any element, whether simple or complex, is transposed, loosely connected, or usei paren- thetically, it should be pointed off. 208 ENGLISH GRAMM 1R. EXAMPLES. " Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction. The path 01 virtue is the path of pence. He lived, as he said, on a vegetable diet. False de'icacy is affectation, not politeness. Intrinsically, the other is the r..'.st valuable. Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make Examples to be punctuated according to Rule I. Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. Whoever firmly wills will be a good man. Light whether it be material or spiritual is the best reformer. lie who teaches often learns himself. Cherish true patriotism which has its root in benevolence. Here comes his body mourned by Mark Antony. Study I beseech you to store your minds with the exquisite learning of former ages. (1.) The following words and phrases are pointed off by this rule: Again, besides, moreover, further, nay, hence, once more, as yet, Jirst, sec- oiidly, lastly, namely, in short, in truth, in fact, in fine, in general, in par- ticular, in the mean time, in the next place, on the contrary, without doubt, of course, for the most part, noio and then, consequently, accordingly, un- questhmably, indisputably, &c, fire. (2.) The nominative case independent, and several of the interjections, are separated by the comma ; since thoy are not elements of the sentence, and consequently are not closely connected ; as, " My son, hear the in- structions of thy father." " For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of the north." (3.) When a simple element of the third class is not closely connected, or used in a restrictive sense, it is punctuated by a comma, though arranged in the natural order ; as, " He will go, if it is possible." Examples to be puMiuated by the subordinate rules. Punctuality is no doubt a quality of high importance. The most vigor- ous thinkers and writers are in fact self-taught. Unfortunately he thinks too highly of himself. Antonio light my lamp within my chamber. Boast not my dear friends of to-morrow. Come companion of my toils let us take fresh courage. Where thoughts kindle words spontaneously flow. Go where a man may home is the centre to which his heart turns. It were no virtue to bear calamities if we did not. feel them. Rule II. When an element is complex, and considerably extended, it should be pointed olT by the comma. EXAMPLES. Remember your own feelings, in order that you may judge of the feel- ings of of hers. That a peculiar state of the mere particles of the brain iHoidd bejolloioed by aclmnge of the state of the sentient mind, is truly won- derful. Examples to be punctuated according to Rule II. Grace of manners is so essential to rulers that whenever it is neglected tneir virtues lose a great degree of lustre. The more highly we cultivate our minds here the better shall we be prepared for the nobler pursuits of the next stages of our existence. It had been better for them net to have Known the way of righteousness than after they had known u to tura frim the holy commandment committed to them. PUNCTUATION. 209 (1.) By this rule, the complex subject of a .simple sentence, when long, should be separated by the comma from the predicate as, " The intermix- ture of evil in society, seems to exercise the noblest virtues of the humajr. soul." (2.) The clauses of a complex sentence should be separated by tne com- ma, where tbe subordinate clause is complex, and is not used in a restric- tive sense ; as, " We sometimes forget our faults, when we are not reminded if them." Abridged clauses generally follow the same rule as complete dauses ; as, " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost." (3.) A single noun in apposition with another, is not separated from it by a comma; as, " Paul the apostle ; " but when the noun ir opposition is limited by several words, the comma should be inserted ; as, " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." (1.) When a sentence contains several extended adverbial elements, phrases, or clauses, they should be separated, by the comma ; as, " The an- cients separated the corn, from the ear, by causing an ox to trample on the sheaves. (5.) A short expression quoted, or used as a quotation, should be sepa- rated by the comma ; as, " The first lesson of a judicious education is, Learn to think and to discriminate ; " also the verbs, say, reply, and the like, with their dependent words, introducing a ([notation or remark, are usually separated by the comma ; as, " Ossian says, That sorrow shades the soul of Clessammor." Examples to be punctuated by the subordinate rules. A government directing itself resolutely and steadily to the general good becomes a minister of virtue. He who sees : a. building as a common spectator contents himself with speaking of it. The word philosopher signifies lover of wisdom. The twin sisters Piety and Poetry are said to dwell together. Diogenes the Greek philosopher lived in a tub. General Washington the first president of the United States was a true patriot a genuine lover of his country. The wise and good of every name are with diversity of gifts but the same spirit striving each in his own way to carry society forward into a healthier condition than the present. Patrick Henry commenced by saying " It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope." There is much truth in the proverb " Without pains no gains." Rule III. When an element is compound, the compo- nent parts are generally separated by the comma ; as, " Some men sin frequently, deliberately, and presumptuously." EXAMPLES. Beauty haunts the depths of the earth and sea, and gleams out in the hues of the shell and the precious stone. Speak as you mean, do as you profess, and perform what you promise. Has God provided for the poor a coarser earth a thinner air, a paler sky ? Suffering often calls forth our best feelings, and the highest energiei of the mind. Examples to be punctuated by Rule II. Great moral principles pure and generous dispositions cannot be con fined to this or that spot. The true worshipper of beauty sees it in the lowliest flower meets it in every path enjoys it every where. Get justly use »jbetly distribute cheerfully ?nd live contentedly. The one had no more 10 * 210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. reason than the other to repine at his fortune and war against mankind. To be wise in our own eyes to be wise in the opinion of the world and *o *te wise in the sight of our Creator seldom coincide. ^1.) When a compound element consists of but two simple elements, trie parts should not be separated, unless the conjunction which connects them is understood ; as, " Peter and John went up into the temple." " A bold decisive blow was struck." (2 ) When or denotes an alternative of words, and not ideas, the twc connected words should be separated by the comma ; as, " The gulf, or bay, is dangerous." Nearly allied to this construction is that in which the same word is repeated ; as, " Verily, verily, I say unto you." (3.) Two simple elements, so connected as to show opposition or con- trast, should be pointed by the general rule ; as, " Though deep, yet clear" " Ikough fallen, yrcat.'" (4.) If both elements are complex, and considerably extended, or if one is complex and the other is not, the comma may be placed between them. This rule applies particularly to the compound predicate ; as, " He left, and took his brother with him." (o.) "When words are joined in pairs, the pairs are separated from each other, but not the words composing them; as, "Hope and. fear, pleasure and pain, diversify our lives." (6.) When the conjunction which connects two elements is omitted, the comma takes its place ; as, " Thomas is a plain, honest man." So, also, when a verb is understood, the comma takes its place ; as, " From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." (7.) When the connected parts are clauses, whether coordinate or sub ordinate, and are closely united, they should be separated by the comma as, " Life is short, and art is long." " I neither knew what I was, wheri I was, nor from wlience I came." Examples to be punctuated by the subordinate rule. A healthy body and a sound mind should be preserved as real blessings. Some men would be distinguished in their occupation or pursuit or pro- fession or in the style of living, or in the dignity of office or in the glare and pride and pomp of power. Truth is fair and artless simple and sin- cere uniform and consistent. A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a fool to outshine others. The benevolent man is esteemed ; the penurious despised. We are fearfully and wonderfully made. He departed and hope departed with him. The Colon and Semicolon. The colon and semicolon are used chiefly to separate the members of a loose sentence EXAMPLES. Make a proper use of your time ; for „he los* of it can never be re- gained. The noblest prophets and apostles have been children mce; lisp- ing the speech, laughing the laugh, thinking the thought oi boyhood. Stones grow ; vegetables grow and live ; animals grow, live, and feel Cowards die many times ; the valiant never taste of death. Rem. 1. — The colon is now but little used, except before examples fo< PUNCTUATION. DASH AND PARENTHESIS. SHI towing tie expressions as follows, the following examples, in these word* &c. ; as; "Perform the following exercises:" "He used *^iese words Mr. Presiuciit:" &C. It is also used to separate the terms of a pro> portion; as, " A : B : : C : D." Rem. 2. — When, in a complex sentence, several subordinate clause* are united to each other, having a common dependence upon the principal clause, they are separated by the semicolon ; as, " Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited, in her operations ; that she has inexhaustible treses* urcs in reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that fu- ture generations will continue to make discoveries." EXERCISE. Insert the cemma, the semicolon, and the colon w/iere they 'ire ""quired in the following examples : — Never value yourself upon your fortune for this is the sign of a weak mind. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Drydcn but Dryden certainly wanted the diligence of Pope. The groat tendency and purpose of poetry is to carry the mind above and beyond the beaten dusty weary walks of ordinary life to lift it into a purer element and to breathe into it more pro- found and generous emotion. Write on your slates the following exam- ple Mary and John will go. The great and good were there. Endeavor to excel much may be accomplished by perseverance. The Dash and Parenthesis. The dash is used where there is a significant pause, an unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence is left unfinished ; as, " He sometimes counsel takes — and sometimes snuff." " But I must first ." Rem. — The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis , as, " The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the town in which they had been so wretched." The parenthesis is used to enclose a part of a sentence .iot necessary to the construction, but in some way ex- jdanatory of the meaning of the sentence ; as, " Consider (and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts) the fatal consequences of a wicked life." EXERCISE. Insert the dash and the parenthesis where they are required in the follow ng examples : — Horror burst the bands of sleep ; but my feelings words are too weak, too powerless to exp*ess them. TVe Egyptian style of architecture see 212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Dr. Pocock, not his discourses but his prints was apparently the mother of the Greek. While they wished to please, and why should they not wish it, they disdained dishonorable means. If thou art he, so much re spec ted once but, O, how fallen ! how degraded ! II. POINTS USED AT THE CLOSE OF A SENTENCE. The Period. The period is used at the close of a declarative or an im- perative sentence. It is also used to denote an abbreviatior EXAMPLES. Knowledge is not only pleasant, but useful and honorable. Let. what you have gained be an impulse to something higher. If you will, you car. rise. The age of MSS. is, in some instances, known by dates inserted in them I was invited to meet Mr. and Mrs. Clifford. EXERCISE. Insert the period where it is required in the following examples : — Truth is the basis of every virtue It is the voice of reason Let its pre cepts be religiously obeyed Never transgress its limits Abhor a falsehood I would say to the people, You cannot, without guilt and disgrace, stop where you are The oration was delivered by J L Thompson, Esq The event occurred B C 1001 To It II Dana Jun Esq the well-known author of "Two Years before the Mast," the community are greatly indebted Put the seasons are not alike in all countries of the same" region, for the reasons already given See Chap VI § 2 11 4 p °>30 Interrogation Point. An interrogation point is used at the close of a question , as, " Who comes there ? " Rem. — When an interrogative sentence is used as a subordinate clause, — (1.) The interrogation point is employed when the clause is quoted di ■ rectly ; as, " He said, Why do you weep ? " (2.) The ^lterrogation point is not employed where tie clause is quoted fadirectly • as, " He. asked me why I wept." Exclamation Point. An exclamation point is used at the close of an exclama- tory sentence ; as " How unsearchable are h'< 'vays ! " PUJNOTUATION. OTHER MARKS, EIU. '«& 13 Keai. — An exclamation point is often used within a sentence, after an exelamatory expression or an interjection ; as, " O, Jotp Supreme! whom aaen and gods revere ! " " ! let soft pity touch the mind ! " EXERCISES. Insert interrogation and exclamation jwi7its where they are requited m the folloxcing examples : — Daughter of Faith awake arise illume the dread unknown the chaos of the tomb Whither shall I turn Wretch that I am To what place shall I betake myself O Pascal thou wert pure in heart in this world, and now thou art in full sight of God. Apostles of liberty what millions attest the authenticity of your mission. Did she fall like Lucifer, never to hope again To purchase heaven has gold the power VVho shall separate us from the love of Christ What "kill thy friend who lent thee money, for asking thee for it The secret I implore : out with it speak discover utter Punctuate coirectly in all respects the following examples : — _ What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite in facul- ties in form and moving how express and admirable in action how like ;tn angel in apprehension how like a God The air wraa mild as summer all corn was off the ground and the skylarks were singing aloud by the way I saw not one at Keswick perhaps because the place abounds in birds of prey Dr H Marsh F 11 S &c Bishop of Peterborough b 1757 d 1839 As the pupil is often obliged to bend all his faculties to the task before him and tears sometimes fall on the page he is studying so it is in the school of God's providence there are hard lessons in it When the poor victims Were bayoneted clinging round the knees of the soldiers would my friend but I could cannot pursue the strain of my interrogation OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. Brackets ([ ]) are used when a word or phrase is intro- duced for explanation or connection ; as, " He [the teacher] thus explained the difficulty." The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used either to denote the possessive case, or the omission of a letter ; as, " John's." " O'er." The Quotation Marks ( "" ) are used to include a passage taken verbatim from some other author ; as, "He said, ' 2 relinquish my claim. ' " The Asterisk (*), the Obelisk ( t ), the Double Dagger (}), and the Parallels ( || ) are used to refer to notes in the mar- gin, or at the bottom of the page. Sometimes the Section ( § ) and the Paragraph ( fl ) are used. Also small letters, or figures, which refer to notes at the foot of the page. 214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The Caret ( A ) is used in writing to show that jsome letter, word, or phrase has been omitted ; as, " The pencil lies X the table." The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the parts of a com* pound word ; as, " Book-binder." When placed at the end of a line, it shows that a word is divided, the remaining part being carried to the next line. The Ellipsis ( * * * ) ( ) is used to denote the omission of certain letters or words; as, "C* * * 11." «K g." Th Rrace I connects a number of words with one cor/i- e \ mon term. The Index ( $W ) points to some remarkable passage. The Section ( § ) also denotes the divisions of a treatise. A Paragraph (fl ) also denotes the beginning of a new subject The vowel marks are the Diaeresis ( •• ), placed over the second of two vowels which are separated ; the Long sound ( - ), placed over a long vowel ; the Breve or Short sound (v> ), placed over a short vowel ; and accents, Grave ( \ ), Acute ( f ), and Circumflex ( a ). Rem. — The best practical exercises on all these marks and points will be given by the teacher. Let the pupil be required to construct sentences requiring the use of them ; or let the teacher read from some book, any passage which demands the use of them, iind let the class be reo/uirexl to insert them in their proper places. PROSODY. — VERSE — FEET. 2! i P R O S D Y . Prosody treats of the laws of versification. VERSE. A verse is a succession of accented and unaccented syi lables, constituting a line of poetry. A couplet is the combination of two lines or verses. triplet consists of three lines. A stanza is the combination of several lines forming a division of a poem or song. Rem. — Verse is sometimes erroneously applied to a stanza. Verse is of two kinds — rhyme and blank verse. Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one 'erse to that of another. Blank verse is verse without rhyme. FEET. A foot is a portion of verse containing two or moie syl- lables, combined according to accent. Rem. 1. — The quantity of a syllable is the time employed in uttering it. All syllables are either long or short. Rem 2. — In English, an accented syllable is considered long ; and an unaccented, short. Rem. 3. — A straight line ( - ) over a syllable shows that it is accented, and a curved line ( w ) that it is unaccented. The principal feet in English are the iambus, the trochee t the anapast, and the dactyl. The iambus consists of a short and a long syllable ; aa u invite," " devote" " benign.'''' The trochee consists of a long and a short syllable ; as, " grateful, 1 '' " grievous.' 1 '' The anapast consists of two short syllables and one long one • a« M incomplete " " condescend." 2 iti * ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Thb dactyl consists of one long syllable an.i two short ones ; as, " positive" " loneliness" Rem. 1. — Besides the kinds of feet mentioned above, four others Sometimes occur — the pyrrhic* and the spondee, the amphibrach and the tribrach. The pyrrhic consists of two short, and the spondee sf two long syllables; as, "in tht (vale;)" " vain twin." The amphibrach has three syllables, of which the first and third are short, the second is long; as, "cdnUntmtnt.** The tribrach consists of three short syllables; as> Rem. 2. — These last four feet are seldom found in English poetry. They sometimes mingle with other feet, and give thereby a pleasing variety; as, " Fr6m peak | to peak | the rat- | tling crags | among. Leaps thi | live thun- | der ! not | from one | lone cloud." Here the first fooi is a trochee, and the second is a spondee. They cccur in a single verse of an iambic poem. EXERCISES. What foot does each of the following icords contain: — Absent, control, viewing, darkness, complete, correct, glory, reproduce, indite, reconstruct, compose, gloriously, positive, acquiesce, reunite, beau- tiful, sweetest, comforter, overcome, churlishness, nourishing, intercede, foolishness. Piejix one or more words to the following, so as to make a phrase consist- ing of two iambic feet, thus : — " A new supply. defeat. disgrace. accord. proclaims. commends. divine. entreata. believes. A. line consisting of one foot is called monometer ; of two, dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; of four, tetrameter ; of five, pentameter ; of six, hexameter ; of seven, heptameter. Rem. — When a syllable is wanting, the line is said to be catalecti-c ; when the measure is full, the line is acatalectic ; when there is a redundant ?y liable, it is called hypermeter. SCANNING. Scanning consists in dividing a verse into the feet which compose it. IAMBIC VERSI. t /<*#*/.•« ,/ ut* foe* — monometer : — They go To sow. IROSODY. IAMBIC V1SRSE. 217 2. Iambic of tico feat — dimeter : — To me | the rose No longer glows. 3. Iambic of three feet — trimeter : — No roy | al pomp | adorns This Iving of righteousness. 4. Iambic of four feet — tetrameter : — And cold ) er still | the winds | did blow, And darker hours of night came on. 0. Iambic of five feet — pentameter: — On rift- | ed rocks, | the drag- | fin's late | abodes, The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods. 6. Iambic of six feet — hexameter : — His heart | is sad, | his ho He sits and mourns in silent grief the Iiv His heart | is sad, | his hope | is g6ne, | his light I rs passed ; geringday. 7. Iambic of seven feet — heptamcter : — Th£ lof- | ty hill, j the hum- | ble lawn, ) wrth count- | less beau- I ties shine. The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power divine. Iambic of five feet is called heroic verse ; thai cf six feet is called Alexandrine. Iambic of seven feet is commonly divided into two lines — the first containing four feet, the second three. This is called common metre ; as, The lofty hill, the humble lawn, With countless beauties shine ; The silent grove, the solemn shade, Proclaim thy power divine. Tn long metre, each line has four iambic feet ; in short metre, the first, second, and fourth lines contain three iambic feet, the third four. Each species of iambic verse may have one additional short syllable, thus : — 1. Relent- | Tng. '2. Upon | a moun- | tain 3. When on | her Ma- | ker's bo- j som. 4. First this | large par- | eel brings | you tl- | dings. 5. Each sub- | stance of \ a grief | hath twen- | ty shad- | fiws. t> Thine eye | Jove's light- | nlng seems I thy voice | his dread- | ftU thfin- | drr. 7. How gai- | ly 6- | xvr fell I and f<"n | y6n spArts- I m;"n light j is dash- | ing ! 19 218 ENGLISH GRAMMA*. TROCHAIC FERSE. 1 . Trochaic of one foot : — Changing Ranging. 2 T) ochaic of two feet : — Fancy | viewing, Joys ensuing. 3 Trochaic of three feet : — Go where | glory | waits thee. But when fame elates thee. 4 . Trochaic of four feet : — Rounda | holy | calm dif- | fusing, Love of peace and lonely musing. b. Trochaic of five feet : — All that | walk 6n | foot or | ride In | chari6ts, All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 6. Trochaic of six feet : — On a | mountain | stretched, be- | neath a I hoary | willtiw, Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the odd syil* hies ; in iambic, on the even. Trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable ; as, 1. Where we | may Think aud pray. 2. And at | morn they | play, In the foaming spray. 3. Heaving | upward | to the | light. 4. O'er the [ past too | fondly | wander- | ing. 5. Reared 'mid | fauns and | fairies, | knew he | no com- | peers. 6. Casting | down their | golden | crowns a- | round the | glassy | asa. ANAPiESTIC VERSE. i . A napecstic of one foot : — But In vain They complain. 2. A napeestic of two feet : — Where the sun | loves td pause With so fond a delay. 3 Anaptfstic of three feet : — From the cen- | tre, all round j t5 the sea, I'm lord of the fowl and the brute. PROSODY. POETIC PAUSES. 219 4. Anapassvc of four feet : — At the close | 6f the day, | when the ham- | let Is still, And mortals the sweets of fo-rgetfulness prove. In anapaestic verse, the accent falls on every third syllable. The first foot of an anapaestic verse may be an iambus ; as, And mot- | tals the sweets | 6f forget- | fulness prove. DACTYLIC VEKSE. 1. Dactylic of one foot : — Cheerfully, Fearfully. 2. Dactylic of two feet : — Free from anx- | iety, Care and satiety. 3 Dactylic of three feet : — Wearing a- | way In his | yoiithfulness, Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness. Boys will an- I ticlpate, I lavish, and I dlsslpilte Ant" 4 Dactylic of four feet ; — rs will an- I 1 that your busy pate hoarded with care. Few poems are perfectly regular in their feet. The dif- ferent kinds of feet are often mingled in the same verse, t.'ius : — I ctime, | I come ; | yS have cfdled j me long ; I come | S'er the moun- j tains with light | and song. POETIC PAUSES. Besides the pauses required by the sense or grammati- cal construction of verse, two pauses — the Jinal and caswcil — may also occur. The final pause occurs at the end of each line, whether the sense requires it or not. The casural pause occurs within the line itself, and is only a suspension of the voice ; as, " Ask for what end — the heavenly bodies shine." 220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES. ConJncct a line to i hyme with the following : — " The soldier marched upon the burning sand* ' Soft the breeze in yonder vale," The leaves are falling one by one," t/Uji**. «ri?ig, and tell what kind of verse it is ; — When all thy mercies, my God ! My rising soul surveys, Transported with the view, I'm lost In wonder, love, and praise." • from Greenland's icy mountains, From India's coral strand, Whore Afric's sunny fountains Roll down their golden sand ; From many an ancient river, From many a palmy plain, Thev call us to deliver Their land from error's chain." 14 The morn is up again, the dewy morn, With breath all incense, and with cheek all Dlooia- Laughing the clouds away, with playful scorn, And living as if earth contained no tomb, — And glowing into day : we may resume The march of our existence : and thus I, Still on thy shores, fair Leman ! may find room And food for meditation, nor pass by Much that may give us pause, if pondered fittingW *' '' Hail, holy light, offspring of heaven first born, Or of th* eternal co-eternal beam ! May I express thee unblamed ? since God is light, And never but in unapproached light Dwelt from eternity, dwelt then in thee, Bright elllucnce of bright essence increate. Or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream, Whose fountain who shall tell ? " M Ye nymphs of Solyma ! begin the song ; To heavenly themes sublimer strains belong. The mossy fountains and the sylvan shades, The dreams of Hindus and tl\' Aonian maids. Delight no more ! thou my voice inspire, Who ttuche^ lsa,'.^.h's hallowed lips with fire 1" VINIS, ^tlU Ttf 37347 M289986 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY ..-•■■ H. COWPERTHWAIT & CO., -. UBLISHERS AND BOOKSELLERS P II I I. V D E L P II I Invite the to the following VALUABLE SCHOOL-BOOKS. Ismu'j feto Series nt Gn$xt$\M* THE PRIMARY < API1Y, TUB COMMON-SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY, Tin This Series f the Ui highesl ' ave used or thctu. Gtttxit'* Series at (Sitjlisft Grammar*. ghee: GREE 1 1 2TION TO THE STUDY OF EKGLISH GRAMM/ SSONS PT ' get; lysis jf NGTTAGK. Samttei © i JOLEUEITS FIEST PART IN OLBURN'S COMMON-SC N'S ARITHMETIC A2J