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THE
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THE
ELEMENTS
ENGLISH GRAMMAR:
80 ARRANGED AS TO COMBINE THIS
ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETICAL METHODS:
WITH AN
INTRODUCTION FOR BEGINNERS,
VARIOUS EXERCISES, ORAL AND WRITTEN,
FORMATION, ANALYSIS, TRANSFORMATION, CLASSIFICATION. AND
CORRECTION OF SENTENCES.
BY
SAMUEL S. GREENE, A. M.,
"KOTE3S0E IK THE NORMAL UEl'AIiTMEST, BHOIVS XJNI VER8ITT AMU
SUPERINTENDENT OF I'l'BLIC SCUOOLS, I'ROVIUEJiCE.
PHILADELPHIA:
H. C W P ERTII WAI T & CC,
1862.
, according to Aci of Congress, in m vs&i A&E3. W
SAMUEL 8. GREENE,
j» tta Clsrk'a Office of tlie District Court o < ie&t Imvfft v.
>4 , A W 6a*
^i
PREFACE
\»
The design of this new work — for it is essentially new —
.s to combine in one treatise all the distinguishing features
of the " Analysis " and " The First Lessons." The depart-
ments of Orthography and Etymology are made sufficiently
full, and their principles are illustrated by a great variety oi
examples. Oral Exercises, Exercises for Parsing and for
the Correction of Errors, are introduced in their appropriate
places, under each part of speech. The Syntax contains
all the essential distinctions found in the "Analysis," but
differently arranged, and less rigidly and technically set forth.
In the presentation of a subject like that of English Gram-
mar, the first question which naturally arises is that of the
point of view from which it shall be examined. Shall the
forms of language be regarded as direct results from thought,
as the offspring of an inner impulse ? or shall they be looked
upon as possessing in themselves, regardless of their origin, all
that is necessary to guide to a successful investigation ? The
one may be called the interior, the other the exterior, point
of view. From th° one point, language is regarded as or-
ganized under the influence of a vital, life-imparting power,
determining all its outward forms and manifestations ; while
from the other it becomes a lifeless frame, to be dis-
sected and examined, for the purpose of ascertaining what it
is, and of what it is composed. At one point, the learner is
iii
M289986
tV I'iSEFACE.
placed in sympathy with the speaker or writer, in the act of
embodying thought, and is allowed, as it were, to inquire why
one form is chosen and another rejected ; why one expression,
better than another, supplies the inner demand ; whether a sin-
gle word or a group of words best meets the want, and what
the word or group shall be called, not so much from its exter-
nal features as from the nature of the idea winch it denotes.
From the other point of view the learner seeks to know what
a word or expression is from its external aspect — its ter-
mination, position, or from some auxiliary or other outward
sign. In one case, an idea being given, the problem with
the learner is, to find as well an appropriate expression as
to decide upon the nature and classification of the latter. In
the other case, an expression being given, the problem is to
determine therefrom its nature and class. In the one case,
expression is the prominent object of interest ; in the other
thought, expression being regarded only as the medium of
its manifestation.
The author has aimed in the following pages, as far as
possible, to take the interior point of view. He has, there-
fore, required much to be written by the pupil, believing that
what is produced by one's own mind is best appreciated and
best analyzed. To this end also have the Introduction and
Oral Exercises been prepared. Objects in the outer world
first attract the attention of the child : they first call forth
the desire to speak ; they are ever after his lexicon. Nay,
more : they give rise to most of the distinctions in language ;
and it is believed that an ingenious teacher would, at the out'
set, accomplish more in imparting a knowledge of grammar
during a single walk in the fields, among the objects of
tint ure, than during a whole week devoted to the abstract
definitions of a text book. With children, that which is
seen is impressive ; a distinction addressed to the eye isi
indelibly fixed. The image or mental picture arising there-
from is ever after distinct, awakening the impression of a
corresponding outward reality. What is defined in word?
PREFACE. V
must be committed to memory, as the result of another's
judgment ; what is seen reaches the understanding at once,
and defines itself by appealing directly to the discriminating
faculty. When visible objects are employed, the teacher i ;
required to tell but little ; he only guides, intimates, sugges' ' .
while the learner is observing for himself, discriminate"
for himself, expressing for himself.
The Introductory Course is intended to be wholly- , tium
The models are given as specimens of methods whk'
ers may adopt to evolve grammatical distinctions * ,d -• ver-
nal objects. As objects, with all their varieties, attrib-r^-s
relations, modifications, and distinctions, first evoked in the
child the desire to speak, so now they may be most fittingly
resorted to as the interpreters of the distinctions found in
speech itself. A child of six years already knows enough to
distinguish the noun, although he may not know one word of
its definition. He knows what an apple is ; it is an object
perfectly familiar to him ; its name is equally so. The one
he can touch, taste, handle ; the other he can only speak or
write. The one is the thing itself; the other its name, a
mere word, an object-word, a noun. He can now generalize,
and make the same distinction between & peach, & cherry, &
nut, an insect, a fsh, a bird, or a quadruped, and its name.
He finds nouns wherever he finds objects which he can name.
So, again, he knows the qualities of objects ; he may not
know the meaning of the word quality, but he knows when
an apple is sweet or sour, hard or soft, ripe or unripe, small
or large, rough or smooth, red r yellow, good or bad. He
knows that no one of these designates the apple itself, but
only something discovered in it. It is only necessary to
draw his attention to what he thus knows, and make a skil-.
ful use of it. The quality is something in the object ; the
word is something away from the object spoken or written —
a mere word — a quality-word — an adjective. He knows
when an object acts ; he can tell when a dog runs or walks,
growls or barks, plays or fights ; and yet the definition, " A
71 PREFACE.
verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer," is to
him wholly incomprehensible. It is easy to draw his atten-
tion to the difference between the action itself and the mere
action-word or verb which represents it. . In the same way,
all the parts of speech may be easily drawn from the learn-
er's own resources. The teacher thus appeals directly to the
intelligence of the learner, and not to the authority of a
definition. By similar processes, the combination of words
into sentences and parts of sentences may be easily illus-
trated. To do all this, and to prepare the way for the more
formal and technical course, is the object of the Introduction.
The author would invite attention to the mode of pre-
senting each of the prominent topics in Orthography and
Etymology.
1. An oral exercise, in which it is supposed that the learner
is about to enter upon a new field of inquiry, is first given.
In this nothing is to be taken for granted, nothing presented
dogmatically. The pupil's power to express what takes place
in the common affairs of life is made the basis of those gram-
matical distinctions, to which the teacher wishes to draw at-
tention. A principle in language being thus evolved, the
learner is called upon to express it in his own words ; he feels
the need of suitable terms.
2. The way is thus prepared for the defnitions which im-
mediately follow. They give expression to the very distinc-
tions which, in the oral exercise, the pupil has learned to
make. They are welcomed as exhibitions of his own
thoughts, and not as paragraphs of unmeaning words, to
be mastered by the mere force of memory. But the learner
is not left here. The ability to make a distinction, or even
to embody it in language, does not always insure its univer-
sal application. Hence, —
3. Copious and varied exercises immediately follow tho
definitions and remarks. These are intended (1.) to tefet
nis ability to apply the definitions ; (2.) his ability to pro-
duce illustrative examples ; (3.) his ability to alter and adap*
PREFACE. Vll
given examples, in all their varieties and modifications,
to the words with which they are connected and (4.) his
ability to correct erroneous expressions.
Two classes of errors are given : the first intended to
illustrate violations of the principles under consideration ;
the second, prevailing improprieties of speech, which the
rules of grammar may or may not correct. These, though
they may seem blemishes on the pages of a grammar, are
inserted in the hope that they may draw attention to the
importance of cultivating in the school room the spirit of
generous criticism. It is the study of the language, rather
than the technical forms of grammar, that should claim the
first attention of the teacher. It being his aim to cultivate
the habit of speaking and writing correctly, it is immaterial
whether all the principles of criticism are embodied in a
grammar, or are drawn from the known usages of good
speakers and good writers. These and kindred exercises,
if faithfully attended to, will do more than any tiling else to
eradicate those incorrect expressions which habit is daily
confirming. If it should seem that the examples are too
glaring and palpable, it must be said, in reply, that they are
mainly actual expressions taken from the lips of children,
and that the author has thought it best, at first, to take the
most obvious errors, and engage the attention hy presenting,
not doubtful, but striking examples.
The Syntax is arranged on a plan similar in ts spirit to
the other parts. It is assumed that a child can best under-
stand a sentence by witnessing its formation.- Hence, —
Under the head of Construction, the learner commences
with the foundation of the sentence, and from this most fa-
vorable point of view he witnesses the progress of its struc-
ture, from its commencement to its completion. As the parts
are added one by one, he notes the effect of each, and feels
that each supplies a want and fills a vacancy demanded by
the unfinished structure. In no other way so well can the
peculiar force of the elementary parts be appreciated. Hav
till PREFACE.
ing learned to combine every form and c 1 dition of the ele-
ments, whether with their relations expressed or unexpressed,
he commences, under the head of Analysis, the opposite
process of taking the structure in pieces, and pointing out all
the peculiarities of its parts. Thus by the two processes any
child of ordinary capacity must become acquainted with the
general features of a sentence, whether considered as a whole,
or in respect to its component parts. The way is now pre-
pared for the Rules and principles which apply to the more
minute details of construction. Various Cautions, intended
to guard the learner against prevalent errors in common con-
versation, are interspersed among the rules. They are to be
used in correcting errors. Under the head of Peculiarities
and Idioms, a few of the anomalous and peculiar expres-
sions which perplex the learner are collected and explained.
The author has thought it best to indicate the prominent
idea in the paragraphs to be committed to memory by Italics,
rather than to insert printed questions. The teacher can
then vary the questions to suit the wants of the learner ; ami
the learner will follow the guidance of the subject rather than
that of the questions. The paragraphs in large type are
intended as a first course, to be committed to memory by the
learner. The Remarks in smaller type are intended as a
second course for the more advanced pupil. Any parts of
this second course may be studied or omitted, at the discre-
tion of the teacher.
The author takes this opportunity to acknowledge his in-
debtedness to many friends, mostly teachers, whose sugges-
tions and words of encouragement have induced him to pre-
pare this work, in the hope that it may supply such defects
as were found in his other books, and may prove a complete
and convenient text book on the subject of grammar.
S. S. GREENE,
Providence, June, 1853.
C N TENTS.
INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
riii
bBSfOM I. Objects, xiii
II. Criticism, XT
III. Qualities of Objects, xvi
IV. Actions of Objects, xix
V. Ideas and Words, or Expressions of Ideas, xx
VI. Qualities of Actions, xxiii
VII. Relation of Objects, xxiv
VIII. Classification of Words, xxv
IX. Combination of Words, xxvi
X. The Proposition xxviii
XL The Proposition enlarged, xxix
XII. Implied Relations, xxxiii
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
Definition and Division, *.... 1
ORTHOGRAPHY.
Elementary Sounds. — Oral Exercise, 2
Classes of Elementary Sounds 2
Table of Elementary Sounds, ?
Letters. — Oral Exercise, 4
Classes of Letters, 5
Combination of Letters, 6
Syllables. — Oral Exercise, 8
Words as the Representatives of Sounds, 9
Derivation. — Rules for Spelling, 10
Spelling, 11
Primitive Words, 11
Derivative Words, 11
Prefixes. — Rules I. II., » 12
Suffixes. — Rules I. II. III., 15
Rules for the Use of Capital Letters, .* 18
ETYMOLOGY.
Classification of Words, 18
Parts of Speech, , 19
X CONTENTS.
Nouns, 2C
Classes of Nouns 21
Person, 22
Number, 23
Formation of the Plural, 23
Remarks on the Number of Nouns, 25
Gender 26
Case. — Oral Exercise, 28
Declension of Nouns, 29
Parsing, , 80
Adjectives. — Oral Exercise, 33
Classes of Adjectives, 38
Articles 34
Pronominal Adjectives, '. 35
Numeral Adjectives, 36
Qualifying Adjectives, 36
Comparison of Adjectives. — Formation of the Com-
parative and Superlative, 37
P&onouns. — Oral Exercises, 39
Classes of Pronouns, 41
Personal Pronouns, 41
Declension, 42
Relative Pronouns, 45
Simple Relatives, 40
Compound Relatives, 47
Interrogative Pronouns, 48
Vkubs. — Oral Exercise, 50
Classes of Verbs, 52
Voice. — Oral Exercise, o . . . 54
Mode. — Oral Exercise, 57
Participles, 59
Tense. — Oral Exercise, 03
Tenses in all the Modes, 67
Forms of the Verb, 69
Forms for each Division of Time, 70
Auxiliaries, 72
Conjugation of Auxiliaries 73
Formation of Tenses . 73
Indicative Mode, 73
Potential Mode, 70
Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive, 78
Number and Person of the Verb, 79
Conjugation, 79
'Of the Verb " to be," 80
Of the Verb " to love," 84
Interrogative and Negative Forms, 89
Synopsis. — Progressive Form 90
Synopsis. — Emphatic Form, 90
Forms for ei ch Division of Time combined. —
Verb " to make," 91
Irregular Verbs, 92
Defective Verbs, ?0
Impersonal Verbs, 96
Aura itBS, , .. 99
Classes of Adverbs, 100
Conjunctive Adverbs, 101
Comparison of Adverbs, 101
Phki'ositioxs, 102
Conjunctions v 104
Classes of Connectives, 105
fcfTEKJECTXON 108
CONTENTS. X
SYNTAX.
Oral Exercise , .... 110
1. CONSTRUCTION — Sentence- making.
Shot. I. Simple Sentences. — "Words. — Relations UNREP-
RESENTED, Ill
A. Subject and Predicate Unmodified, Ill
13. Subject Modified. — Oral Exercise 112
Various Kinds of Complex Subjects, 113
C. Predicate Modified. — Oral Exercise 116
Various Kinds of Complex Predicates, 116
D. Subject and Predicate Modified, 118
Sacr. II. Simple Sentences. — Phrases. — Relations Repre-
sented 119
A. Subject and Predicate not Modified 120
B. Subject Modified, 122
C. Predicate Modified 124
D. Subject and Predicate Modified 126
Sect. III. Complex Sentences. — Clauses. — Relations Rep-
resented, 127
A. Sentences having a SuViect and Predicate only, 128
B. Subject Modified, 129
C. Predicate Modified 131
D. Subject and Predicate Modified 134
Sect. IV. Compound Sentences. — Similar Parts Combined, 134
Case I. Coordinate Elements, 135
Case II. Coordinate Clauses, 137
Elements, 138
Classes of Elements, 138
Relation of Elements, Hi
Entire Sentences, 144
Interrogative Sentences, 144
Transformation of Sentences, 145
I. Altered Constructions, 145
II. Elements Suppressed. — Ellipses, 117
III. Elements Transposed, 143
II. ANALYSIS.
General Directions, 149
Models for Analysis, 151
I. Elements with the Relations Unrepresented, 151
II. Sentences with the Relations Represented, 153
III. Complex Sentences, 151
IV. Sentences having Coordinate Parts, 158
III. RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION.
Rtilbs, Cautions, and Remarks, 161
Rule I. Subject, 161
II. Attribute, 162
III. Pronoun, 164
IV. Verb, 167
V. Adjective, 169
XU CONTENTS.
VI. Apposition 172
VII. Possessives, 174
VIII. Objectives, 17-5
IX. Adverbs, 177
X. Interjection and Nominative Independent, 179
XI. Coordinate Conjunctions, 180
XII. Agreement of the Verb and Pronoun, 181
XIII. Preposition, 182
XIV. Object of the Preposition 183
XV. Subordinate Connectives, 184
Abridged Propositions, , 185
Subject in the Abridged Expression, 187
Predicate, Noun, or Pronoun, 187
XVI. Infinitives, 187
XVII. Participles 189
PECULIARITIES AND IDIOMS.
I. Classification and Uses op Words and Sentences, 131
A. The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech, 191
B. The Same Part of Speech in Different Relations and Uses, 102
C. The Same Word, Element, or Sentence in its Different
Properties, 1 )4
II. Peculiarities in the Form, Construction, and Applica-
tion of Words, l'J7
Figures of Etymology, 107
Figures of Syntax, 198
Figures of Rhetoric, 20C
III. Idiomatic Constructions, 202
IV. Structure of Sentences, 205
PUNCTUATION.
I Points used within a Sentence, 207
Comma, 207
Colon and Semicolon, 210
Dash and Parenthesis, 211
II. Points used at the Close of a Sentence, 212
Per od, 212
In' :rrogation Point, 212
Exdamation Point 212
Other Marks used in Writing, 213
PROSODY.
Definition, 215
Verse, 215
Feet, 215
Scanning, 216
Iambic Verse, 216
Trochaic Verse, 218
Anapaestic Verse, .... 218
Dactylic Verse, 219
Poetic Pauses 219
INTRODUCTORY COURSE FOR BEGINNERS.
LESSON I.
OBJECTS.
The world in which we live is full of objects, as trees
tirubs, flowers, grass, rocks, stones, metals, houses, barns
t alleys, rivers, brooks, springs, oceans, seas, lakes, ponds
oxen, horses, sheep, birds, insects, reptiles, mountains, hills
pools ; in all, a multitude so great that one could not count
them in a lifetime.
Lessons on objects may be conducted after the following
MODEL.*
Teacher. (Pointing to the object.) What is this ?
Pupils. . (In concert or separately.) The platform.
Teacher. Now, write upon your slates near the top, Names of objects
(The teacher does the same on the blackboard.) Under this,
write Platform, commencing it with a capital letter, and placing
a period (.) after it. Now, which is the object ?
Pupils. . (All point to the platform.)
Teacher. Which is the name of the object ?
* Directions to the Teacher.— 1. Let the class be so arranged that each mem-
ber can see the object pointed out. 2. Ask, while pointing lo it," What in this ? "
3. When the pupil has named it, write the name distinctly on the board. 4. Let each
point out, first the object, and then its name, on the board 5. Follow some order m
the selection of objects, such as size, similarity, or location. 6. At first, let each exer-
cise be written by every pupil. 7, After the few first lessons, let some member of tlio
class point out the objects, enjoining on him the observance of order. 8. At length,
let each member silently select for himself a given number of objects. 9. In review-
ing, let each scholar give in turn, orally, the names of objects in the room, taking
care that no object shall be repeated. 10. Should the teacher find (as he undoubtedly
will) th U the children have either no names, or incorrect, or perverted names tor com-
mon objects, let the correct name be given. 11. Encourage the habit of observation
and the spirit of inquiry respecting all common objects. 12. Continue the exercise till
ail the objects in the school room are exhausted ; then take objects out of the room.
13. When entire objects have been examined sufficiently, commence analyzi»g objects,
and pointing out their parts. Lach part is an object. 14. The term object-word may
gradually be displaced by the word noun. 15. At first, let the attention be drawn mora
forcibly to the object than to the name ; but at length let the name, as an object-word.
a noun-, become the more prominent. 16. Letthe exercises be multiplied and varied
by the teacher, till the object of the true basis of distinct" n is secured
h xtv
XIV INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
Pupils All point to the blackboard or their slates, (thus showing tha
they know the distinction.)
Teacher. (Pointing to the iirst object at the end of the platform, so as to
proceed in order.) What is this ?
Pupils. . Bookcase.
Teacher Write the word bookcase under Platform, placing the first letter
directly under the first letter of that word. Now, since plat
form and bookcase are names of objects, what shall we call :hcse
words ?
Pupils. . (All hesitate. )
Teacher. May we not call them, object-words f
Pupils. . (All give assent.)
The lesson, when carried to six objects, — quite enough for the first, —
will stand thus : —
NAMES OF OBJECTS.
&c
Q3eo4.
The same lesson may be written in lines so as to form a paragraph.
The first word should begin with a capital, the rest (unless some are proper
names) with small letters ; a comma should separate the words ; a period
should be placed at the end. Each pupil should be made to feel responsi-
ble for a strict observance of all these- rules of criticism. Neglect now will
be likely to result in neglect through life. The lesson will stand thus : —
Names op Oiwects. Platform, bookcase, chair, settee, desk, George,
Dox, table, umbrella, &c., &c.
EXERCISES.
I. (1.) What articles are made by a jeweller, a tailor, a milliner, a car-
penter, a cabinet maker, an upholsterer, an optician, a blacksmith ? What
do you call each NAME that you have given? Why? (2.) What articles do toe
use for food, drink, clothing, building, sewing, knitting, hunting, fishing,
cooking? What do you call each word that you have used? Why? (3.)
What articles may be found in a parlor, a dining room, kitchen,^ closet,
girden, church, hardware store, paper mill, grist mill, printing office, dry
g >ods store? What do you call each name? Why? (4.) What are tho
namps of the various trees, plants, shrubs, flowers, fishes, reptiles, birds,
domestic animals, nuts, fruits ? What do you call each word that you
have used? Why ?
II. (1.) Menhon all the parts of this room; of the door, of the window
the stove, the tabic, a chair, a phi, a book, a watch, a portfolio, a ship, a
liNTKuuucTUK* UOETB8J5. Y
wnting desk. (2.) Of a hat, a coat, a bonnet, an apron a dress, a boot, a
Blocking. (3.) Of a wagon, a harness, ahorse, a whip, a p bugh, a scythe, a
boat, a barn, a wheel, a steam engine. What do you call each word which
you have used t Why f
III. (1.) What do you call the following words: Pen, wafer, card, coal,
flour, paper, pencil, thermometer, eye, hair, nose, mouth, teeth, tongue,
ear, chin, cheek, lip, eyelid ?
LESSON II.
CRITICISM*
In writing exercises upon the slate or paper, the pupil
should be careful, (1.) to select his objects in an orderly
manner; (2.) to spell correctly; (3.) to use capitals cor-
rectly ; (4.) to write legibly and neatly, that is, to observe
uniformity in the size of the letters, to be careful to cross
the t's, dot the i's, and to preserve a horizontal di ection of
the lines ; (5.) to punctuate correctly.
MODEL FOR CORRECTION.
names of objects.
floar
Desk
Beiling
W in der
ink s
*a
n d
The teacher, having transferred some faulty exercise like the above from the Mete
of a pupil, calls the attention of the class to it in the following manner : —
Teacher. How many of you see any thing wrong in this ?
Pupils. . (All hands are raised. Ea«?h is eager to speak.)
Teacher. (Naming a pupil.) Mention one error.
Pupil. . The heading begins with a small letter, and has no lines drawn
under it.f
* Directions to the Teacher. — 1. Let the teacher at first examine each writ-
ten exercise carefully. 2. Mark and draw attention to each minute error. 3. En-
courage the members cf the class to criticise each other — always in (he spirit of
kindness. 4. Let the scholar exchange slates, and correct each other's errors. 5
Let li>is habit of criticism be extended to all written and oral exercises, especially
when the pupils begin to combine words.
* See note p. xvii.
XVI INTRODUCTORY CoUnSE.
Teacher. (Naming auotner.) What else is -wrong ?
Pupil. . The objects are selected without order.
Teacher. What else ?
Pupil. . The words floor, ceiling, and window are misspelled.
Teacher. Is any thing else wrong ?
Pupil. . The words floor, ceiling, and inkstand begin with small letters
Teacher. Who can see any other error ?
Pupil. . There are no periods at the end of the words.
TeacJter. (Having corrected the errors as they have been pointed out)
Does any one discover another error ?
Pupil. . The words are written in a disorderly manner.
Let such exercises be repeated, as often as may be necessary, to estab-
lish habits of care and critical examination of every written exercise
When children are trained to habits of accuracy, neatness, and precision,
tfcwy will know no other.
LESSON III.
QUALITIES OE OBJECTS.*
If we hold a piece of glass before our eyes, we can see
through it ; but if we hold a slate in the same manner, we
cannot see through it. We say of the glass, because we cat
see through it, it is transparent ; and of the slate, because
\yq cannot see through it, it is opaque. Neither transparent
* Directions to the Teacher. — 1. In writing, at first let the class use the full
term, as in the first model : " Tlie sponge is opaque," " The sponge is flexible," &c.
Af era little time they may use either of the contracted forms. 2. As this exercise
wi 1 be found exceedingly suggestive, the teacher should first show that the word is
cal ( J a quality-word, (adjective,) because it denotes a quality, and is on that account
to be distinguished from an object-word, (noun.) He should then aim to awaken in the
child an appreciation of the uses which we make of objects in ths arts on account oi
their qualities ; show also how we classify, compare, contrast, measure, weigh, &.•:., &c
3. When it is wished to illustrate some quality, as adhesive, brittle, aromatic, some ob
ject is brought in, which contains it, and by an appropriate experiment the child's atten-
tion is fastened upon it 4. Whenever a quality cannot be made to appear directly, the
opposite should be exhibited by way of contrast, and the attention of the pupil should
be directed to the prefixes employed, as elastic, inelastic, flexible, inflexible, sound, ;/■•• .
sound, ripe, unripe. 5. But in all this, let it be the teacher's ultimate aim to make the
distinction between the adjective and noun. fi. When the pupil has become sufficiently
acquainted with qualities, let him write the name of the quality and the name of the
object together, thus: "Porous sponge;" " White paper ; " " Qreen corn." Also
lot him explain the effect of the quality-word upon the object-word. 7. He will now
t>e prepared to show the effect of such words as the, tfii<, that, one, two, three, &c,
which do not express quality, but yet produce certain effects upon an object-word ; as,
' Three books ; " "This hat ; " " Every boy." 8. Let the learner now be told that the
term adjective applies to all the words which may be added to a noun, whether they de-
note qua'i.yornot. 9. When objects are compared, let them be placed side by side in
the presence of the class ; when classified, let the objects actually oe selected accord-
ing to some q> **Jity, as white, red, transparent &c.
1MTUOJJUCTORY COUKSJi. AVil
nor opaque is any thing apart from the object. We cannot
see transparent, nor take it in our hands as a thing, or a part
of a thing. It is what we discover in the glass. It i» an
attribute of the glass, which we call a quality.
MODEL.
Qualities of a sponge.
Teacher. (The teacher takes a piece of dry *ponge in his hand, and hclds
it up before the class.) What is this ?
Pupils. . A piece of sponge.
Teacher. Write " Qualities of the sponge " on your slates. (Then
holding it to his eye, he attempts to see through it.) What can
you say of the spongf ?
Pupils. . It is opaque.
Teacher. Now write upon your slates, "The sponge is opaque;" com-
mencing the expression with a capital letter, placing a period at
the end, and drawing a line under "opaque," thus, opaque*
(The teacher writes upon the board at the same time, as a model
for the class.)
Pupils. . (All write upon their slates.)
Teacher. Now, where is the quality ?
Pupils. . (All point to the sponge.)
Teacher. Where is the word which names or denotes it.
Pupils. . (All point to their slates or to the blackboard, thus distinguish-
ing between the word and the quality.)
Teacher. Now, which is the object ?
Pupils. . (All point to the sponge.)
Teacher. And where is the quality opaque ?
Pupils. . (All point to the sponge again.)
Teacher. But is the sponge both the object and the quality ?
Pupils. . Sponge is the object, and the quality is found in the sponge.
(Thus a distinction is made between an object and its qtialities.)
Teacher. (The teacher bends the sponge.) What can you say of the
sponge because it bends ?
Pupils. . It is limber.
Teacher. Yes, it is limber. Who can give a better word ?
Pupils. . (No one speaks.)
Teacher. When any thing bends, we say it is flexible. Pronounce the word,
and write, " The sponge is flexible."
Pupils. . (All speak the word, and then write as directed.)
Teacher. (The teacher now removes the pressure from -the sponge, and it
suddenly returns to its original form. He experiments with a
piece of lead or wax in the same way, and shows that neither
* The pupil should now be told that, in writing, a word is especially distinguished
by drawing a lino under it ; in printing, by using the Italic letter; in speaking, by
placing stress of voice upon it. Readings n.ro distinguished by drawing two lines
under them.
XV111 INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
returns fn its former state after the pressure .s removed.) Wha-i
can you say of the sponge because it romes ^ack to its origins]
form. ?
Pupils. . It is springy.
Teacher. Who can give another and a better word ?
Pupils. . One pupil raises his hand, and says, elastic.
Teacher. Right ; all may say elastic, and then write, " The sponge is can-
tic." Now, since the words opaque, flexible, and elastic are ap-
plied to qualities, and not to objects, what shall we call them ?
Ptqrils. . Quality-words.
Teacher Right; what kind of words then are porous, absorbent, light,
moist f
The lesson, extended to rive qualities, — quite sufficient for the first, —
will s'.and, —
The sponge is opaque.
The sponge inflexible.
The sponge is elastic.
The sponge is porous.
The sponge is absorbent.
Or thus : —
( opaque.
flexible.
The sponge is < elastic.
I porous.
[ absorbent.
Or thus : The sponge is opaque, flexible, elastic, porous, and absorbent.
EXERCISES.
I What qualities has a piece of India rubber, chalk, whalebone, wax,
paper, lead, pine wood, silk, broadcloth ? What do you call each word you
have used ? Why 1 Write out each example as in the model. In the exam-
ples, tell which is the object-word, and which the quality-word.
II. In the same manner, mention the qualities of an apple, an orange, a
piece of glass, a feather, a watch spring, a piece of granite, velvet, ivory,
leather, charcoal, fur. What kind of words have you used ? Whyt
III. Mention fire objects that are white, and thus classify them ; five
that are green ; five that arc yelloio ; five that are transparent ; five that are
opaque ; five that are porous, &c.
IV. Mention four objects that are soft, also four that are hard, and thus
contrast them ; four that are warm, and four that are cold; four that are
flexible, and four that are inflexible ; four that are elastic, and four that are
inelastic; four that are sweet, and four that are sour, &c. In Exercises
I J I. IV., what words have you used — object-words, or quality-words f
V. Mention two objects that are equally long, short, smooth, fair, old,
white, «"// thus compare them; aho two, one of which is longer, shorter,
smoother, See, than the other; also several objects, one of which is longest,
shortest, See,.
VI. How many fingers have you? How many boohs, slates, knives, ap-
ples, &c. and thus number themf What are the words which you have
used? Why do you call them adjectives f
VII. Tell which of the following words are nouns, and which adjectives
and thus classify them : ink, black, coal, white, paper, carpet, soft young,
istove, red. pencil, smooth, sharp, dull, steel, iron, hot, cold, book, bottle,
♦r.od. wafer.
INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
LESSON IV.
ACTIONS OF OBJECTS*
Among the m'llions of objects which we see, ail those
that are alive have the power to move or act, and are
classed as animate ; some others, as water, clouds, clocks,
watches, &c, move when acted upon. All these move,
ments are called actions. Thus a dog runs a biid Jlies.
Now, runs or files is not any thing apart from the object ,
(see M Qualities of Objects ; ") it is only an attribute, which
we call an action, just as we called another kind of attri-
bute a quality.
MODEL.
Teacher (The teacher says, Look yonder I) What is that ?
Pupils. (All answer.) A dog.
Teacher. What does he do ?
Pupils. . He bites.
Teacher. And what do you see him do now ?
Pupils. . He barks.
Teacher. And what now ?
Pupils. . He groiols.
Teacher. And what now ?
Pupils. . He eats.
Teacher. And what now ?
Pupils. . He drinks. m
Teacher. Now write upon your slates "The actions of a dog ; " and under-
neath this heading write, " The dog bites ; " and underneath that,
" The dog barks." Now, where is the action ?
Pupils. . (All point to the dog.)
Teacher. Where is the word which expresses the action ?
Pupils. . (All point to their slates, or the blackboard.)
Teacher. Now, which is the object ?
* Directions to the Teacher. — 1. At first it will be well for the teacher to per-
form some act himself, as renting, walking, or speaking. 2. Let him next suppose
some object to move ; as njish, a bird, an insect, and let the pupils be required to write
any actions of which it is capable. 3. Let the full form at first be used ; as, " The dog
bites t " " The do« barks," Sec ; afterwards employ the contracted forms. 4. As an
oral exercise, think of some animal, and let each child, in turn, give one action of
which it is capable. 5. When the children have become sufficiently familiar witU
the distinction, the word verb maybe substituted for action-word. 6. When the pu-
pils have advanced sufficiently far to see that some words are called Vttrba which do
not express actions, they are prepared for a lesson like the Oral Exercise, on p. 50.
7. In all the exercises careful 1) observe the rules of criticism.
XX INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
Pupils. . (All point to the dog.
Teacher. And where is the actioi. ?
Pupils. . (All point to the dog.)
Teacher. But is the dog both the object and the action
Pupils The dog is the object, and the action is seen in the dog, or ist
performed by him.
(Thus a distinction is made between an action and a word, and
between an action and an object.)
Teacher. Now, since the words bites, barks, groioh, &c, are applied to ac-
tions, and not to objects themselves, what shall we call theue
words ?
Pupils. . Action-ioords.
The lesson, extended to five actions, -will stand thus : —
The dog bites.
The dog barks.
The dog groicls.
The dog eats.
The dog drinks
Or thus: —
( bites,
barlcs.
The dog < growls,
eats.
( drinks.
Or thus : — The dog bites, barks, groinls, eats, drink?
. EXERCISES.
I. What actions can be performed by a horse, a man, a child, a trout, a
robin, a toad, a grasshopper, a cricket, a soldier, a sailor, a shoemaker, a
firmer, a musician ? What toords have you employed f Why f
II. What objects can sing, run, play, whistle, sleep, fly, write, study,
ride, walk, swim, float, sink, burn, freeze, melt, thaw ? What words have
you used? Why?
III. Tell ichich of the following words are nouns, which arc'adjectives ,
which are action-words, or verbs : Ship, mast, white, prow, ploughs, moves,
sinks, boat, writes, shines, son, moon, drive, map, blows, buttons, sews,
Uexible, plane, plain.
LESSON V.
IDEAS AND WORDS, OR EXPRESSIONS OE IDEAS.
When an object, as a hat, is placed before us, we say we
see it ; but when it is removed, and we continue to think of
it, or call it to mind after thinking of something else, we say
wv seem to see it. It is as though the mind had an eye, and
INTRODUCTORY COURSE XX
could see son. ithing just like the real hat It appear? \u be
in the same place, it has the same form, t is in every way
just like it, only it may not be as distinct. That which we
«eem to see is to the eye of the mind what the real' hat is to
that of the body. It is a kind of image or picture of the
real hat, and is called an idea.
EXERCISE.
I. Now, suppose yourselves at home by the fireside. Think of all the ob-
jects in the room, until you aet distinct pictures of them. Let them seem
to you just as if you were there ; then write their names in order, as you
would do if you were there, or as you did in Lesson I. Now, suppose your
selves in a garden, a barn, a street, afield, a church, a mill, on a mountain,
in the open air in a clear night, in a meadow, at sea, in a forest, and do the
same.
II. Mention any qualities of the objects which yoti seem to see in them.
III. Mention any actions which you seem to see any of them perform.
But when we have formed definite ideas of objects, we
need some way to inform others what we have in our minds.
When an object, as a dog, is before our eyes, we can point to
it, and without saying a word, show to others what we wish
them to see. But when we have only the idea, or picture
before the eye of the mind, however distinct and impressive.
that may be to us, we cannot show it to others. It can be
seen only by our mental eye. In that case we must resort
to signs, as will be seen in the following
MODEL.
Teacher. I have a distinct picture, or image, of a beautiful object before
my mind's eye. I seem to see its form and colors. Do you
see it ?
Pupils. . We do not know what it is.
Teacher. (The teacher takes from his desk a rose, and holds it up before
the class, then places it back in the desk.) How many now
know what it is ?
Pupils. . (All raise their hands.)
Poacher Now, I will give you a signal, and let us see, when I give it here-
after, if you cannot call up the picture of the rose, so that all or
us may be thinking of the same thing.
(The teacher now gives some signal, as a motion of the hand,
snapping the fingers, or touching the table, to which all agree as
a signal to call to mind the rose, and, after turning the thoughts
XX11 INTRODUCTORY BOURSE.
of the class upon something else, for a few moments, he sudden
ly introduces the signal.) What do you think of now ?
Ptipils . The rose.
Teacher. Now, though you cannot see the picture of the rose in my mind,
you have one in your own. And the signal tells you just when
to call it up. Now, I have another beautiful picture in my mind
Do you know what it is ?
Pupils. . "We cannot tell without a signal.
Teacher. I will give you a signal. (Here the teacher introduces a new sig-
nal, such as snapping his fingers twice, or making some new mo-
tion without any previous warning, and asks,) What new picture
have you now in your minds ?
Picpils. . (All hesitate ; finally one says,) We cannot tell what the signal
means.
Teacher. Why can you not tell what the signal means now, as well as
before ?
Piqrils. . Because we did not understand beforehand what it was to be
the signal of.
Teacher. Then, in order to make a signal good, there must be a mutual
understanding among those who use it; and then any outward
sign may enable us to call up our ideas. We must, therefore,
have a sign for a house, a sign for the tun, a sign for the moon,
and a sign for every other object around us. Would such signs
as I have given be good for every object ?
Pupils. . We could not make signs enough with our fingers for every
object. (Here let the class give such thoughts as they may have
about these signs.)
Teache)'. Instead of a motion of the hand, or a rap upon the table, if I
should make a sound from my mouth, would that be a signal ?
Pupils. It would, if we all agree to it
Teacher (The teacher makes some sound from the mouth, for the rose.)
How many will take this as a sign for the rose ?
Pupils. (All raise their hands.)
Twcke* ('the teacher experiments with, this new signal as before, then
says,) If, instead of this, I should give you the sound r-o-s-e, as a
sign, I should give you the one to which not only this school, but
all the people who speak the English language, have agreed.
Or, if I should write on the blackboard thus, rose, these marks
would be the signal to which all who can read the English lan-
guage have agreed. These signs are called words ; and when they
apply to objects, they arc object-words, or names of objects. Now,
when 1 point to the objects in the school room, you may give me
the object- word*, or names of the objects. (The teacher points
out various objects, and the pupils give their names; then reverses
the exercise, he giving the name, and they pointing to the object.
Finally, he gives the names of objects not present, asking the
pupils to call to mind the idea of each, and raise their hands to
show that they are thinking of it.
INTRODUCTORY COURSfc Xi 11
Qs feral Remj rk o-» Ideas. — The ingenuity of the teatfi«s, will generally Rug
rest the best methods? of testing the correctness of a child's conceptions. Perhaps the
b' st general rule is for the teacher, first of all, to imagine the object present, <>r him-
self in its presence, arid hid the pupil do the same. Let it he recalled, not as a mere
something known to exist, but as an object having form, proportion, color, position,
and dimensions; and let all these attributes he made to correspond with the rectify.
Then, assuming that the pupil has done the same, proceed to question him minutely,
as if the object were present. What is it? What is near to it ? What is its general
form? What is it like ? On what does it stand or rest? Of what materials i« it
composed ? How Ion?, how thick, how wide is it? What is its color, weight, and
hulk ? Of what pacts is it composed ? Does the sin shine upon it ? If so, on which
side is its shadow ? What time in the day is it, then ? What surrounds it ? &.c.
Let the pupil answer directly from the ideas in his own mind, and his answers will
usually reveal the correctness or incorrectness of these ideas. This practice of sean h-
ing after the pupil's id us, more than any thing else, evinces the teacher's skill and
power over the mental habits of his pupils. It should now be extended to every thing.
The lessons in reading, geography, arithmetic, &.c, should he enlivened by it. The aim
of the teacher should be to make every thing in the school room real, earnest, practical,
and lifcli/c , by awakening an interest in ideas rather than words. The principal de-
sign in introducing ■jh'trct lessons is to give m'eater life and reality to ideas. Let the
pupil then conceive his ideas of absent objects as though there was a corresponding
reality which he had just seen. When this can be done, lessons on objects may be
dropped. When it cannot be done, the object should be referred to at any and Bveiy
stage of progress
LESSON VI.* - . »
QUALITIES OF ACTIONS.
In Lesson II. it was seen that objects possessed certain
qualities, as smooth, rough, gentle ; it will now be seen that
actions, or even qualities of objects, may themselves possess
qualities, as will be shown in the following
MODEL.
Teacher (The teacher, calling the attention of the class, says,) How
many see my hand move ?
Pupils. .-(All raise their hands in token of assent.)
Teacher. (Moving his hand very slowly, he says,) How docs it move ?
Pupils. . Slowly. £
Teacher. What slowly, hand or moves?
Pupils. . Moves.
Teacher. What then does slowly express a quality of?
Pupils. . The action moves.
Teacher. Now write upon your slates, " Qualities of Actions ; " and under
it write, " The hand moves slowly."
* Directions to the Teacher, — 1. At first it will be well to direct the attention
of the learner, as in the model, only to adverbs of quality of manner. 2. Let him thea
see that words added to verbs showing when, inhere, why, are also adverbs. 3. Keep
up l he habit of criticism. 4. Let all the previous lessons lie reviewed. 5. Give fre-
quent examples in whic i the parts of speech si, it be mingled, <>. Let the pupils
write short sentences containing adverbs, or words answering the questions, How?
When? Where? &c. 7. Do not advance too rapidly, and be careful to secure every
point as you advance. 8. It will be well t:> give a subject and verb, and require the
class to add any thing, whether a word or a grt lp of words, that will express ihe time,
place, or manner of the act.
XXIV INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
Pttpils. . (All write.)
Teaclier. (Moving his hand quickly, he says,) How does my hand move now?
Pupils. . Quickly.
Teacher. Now write on your slates, "The hand moves quickly."
Pttpils. (All write.)
Teacher. Now, since quickly and slowly donote the quality of an actiob,
and not the action itself, what shall we call them"?
Pttpils. . Action -quality-words.
Teacher. Right ; and hence we hav® a new class of words, called action-
quality-words, or adverbs.
EXERCISES.
I. How can a bird fly? a horse run ? a Jish swim t How does the sun
ihinet the ship sail f the farmer labor f the carpenter build t the boy study f
II. Which of the following words are adverbs 1 which nouns? which
verbs t and which adjectives t
t Nail, hammer, pleasantly, heaps, thaw, elm, grows, rapidlv, renews, at-
tractive, sweetly, fiercely, temptation, points^" hopefully, otter, beaver,
weasel, musingly, weaves, hopes, point, lace, diamonds, wears, nervously,
meaningly.
LESSON VII.
RELATION OF OBJECTS.
When two objects are in any way connected, or when an
object is connected with an attribute of another, they are
related, or there is a relation between tfijuri. What these
relations are will be best seen by the fofl»ying lesson : —
Teacher. (The teacher takes a book and a piece of paper, and places the
latter on the former.) "Where is the paper ?
Pupils. . On the book.
Teacher. (Placing it under the book.) "Where is the paper now ?
Pupils. . Under the book. «
Teacher. (Placing the paper in the book.) Has the paper changed its re-
lation t *
Pupils. . It has ; it is in the book.
Teacher. (The teacher now changes the position of the paper, so as to place
it over, above, below, beside, near, &c, and then he moves it from
the book.) What is the relation, of its motion to the book ?
Pupils . It moves from the book.
Teacher. (The paper approaches the book.) What is the relation of the
motion to the book ?
Pupils. . It moves towards the book.
* Using a word while acting out its application is the best possible definition
Children thus learn the matting of words even before they can sp-sih
INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XX*
Teacher. What shall we call such words as on, wider, in, &c, sirce they
q show a relation t
Pupils. . Relation-words.
In this way the various relations of one object to another, or of an ob-
ject to an attribute of another, may be illustrated to the eye, so as to be
impressed upon the mind.
The teacher may now place two objects upon a book, a piece of paper
and a pen. Now, what are on the book ? The answer is, The paper a»wi
the pen. Here is a new relation-ioord, used to combine ox join two objects
in the same relation to the book. He places the book behind him, and
takes olF cne of the objects, assuring them that one object is on the book.
What can you say now is on the book ? The answer is, The paper or the
pen. The teacher asks, Which ? Some one guesses the paper ; he pre-
sents the book with the pen on it, and says, Not the paper, but the pc-n.
And, or, and but are combination-words.
EXERCISES.
Now point out the relation- words in the following expressions, at
whether two objects are related, br an object and an attribute : The hoi
the hill; the dog in the manger ; the slipper under the table; runn&ig to
school.; living by a river ; standi?ig beside a well ; a dog and a fox running
over a wall ; a needle or a pin in a cushion.
LESSON VIII.
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
We have seen that some words are used to name objects^
some to denote qualities of objects, some the actions of ob-
jects, some the qualities of attributes, (that is, actions or
qualities,) some the relation of objects, and some the com-
bination of objects. We may now take these characteristic:?
v see Lesson III., Exercise III., p. xviii.,) as the basis for
grouping these words into classes, thus : —
Words denoting objects = object-ioords — Nouns.
Words denoting qualities of objects = quality-words = Adjectives.
Words denoting actions of objects = action-words = Verbs.
Words denoting quality of attri- ) ( attribute- } \-n.- n ^- n r >c
butes ...... . . \-\quality-icords $- Adverbs.
Words denoting relation of objects = relation<oords = Prepositions.
Words denoting combination of ) S combination- )_ Conjunction-
objects ) I words )
Words denoting emotion * . . as emotion-words = Interjections.
* The interjection has not been illustrated like the other classes, for the obvioas
e&eon that it denotes neither an object, attribute, nor relation, but simply a sudden
(motion or feeling of the speaker. Its use and characteristics can easily be illustrat-
ed in a way similar to the others. Let the teacher show what would be a natural
exclamation when joyous, sad, in pain, or when sudden fear comes over us.
-Let the pupil now know that words thus classified are called yartt of speech,
C
INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
EXERCISES.
L Select t/ie nouns, adjectives, and verbs in the fotlottmuj . The &*
draics the caH. The birds sing a charming song. The fierce wind pent
trates the cottage of the peasant.
II. Select the adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions in thefol
hiving : The day passed pleasantly away. The cup stood on the table-
John and James have just arrived. The toind blew gently over the f eld.
The moon and stars shine beautifidly upon the lake.
III. Select the nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions, and interjections, from paragraphs in your reading
Iq'son.
IV. Take an object, as an apple, and illustrate, by means of it, a noun
an aqjective, a verb, an adverb, und, in connection ukth some other object, fa*
a knife,) a preposition, and a conjunction.
LESSON IX.
COMBINATION OF WORDS.
An object is always intimately related to its own attributes,
since the latter are always found in the former. Hence the
words which represent an object and one «of its attributes
may be combined to show this relation, as may be seen by
the following
MODEL.
Teacher. Suppose two birds, one black and the other white, were standing
upon a tree, and you wish to distinguish one of them from th«
other ; how could you show which one you mean ? .
■Pupils. . By saying, The black bird, or white bird.
Teacher. Right ; and you would place the object, bird, and its own quality
black or white, in relation to each other by combining the word*
which represent each. Is there any word to show their relation ?
Pupils. . There is none.
Teacher. Now, suppose I do not know the color of the bird and you wish
to tell me its color. What would you say ?
Pvpils. . We should say, The bird is black; cr, The bird is white.
Teacher. Right ; and you would, again, place the object, bird, and its own
quality, black or white, in relation to each other. Would they be
in the same order as before ?
Pupils. . They would not. Then, the quality-word was placed before the
object- word ; now, it is placed after it.
Teacher. Does any thing show the relation between them ?
Pupils. . Is shows or tells that the quality black belongs to the bird.
Teachei . Now, suppose two birds are alike, but one is stand'oig upon a
tree, and the other flying around it. How could you distiiiguuS
the latter ?
INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XXVU
Pupils. . We would say, The flying bird.
Teacher. You *ould place the object, bird, and its own action, flying, in
relation to each other. Is there any word to show their relation ?
Pupils. . There is none.
Teacher . But suppose I did not know what the bird was doing ; how would
you tell me ?
Pupils. . We should say, The bird is flying.
Teacher. So you would, again, place the object, bird, and its action, flyir, q
in relation to each other. Would they be in the same order a«
before ?
Pupils. . They would not. The action is now mentioned after the object
Then, it was mentioned before it.
Teacher. Is there any word to show the relation between them ?
Pupils. . The same word is says that the action was performed by the bird.
Teacher. Suppose, again, that there were two persons having the same
name George, the one a carpenter, and the other a farmer. How
could we distinguish the one from the other.
Pupils. . We i o aid say, George the carpenter.
Teacher. You vould place the name George and the name indicating his
occupation in relation to each other. Is there any word to show
the relation?
Pupils. . Then ta none.
Teacher. Now. suppose I did not know his occupation, and you were to
tell me How would you do it ?
Pupils. . We should say, George is a carpenter.
Teaeher. Yon vould, again, place the two names in relation to each other,
and. js before, you would place is between them to shoto or tell
the occupation. When we wish to connect an object with one of
its owii attributes, what two different states of mind may we
represent ?
Pupils. . We may distinguish one object from another, or we may say
sometmng of an object.
Teacher. Rigb! now review Lesson III., and then perform the following
examples : —
EXERCISES.
I. Give the qualities of sealing wax, an apple, salt, whalebone, ivory, gold,
the dew, a brook, a tree.
II. Give f.hi actions of a bee, a serpent, a scholar, a robin, a toad, a
sparrow, a gotu
III. Give some word to express the occupation, character, or office of
Washington, Webster, Columbus, Arnold.
IV. Distin -5UISH any of the objects in (I.) by some quality ; in (I£. 1
by some action , in (III.) by some office, occupation, or character.
V. Tell oi declare the qualities* of the objects in (I.), the action in
(II.), the office fee, in (III.)
* Direction:? *n the Teacher. — 1. It may now be said to the learner, that when
we distinguish UK object by its quality, action, or office, it is supposed that all know
that by which we iJius distinguish it ; the quality, or action, &c, is then assumed to be-
long to the object but when we say or tell what belongs to the object, wo then affirm,
declare, or PR»n -.rE what before" was assumed. Thus, in the expression " White
now," white is wwuofld ; but in the expression " The snow is ichite." the same <iualitv
XXV111 INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
VI. As the teacher exhibits the qualities of glass , first assume, and then
predicate them singly.
VII. Take any two qualities ; assume one, and predicate the other. Then
reverse the order, assuming the predicated, and predicating the asstimed
quality.
VIII. Assume any two, and predicate any two; as, The smooth, thin
glass is brittle and transparent. Reverse the order ; assume one, arid jrreai-
catethe rest. Predicate one, and assume the others. Assume all; predi-
cate aU
LESSON X
THE PROPOSITON
When an attribute is predicated of an object to which it be-
longs, — as, " Gold is yellow," — the group of words is called
a proposition ; but when the attribute is assumed, as, " Yel-
low gold," the group is not a proposition. The object is
then said to be restricted , limited, or distinguished.
EXERCISES.
I. Take some attribute of the following objects, and form propositions .
Grass, cherries, lilies, vapor, horses, rabbits, butterflies, ice, Solomon,
Abraham.
II. Tell which of the folloxcing expressions are propositions, and ichich
are not : The sun is shining. The winds are blowing. Growing tree.
The water flows. i°eter the Hermit. David was king. Isaiah prophesied.
An heroic general
111 Add to or change the folloxcing words between the periods so as to
form propositions : Weather cold. Grass grow. Hen cackle. Solon wise
man. He live. Nut fall. Ice melt. River flow. Bridges breaks. Boy
drown He cry. Helen poor. Report heard. Apples decays. Melon
grow.
IV. Change or vary the proposition, " The bird flies," so as to show thai
more than one bird performed the act — that the act teas performed yester-
day — that the act is to take place to-morrow — tell which words you
hare changed.
Is predicated. 2. Let the teacher take, in the presence of the class, some object, as
a piece of sponge, glass, or paper, and develop, as in Lesson III., its qualities, and
let the pupils assume and then predicate each quality; thus, " Soft sponge. The
tponge is soft." 3. Multiply examples, if necessary > till the distinction between predi-
cating and assuming shall lie understood.
INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
LESSON XI.
THE PROPOSITION ENLARGED
In lesson X. the proposition contains but two parts — r .A
which contains the attribute, called the subject, and the at-
tribute itself, which is affirmed of the subject, and hence
called the predicate. When the subject is not an individual
name, or when the predicate does not represent some par-
ticular act, it is necessary to add words to each, for the pur-
pose of explaining or individualizing them-
MODEL,
(1.) N King died."
(2.) " The king died."
(3.) " The good king died."
(4.) " The good king Edward VI. died."
'5.) " The good king Edward VI., the son of Henry VIII., died."
v 6.) " The good king Edward VI., son of Henry VIII., died in th*
sixteenth year of his age."
(7.) " The good king Edward VI., the son of Henry VIII., died in the
sixteenth year of his age, and the seventh year of his reign."
The effect of individualizing an object may be seen from
the following
MODEL.
Teacher. If each object in the universe had a distinct and separate name,
how many names should we have ?
Pupils. . "We could not count them ; there would je as many names as
objects.
Teacher. If you could not count them, could you ever commit them to
memory ?
Pupils. . Never ; for there would be as many different names as there are
different trees, quadrupeds, birds, fishes, &c. We could not count
all the individual fishes in a lifetime.
Teacher. If every individual object had an individual name, how could we
distinguish one object from another ?
Pupils. . Simply by giving its name.
Teacher. True ; not only each man would have a name, but each tree, dog,
horse, fish, &c., &c. ; and the mention of that name would draw
the attention to one object, and exclude all others. But since
we cannot give individual names to all objects, what shall we do i
Pupils. . (Probably none will answer.)
Teacher Here is an object which we call a ;»n, ~ud a ere is another object
like it • what shall we call this ?
K.XX
rSTRODUCTORY COURSE,,
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Piqrils. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Piqrils. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Piipils. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Pupil. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher.
Pupils. .
Teacher ■
Pupils. .
We call that a pen, too.
Very well ; now, if I say pen, can you tell which one I mea$
"We cannot ; for we think of one as well as the other.
Now, suppose one is a metallic pen, and the other is a quill pen*,
how could you point me to the individual pen which you mean ?
By saying, metallic pen.
Right ; and metallic pen would be just as good as an individual
name ; in other words, metallic would help you to individualize
the pen by excluding the other. But suppose I should present
you another object like these two ; what would you call that ?
We should call that in, pen.
Now, suppose this new one to be a metallic pen ; how could ycu
individualize it ?
We would say metallic pen.
Yes ; but you have two metallic pens, (the teacher holding them
up.) Which one do you mean ?
The small pen.
Yes ; but the quill pen is a small one, as you see, (the teacher
holding it up.)
We mean " the small metallic pen."
Very good ; and small metallic pen is just as good as an individ-
ual name. It distinguishes the pen you mean from the oth^r
two. But suppose ail the pens in the world Avere to be pre-
sented to you, one at a time, what would you call each ?
A pen.
Then suppose there were many millions of them ; would their
each have a name ?
They would.
Would they each have an individual name ?
They would not.
Would they each have a different name ?
They Avould not ; each would have the same name.
They would have one name in common ; hence called a common
name to distinguish it from an individual or proper name. But
do no objects have individual names ? Can you mention one ?
(One speaks.) Is not George an individual name ?
Why do you think so ?
I notice when you say "boy," all the boys in school look up as
though you called them all ; but when you say " George," we all
know what one you mean.
Right ; George is a proper name ; so, you see, he has two names
— a proper name, George, and a common name, boy. If I use the
common name, how can I show whom I mean ?
By individualizing him.
Right ; so I might say, " That small black-eved boy, who sits in
the corner of the room, near the door ; " or 1 might say George.
Which would you prefer ?
We should prefer George.
But most objects have only common names; how can we point
out individuals among such objects ?
Only oy individualizing them.
INTRODUCTORY 30URSE. XXX!
fcacher. Now, all words, and groups of words, whether they denote quali-
ty or not, when used to individualize an object, (not an attribute,)
are called adjective. Hence "that" "small," "black-eyed, 1
'* who sits in the corner, near the door," are all adjective expres-
sions.
EXERCISES.
I. Tell what individual name is the same as the following general
names individualized : The man who crossed the Atlantic, and discovered
the new world. The man who commanded the American army, defeated
the British forces, and was styled the father of his country.
II. Use a general name, and so individualize it, that it may designate.
Lafayette, Franklin, or Peter the Great.
III. Many common names, as tree, cloud, house, insect, fish, have no cor~
responding individual name. Take any ten of these, and so limit them that
each will denote an individual.
The effect of individualizing or limiting an action may be
seen from the following
. MODEL.
Teacher. In the expression, " The bird moves through the air," what one
word can be substituted for those in Italics t
Pupils. . Flies.
Teacher. Then flies = moves through the air. Will you add something to
limit the action in the following example, " The horse ran " t
Show how he ran.
Pupils. . The horse ran sloicly.
Teacher. Now, add something to show when the horse ran.
Pupils. . The horse ran in the morning.
Teacher. What does the expression " in the morning " exclude ?
Pupils. . It excludes any running which took place at night, at noon, of
any other time than morning.
Teacher. Will you add something to show where the horse ran ?
Pupils. . The horse ran in the street.
Teacher. Will you add something to limit the verb in the example, " The
boy opened''"! Show what he opened.
Pupils. , (Individually.) 1st. The boy opened his knife. 2d. The boy
opened his eyes. 3d. The boy opened the door. 4th. The boy
opened a book.
Teacher. Add something to show why he opened it.
Pupils. The boy opened the book to read.
Tcacfier. Now, how many different kinds of questions have you answered
by adding these words ? See if you can recall them.
Pupils . ( Separately.) 1st. We answered the question how ? 2d. We
answered the question when! 3d. We answered the question
where? 4th. We answered the question what? f>th We an
swered the question why ?
fc-XXll INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
EXERCISES.
I. Put the following words into propositions; then enlarge them by lim-
iting their subjects : —
Trees beautiful. Cloud disappear. Vapor rise. Dog bark Wind
piercing. Water flow. Flowers bloom. Ice melt. King reign. Ape
climb. Vulture tear. Boy boisterous. Child gentle. Serpent crawl.
Frog hop. Bee buzz.
II. Make propositions of the following, and enlargi them by completing
the meaning of the verb : —
Boy buy, (what.) Bee eat. Storm have broken. Dogs have devour. In-
sect destroy. Eagle see. Lady find. Ink stain. Man see. Washing-
• >n defeat. Arnold betray. Hawk catch. Mouse destroy.
Thus, The boy bought a pencil.
III. Tell when the folloioing events happened : —
Columbus discovered America, (when.) The Pilgrims reached New
England. Charlestown was burned. The people walked. The sun rises.*
The moon sets.* The dew disappears. Twilight commences. The storm
abated. i
IV. Tell where the following happened : —
The British were defeated, (where.) Moses was concealed. Jesus was
crucified. Congress was assembled. Webster died. Washington was
buried. The stranger stopped. The army encamped. The Pilgrims land-
ed. The old worn-out soldier slept.
V. Tell how the following happened : —
The dog was killed, (how.) The fire was kindled. The pupil wrote his
copy. The cars move. Harriet plays. The horses ran. The water falls.
VI. Tell why the following happened : —
My father has kindled a fire, (why.) Children go to school. The mer-
chant buys goods. The mother sings to her chlid. The messenger came.
The wall is made around the garden.
VII. Limit the subjects and predicates of the following, in any of ike
above ways : —
Winter has come. The ducks Avere swimming. The tree fell. The mice
gnawed. The weeds were removed. The fountain failed . The street was
crowded. The lecture was delivered. The coachman drove.
VIII. Point out the subjects, predicates, and limiting parts in the last
exercise.
IX. Tell all the nouns, adjectives, or adjective expressions, adverbs, or
adverbial expressions, prepositions, and conjunctions in the last exercise.
X. Make propositions of your own, and limit them as above, telling
what part of speech each word is.
* Let the pupils ascertain the time of rising and setting for the day when the lets-
vm k given out.
INTRODUCTORY COURSE. XXXUI
LESSON XII.
IMPLIED RELATONS.
We have seen how one object may be related to another
object, or to the attributes of another object ; also, how an
object may be related to its own attributes. We are now tc
show how an object and an attribute — that is, how a prop-
osition — is related to him who speaks it or writes it. There
must be three parties. 1st. Some one must speak. 2d.
Some one must be spoken to. 3d. Some person, or some
thing, must be spoken of.
MODEL.
Teacher. When Joseph said to his brethren, " Does my father yet live ? *
■who was the first party ?
Pupils. . Joseph.
Teacher. And who was the second ?
Pupils. . His brethren.
Teacher. Right ; who was the third ?
Pupils. . His father.
Teacher. Very well ; and when he said, " I am Joseph," who was the
speaker or first party ?
Pupils. . Joseph.
Teacher. Right ; and who the hearers, or second party ?
Pupils. . His brethren.
Teacher. And who the third, or person spoken of ?
Pupils. . (All hesitate — one says,) He spoke of himself.
Teacher. Very good. Then the parties stand, 1st, Joseph ; 2d, his breth-
ren ; 3d, Joseph. How many of the parties does Joseph represent ?
Pupils. . Two ; the 1st and 3d.
Teacher. When Joseph said, " Ye shall not see my face except your broth
er be with you," who was the speaker ?
Pupils. . Joseph.
Teacher. Who were the hearers ?
Pupils. . His brethren.
Teacher. Now, if Joseph, stranger as he was to his brethren, had said,
" This do and live, for Joseph fears God," instead of saying, ** 1
' fear God," would they have understood that he was speaking of
himself ?
Pupils. . They would not.
Teacher If a person by the name of Frank should say, (meaning him-
self,) "Frank wrote a letter," w :ld the hearer know that h«
meant himself f
XXXIV INTRODUCTORY COURSE.
Pupils. . fie would not.
Teacher. Then, when a speaker is at the same time the actor, i. e., repre-
sents two parties, he cannot be understood to be the speaker
when he uses the name of the actor. Ihus, if we had the words,
" Alexander conquered," no one would suppose that Alexander
said that. Now, how can we show both that Alexander con-
quered, and that Alexander said it ?
Pupils. . If he should say, " I conquered," I would show that he both did
it and said it.
Teacher. That is right ; I is used instead of Alexander, to show that the
actor and the speaker are both one. Sometimes the hearer and
the actor are both cne. What shall we do then ?
Pupil (No one answers.)
Teacher. When a teacher speaks to George, and says, " You write well,*'
the teacher is the speaker ; but who is the actor, and who tht
hearer ?
Pujrils. . George is both aotor and hearer.
Teacher. But, suppose the teacher should say, " George writes well," who
would be the actor, and who the hearer ?
Pupils. . George would be the actor, and those present the hearers.
Teacher. Then, in order to put George at the same time in the relation of
hearer and actor, we must say, "You write well."* Shall we
drop the name when we speak of George simply as the actor ?
Pupils. , We need not.
Teacher. But, suppose I were to say, " George wrote a letter, and George
carried the letter to George's teacher, and George's teacher com-
mended George for George's neat letter." Would the expression
be agreeable ?
Pupils. . It would not, because George is repeated so often.
Teacher. How could you avoid the repetition ?
Pupils. . By using he, his, and him.
Teacher. But suppose the same thing had been said of Elizabeth ; would
you use he, his, and him t
PujAls. . By no means ; but she and her.
Teacfiet. Suppose I should say of my hat, "My hat was made in New
York, and my hat was brought to Boston, where I bought my
hat ; " what would you do ?
Pujrils. . We would use it, instead of hat.
Teacher Very good. Now, these three parties are called persons ; the
speaker is called thejirst person ; the hearer the second ; and the
actor, or one spoken of, (whether a person or thing,) the third.
When the speaker wishes to represent himself, he cannot use his
name, but must use some other word, as, /; when he wishes to
represent the hearer, he must use thou or you ; when he wishes
to represent the person or thing spoken of, he may use the
name, but to avoid repetition he uses he, she, it, &c. Now, these
words, I, thou,, or you, he, she, it, and others, are employed in-
stead cf nouns to represent these several relations. Ttiey there-
fore are called Pronouns, (instead of nouns.) What new part
of speech or class of words have we ?
* Here i«t the teacher show that we sometimes introduce the name of the hearer, an
the person addressed — " George, you write well." Let both forms be adopted in th«
• ?»rcis as, rewiring the insertion of a comma afte the name.
i KOUUCTORY COURSE. XXXV
Pupils. . Pronouns.*
Feachet . Now, give all the classes of words, or parts of speech
EXERCISES
I. Make the subjects in the following sentences represent both the acton
and the speakers : —
Jacob loved Joseph. Cain slew Abel. Columbus was aided by the
Queen of Spain. William the Conqueror defeated Harold. Thus, / loved
Joseph. •
II. Make the same represent the hearers ; thus, You loved Joseph.
III. Make the objects in the above examples denote the speakers —
the hearer; thus, Jacob loved me.
IV. Put the following words into propositions, and (1.) make the event
appear to take place at the time the icords are spoken, Qrresent ;) {2.)
before they are spoken, (past;) (3.) after they are spoken, (future :) —
Wind blow. Corn grow. Hail rattle. Thunder roar. Fire burn. Ox
graze. Snow melt. Vapor climb. Dog worry cat. Mouse catch trap.
Play child barn in. Squirrel tree up run. Thus, The corn grows. The
corn grew. The corn will grow.
V. Put the same into propositions, so as to show that the event actually
takes place ; thai, so as to shoio, not that it takes place, but that it may,
can, or must take place ; thus, The corn grows. The corn may grow,
(but does not grow.)
VI. Alter the nouns so as to make them mean more than one. and set
what change takes place in the verb or predicate
GRAMMAR.
We have been studying things, and what belong to things
ideas, and the way to express ideas ; words, and the way to
form, alter, and classify them ; propositions or sentences
* Directions to the Teacher. — The relation of persons gives rise to the person-
al pronoun. The pronoun is not needed, like the noun, to represent an idea, but to
represent the relation of the parties necessarily implied in social intercourse. These
pronouns should be fully illustrated to the children. They all show a relation to the
speaker. The relation affects both the subject and predicate. Let its effect be illus-
trated thus : Suppose I say, " James reads ; " what change would take place if James
himself should express the" same thought? He would say, " I read." Let the pupils
explain the changes in both words. Now, if I should express the same thought to
James, I should say, " You read." What changes take place ?
The relation of person is here introduced particularly in order to develop the
pronoun. Besides this, there are necessarily two other relations to the speaker. When
the speaker states an event, he assumes the moment of speaking as the point from
which to reckon time, and places the event at that time, or throws it into the past or
future, as the fact may require. But this relation requires no new part of speech. It
affects only the predicate ; as, "James is writing, was writing, or will be writing."
Again : the speaker looks upon an event which he is about to record as something
real, as when a house is actually burned, or as something imaginary, as when we
think — " What if the house should be burned!" It is not actually burned. Now, this
distinction requires a different mode of speaking. The teacher should illustrate these
points, as well as the relation of number, before entering upon tho bod? 'f this book-
1XXV1 IN1R0DUCT0RY COURSE.
and the way to form them, and the parts which compose
them. Now, all this prepares the way to study grammar.
Much o.* it is grammar — all, indeed, that has taught us to
speak and write correctly. But grammar, arranged sys-
tematically, considers whatever pertains to simple sounds,
and the letters which represent them ; whatever pertains to
words, the changes they undergo, and the classes to whicn
they belong ; whatever pertains to sentences, the parts which
compose them, the relation, agreement, dependence, and
government of these parts ; whatever pertains to the forma-
tion of verse, or the arrangement of language so as to pro-
duce the agreeable effect of measure. All these are em-
braced in grammar ; it teaches us the principles which should
guide in using language correctly.
Suggestions to the Teacher. — It will be seen, throughout this introductory
course, that the aim has been to state nothingdogmatically, but to draw from the .stores
which the pupil already possesses, those facts, which, being placed in new relations,
may evolve the principle aimed at. In the full course which follows excepting the Oral
Exercises, the opposite method is pursued. The principle is first stated, and then the
illustrations are given ; yet the teacher, throughout the entire course, should adopt tbe
inductive method, whenever a difficult lesson is to be presented for the first time. The
inductive method is invaluable in helping a feeble or undisciplined mind to compre-
hend elementary principles, and to group them into more general rules. When prin
ciples are fully understood, the comprehensive rule or definition should he committed
to memory. The teacher cannot be too careful to insist upon this. Every genera' 1
rule or definition should be thoroughly learned and used. Let the learner now sntet
upon the main course ; let every point be understood as he advances, and his progress
will be satisfactory both to himself and his teacher.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
English Grammar treats of the principles and usages af
the English language ; it teaches us to speaK and write it
correctly.
Rem. — Grammar is not a code of laws made for the language, but rather
derived from the language in its present state. It is the province of the
grammarian to interpret and classify the analogies and usages of the lan-
guage so as to present them in a condensed and systematic view. Over
the laws of language he has no control, or rather he has the same kind of
control that the naturalist has over the laws of the physical world, and no
other. He does not make the rules of grammar ; he only exhibits what
already exists. That the " verb agrees with its nominative in number and
fierson," is not an authoritative edict from the grammarian. It existed as a
aw of language long before he discovered and published it. It was none
the less imperative before he uttered it, and becomes no moie so because he
has uttered it. True, the fact that it is drawn out, and distinctly stated,
makes it better known — more widely understood — and, it may be, more
generally obeyed. And herein consists the advantage of the study of
grammar : he who knows the laws of language has before him a standard
by which he may test his own expressions, while he who yields only an
unconscious obedience to usage is never sure when or why he is right, nor
when or why he is wrong. Entering upon the study of grammar with
these views, the learner, aided by his teacher, comes in contact with the
language itself ; he himself becomes a discoverer of analogies and principles,
it may be, not even noted by the grammarian ; and even if they are, he re-
ceives his greatest pleasure from the impression, that he is confirming, rather
than blindly obeying, the statement of another.'
It teaches how to combine letters into syllables, syllables
into words, and words into sentences, either in prose or verse.
Grammar is divided into four parts — Orthography, Ety-
mology, Syntax, and Prosody.
Orthography treats of elementary sounds, the letters
which represent them, and the combination of letters into
syllables and words.
Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, and
various modifications of words.
Syntax treats of the construction of sentences.
Prosody treats of the laws of versification.
1 '
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
Orthography treats of elementary sounds, the letters whi-.h
represent them, and the combination of letters into syllables
and words.
ELEMENTARY SOUNDS.
ORAL EXERCISE.
The teacher, calling the attention of the class, says, Listen ! Then giving
the sound of a in name, How many heard my voice ? Giving again the
sound of s as in *-in, (not the name ess, but the hissing sound alone,) he
says, Did you then hear my voice, or only a whispering sound f Am. Only
a whispering sound. Listen again ! giving, in the same manner, the
sound of/, he says, Did you hear a voice-sound, or a breath-sound f Am.
A breath-sotmd. With the same position of the organs, he adds a slight
vocality, producing the sound of v. Do you hear any voice now ? He tries
the same with p, and passes from p to b ; then from t to d, from k to g,
from s to z, from ch toj, from sh to zh, and thus shows the difference be-
tween a breath-sound, and a breath-sound mingled with a slight voice-sound .
Then, again, recalling their attention to such sounds as a, e, i, o, u, by
examples from his own voice, always to be repeated by the class, he causes
them to observe and note the distinctions. They are now prepared for the
following definitions : —
An elementary sound is the simplest sound of the language ;
as, a, e ; b, k.
The English language contains about forty elementary
sounds.
CLASSES OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS.
These sounds are divided into three classes — vocals, svb-
vocals, and aspirates.
The vocals consist of pure tone only ; as, a, e, i, o, u.
The subvocals consist of tone united with breath ; as, b, d
l m, n, r.
The aspirates consist of pure breath only ; as, p, t, k,f.
Vocals are subdivided into long and short.
"The long sound is one that can be protracted at pleasure ;
as may ay, hee ee.
The short sound is one formed by the same position of the
organs, but uttered with an explosive effort — pin, pen, hat, six
Rem. 1. — The a in hut is properly the short sound of a in fare, not a in
hate. The short sound of a in mate is e in met, as any one may see by
ORTHOGRAPHY ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 3
placing ihi organs in a position to give a and explode the sound. The t
la pin is the short suund of ee in seen; sometimes represented by ee as in
teen, (bin.) The o in not is the short sound of o in nor, not o in note.
The u in put is the short sound of oo in book. The u in but is the short
iound of u in fur, not u in mute.
R em . 2. — Some of the subvocals, like vocals, may be prolonged ; as, I, m,
t, r, th, v, %o, y, z, zh. Others are incapable of prolongation ; as, b, d, g,j, x.
The latter class are sometimes, though not properly, called mutes.
TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS.
Fecals.
Subvocals.
Aspirates.
Correlatives.
1. rt-l-e*
2 f-rt-r
3 b-rt-U
4. h-rt-t
1. 6-a-t
2. rf-o-g
3. g-o
4. >o-y
1. f-aj'-th
2. A-o-m-e
3. a-r-£
4. j^>-i-n-e
1.
2.
3.
4.
6-o-w = jo-o-l-e
rf-o-g = £-o-n
^-e-t = A;-i-n-d
th-i-s = ^A-u-m-b
5. m-e
5. l-o-t
5. s-u-n
5.
J-o-b = cA-i-n
6. m-e-t
6. m-a-n
6. *-a-k-e
G.
v-a-n = /-a-n
7. f-t'-n-e
8. p-;-n
9. g-o-l-d
10. m-o-v-e
11. n-o-t
12. m-w-t-e
13. p-tf-U
7. n-o
8. s-o-n-g
9. b-a-r
10. th-i-s
11. c-a-t
12. M>-i-s-e
13. 2-o-n-e
7. M-i-u-k
8. sA-o-n-e
9. cA-u-r-1
10. wA-e-n
7.
8.
tj-i-n-e = s-o-n
a-z-u-r-e = sA-u-t
14. c-M-p
15. f-oz<-n-d
14. u-z-u-i-e
15. y-e-s
The following subvocals, /, m, n, r, z, v, are sometimes called semtvoto-
lis ; the first four are called liquids.
N©TB. — By what rule such sounds as/, $, or c soft, which have no vo-
cality whatever, can be called semivowels, it is impossible to see.
The aspirates and subvocals are sometimes divided according to the or-
gans of speech chiefly employed in forming them. Thus, labials, p, b, f,
v ; dentals, t, d, s, z ; palatals', y soft and./; gutturals, k, q, c, and g hard;
nasals, m and n; and Unguals, I and r.
EXERCISE. ,
The following words contain the different elementary sounds in the lan-
guage. Utter first the word, and then the element pruded in Italics.
Vocals. N-a-ine, f-«-r, b-a-11, «-t ; m-e, m-e-t; f-j-ne, p-i-n; s-o*ld,
ci-o-ve, n-o-t; m-u-te, p-M-il, c-u-p ; f-o«-nd.
* SiowEST!or<s to thbTeachub. — The learner should be taueht here to give
tttention to the sounds only, not liie characters employed to represent them. The
teacher's voice must be bis guide. The character is often deceptive. The pupil
should be made to appreciate- the above classification, by actually producing ths
ltd noting the difference. In teaching these sounds, a whole word should
be given at first, and then one element after another may be dropped, till the pro-
posed one is left alone. Thus, fate, — fa, — a ; ball,— liX, — &; men, — me,— m ;
date, — da, — d.
In even ists on the correlatives, the teacher will do well to give them in pairs
thus : b — p, d — t, « — k, f/i — th, &c. After having secured a distinct utterance of
them in pairs, he will find it easy to show the learner that the subvocal b, for instance
is the same an the aspirate p, combined with a slight vocality. The asphate being
given, as /, the corresponding subvocal, that is, its correlative, v, will be fouvd by
adding a slight vocality, while the organs preserve ths same position.
4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Suiaocals. .B-at, d-og, g-o,j-oy, l-ife, m-an, n-o, so-ng, oa.-r, «.-oes,
v-oice, ?o-ise, y-cs, z-one, a-z-ure.
Aspirates, i'-aith, h-at, ar-/c, jp-ine, j-um, £-ake, th-wk, sA-one,
cA-urch, wh-en.
Tell by the sound which letters in the following promiscuous examples are
vocals, which are subvocals, and which are aspirates : —
And, great, made, fame, sad, mete, gave, life, voice, six, zebra, full, sup,
dine, bid, bag, kite, pare, when, this, shall, ocean, king, feel, drive, make,
link
Tell, in the last examples, which vowels are long, and which are short.
LETTERS.
ORAL EXERCISE.
Having drilled the class sufficiently on all the elementary sounds, the
teacher, standing at the blackboard, utters an elementary sound, as s, and
says, Now, suppose I make this mark -f on the board ; will you all give
me the sound when I point to the mark ? Then, giving another sound,
as a, he makes another different mark on the board, calling upon the class
to give the sound, when ne points to the mark, thus showing that these
sounds may be associated with any visible marks or characters. He con-
tinues to invent new marks, always, as he advances, recurring to the pre-
vious oiu;s, that they may not be forgotten, till some five or six have beer
given. Having thus shown the application and use of a letter, as an arbi
trary invention to represent a sound, he can easily exhibit to the class the
nature and use of an alphabet, the difference between a letter or a mere
mark and its power. And when the letter is called ess, he can easily show
the difference between the name ess, the letter or mark e, and the power of
», which must be given by the voice.
A letter is a character used to represent an elementary
sound.
The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters : A, a ;
B,b; C,c; D, d; E, e ; F, f ; G, g ; H, h ; I, i ; J, j ; K,
k ; L, 1 ; M, m ; N, n ; O, o ; P, p ; Q, q ; 11, r ; S, s ; T,
t; U, u; V, v; W, w ; X, x ; Y,y; Z, z.
The letters of the alphabet are of two kinds — capitals and
small letters.
The various styles of letters are the Roman, the Italic,
©tf) (ffnjllB^ and S^ufU.
Hem. — Letters of the same ?»-ole differ in size, giving rise to the fol-
lowing distinctions : —
Great Primer, Long primer,
English, ££T
X ICQ,, Minion,
Small Pica, Nonpareil
ORTHOGRAPHY LETTERS. O
When several letters, or combinations of letters, represent
ihe same sound, they are called equivalents ; as, name, g-ay,
th-ey. Thus a may be equivalent to ai, ay, ei, ey, ao, ua %
as in vain, pay, rein, prey, gaol, guage.
When a letter represents several different sounds, it is said
to be variable ; as, a in name, Jar, fat, hall, care, what, liar.
When a letter has no sound, it is said to be silent.
Rem. — It will be seen that there are more elementary sounds than let-
ters. Hence some letters must represent more than one sound each.
CLASSES OF LETTERS.
Letters are divided into two classes — vowefi> and conso~
nants.
Those letters which represent vocals are called vowels.
They are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y.
Rem. — W and Y are consonants when they precede a vowel in the same
syllable ; as, wine, twine, yes, yet. In all other situations they are vowels.
Those letters which represent subvocals and aspirates are
called consonants.
The consonants are b, d, g, I, m, n, r, v, z (subvocal,) and f h, k, c, q, p,
t, s, (aspirates ; ) x is a subvocal when it is equivalent to gs, an aspirate
when it is equivalent to ks.
EXERCISE.
Tell which letters are voicels, and which are consonants, in the following
words : —
Name, war, come, peace, tree, fish, good, -live, old, sad, young, wine
said, yet, win, new, gay, day.
Tell which of the following letters represent vocals, which subvocals, and
which aspirates : —
a, f, g, m, c, k, d, p, o, w, s, h, y, t, r, v, x, 1, e, j.
Analyze the following icords by giving, in order, the elementary sounds,
(not the names of the letters ;) tell how many sounds and how many letters
each has; also what letters are silent :—
Mete, laugh, bought, fought, believe, phthisic, balm, rough, piece, beau-
ty, thought, blight.
Model. M — e — t = mete : — three sounds and four letters. The
final e is silent.
Give the equivale?it vocals in the following words, tell what letters repre-
tent them, and write them on your slates, thus : a = ai, ei, ey, ay, ao, ua, ue.
The equivalent of a in pale, sail, ve/1, say, gaol, gawge, boqtiet ; of a
'«n ask, lawgh, a?mt, there, prayer, heir ; of a in hall, law, broad, fa* . ap
1*
6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
plated, bought, awe ; of e in be, tree, "key, nea, brief, concave, fatigue ; of
e in end, says, heifer, many, bury, head, feoff, agat'n ; of i in iron, eye, die,
by, buy, aisle, height, guide ; of i in ink, sieve, hymn, been, guilt, busy,
women ; of o in go, door, owe, goat, roe, flow, dough, sew?, beau ; of o in
dot, what, not, yacht; of u in music, flew, hue, \iew, adieu, beauty,
deiice, sluice, you, through. ; of u in ptill, wool, wolf, would ; of u in
gun, ton, touch, her, sir, myrrh, does ; of ou in plough, now; of oi in
toil, joy.
Give the equivalent consonant sounds of the following words, in the same
manner: —
The equivalents of s in sure, sliaill, cAaise, ocean, nuptial, session, par
tisH, gracio.us ; of z in zone, was, Xerxes, suffice ; of s in seat, cent ; of j in
joy, yem, soldier ; of v in vote, of, cipher ; of z in azure, measure, rouye ,
of w in wet, one, quilt ; of y in young, minion.
Point out the subvocals in the following icords, and give the correlatives of
szveh as have t/iem, thus : b p ; ?i ; d 1 : * —
Bat, bind, rub, tube, dog, bad, soda, day, gone, game, joy, just, gill,
George, vane, vine, then, those, long, let, fall, man, can, mend, mist, sing,
ring, cling, doing, run, river, star, wave, wine, wept, one, once, zone, zebra,
has, his, sacrifice, azure, leisure, rogue, yes, you, filial.
Point out the aspirates in the following, and give the corresponding sub-
vocals to such as have them : * —
Fame, far, if, staff, laugh, tough, phrase, kind, hid, quay, lock, hand,
hide, hill, heart, put, pink, Up, sin, same, sun, city, mice, tell, tune, tone,
net, pit, faced, forced, thief, thought, through, short, shave, shell, shan,
sure, ocean, official, church, chin, chest, such, what, when, why, where.
Give the various sounds of the several voicels in the following words : —
Hate, pate, ball, call, care, fare, hat, mat, far, mar, jar, liar, rival, mete,
replete, men, pen, hen, there, where, her, herd, crier, fuel, pine, mine, vine,
twine, pin, sin, din, tin, machine, marine, fir, virtue, bird, note, vote, tore,
lore, cot, odd, sod, sorrow, more, prove, for, sort, nor, son, done, because,
honey, tune, cure, tub, but, hut, pull, bush, push, fur, burr, sulphur, rule,
busy, siren, type, style, crystal, physic, myrrh, myrtle, lately, crazy,
martyr. Thus, hate — a, pate — d, ball — d.
Give the various sounds of the folloxcing consonants in Italics : —
Face, pace, cap, cup, suffice, yill, yo, rouye, was, sister, says, measure
wax, exist.
COMBINATION OF LETTERS.
When two or more letters unite, to represent a union of
elementary sounds, they form a combination of letters ; as
ou, oi, bl, on, no, not, breath, breadth, thrusts.
Note 1. — Sometimes a combination of elementary sounds is represented
by a single letter ; as, i = d e, (a in far, and c in me ;) u in union — yh ; o
in one = wu.
Note 2. — Sometimes a combination of letters represents a single ele-
mentary sound ; as, th in this ; ti, ci, si, ce, in martial, mission, official-
* Let this be done by actually giving the sound, not by looking at tba list of eoi
relatives.
ORTHOGRAPHY COMBINATION OF LETTERS. ?
ocean, oo, ee, act, gg, ze, bb,ff, 11, tt, in door, feet, Isaac, egg, buzz, ebb, off t
tall, butt.
I. Two or more vowels may unite ; as, ou in sounds uoy
m buoy.
A diphthong is the union of two vowels in one syllable
as, ou in sound, oi in voice.
A proper diphthong is one in which both vowels are
sounded ; as, ou in thou.
An improper diphthong is one in which one of the vowels
i3 silent ; as, the a in heat.
A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one syllable
as, eau in beauty.
A proper triphthong is one in which the three vowels are
sounded ; as, uoy in buoy.
An i?nproper triphthong is one in which one or two of
the vowels are silent ; as, ea in beauty, ie in adieu.
II. Two or more consonants may unite ; as, bl-e-nd, thr-ee
Rule 1. Two similar consonant sounds, that is, two aspi-
rates or two subvocals, may unite ; as, apt, adze, huts.
Rule 2. When a sub vocal is followed by an aspirate,
the latter usually takes the sound of its correlative ; as,
bag, bags,* pad, paas,* = bagz, padz.
Rule 3. When an aspirate is followed by a subvocal
the latter usually takes the sound of its correlative ; as
placed = plac'cZ t — placZ, scraped = scraped t = scmpt.
Note. — To this rule there are exceptions; as, fierce, first, se?it, no\
fierze, &rzt, send.
Rule 4. While two similar sounds may unite, two identi-
cal sounds cannot, even though letters to represent them
may be employed ; thus : egg, butt, ebb, whiff =: eg, but,
eb, whif, not eg-g, but-t, &c.
* By analyzing the plurals of bag and pad, it will be seen that, though we add the
Jetter s, which should represent an aspirate, we do not add an aspirate sound, but the
subvocal sound z, and that because it is preceded by the subvocals g and d. JMark
trie difference in the following plurals, where s is preceded oy an aspirate : caps, hata
hc-ks.
t Though d should represent a subvocal, it takes the sound of its correlative, bo
cause it is made to unite with aa aspirate.
8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
III. Any consonant sound may unite with a vowel sound
as, aw, no, did, call.
EXERCISE.
Point out the vowel combinations in the following words ; tell whether ths
diphthongs are proper or improper :-—
Fear, pear, voice, sound, pierce, receive, Europe, people, view, adieu,
beauty, though, chief, fail, Caesar, how, sew, gaol, mail, deal.
Point out the consonant combinations in the following, and tell what let-
ters are identical, and what are changed into their correlatives : —
Birds, blend, apt, capped, clapped, buzz, mats, heads, beads, brought,
off, skiff, pass, insist, first, faced, round, word, gird, gold, sold, bulb, verb,
worm, last, craft, compact, acts.
oYLLAJBLES.
ORAL EXERCISE8.
The teacher utters the word bat, thus, b — a — t, and says, How many
sounds did you hear ? Ans. Three. Now, let the class utter the same.
How many listinct efforts did you make ? Ans. Three. Now, utter them
all at once, thus, bat. How many efforts or impulses now ? Ans. One
When letters unite so as to be uttered at one impulse, like bat, they form
a syllable. How many impulses in bat-tert How many in pe-cu liar?
Which syllable receives the strongest impulse in con-trol, in-firm, dear-ly,
o-pent
A syllable is a letter or combination of letters uttered with
one impulse of the voice ; as, mat, mat-ter, ma-te-ri-al.
The essential part of a syllable is a vowel.
Note. — By voicel here is meant a vowel sound, whether represented by
a single letter, a diphthong, or a triphthong.
A syllable may consist, —
(1.) Of a vowel ; as, a -ere, ei-ther.
(2.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants prefixed ;
as, basis, bri-er, three, phthisis.
(3.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants affixed ; as.,
in, elf, mter-ests, earths.
(4.) Of a vowel with one or more consonants both pre-
fixed and affixed ; as, ?i-oo-n, tr-u-th, thr-u-sls.
Note. — In the preceding exercises the pupil has been occupied with
elementary sottnds and the characters which represent them. In this, he
is taugh" the modes, of combining these into syllables. It is often ne-
cessary \>i separate a syllable into its elements.
The process of combining elementary parts is called
ORTHOGRAPHY — WORDS. 9
tynthesis, and that of separating a combination into its ele-
ments is called analysis.
Note. — In analyzing a syllable, let the learner tell, (1.) the essential
part, that is, the vowel or diphthong ; (2.) the consonant or consonants
which are prefixed to it; (3.) the consonant or consonants which are
affixed to it.
MODELS FOR ANALYZING SYLLABLES.
An ... is a syllable consisting of two elements : —
A . . . . is the essential element, — it is a vowel. (Give its sound.)
n .... is a consonant, and represents a subvocal ; it is affixed to a.
(Give its sound.)
Break . is a syllable consisting of three parts : —
«a . . . . is the essential part, — it is a diphthong (why ?), improper (why ?) ;
8 is silent, — a only is sounded. (Give its sound.)
Br. ... is a union of two consonants, both representing subvocals, b and
r, (Rule 1,) which are prefixed to ea. (Give their sounds separate-
ly, then together.)
t is a consonant representing an aspirate, and is affixed to ea. (Give
its sound.)
EXERCISE.
Analyze the following syllables, and describe each element: —
Kite, dog, numb, boat, friend, truth, day, wax, bat, view, sound, aid,
meat, suit, rude, the, think, sit, leave, three, bursts, threats.
Form syllables by prefixing one consonant to a, ay, ey, ou, ieu, y ; two
or moke consona?its to e, oo, oe, i, ou, oi, ee. ca, ay, i, ey ; by affixing one,
two, or thkee consonants to any Jive of the above vowels or diphthongs.
Form ten syllables in which one, two, or "more consonants sliall be prefixed
and affixed.
WORDS AS THE REPRESENTATIVES OF SOUNDS.
Note. — Written words are used to represent both soimds and ideas. As
the representatives of sounds, they are classified according to the number
of syllables they contain.
A word may consist of one syllable alone, or of two or
more syllables united.
A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; as, boy
pen, tree.
A word of two syllables is called a dissyllable; as,
na-ture, faith-ful.
A word of three syllables is called a trisyllable ; as,
nat-u-ral, faith-ful-ness.
10
ZNGLISH GRAMMAR.
A word of four or more syllables is caLed a polysyllable '
as, un-nat-u-ral, un-j'aith-ful-ness.
Accent is a stress of the voice placed upon a particulai
syllable, to distinguish it from others.
Every word of more than one syllable has one of iti
syllables accented.
The accented syllable may be either the first, last, or a
middle syllable ; as, du'ty, be-long', pre-paying.
Some words hare a prim try and secondary accent; as, in"defat'igable,
in'conijjrehcn'sible.
Note. — In separating a word into its syllables, we should divide it as it
is pronounced. Thus some pronounce pat'ri-ot, others pa'tri-ot, and the t
must be joined to the first or second syllable accordingly. The learner
should tell how many syllables a word contains, calling it a monosyllable,
dissyllable, &c. ; then point out the accented syllable, and analyze each ac-
cording to the preceding models. In writing", a syllable should never be
divided at the end of a line. A word of more than one syllable may be
divided, one part being placed at the end of one line, and the other at the
beginning of the next.
EXERCISE.*
Analyze and describe the following words : —
Beat, said, tree; friendship, social, himself, stately ; complaining, inter-
pret, indolence; incessantly, condemnation, interdicting, domesticate;
consanguinity, confederation, impenetrable; mispronunciation, incompre-
hensible, indefatigable ; impenetrability ; incomprehensibility.
Correct the accent in the following words : —
Local', indolence, memo'rable, ig'noble, frequently, lament'able, actual,
indisputable, immutable, retro 'spect, completion, lateral. Change the ac-
cent in the following words to the second syllable, and give their meaning:
August, conjure, desert, en'trance, min'ute, pres'ent, prpj'ect, in'valid.
Write the following words upon your slate, and divide them into syllables,
marking the accented syllable: —
-. Conscience, detecting, inability, indubitable, commotion, laborious, re-
late, detestation, infesting, exemplary.
Model. Con'science.
DERIVATIONS. — RULES FOR SPELLING.
R]$M. — So far as the derivation of words refers to their application, and
classification into parts of speech, the subject properly belongs to the de-
partment of Etymology. So far as it refers to changes of letters in spell-
ing, it belongs to Orthography. For the sake of convenience, the fol-
lowing definitions and rules are here inserted.
* Let the teacher first give an ora! exercise in which lie shall exhibit the JMxeM bf
oIh own voice. Than tap. ire the pupil to repeat the same.
ORTHOGRAPHY SPELLING. 1 ]
A woro. in no way derived from another is a radical 01
primitive word ; as, form, harm.
A word formed by joining to a primitive some letter or
syllable, to modify its meaning, is a derivative word ; as, re-
form, harm-Zess.
A word formed by uniting two or more entire words is a
compound word ; as, inkstand, schoolhouse.
The parts of those compounds which have been long in use are generally
united closely ; as, nevertheless, sunrise ; in others, the hyphen (-) is used
to separate the parts ; as, labor-saving.
EXE11CISE.
Tell which of the following words are primitive, which derivative,
and which compound : —
Bright, fair, told, meek, some, playful, joyless, income, bookstore, play-
mate, cloud-capped, ink, housetop, fearful, reform, dismember, dreary.
Form derivative words from the following primitives, and draw a line
tinder the added syllable or letter : Hope, fear, harm, love, care, know, peer,
ape, weed, cloud, form, grade, place, joy, truth, poet, fade, weep, laugh.
Model. Hopeless.
Form comjmtnd words, by joining some appropriate word to each of the
following : Air, chest, alms, bank, birth, bill, lire, eye, weed, toll, wood,
foot, work, play, land, busy, tree, breeze.
Model. Ah-pump.
SPELLING.
Spelling is the art of representing words by their proper
letters.
PRIMITIVE WORDS.
The spelling of primitive words should be learned mainly from the die-
tionary or spelling book. The following are the most obvious rules : —
Rule 1. Monosyllables ending in/, I, ors, preceded by a
single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, stuff, bell, miss.
If, of, as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, thus, are excep
• ions.
Rule II. Words ending in any other consonant than/,
*, or s, do not double the final letter ; as, put, rap, on, trim,
orag,star. Add, odd, ebb, egg, inn, err, burr, purr, butt %
yuzz, fuzz, are exceptions.
DERIVATIVE WORDS
In the formation of derivative words, the final letters of the urirnitiv*
12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
as -well as those of the prefix, often undergo a change. Hence the follow
ing rules should be studied with care.
PREFIXES.
That part of a derivative word which is placed before the
radical is called a prefix; as, re-turn, pre-pay.
In applying prefixes to radicals, certain changes often take place, to
render the sound more agreeable. These changes are made according to
the following rules : —
lluLE I. Dropping the final Letter. — The final let-
ter of a prefix is sometimes omitted ; as, co-existent, for cow-
existent ; antarctic, for an^-arctic.
Rule II. Changing the final Letter. — The final
Jetter of a prefix is often changed to one which will har-
monize, in sound, with the initial letter of the radical ; as,
twt-pious, for irc-pious.
The final letter of the prefix generally becomes the same as the first let-
ter of the radical ; as, ^7-limitable.
The principal prefixes which undergo this change are ad, (ac, af, ag, al,
an, ap, ar, as, at;) con, (cog, com, col, cor;) en, (em;) e, (ex, ec, ef ;) dis,
(dif, di;) ob, (of, oc, op;) sub, (sue, suf, sug, sup, sur ;) syn, (sym, syl.)
EXERCISE ON RULES I. II.
Write derivatives by prefixing anti to arctic ; con to temporary, laborer,
extensive, location, mend, mix, mingle, nomen, relative; ad to scribe,
credit, firm, fluent, legation, rest, point, ply, tempt ; in to religious, legal,
egible, liberal, noble, perfect, penitent, potent, prove ; en to body, broil ;
ob to position, press, cur, fend ; sub to cession, fix, fumigation, fusion, gest,
press, render ; sijn to pathetic, logistic ; ex to centric, flux ; dis to fuse, late.
Correct the follouring examples by Ride II: Inply, subrender, inmediate,
sympathetic, adlegation, adfect, adcredit, obpose, obportunity, exfect, dis-
fer, inluminate, conlect, conmend, enploy, subgest.
Note. — The most common prefixes are contained in the following list.
They are chiefly prepositions of Saxon, Latin, or Greek origin. The roota
to which they are prefixed are not always used as distinct words in the
English language. The meaning of such radicals may generally be deter .
mined by applying different prefixes. Thus, in im-ycl, ex-pel, dis--pe\, com-
pel, pro-yel, one would readily see, by comparison, that pel means to drive.
These exercises on the prefixes may be omitted the first time of going
through the Grammar.
PREFIXES OF SAXON ORIGIN.
Prefix. Signification. Example.
A. on or in. .Aboard, ashore.
Be. near, on, far, over. Beside, Jestir.
For. against, not, from. .Forbid, forsake.
ORTHOGRAPHY PREFIXES.
13
Prefix.
Signification.
Example
Fore.
before.
Foresee, foretell
Mis.
wrong, error.
Mistake, misspell.
Over.
above, beyond.
Overdo, overload.
Out.
beyond, more.
Outrun, outdo.
Un.
not, negation.
r/nwise, ?mkind.
Under,
oeneath, inferior.
Understand, undergo.
With.
above, tip, subversion.
Uplift, upset.
against, from.
Withstand, withdraw
PREFIXES OF LATIN ORIGIN.
A, ah, abs.
from, aioay.
Abstract, avert.
Ad.*
to, at, towards.
Adjoin, approach (move).
Ante.
before.
Antecedent (going).
Bene.
good, well.
.Benevolent, oenehcent (doing)
Ris or Bi.
twice, two.
.Bisect (cut), 6ipcd (feet).
Circum.
around, about.
Ciratmnavigate (sail).
Cis.
on this side.
Cisalpine.
Con.*
together, with.
Collect, eonfine.
Contra.
against,
from, down.
Contradict (speak).
De.
.Dethrone, o*etract (draw).
Dis.*
astmcfer.
Distract, divert (turn).
E (ex).*
out of, from.
.Eject (drive), expel (cast).
.Extraordinary.
Extra.
beyond.
In.*
into, in ; not.f
Inform, include ; inactive.
Inter.
between.
interpose (place).
Intro.
in, within.
introduce (lead).
Non.
not.
iVonconformist.
Ob.*
against.
Obstruct (build).
Per.
through, by,
Perfect (made).
Post.
after.
Postpone (place).
Pre.
Before.
Precede (go).
Pro.
for, forth, forwards.
Pronoun, progress (go)
Preter.
past, beyond.
back, again.
Preternatural.
Re.
.Recall.
Retro.
backwards.
TJetfrograde (move).
Se.
apart, separation.
/Secede (go).
Sine.
without.
■Sinecure (care).
Sub.*
under.
Subscribe (write).
Super.
over, beyond,
over, change.
Superscribe (write).
Trans.
Transplant.
Uni.
one.
Uniform..
GREEK PREFIXES.
A or an.
without.
Anonymous (name).
A in phi.
both, double.
Amphibious (living).
Ana.
through, up.
dnatomy (cut).
Anti.
against.
4n^ichristian.
A po or Aph.
from.
Apogee (earth).
Dia.
through.
Diameter (measure).
Epi.
upon.
.Epitaph (tomb).
11 y per.
over, above.
JF/ypercritical.
Hypo.
under.
Hypocrite.
* Those prefixes marked with the star have other forms.
t Before a verb, in signifies into, in, and sometimes against ; before an adj«CO*T», It
has a negative meaning.
2
Prefix.
Signification.
Meta or Meih.
change, beyond.
Para.
from, against.
Peri*
around.
Syn.*
with.
14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Example.
.Metamorphose (form).
Paradox (opinion).
Perimeter (measure).
Sympathy (feeling).
Note. — Many of the roots to which the prefixes are added are not
distinct words in the English language. In the following exercises, as
in the above examples, such roots will be defined in a parenthesis. The
pupil should analyze derivative words according to the following : —
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
Impenitent ... is a derivative word. (Why ? )
Penitent .... is the radical part, and signifies repenting.
lm is the prefix (in, Rule II.,) and signifies not.
Hence, impenitent, not repenting.
EXERCISE.
Analyze the following derivative words according to the model : —
Aboard, aground, accredit, accustom, aggrieve, antepast (taste), for-
give, bestir, foreknow, misplace, overtake, abstract (draw), outrun, un-
common, adjoin, understand, uphold, withdraw, benevolent (wishing),
circumscribe (write or mark), cisalpine, bivalve, complete (fill), dispel
(drive), imprint, interdict (speak), oppose (place), pervade (pass), pre-
meditate, preoccupy, post mortem (death), progress (go), refer (carry),
reanimate, subterraneous, (earth), support (bear), superstructure, trans-
pose (place), acephalous (head), antipathy (feeling), apostatize (standing),
aphaeresis (taking), diagonal (angle), epitaph (tomb), paraphrase (speak-
ing), periphrasis.
Study the list of prefixes, and then add to tlie following roots all tJiat may
be used appropriately. Define each word.
Form spire f (to breathe), rect (to make straight), part, sign, sume (to
take), scribe, (to write), tract (to draw), duce (to lead), sist (to stand),
lude (to play), cede (to go, to yield), elude (to shut or close), port (to
carry), act, claim (to call or speak), natural, sine, prove, join, struct (to
build), course, cur (to run), vention (the act of coming or going), graph
(marked or written), fuse, press, pel (to urge or drive), volve (to roll or
turn), gress (to step, pass), fiw, flux, fer or late (to bear, cany), mise or
wit (to send), tain (to hold), diet (to speak), pose (to place), vers or vert
(to turn).
MODEL.
Conform, to form together, i. e., to assimilate, to yield to custom.
Reform, to form again, i. e., to renew.
inform, to form in [the mind], i. e., to tell.
ZMorm, to form from [the proper shape], i. e., to disfigure.
Perform, to form" through, i. e., thoroughly, to complete.
Iransiorm, to form over, i. e., to change the form.
Note. — By exercises like the above, multiplied at the discretion of the
teacher, the pupil may soon perceive the force of all the prefixes. It is a
* Those prefixes marked with the star have other forms.
f To many of Hie radicals two prefixes are added, each having its peculiar force ,
as, re-coa-struct, rc-ad-uiit. The pupil should explain each.
ORTHOGRAPHY — SUFFIXES. 15
good exercise to take the dictionary and require the pupil to explain all
the derivatives from any given root
SUFFIXES.
That part of a derivative word which is placed after the
radical is called a suffix ; as, faith^/wZ, end-Zm.
Note. — In applying suffixes, the final letter or letters of the radical
are often changed. Such changes are made according to the following
rules : —
Rule I. Doubling the final Letter. — On receiving a
suffix beginning with a vowel, the final consonant of a mono-
syllable, or of any word accented on the last syllable, is
doubled, if the radical ends with a single consonant, preceded
by a single vowel ; otherwise it remains single ; as, dig-ing,
dig-ging ; defer-ing, defer-ring. Not so repair-ing, defend-
ing, differ-ing.
Many words ending in I; as, travel, libel, cancel, cavil, chisel, counsel,
duel, equal, gravel, model, pencil, revel, rival, trammel, tunnel, &c, double
the I on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel, though not accented
on the last syllable. To these add worship, bias, kidnap; worshipping,
bias-sing, kidnap -ping.
Rule. II. Dropping the final Letter. — On receiving
a suffix beginning with a vowel, the final vowel of the radi-
cal is dropped in most words ending in e silent ; as, love-ing,
loving ; also in some words ending in y and i ; as, felicity-
ate, felicitate ; detism, deism.
Contrary to the general rule, the final e is retained, when preceded by c
or/7; as, peace-able, peaceable ; change-able, changeable; to preserve the
soft sound of those letters. So also we have singeing and sivingeing, to
distinguish tnem from singing, swinging.
The final letters le, when followed by ly, are dropped; as, noble-Zy, no-
bly. So also t or te before ce or eg ; as, vagrant-cy, vagrancy ; prelate-cy,
prelacy.
Words ending in II usually drop one I on taking an additional syllable
beginning with a consonant ; as, skill-/?^, skilful.
RuleJiI. Changing the final Letter. — The final y
of a radical word is generally changed to i, if preceded by
B. consonant ; otherwise it usually remains unchanged ; as,
nappy-es^, happiest ; duty-es, duties ; day-s, days.
The f, in w >rds ending in f or fe, is generally changed to v, when the
suffix begins with a vowel ; as, life, lives.
To prevent doubling i, the y is not changed when the suffix begins with
16
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
t ; as, marry^ny, marrying. .For tne same reason, the e being dropped by
Rule ll., in die, lie, tie, vie, the * is changed to y ; as, dying, lying, tying,
vying.
EXERCISES ON THE RULES.
Add ing, ed, or er, to beg, sit, dig, dim, bed, dog, let, bet, prefer, trans-
fer, forget, dispel, propel, befit, control, travel, level, counsel; love, compile,
receive, leave, grieve, confine, define. Add able to peace, change, sale ; —
LY to able, disagreeable, conformable, idle, noble ; — ful to skill, will; —
es, ed, or ing, to duty, lily, glory, story, history, beauty, beautify, amplify,
rectify.
Correct the following, and explain your corrections : —
Beding, beting, wifes, debarcd, abhorent, alkalioid, gloryous, citys, fan-
cyful, taming, carding, dutyful, bountyful, handsomeest, bloting, farne-
ous, agreeabley incompatibiey..
LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL SUFFIXES
The following list contains the principal suffixes. They signify, —
I. The person who, the female who : Ant, ar, aid, ary, eer, er, ee,
ent, ist, ite, ian, ive, or, ner, ster, yer, sen ; ess, ress, ix, ine.
Examples. African, one who lives in Africa. Servant, one who serves.
Beggar, one who begs. Adversary, one who opposes. "So, dotard, chariot-
eer, laborer, mortgagee, president, economist, favorite, arithmetician,
operative, actor, partner, teamster, lawyer, citizen; poetess, instructress,
testatrix, heroine.
II. The thing which, the act of the quality of, or state of: Acy,
age, al, ade, ancv, ance, ency, ence, ety, hood, ion, ism, ice, ment, mony,
ness, ry, ship, ude (tude), th, ty, ure, dom, ric.
Examples. Privacy, the state of being private. Justice, that which ia
just. Meekness, the quality of being meek. So, bondage, refusal, cannon-
ade, expectancy, repentanee, penitence, emergency, variety, childhood, erec-
tion, despotism, commandment, acrimony, goodness, rivalry, scholarship,
quietude, truth, novelty, presswre, Chris tendom, bishopric.
III. The property pertaining to, belonging to, or abounding in : Ac,
al, an (ian, ean,) ar, ary, ate, ic (tic or atic), i\e, ine, ory, ose (ious, eous,
uous), ful, ey, y.
Examples. Elegiac, pertaining to an elegy. Mountainons, abounding
in mountains So, autumnal, antediluvian, emblematic, lunatic, consular,
discretionary, juveniie, adamantine, transitory, verbose, wondrous, affec-
tionate, hope/id, sunny.
IV. To cause, to make : Ate (iate, uate), en, fy, ish, ize, ise.
Examples. Alienate, to make an alien. So, justi/y, stablis/i, soften*
civilize, criticise.
V. Diminution . Cle, cule, kin, let, ling, ock.
Examples. CorpuscZe, a little body or particle. So, animalcWe, lamb-
kin, eaglet, duckfe'ny, hilloc/fc.
VI. (Miscellantoxis:) Oid, like; as, spheroid — ive, tending to; as,
delusive — ward, towards; as, eastward — less, without; as, sleepless —
ics, science of; as, mathematics — ish, somewhat ; as, bluisA — like, re
tvrn/dmg ; as, \v\rliJce — ly, in manner ; as, wisely — able (iblc), capable of e
as, credible.
ORTHOGRAPHY SUFFIXES. 17
Note. - The following terminations are properly grammatical inflections,
used to denote the accidents of the noun, verb, adjective, or adverb : —
s or es, . more than one, (plural ;) as, birds,* churches.
ed, . . . past time, or the passive state ; as, loved, (did love, or was loved.)
ing, . . . continuing to do ; as , \oving.
Eli, est, . more, most ; as, warmer warmest.
Note. — The general signifi ;ations of the various suffixes are given !n
the above list. The pai ticular variations of these meanings, to suit given
cases, -noil readily suggost themselves.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS.
Quietude It is a derivative word. ("Why?)
Quiet is the radical part, and signifies rest.
Ude is the suffix, and signifies state of.
Hence quiet-ude, state of rest.
Note. — By combining this with the preceding model, the pupil can ana-
lyze all words having both a prefix and a suffix. All compounds may be
analyzed according to the following
MODEL.
Sea-breeze . . is a compound word, (why ?) formed from
sea, which means the ocean, and
breeze, . . .' . which means a gentle xoind.
Hence Sea-breeze, a gentle wind from the ocean.
EXERCISE.
Study the list of suffixes and prefixes, and t/ien analyze the following
derivative words : —
Incomplete, famous, peerage, childhood, peaceable, animalcule, pupilage,
globule, hopeful, kingdom, friendship, expectation, indecisive, incompati-
ble, incomprehensibility, righteous, signature, prepossession, dissimilarity,
discovery, recoverable, reorganize, transparency, debasement, promotion,
derangement, reinstate, predisposition, illumination, ignominiously, alle-
gation, confederation, impenetrability, disqualification.
Analyze the following Annpound words : —
Seahorse, timepiece, cloudcapped, fireplace, inkstand, tree-top, wood-
house, schoolroom, mousetrap, whaleship, sunrise, drawbridge, newspaper
copy-book, breastplate, eyesight, airpump, cornstalk, woodpile.
Add as many prefixes and suffixes as you can to the folloicing radicals,
and count the number of words you form from each : —
Form, gress (go), press, grade, range, merge, number, face, brace, value,
measure, like, state, cloud, fair, stable, equal, print, trust, burden, mix,
motxnt, line, social, move, base, animate, judge, test, use, lay, figure, firm,
Tene (come), join, struct (build), charge, cede, seive, tend.
* When sot es are added to If e present tense of the verb, thoy denote the singu-
la number.
2*
18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
MODEL.
Form — forms, former, formed, forming, formation, formal, formally,
formality, formalist, forma/ism, formative, reform, reforms, reformed, re*
forming, reformation, reformatory, reform* tive, reformer, inform, in-
forms, informer, informed, informing, infomal, informally, informality,
informant, misinform, misinformed, perform, ] 'erforms, joerformer, perform-
ed, performing, performance, performable, deform, deforms, deformed, de-
forming, deformity, transform, transforms, transforming, transformed, trans
formation, conform, conform*, conforming, conformed, conformer, conform-
ance, conformably, conformation, conformist, conformity, nonconformist,
nonconformity, uuform, unformed, uniform, imiforms, uniformly, uni-
formity. 65 words.
RULES FOR THE "USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS.
(1.) The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital ;
as, " Jesus wept."
(2.) Titles of honor and respect, and every proper name, and every ad-
jective derived from a proper name, should begin with a capital ; as, IIu
Highness, Boston, Bostonian.
(3.) Every appellation of the Deity should begin with a capital ; as
God, Jehovah, the Eternal.
(4.) The first word of every line in poetry should begin with a capital.
(5.) The words / and O should always be capitals.
(6.) Any important word may begin with a capital.
(7.) The principal words in the titles of books should begin with capi-
tals; as, Pope?s " Essay on Man."
(8.) The first word of a direct quotation, when the quotation forms a
complete sentence by itself, should begin with a capital.
ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology treats of the classification, derivation, and
various modifications of words.
A word is the sign of an idea, and is either spoken oi
written.
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
According to their meaning and use, all words are divided
into eight classes, called Parts of Speech.
All words are divided, according to the number of syllables they contain,
feto monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables, and polysyllables.
Words are divided, according to their formation, into primitive, derxva
tive, and compt
A primitive word is always a simple word
ETYMOLOGY — PARTS OF SPEECH- 19
Worcis which vary their forms in construction are called declinable
Those which do not vary them, are indeclinable.
PARTS OF SPEECH.
In English, there are eight parts of speech — the Noun, the
Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposi-
tion, the Conjunction, and the Interjection.
A. noun is the name of an object ; us, fruit, Henry, Boston.
The noun (from the Latin nomen, a name) embraces a large number
of words. All words which are the names of persons, animals, places, or
things, material or immaterial, are called nouns.
An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify the mean-
ing of a noun or pronoun ; as, good, faithful, this, some.
The adjective (from the Latin adjectus, added to, i. e., to a noun) em-
braces a large class of words, which are added to nouns to express their
qualities, or define them ; as, " toorthy citizens ; " " this book." All words
which are united to nouns answering such questions as What? W/iai
kirult Hoio many? are adjectives.
A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun ; as,
I, he, you, who.
This part of speech (derived from the Latin pro and nomen, for a name)
embraces but a small number of different words ; yet any noun may be
represented by a pronoun. It will be seen that these three parts of speech
are intimately connected: the first is the name of an object; the second
expresses the properties of the first ; the third may take the place of the
first.
A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state ;
as, be, read, sleep, is loved.
Nothing can be affirmed without a verb. It is derived from the Latin
verbum, the ivord, i. e., the important word; it embraces a large class of
words. The different uses of the verb, as well as those of the other parts
of speech, will be explained hereafter.
An adverb is used to modify the meaning of a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb ; as, quickly, first, far.
The adverb (from the Latin ad and verbum, added to a verb) embraces
all those words which are added to verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, to
denote time, place, and manner.
A preposition is a word used to show the relation between
a noun or pronoun and some other word ; &s,fro?n, upon, em,
with.
This part of speech includes a small list 0/ words, which are used to de-
note the relations of place, time, cause, manner, property, quality, &c. It
is called a preposition (from tho Latin prse, before, and positio, a placing,
placed before) from the circumstance of its bemg placed before the object
with which it is always associated.
20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
A conjunction is a word used to connect either woids
phrases, or propositions ; as, and, but, or.
The conjunction includes but a small class of words, which are used to
Join the parts of a sentence ; it is derived from the Latin conjunctus,./oiw«J.
The interjection is used to express some emotion of the
mind ; as, ! alas !
The term interjection (from the Latin interjectus, throrcn between) i*
applied to a few words that do not enter into the structure of a sentem.e,
Dut may be thrown in at pleasure, to express our feelings.
NOUNS.
A noun is the name of an object ; a; house, tree, Boston
goodness.
Rem. 1. — The word object, as here used, should be carefully distinguished
from the same term employed in Syntax, to denote the complement of the
transitive verb. It here denotes every species of existence, material or
immaterial, which may be considered independently or alone; and is op-
posed to the term attribute, which always represents something dependent
upon, belonging to, or inherent in an object.* Thus apple is the name of
the object, — the substance which embraces every possible property of the
apple, — while sweet is the name of one of its attributes, and when used
concretely, exists only in connection with the object, not independently
and alone. These fundamental distinctions gave rise, among the earlier
grammarians, to the terms noun substantive, or name of the substance,
(object,) for the former, and noun adjective, or name of the attribute,
(something added to the substance,) for the latter. Subsequently, the
former term was abbreviated into substantive, afterwards noun, and the lat-
ter into adjective.
Rem: 2. — It will be perceived that the idea of substance or independent
existence is the basis of the distinction between the noun and the adjec-
tive ; yet it must be remembered that nouns or adjectives are mere words,
so called, because the one denotes a substance, or an object, and the other
an attribute.
Rem. 3. — It will be seen, moreover, that an attribute, when regarded
as an independent existence, that is, when abstracted from the object to
which it belongs, becomes an object of itself. Its name, whether changed
or not, ought to be a noun. To show the change, however, the word denot-
ing the attribute generally undergoes some change ; as, good, good-«e.v.s,
bright, bright-ness.
Rem. 4. — Whenever a word, syllable, letter, or symbol of any kind is
spoken of as an object, it must be regarded as a noun ; as, " We is a per-
sonal pronoun." " Un is a prefix." " A is a vowel." " + is the sign of ad-
dition." " , is a comma."
Rem. 5. — So, again, when a phrase, or a clause of a sentence, is used to
denote an object, it becomes a noun ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant."
" That you have xoronged me doth appear in this."
* Note to the Teacher. — Tt i? alt-import ant that tho learner arquire the habit
erf distinguishing, at the outset, between <-\\ ooject and an attribute. This cei
don? by lessons on onjert.-; and their BttriDUtes. (See Introduction.) .!t will
the distinction a matter of concrptim, rather than of mere memory.
ETYMOLOGY — EXERCISES. 21
Rum. 6. — The noun is often called a substantive. All phrases or clauses,
*sed as nouns, are called substantive phrases or clauses.
CLASSES OF NOUNS.
Note. —For an oral exercise, see Introduction, pages xxix and xxx.
Nouns are divided into two classes — proper and common
A proper noun is the name of an individual object ; as,
Tames, Erie.
A common noun is a name which applies to each individ
jal of a class of objects ; as, man, boy, house.
Hem. 1. — As a proper noun denotes simply an individual, whenever it
»s made to represent an individual as belonging to a class, it becomes a
common noun ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age," i. e., a distinguished
orator.
Rem. 2. — Common nouns, on the contrary, may become proper, when,
by personification, or special use, the object named is regarded as an indi-
vidual, not belonging to a class ; as, " Justice, thou art fled to brutish
beasts, and men have lost their reason." " The Common" " The Park"
Under the head of common nouns are commonly reckoned collective,
abstract, and verbal nouns.
A collective noun is one which, in the singular, denotes more than one
object ; as, army, family, flock.
An abstract noun is the name of a quality or an action, considered apart
from the object to which it belongs ; as, goodness, virtue, wisdom, move-
ment
A verbal noun is a participle used as a noun ; as, " He was convicted
of stealing."
The infinitive is a kind of verbal noun ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant."
To nouns belong person, number, gender, and case.
EXERCISES.
Tell which of the following xcords designate objects, and which prop-
erties ; then select the nouns : —
Horse, old, good, peach, vine, heavy, dell, bard, strong, hill, star, empty,.
ocean, hilly, wright, William, European, engine, saline, road, top, stile,
bog, rose, upright, smith, smart, weed, smithy, smoke, balloon, oyster, sea,
charict, wild, hungry, thirst, delay, duty.
Select the nouns from the following sentence : —
As soon as the sun was seen coming over the hills, the fanner aroused
the laborers from slumber, who, with their scythes on their shoulders.
and pitchforks in their hands, marched gayly to the field to begin the la-
bora of the day.
Tell which of the following nouns are common, and tohich art
proper : —
Posterity, virtue. Rome, tea, Ner-;, Cicero, Germany, Paris, pomp, sua
22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
shine, meadow, Pekin, gulf, Medici, astronomy, Darius, father, calico,
Louden, dungeon, district, Sicily;
Tell which of the following common nouns are abstract, which art
collective,, which are verbal : —
Army, tasting, goodness, heat, harness, rising, sailing, wisdom, flock,
Wonder, teaching, energy, frankness, freedom, school, destiny, household,
multitude, teething, shutting, dulness, company.
Change the following names of properties into abstract nouns : —
pood, cheerful, diligent, rapid, powerful, dark, strong, heavy, lovely,
brilliant, beautiful, flaming, brave, swift, lame, solid, soft, thick, easy,
Btrange. Thus, good, good ness.
Write the names of fifteen objects m this room ; also write the names
of such objects at home as you can recall.
Fill the blanks in the following examples with nouns of your own se
lection : —
is short. are strong. have fallen. is a
quadruped. were destroyed. will deefv. will rise
at six o'clock. is the king of beasts. was the father of bis
country. was a tyrant. were overthrown in the Red Sea
• mourned for Absalom. shine at night.
PEKSON.
Note. — Review the oral exercise in the Introduction, page xxxiii.
Person is that property of a noun or pronoun which shows
its relation to the speaker.
A noun or pronoun must represent either the spieaker, the person spoken
to, or the person or tiling spoken of.
There are three persons — the first, second, and third.
The first person denotes the speaker ; as, " I, John, saw."
The second person denotes the person spoken to ; as
'* Children, obey your parents."
The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of ;
as, " Thomas did not come." M The harvest is abundant.'
"Rem. 1. — Nouns in the first or second person are never used as the sub-
ject or object of a verb, but may be put in apposition with either, for the
purpose of explanation ; as, " I, Paul, beseech you."
Rem. 2. — The names of inanimate objects are in the second person,
when the objects to which they apply are spoken to. Objects thus ad-
dressed are personified, and are treated as though they were actual hear •
crs ; as, " An! I have loved thee, Ocean."
EXERCISE.
Tell trie person of the nouns and pronouns in thefolkncinq sentenr.es : —
Nero was a tyrant. Children, obey your parents. Philip, thou art a
man. Belays are dangerous. We cannot tamper with temptation. Ta«
ETYMOLOGY — NUMBER OF NOUNS. 23
ferryman took us safely" across the river. Keep thy heart with all dili-
gence. We should love our country. King Philip was the last of the
Wampanoags. " Let my country be thine," said his preserver. Babylon,
how art thou fallen ! The lady loves her will.
Fill the blanks in the folloioing expressions; tell the person of the noun or
pronoun inserted: —
was executed for murder. ■ art the man. The lady lost
— purse and all contents. are willing to remain
»■ hast strangely ended. delight in surf bathing. The father
called ■ sons and daughters around . The duke was
esteemed for uprightness, and the duchess beloved for kind-
ness. Art a spirit of earth or air ? wast wrong to urge
me so.
NUMBER OF NOUNS.*
Number is that property of a noun which distinguishes one
object from more than one.
Nouns have two numbers — the singular and the plural.
The singular number denotes but one object ; as, horse,
river, nation.
The plural denotes more than one object ; as, horses, riv~
ers, nations.
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
I. The plural of nouns is regularly formed, —
(1.) By adding s, when the singular ends with a souncl
that can unite or coalesce with s ; as, look, looks ; tree,
trees.
(2.) By adding es, when the singular ends with a sound
that cannot unite or coalesce with s ; as lox, loxes ; church
churches.
Rem. 1. — When es is added, s has the sound of z ; as, fox, foxes; when
* only is added, it has the sound of z when it unites or coalesces with a
vowel ; as, folio, folios ; flea, fleas. It follows the rule (see Rule 1, page 7)
for the combination of consonants, when it follows a consonant ; that is,
it is s aspirate when it unites with an aspirate ; as, hat, hats ; cap, caps
surf, surf's; clock, clocks ; it is s subvocal (or z) when it follows a subvo-
cal; as,' lad, lads; log, logs; ball, balls ; farm, farms ; fan, fans ; war
tears.
* Let the teacler give an oral exercise before commencing " Number of Nouns.
Its object should be to show that number has reference to one, or more than one
Fust, take one bo ok, or any other object, and ask, " Ilow many do 1 hold up ? " .ins.
One book. Spell the word or write it on the slate. How many now? rfns. Two
bonks. What letter is added ? Why is it added ? How many "now ? Ans. Three
books. Are any more letters added? Jlns. No more. Ilow would you write the
word if there were twenty books ? Ans The same as when there were two or three.
24
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Eem. 2. — The s cr es adds a syllable when it. does not coalesce wito
the final syllable of the singular ; as, church, church-es ; race, rac-esj cage,
cag-es. The s or es does not add a syllable Avhen it does coalesce with the
final syllable ; as, work, works ; echo," echoes.
II. The plural is irregularly formed in various ways.
(1.) "When the final 5, contrary to the rule, (see Rem. 1, above,) ia
MiDYOcal, after the aspirate sounds f fe, the/ must be changed (see
Rule 1, page 7) into its correlative v ; as, loaf, loaves ; life, lives ; sheaf,
sheaves ; thief thieves. When s is aspirate, as in the plurals of dwarf, brief,
scarf reef, chief, grief, kerchief, handkerchief gulf, surf turf serf, proof
hoof, roof safe', fife, strife, the Vis not changed. Staff, when meaning a
stick, has stores' for its plural; when meaning a set of officers, it has
stajfs. The plural of wharf, in the United States, is wharves ; in Eng-
land, wharfs.
Note. — The s added to th aspirate is also subvocal, (except in truth, youth, and,
*t may !>e, a few Others,) and would cause a similar change in the orthography of the
plural, were not the correlative also represented by th ; as, oath, oaths ; buth, hatlu.
(2.) Most nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, add es, not-
withstanding s alone would coalesce with o ; as, cargo, cargoes. Yet canto,
grotto, quarto, junto, duodecimo, octavo, solo, portico, tyro, halo, add only s.
But by some writers es is added. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a vowel,
follow the general rule ; as, folio, folios ; cameo, cameos.
(3.) Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, change y into ies ;
as, glory, glories; mercy, mercies. Formerly, these words, in the sin-
gular, ended in ie , as, glorie, mercie ; their plurals were then formed regu-
larly. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, form the plural regularly ;
as, "day, days ; key, keys.
(4. ) The following plurals are very irregular ; as, man, men ; wo-
man, women ; brother, brethren, or brothers ; ox, oxen ; goose, geese ;
child, children ; foot, feet ; louse, lice; mouse, mice ; die, dice (meaning a
cube used in gaming), dies (meaning a stamp) ; pea, peas, or pease ; tooth,
teeth ; penny, pennies (coins), pence (a sum or value).
(5.) Names of substance, and most abstract nouns, commonly have
no plural form ; as, gold, cider, fax, tnilk, tar, goodness, darkness.
When different kinds of the substance are referred to, the plural is added ;
as, waters, wines, teas.
(6.) In compound words, if the word denoting the principal idea
is placed first, it is changed to form the plural ; as, court-martial, courts
martial ; cou.sin-(/erman, cousi?is-yerma?i ; hanger-on, hangers-on ; but if
the principal word is placed last, the final word is changed ; as, hand-
ful, haiul-fuls ; man-servant, woman-servant, and knight-templar change
both ; as, men-servants, women-servants, knights-templars.
(7.) Letters, marks, figures, and signs are pluralized by adding 's ; as,
the s's ; the i's ; the * 's ; the 9's ; the +'s.
(8.) On the use of the plural of proper names with a title prefixed,
the opinions of writers are divided. The following rules have the au-
thority of good usage : —
(a.) A proper name with the title of Mrs., or the ordinal numbers, two,
three, four, &c., prefixed, when used in the plural, is itself changed, and not
the title ; as, " the Mrs. Livingstons ; " " the two Dr. Warrens."
(b.) In addressing two or more persons of the same family, or of differ-
ent names, the title alone is changed ; as, " the Misses Livingston ; "
" Messrs. Walker." But either of the following forms may be used ; " the
Miss Rands," or " the Misses Hand ; " " the Mr. Walkers," or * the
Messrs. Walkers."
ETYMOLOGY EXERCISE. 25
(9.) Many nouns from foreign languages retain their original plu-
rals ; as, antithesis, antitheses ; automaton, automata ; axis, axes ; ban-
dit, banditti; beau, beaux ; cherub, cherubim; criterion, criteria; datum,
data ; desideratum, desiderata ; encomium, encomia ; erratum, errata ; fo-
cus, foci ; formula, formulae ; hypothesis, hypotheses ; madame, mesdames ;
magus, magi; memorandum, memoranda; monsieur, messieurs; nebula,
nebula ; phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii; seraph, seraphim; stimu-
lus, sti?nuli ; stratum, strata.
REMARKS ON THE NUMBER OF NOUNS.
Nouns "without the Plural. Rem. 1. — Proper names, when ap-
plied to individuals, strictly speaking, do not admit of a plural form. But
when several of the same name or family are spoken of together, the
noun takes the plural, according to the general rule ; as, " the Caesars ; "
" the Stuarts ; " " the Harpers."
Nouns without the Singular. Rem. 2. — The following nouns
have no singular : embers, oats, scissors, vespers, literati, antipodes, ashes,
clothes, billiards, ides, intestines, vitals, bellows, draxoers, nippers, tongs,
shears, &c. Lungs, bowels, and some others have a singular denoting a
part of the whole ; as, lung, boicel.
Rem. 3. — The following words are plural in respect to their original
form, but singular or plural in respect to their meaning : alms, amends,
news, riches, pains, (meaning effort,) odds, wages, molasses, series, suds,
corps, measles, tidiivjs, mumps, rickets, nuptials ; as also the names of
some of the sciences ; as, mathematics, ethics, optics, statics, mechanics,
mnemonics.
Note. — News is now regarded as singular ; so also measles and molasses, although
they iiave the plural form.
Nouns either Singular or Plural. Rem. 4. — Some nouns art
alike in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine, vermin, hose, fry, trout, tah-
mon, brace, dozen, yoJce, gross.
EXERCISE.
NUMBER of nouns.
Note. — Let the teacher give short sentences in the singular, as, watet
flows, and require the learner to change the nouns to the plural.
Tell which of the following nouns are singular, and which are plural : —
Daughter, diy, chairs, watches, apple, pears, stars, oats, coat, nails, ink
stand, horri, hearts, hoof, books, bundle, home, canes, umbrellas, markets
flower, leaf.
Write i\e plural of the following nouns, and give the rule for the termi
nation : ■
"Work example, lady, oak, horse, hope, stratagem, ferry, leaf, storm,
bird, bend, thief, dreg, sex, trick, band, bottle, day, filly, half, watch, iroa
nnegp*.
Tel 1 , the singular of the following : —
Heroes, pence, strata, teeth, dies, memoranda, children, mice, hypothe-
ses, messieurs, brethren, scissors, seraphim, axes, snuffers, errata," cheru-
oim, sheep, formulae, swine, sol >s, flies, knives, riches, mottoes, octavo*,
courts-martial, inkstands.
3
?6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Fill the following blanks ; the first Jive with common nouns in the singular
number : —
is a noble animal. is a virtue. cannot be seen.
— must be avoided. had reached the meridian. The next fivt
with propel' nouns in the singular : descended the Alps. waa
not at home. crossed the Delaware. was the Emperor of
Rome. was a valiant soldier. The next jive with abstract, verbal,
or collective nouns : on the water is a pleasant amusement.
was scattered by the wolves. is the mother of vice. waa
collected around the hearth-stone from friends is painful. 'The
next jive with nouns which do not admit of a plural : is sour.
is found in Pennsylvania. goes before a fall. is situated on
the Danube. is transparent. The next jive with nouns which do not
admh of a singular: must be ground. take to themselves
wings. were joyful. were made of brass. were voted
by the assembly.
Correct the following plurals, and give the rule or remarks for the cor
rection : —
Heros, negros, folioes, vallies, dutys, thiefs, calfs, stratums, phenome-
nons, cherubims, mans, turkies, flys, court-martials, father-in-laws, son in-
laws, cupsfull, seraphims.
Tell the nouns and pronouns in the following sentence ; tell the person and
number of each : —
" Thy testimonies have I taken as an heritage forever, for they are the
rejoicing of my heart."
GENDER.
Gender is a distinction of nouns in regard to sex.
There are three genders — the masculine, the feminine ^nd
the neuter.
Nouns which denote males are of the masculine gender ;
as, man, king, hero.
Nouns whicn denote females are of the feminine gender ;
as, woman, queen, mother.
Nouns which denote neither males nor females are of the
neuter gender ; as, tree, rock, paper.
Rem. 1. — Some nouns may denote either males or females ; as, parent,
child, cousin. These are sometimes said to be of the common gender ; but
as the gender of such nouns may generally be determined by the connec-
tion, there seems to be no necessity for the distinction.
Rem. 2. — By a figure of speech, called Personification, the masculine
or feminine gender is applied to inanimate obj ects ; thus we say of a ship,
" She sails well;" of the sun, "He rises in the east." The use of this
figure imparts peculiar beauty and animation to language. "Tier flag
streams wildly, and her fluttering sails pant to be on their flight." '* Thn
meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews."
Rem. 3. — In speaking of the inferior animals, and sometimes even oi
ETYMOLOGY GENDER. 2*3
infants, the distinction of sex is not observed; as, ** And it became a ser
pent, and Moses fled from before it." u Tbe child was lying in its cradle."
Hem. 4. — Collective nouns, if they convey the idea of .unity, or take
tbe plural form, are neuter; as, " The army, on its approach, raised a shout
of defiance." But if they convey the idea of plurality without the plural
form, they take the gender of the individuals which compose the collec
tinu ; as, " The jury could not agree upon their verdict."
There are three methods of distinguishing the sexes :— -
(1.) By using the different words : —
Examples. Bachelor, maid; beau, belle; boar, sow; boy, girl; broth-
er, sister ; buck, doe ; bull, cow ; cock, lien ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ;
father, mother ; gander, goose ; horse, mare ; husband, wife ; king, queen ;
lad, lass; lord, lady; male, female ; man, woman; nephew, niece; ram,
eive; son, daughter; stag, hind; uncle, aunt; wizard, witch; dog, bitch;
mottk, nun; hart, roe ; master, mistress; Mister, Mistress, (Mr., Mrs.;}
papa, mamma; sir, madam; sloven, slut; steer, heifer; youth, damsel,
twain, nymph.
Rem. — Some masculine nouns have no corresponding feminines ; as,
baker, brewer, porter, carrier; while some feminine nouns have no cor.
responding masculine ; as, laundress, seamstress.
(2.) By a difference of termination : —
Examples. Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; administrator, administra
trix ; adulterer, adultress ; ambassador, ambassadress ; autfwr, authoress ;
baron, baroness ; bridegroom, bride; benefactor, benefactress; count, count-
ess ; dauphin, dauphiness ; deacon, deaccmess ; director, directress; duke,
duchess; emperor, empress; executor, executrix ; governor, governess ; heir,
heiress ; hero, heroine ; hunter, huntress ; host, hostess ; instructor, instruct-
ress; Jew, Jewess ; landgrave, landgravine ; lion, lioness; marquis, mar-
chioness; monitor, monitress ; patron, patroness; poet, poetess; priest,
ss : prince, princess ; prophet, prophetess ; shepherd, shepherdess ; tes-
tator, testatrix ; t'ujer, tigress ; tidor, tutoress ; widower, widow ; god,
goddess; giant, giantess ; negro, negress ; songster, songstress; sorceier,
sorceress. '
(3.) By prefixes and suffixes.
Examples. "Landlord, landlady; gentleman, genueicoman ; -peacock,
peahen; he-goat, she-goat; man-servant, ma/d-servant ; ma/e-child, fs-
male-child; cock-STp&rrovr, Aen-sparrow ; grandfather, grandmother; Eng-
lishman, Englishioo/non; merman, mermaid; schoolmaster, schoolmistress.
EXERCISE.
Tell which of the following nouns are masexdine, which feminine, and
which neuter : —
Picture, walnut, duch ass, philosopher, Spaniard, door, letter, cap, sailor,
3ueen, priest, curtain, lioness, nun, captain, bridge, widow, hind, wizard,
eacon, hospital, fort, banner, doe, brother, countess.
Give the feminine gender to the follmoing nouns : —
Man, abbot, horse, hero, tiger, heir, prophet, Jew male, lord, widower,
nart, Lusband, beau, uncle, author, host, shepherd, poet, gander, sultan,
banter, master, drake, king, patron, brdegroom, stag prince, peer, nephew
28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
Give the masculine gender of the following : —
Empress, songstress, ewe, mother, sister, marchioness, maid, actress.
woman, she-goat, electress, witch, doe.
Fill the blanks in the following examples ; the first five with common
nouns in the masculine gender ; —
is patient. loves his master. reigns king of beasSR.
exposes his wares for sale. should venerate the eld. The
next five ivith proper or common nouns in the feminine gender : — was
Queen of England. entertained her guests with grace. was
a distinguished poetess. was the nightingale of Sweden.
loves her offspring. T/ie next five with collective nouns, and tell tlie gender :
met at the house of a friend. brought in a verdict. -
were appointed by the chair. must obey its leaders. listened
with delight.
CASE.
OUAL EXERCISE.
Will you say or declare something of a pent a, dog? a horse? a bee? a
tree ? Thus, " The pen is poor."
Now, suppose, instead of saying something, you had done something to
each of these ; how would you speak of it ? Ans. " I broke my pen." 1 Is
pen in the same relation or case as before ? Ans. It is not. It was then
the subject; it is now the object. (See Introduction, Proposition enlarged.)
Now, when we use a noun in the relation of subject, it is in the nomina-
tive case ; then in what case are these nouns ? George writes. The cfoudt
are black. The smoke ascends. The wind blows, when we use a noun in
the relation of object after a verb or a preposition, it is in the objective case.
In what case are these nouns ? I saw a man. He broke the window. They
walk in the garden. She sits on the sofa.
Suppose Henry owned a sled ; how would you tell whose sled it was ?
Ans. Henry's sled. Henry is now in the relation of a possessor, and the
word Henry's is said to be in the possessive case. Tell in what case the
following words in Italics are : John came yesterday. I saw a hen. Hum-
phrey's clock. The cat caught a mouse. Herbert's dog worried his broth-
er's cat.
Will you mention the name of some object in this room ? Ans. Chair
Now say something of the chair. " The chair stands on the floor."
CASE.
Case denotes the relation of a noun or pronoun to other
words.
There are three cases — the nominative, the possessive,
and the objective.
The nominative case is the simplest form of the noun, and
is commonly used as the subject of a proposition ; as,
* George speaks." " The door was shut."
Besides being the subject of a proposition, the nominative case may btf
Used, 1st, as the attribute of a proposition ; 2d, it may be used to id
he subject or attribute ; 3d, it may be independent of any other word.
ETYMOLOGY — DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 2&
The possessive denotes the relation of property or posses-
sion ; as, " David's harp."
The possessive singular of nouns is regularly formed by
adding an apostrophe (') and the letter s to the nominative ;
as, man's, Davids.
When the plural ends in s, the apostrophe only is added ;
as, boys\ ladies\ But the (') and s are added when it ends
in any other letter ; as, men's, women's, brethren's.
Rem. 1. — When the singular ends in s, or a letter or combination of
letters having the sound of s, and the addition of a syllable would be
harsh, the (') only is added ; as, goodness* sake, conscience' sake, Moses'
seat, Cockatrice' den.
Rem. 2. — Some difference of opinion prevails among writers respecting
the form of the possessive in other cases where the singular ends in s,
some adding the (') only, and some the (') and s. Thus we have Adams'
express, or, Adams's express ; Otis' letters, or Otis' s letters. The weight
of authority seems to be in favor of the additional s, whenever the laws of
euphony will admit ; especially if a syllable is added in pronouncing the
word ; as, Bates's Sermons.
When a noun follows a transitive verb or a preposition, it
is in the objective case ; as, " Thomas opened his knife."
" The bird sat on the tree."
Rem. 1. — The nominative case answers the question Who? or JVJiat? as,
" Who writes ? " " John writes." " What alarms him ? " " The storm
alarms him." The possessive answers the question W/iose? as, " Wlwse
book have you ? " " I have my brother's book." The objective case an-
swers the question Whom ? or M hat ? as, " Whom do you see ? " "I see the
captain." " On ichat does he stand ? " " He stands upon the deck."
Rem. 2. — The possessive case may be known by its form. But the
forms of the nominative and the objective are alike ; hence they must be
determined by their relation to other words/
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
The declension of a noun is its variation to denote num
ber and case.
EXAMPLES
1. Boy.
Sing.
Nam.
Poss.
Obj.
Boy,
Boy's,
Boy;
Plur.
Boya,
Boys',
Boys.
30
ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
Nam.
I'oss.
Obj.
Norn.
Poss
Obj.
Fly.
Sing.
Fly,
Fly's,
Fly;
John.
Sing.
John,
John's,
John :
Plur.
Flies,
Flies',
Flies.
Plur.
Wanting.
Norn.
Poss.
Obj.
Goodness.
Sing.
Goodness,
Goodness',
Goodness :
Phir
Wanting.
PARSING.
Parsing consists, —
(1.) In telling the part of speech.
(2.) In telling its properties or accidents.
(3.) In pointing out its relation to other words, and gif
lug the rule for its construction.*
In parsing a noun, say, —
(1.) It is a noun, and tell why.
(2.) It is common or proper, and tell why.
(3.) It is of the 1st, 2d, or 3d person, and tell why.
(4.) It is of the singular or plural number, and tell why.
(5.) It is of the masculine, feminine, or neuter gender, and ten why.
(6.) It is of the nominative, possessive, or objective case, and tell why.
(7.) The rule * for construction.
EXERCISE.
The following nouns are in the nominative case.
" George writes."
Parse them thus : — .
George is a noun, it is the name of an object ; proper, it is the name of
an individual object; of the third person, it denotes the person
spoken of; singular number, it denotes but one ; masculine gen-
der, it denotes a male ; nominative case, it is used as the subject
of the proposition " George writes." Rule I. " A noun or pro-
* The pupil who has been thoroughly drilled on the Introductory Course may
Be able to introduce this third element of parsing, if the teacher choose. The Rule*
of Syntax will, of course, be anticipated, if applied here. The teacher can omit ui
tee the riles, as he may think best.
ETYMOLOGY CASE. 31
noun used as the subject of a proposition must be in the nomi-
native case."
Trees grow. Rain falls. The ice melts. The serpent crawls. Susan
sings. The coal burns. The stars shine. Wisdom is profitable. Dogs
bark. T^o cars arrive. Smoke ascends. Columbus sailed. Mary studies.
The following nouns are in the nominative case. Those in Itaitcs are the
predicate-nominative. Parse the latter thus : —
" Henry was a scholar."
Scholar . is a, noun, (why?) common, (why?) third person, (why?) singu-
lar number, (why?) masculine gender, (why?^ nominative case ;
(why ?) it is used as the attribute of the proposition, " Henry is'
a scholar." llule II. **-A noun or pronoun used as the attribute
of a proposition must be in the nominative case."
Fetei was an apostle. Gold is a metal. Demosthenes was an orator.
Horses are animals. Borneo is an island. Algebra is a science. Air is a
fluid. "Water is a liquid. The earth is a globe. The Stars are suns. The
moon is a satellite.
The following nouns are in the nominative. Those in Italics are in the
nominative by apposition. Parse them thus : —
" The Emperor Nero was a tyrant."
Nero . . . is a noun, (why ?) proper, (why?) third person, (why?) singular
number, (why?) masculine gender, (why ?) nominative case ; it is
used to identify or explain Emperor. "Rule VI. (Repeat it.)
The psalmist David was a king. Paul the apostle was a martyr. The
lisciple John was beloved. Washington the general became Washington
the statesman. Milton the poet was blind. Henry the scholar was
crowned king.
The following nouns in Italics are in the nominative independent. Parse
them thus : —
" James, bring me a book." " John, come."
James . . is a proper noun,* second person, singular number, masculine
gender, and nominative case ; it denotes the person addressed.
Rule X.
The following nouns in Italics are in the p>Qssessive case, as may be seen
by the sign ('s). Parse them thus : —
" The pupil's task is easy."
Pupil's . is a noun, (why ?) common, (why ?) third person, (why ?) singu-
lar number, (why ?) masexdine or feminine gender; it denotes
either a male or a female ; possessive case ; it denotes the relation
of property or possession, and is used to limit task. Rule VII.
" A noun or pronoun used to limit another noun or pronoun by
denoting possession, must be in the possessive case."
The boy's hand was injured. The king's command was issued. The
rook's nest was destroyed. The bird's beak was broken. The s^pent's
fang is poisonous. The. elephant's tusk is white. Rufus's garden i3
watered. Mary's work is agreeable.
* it vill be wo 1 at times to omit the definitions, and shorten the formulas foi
pursing
32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The following nouns in Italics are in t/ie objective ;ase. Parse them
thus : —
" We visited Washington, the capital, in the District of Columbia."
Washington is a proper noun, third person, singular number, neuter gen
der, and objective case ; it is used as the object of visited, ac-
cording to Rule VIII. " A noun or pronoun used as the
object of a transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the
objective case."
Capital . . is a noun, &c, in the objective case, and is used to identify or
explain Washington, which is in the objective case Rule
VI. (Repeat it.)
District . . . is a common noun, &c, in the objective case, and is used as
the object of the preposition in, according to Rule XIV.
" A noun or pronoun used as the object of a preposition, must
be in the objective case."
Columbia . is a proper noun, &c, object of of. Rule XIV.
Put the following nouns in Italics into the znssessive case, and let each
expression be written on your slates, thus : —
" The carpenter' axe. The carpenter's axe."
Abraham son. David harp. Moses law. Adams Arithmetic. Web
ster Dictionary. Peter coat. The teacher book lies upon the pupil desk.
The coachman dog barked at the herdsman sheep. The lion roar aroused
the shepherd dog. The farmer corn was destroyed by his neighbor cow.
Parse each possessive noun on your slates, and give the rule for forming
the possessive case.
Write the following nouns in the possessive plural, and place some appro-
priate noun after them, thus : —
" The tailors' shears." " The men's apartment."
Tailor, seaman, captain, doctor, lawyer, judge, gardener, shoemaker,
blacksmith, hunter, laborer, fireman, engineer, conductor, superintendent,
director, president.
Tell the case of each noun in the following examples : —
John's hat lies on Peter's table. The pastor's visit consoled the moth-
er's heart. The love of truth should be cultivated in childhood.
Correct the folloioing examples and parse the nouns from your slate : —
The huntsman horn alarmed the shepherd dog. The pilot wife saw het
husband bos t. The jailer child approached the prisoner cell. We sat on
the boatman oar.
Select ten objects capable of action, and assert some appropriate action of
each. Then individualize (Introduction) or limit both the object and the
lotion, observing the rules of criticism.
Correct the following sentences : —
let me have my Slate. If you wil corect this .sentence, i wil thank
you ; — every sentence should begin with a capital. John seperates a silab-
»e at the end of a line, if you rite this exercise without refering to the ni'.a
for doubbling the final leter, you may misspcl too words, o, i have made a
mistake in the use of capitals. Had'nt sarah ought to begin all proper
names with a capital, george reads wrights syfers spels and studyi
raphy, but he does not put his commys where he'd ought to
ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 33
ADJECTIVES.
ORAL EXERCISE.
When I say " birds," I may mean all the birds in the world. How can
[ speak so as to limit the number of birds to ten ? Ans. By placing ten
before the word birds ; thus, ten buds. We limit the number by adding
something to the word birds. What shall we call the word thus added to a
noun ? Ans. An adjective, (added to.) Which represents the greater
mimber of horses, horses — or white horses ? Ans. Horses. What word has
thus diminished the number of horses ? Ans. White. Does white show a
quality as well as limit the number ? Ans. It does. Which represents
the greater number, books — or jive books f Ans. Boolcs. Does jive show a
quality of the books, as, good, useful, bad, at the same time that it limits
the number ? Ans. It does not; it limits without showing any quality.
What is the difference, then, between jive and white f Five limits without
qualifying, and white limits by qualifying. What kind of adjectives are
these in Italics t Good scholars, bad pens, old houses, faithful servants.
Ans. They are adjectives expressing quality. What kind of adjectives
are these ? Ten stoves, the^Vs^ class, yonder orchard, this hat, every day.
Ans. They arc adjectives which limit, but do not qualify. (See Introduc-
tion, " Objects Individualized.") Now study carefully the following def-
initions and mark the distinctions : —
An adjective is a word used to limit or qualify a noun ;
as, " a good school ; " "a diligent boy ; " " this table ; "
" ten men ; " " the box."
Rem. — All words which have the construction of the adjective are
here considered under the head of adjectives. The article, like the ad-
jective, belongs to the noun ; it has the same construction as the adjective,
and is hence placed among adjectives.
Every adjective is a dependent or subordinate word, and
must belong to some noun or pronoun as its principal.
Rem. 1. — When the noun or pronoun to which the adjective belongs
has been previously used in the same sentence, or is some indefinite word,
as, person, some one, or some thing, it may be omitted ; as, "I wiU give
~'.u this book, if you will give rxe'that." " The kingdom of heaven suf-
-«reth violence, and the violent [persons] take it by force."
_3,EM. 2. — An adjective belonging to a noun understood, or omitted,
takes the place of the latter, and is said to be an adjective used as a noun.
/°se model for parsing that and violent, p. 39.)
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives are divided into two classes — limbing and
qualifying.
A limiting adjective is used to define or restrict tb«> mean-
ing of a noun, without expressing any of its qualities ; as,
" the house ; " "five books ; " " this pen."
Limiting adjectives are divided into three classes — (trti
ties, -pronominal adjectives, and numeral adjectives.
54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ARTICLES.
The particular limiting adjectives, the and a, or an are
called articles.
The is called the definite, because it points out some par-
ticular thing ; as, " the desk ; " " the sun."
A, or an, is called an indefinite article, because it does not
point out any particular thing ; as," a pen ; " " an orchard.'*
An is used before a vowel sound, and a before a conso-
oant sound ; as, u an apple ; " " a pin ; " " an hour ; " " a
union ; " u an honor."
Rem. — Although the article is intimately connected with the limitation
of no ans, it is to be regarded rather as the sign of limitation than as it-
self a limiting vrord. When one says, " The man," the gives notice to the
hearer that some particular man is regarded in the mind of the speaker.
He will point out, by limiting or individualizing, who that particular man
is. A, or an, again, is a sign that the speaker, in regarding a multitude of
objects of the same kind, thinks of one, but no specific or particular one
The object may be limited to show what class or description of objects is
meant, but not to show any particular individual. A, or an, however, may
be said to limit whenever it prevents a noun from being used in its wides*
sense ; as, man = the whole human race ; a man = one man, but no par-
ticular one. The, again, may be said to extend the meaning of a noun in
the singular, when it is used in such examples as these : " TJie horse " =
" all horses." " The dog," &c.
EXERCISE.
Point out the articles in the folloiving examples ; tell which are definite
and which are indefinite : —
The hat, a book, a knife, a box, an heir, an ox, a plough, an orchard, an
industrious man, an honest man, a good citizen, a hill, a huge round stone,
the enemy, the union, the ewe.
Correct the folloxoing examples in all respects; write them on your
slates : —
I have got an hat. We have an horse. We saw many an one. Wc
went a snowballing. I dun it ttiis mornin'. I saw any quantity of slays.
I seen him do it. I board an hole with my uncles gimblet.*
* Suggestion to thk Teacher. — It is fi.e design of these examples, interspersed
among others, to keep alive the spirit of < ru'eism, and to root out hy practical exer-
cises those incorrect expressions which children have imbibed from early associations
Many of them may be corrected by principles already acquired. Others will antici-
pate the rules yet to he given. And others, still, can never be reached by the rules of
grammar ; they must be corrected by the laws of good usage. (See Rem. page 1 )
What rule of grammar will correct such an expression as " I disremember what lie
Baid ? " Cannot every word be parsed r Does grammar correct this? " I proper*
(purpose) to visit my friends." Every improvement in the expressions of the learner
U a decided gain, whether it be made by rule, or by observing the custom of good
speakers or good writers. Correct all faulty expressions by the rules of grammar,
it possible, but at all events correct them.
ETYMOLOGY ArJECTIVES. » j
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
Tiiose limiting adjectives which may, without U< !/J •*«
the article, represent a noun when understood, ai called
pronominal adjectives ; as, " That (book) is his , this i?
yours."
The principal pronominal adjectives are, this, that, these
those, former, latter, which, what, each, every, either, neither,
some, one, none, any, all, such, much, loth, few, fewer, fewest ,
first, last, little, less, least, many, more, most, own, same
several, sundry, enough.
Rem. 1. — When such adjectives represent a noun understood, they are
generally called pronouns. They may more properly be called limiting
adjectives, (pronominal adjectives,) used as nouns ; as, " This is my book."
The articles never represent a noun understood.
Rem. 2. — Qualifying adjectives may also represent a noun when under
stood, but the article must be prefixed ; as, " The good are happy."
Rem. 3. — All is sometimes a noun ; as, " He robbed me of my house,
my goods, my home, my all." Both is frequently a conjunction ; as, " 1
both saw and heard him."
Rem. 4. — Each, every, either, neither, are used distributively. This and
that, with their plurals, these and those, are used demonstratively. None,
any, all, such, ivhole, some, both, one, other, another, are used indefinitely.
Rem. 5. — These, those, all, many, both, few, feioer, fewest, several,
sundry, usually require a noun in the plural ; as, " These days." " Those
plants."
Rem. 6 — One and other are declined thus : —
Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu.
Nom. One, Ones, Nom. Other, Others,
Poss. One's, Ones', Poss. Other's, Others'
Obj. One; Ones. Obj. ' Other; Others.
EXERCISES.
Point out the pronominal adjectives in the folloioing sentences : —
This rule is preferable to that. These scholars are more studious thai,
those. The former plan has yielded to the latter. Each exercise was well
written. Every accused one was acquitted. The first method is better
than the last. Many of our hopes are blasted. Few men are of the same
mind. Much remains to be said upon all these points. Our own wishes
must often be yielded to those of others. More were present than were
expected. Little hope was entertained of his recovery. Neither remark
was just. The same course was pursued by several of the members.
Much harm arises from imprudence. I am less than the least of all
saints
Correct the following in all respects: —
Those sort of cherries aint srood, these exercises is not corect in somt
36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
respect, tlie Times t£ very hard, our dutys must Be performed. Sever'
pupils come in late yesterday None has came, ll'aint you seen them
men ? he said he hadat none. James thinks thats right, but otherfc
dozent.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
Numeral adjectives are those which express number , as,
wie, two, three, first, second, &c.
Numeral adjectives are divided into, Cardinal, which
denote how many ; as, one, two, three, &c. ; Ordinal, whi^ii
show which one of a series ; as, first, second, third.
EXERCISE.
Apply cardinal numbers to the following nouns ; change them to the
pkiral, if necessary : —
Peach, berry, box, cup, match, cork, shoe, glove, pencil, wafer, penny,
mouse, goose, woman, court-martial, tooth, brother-in-law, handful, stra-
•uin, index, stamen, cherub, phenomenon.
Correct the following plurals, and apply to each any numeral greater tJian
one or first : —
Oxes, calfs, sheeps, deers, geeses, 9s, 7s, fs, cherubims, serapnims ;
wines, vallies, loafs, ehimnies, journies, studys, commander-in-chiefs,
pros, soloes, grottoes, ladys.
Collr.it all the erroneous expression? which you have noticed to-day. and
orrect tnem. Be careful to avoid them yourself
QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES.
A qualifying adjective is one which limits the meaning
of a noun, by denoting some property or quality ; as, " a
virtuous man ; M "a running horse." To this class of ad-
jectives belong the participles, which have the signification
of the verb and the construction of the adjective.
Rem. 1. — When the participle is placed before the noun which it modi-
fies, it is called a. participial adjective ; as, " The rising sun." When it is
placed after the noun, and is itself limited by other words, it is parsed as
a participle ; as, " The sun rising in the east."
Rem. 2. — When a qualifying adjective represents an object understood,
r'ther definite or indefinite," the articled must be placed before it ; as,
" The wise [persons ;] the benevolent [ones ;] the beautiful, the good,
and the true." When the quality is used abstractly, the adjective under*
goes a change in its termination ;" as, Wise ( wisdom ,• beautiful, beauty.
ETI MOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 31
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
When different objects are compared with each other, the
adjective expressing the quality by means of »vhich they are
compared undergoes a change, called comparison.
There are three degrees of comparison — the positive^
comparative, and superlative.
The positive simply denotes a quality ; as, righteous ,
pleasant.
The comparative shows that one of two objects possesses
a quality in a higher degree than the other ; as, " This tree
is taller than that."
The superlative shows that one of several objects possesses
a quality in the highest degree, when compared with all tjjjp
rest ; as, " That pine is the tallest tree in the grove."
FORMATION OP THE COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE.
The comparative of monosyllables is regularly formed by
adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est, to the
positive ; as, wise, wiser, wisest ; hold, holder, coldest.
The comparative of most adjectives of more than one
syllable is formed by prefixing more or less, and the
superlative by prefixing most or least, to the positive ; as*
industrious, more industrious, most industrious.
The following adjectives are compared irregularly: Good, better, best;
bad, worse, worst ; ill, tcorse, worst ; little, less or lesser, least ; much, more
most ; many, more, most ; far, farther, farthest ; near, nearer, nearest or
next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older, or elder, oldest or eldest.
Rem. l.-r- Adjectives terminating in ish indicate the possession of a
quality in a lower degree than the positive ; as, bluish, approaching in
color to blue.
Rem. 2. — The meaning of the positive is also varied by the addition of
such adverbs as somewliat, rather, slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, ex-
ceedingly, &c. ; that of the comparative and superlative by such word*
as milch, far, vastly, altogether, by far, &c.
Hem. 3 — Several adjectives in the superlative degree are formed by
adding most to up, upper, nether, in, inner, hind, hinder, out, (contracted to
\U,) outer, further, hither, top, bottom; as, upmost, uppermost, inmost.
Hem 4. — Adjectives derived from proper names, numerals, pronomi
nal adjectives, and such as refej to position, material and form, are seldom,
If ever, compared.
4
38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES.
Tell which of the following words are adjectives : —
Ice, cold, soft, water, this, little, chair, knob, arise, brave, diligent, ink
stand, lamp, many, former, light, white, match, rough.
\ Tell which of the following adjectives are limiting, and which are quoit-
■\ing: —
>' Strong, twenty, faithful, green,- this, first, are, old, former, jellow, every,
such, wonderful, timid, sweet, any, fifth, the, soft, those, pure, ripe, tough,
other, thirty, odious.
Tell which of the following adjectives are of the positive, which of the
i<-mjxi)'ative, and which of the superlative degree : —
Braver, young, more, acceptable, eldest, less, useful, worst, better, most
honorable, strongest, sadder, more plentiful, least worthy, last, good,
thrifty, considerate, tallest.
Compare the following adjectives : —
Bright, active, handsome, wise, sad, able, just, diligent, beautiful, good,
excellent, dutiful, little, serene, fruitful, large, obedient, warm, studious,
Shble, dexterous, gloomy, industrious, honorable, hot, ample, hard,
worthy.
Apply limiting adjectives to ten common nouns.
Apply qualifying adjectives to ten common nouns, of the masculine gender,
and in the plural number.
Apply qualifying adjectives, in the comparative degree, to ten common
nouns in the feminine gender.
Apply qualifying adjectives, in the superlative degree, to ten nouns in the
neuter gender.
Fill the blanks in the following examples : —
men are respected. Intemperance is vice. Gold is ■■
pf metals. The sun is than the earth. Asia is grand divis-
ion. The plague is the fatal of diseases. The Pacific is
than the Atlantic. men sit at their doors. The south wind
breathes gently forth. events cast their shadows before. The
Alps are , the Andejs are , but the Himalaya are of all.
men never lived. men never fought.
Study the following models for parsing , and then parse any of the above
examples : —
In parsing an adjective, —
(1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why ?
(2.) Tell what kind of adjective. Why ?
(3.) Compare it, and give the degree, (if a qualifying adjective.)
(4.) Tell to what noun it belongs.
(5.) Give the rule.
MODELS FOR PARSING.
" The faithful man will be rewarded."
Faithful is an adjective ; it is usei to limit or qualify a nou* ; qualifying,
ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS.
89
it denotes qunlity; It \$ compared j positive faithful, eompnm-
tive more faithful, superlative most faithful ; it ia in the posi-
tive degree, and belongs to man, according to Rule V. (Re-
peat it.)
" Her house is larger than mine."
Larger . is an adjective; it is used to limit or qualify a noun; qualifying,
it denotes quality; it is compared; positive large, comparative
larger, superlative largest; it is in the comparative degree ;^i*
shows a higher degree of the quality than the positive does, and
belongs to house, according to Rule V. (Repeat it.)
" She is worthy of the highest praise."
Highest . is an adjective ; it is used to limit or qualify a noun ; qualifying ;
it denotes quality; it is compared; positive high, comparative,
higher, superlative highest ' ; it is in the superlative degree; it
shows the highest degree of the quality, and belongs to praise,
according to Rule V. (Repeat it.)
" The rose is a beautiful flower."
The ... is an adjective ; (definite article;) it is used to limit or qualify a
noun; limiting ; it limits without denoting quality; it belongs to
rose, according to Rule V. (Repeat it.)
"A treo has fallen."
A .... is an adjective, (indefinite article;) it is used to limit or qualify
a noun; limiting ; it limits without denoting quality; it belongs
to tree, according to Rule V. (Repeat it.)
" Three birds were killed."
Three . . is an adjective ; it is used to limit or qualify a noun ; limiting,
(numeral); it limits without denoting quality; it belongs to
birds, according to Puiie V. (Repeat it.)
" Give me this apple, and I will give you that."
That ... is an adjective; it is used to limit the noun apple, understood; or
it is used as a noun, in the third person, singular number, and
objective case, and is the object of the verb give, according to
Rule VIII.
" The kingdom of heaven suffcreth violence, and the violent take it by
force."
Violent . is an adjective ; it belongs to persons, understood ; or it is used as
a noun, of the third person, plural number, nominative case, and
is the subject of the proposition, the violent take, according to
Rule I. (Repeat it.)
PRONOUNS.
ORAL EXERCISE.
" David gave David's book to Ellen ; and Ellen gave David's book to
Ellen's father; and Ellen's father thanked Ellen that Ellen had given
David's book to Ellen's father." What word is repealed in the first part
of this sectence? Ans. David's. What word can you use instead of it?
40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Ans II is. Repeat the expression, and substitute his in place of David's
Will you give the second part so as to avoid repetition ? Ans. And shi
gave it to her father. What does she take the place of? Ans. Ellen.
What does it take the place of? Ans. David's book. What does her take
the place of ? Ans. Ellen's. How can you better express the third part ?
Ans. By saying, And he thanked her, that she had given it to him.
Tell what each of these little words stands for. . Tell what words are
displaced, and what part of speech they are. Now, since each new word
stands for a noun, we need some word which shall mean for noun. What
word can you give ? Ans. Pronoun. Then he, his, him, she, her, and it
are pronouns. If a boy by the name of Charles should say, meaning him-
self, " Charles is studying arithmetic," what change must he make to show
that he means himself ? Ans. He must use / instead of his own name •
I am studying arithmetic. What part of speech is I? What person is it ?
Why ? If you were to say, Charles is studying arithmetic, what change
must you make to show that you spoke these words to Charles ? Ans.
You are studying arithmetic, Then, what part of speech is yout What
person ? Why ? Of what person is he t she f it 1 lie f him f his t
A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun ;
as, " The farmer ploughs Ms field ; he reaps Ms wheat, and
gathers it into Ms barn."
Hem. 1. — The pronoun is used instead of the noun, —
(1.) When the object referred to is both known, and has been previously
mentioned; as, " David came to his house in Jerusalem." "Here is the
pencil for which I was looking."
(2.) When the object referred to is knoion, but not (necessarily) pre-
viously mentioned; as, " /have the memorial which you gave me."
(3.) When the object referred to is neither known nor has been pre-
viously mentioned ; as, " Who comes yonder ? "
Rem. 2. — The personal pronouns are used to represent some relation
to the speaker. Those of the first and second persons can scarcely be said
to represent the name of the speaker, or of the hearer at all, since they
may be used when the name is unknown. They are employed to show a
^•elation rather than a name. Those of the third person represent as well
the name of some person or thing as its relation to the speaker. They
enable us to avoid repeating it ; they also show its relation in regard to
sex, (gender,) and its syntactic relation, (case.)
Hem. 3. — The noun for which a pronoun stands is called the antece-
ient; as, " The world, hiivhich they are placed, opens with all its wonders
upon their eyes." The antecedent may be a phrase or an entire proposi-
tion ; as, " To believe the report, which is the thing you desire, would be
offensive to one of the noblest of men." " The servant opened the window
which was strictly forbidden."
Rem. 4. — The antecedent of the personal pronouns of the first and sec-
ond persons is always supposed to be present, and consequently seldom
named ; that of the third person is usually expressed. Sometimes, how-
ever, a personal or an interrogative pronoun is employed without an ante-
cedent, and so limited by a relative and its clause, as to give to the whole
the effect of a single name ; as, " He who sways the minds of men by his
eioqv.erxe," i. e., the orator, " exerts the highest human power." " \V7io,
that marks the fire still sparkling in each eye, but would deem their bosoms
burned anew ? " Sometimes the antecedent pronoun, in such cases, is omit-
ted, or included in the relative ; as, " Who would be free, themselves must
itrike the blow." " Who steals my purse steals trash."
ETYMOLOGY PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 41
Rem. 5. — The pronoun stands not merely for a noun, hut for a noun as
restricted by modifying words ; as, " We saw the little deformed boy whc
watched at the gate, and pitied him," i. e., the little deformed boy wlw
watched at the gate.
Rem. 6. — The antecedent, as the term indicates, is something going
before ; but as an interrogative pronoun inquires for an object as yet un-
known, the name of it Cannot be used before the pronoun, but must follow
it. It might then more properly be called the subsequent ; as, "IVhafh&ve
vdu brought ? " " The cloak."
CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.
Pronouns are divided into three classes — personal, rela
iive, and interrogative
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
A personal pronoun is used both to represent a noun, and
to show whether it is of the first, second, or third person.
/(plural we) is of the first person; thou (plural ye or
you) is of the second person ; he, she, and it (plural they)
are of the third person, masculine, feminine, and neuter,
respectively.
The compound personal pronouns are, first person, my
self, (plural ourselves ;) second person, thyself, (plural your
selves ;) third person, (masculine) himself, (feminine) hei
self, (neuter) itself, (plural themselves.)
To pronouns, like the nouns for "which they stand, belong;
Person, Number, Gender, and Case.
Rem. 1. — The personal pronouns of the first and second person repre-
sent the speaker or the hearer. The gender is supposed to be known,
and is not indicated by the form of the pronoun, while that of the third
person is represented by one of the forms, he, she, or it.
Rem. 2. — It is often used in a vague sense, as the subject of verbs
descriptive of the weather ; as, " It rains." " It thunders." It is used aa
an expletive, (1.) as the object of a verb; as, " Come and trip it as you
go ; " (2.) to introduce a sentence whose subject is placed after the predicate.
" It is pleasant to see the sun." " It has been ascertained, that water is
composed of oxygen and hydrogen." It is used as subject to represents
noun or pronoun as attribute, of any number, gender, or person ; as, " It
is /." " It is they." " It is James." " It is she."
Rem. 3. — The compound personal pronouns are seldom, if ever, used
*s the subject of a proposition, though they may be used in apposition
with it; as, "He himself knows not whereof he affirms. When used as
the object of a transitive -verb, they are called reflexive, because the act
4*
42 ENGLISH GUAM MAR.
of the agent falls back upon himself; as, " The boy struck himself." Eacg
other and one another in the same relation are sometimes called reciprocal
pronouns ; as, " The boys struck each other."
Hem. 4. — Formerly thou was used in addressing a single individual,
and a corresponding form of the verb was used ; as, " Thou singest ; " but
gradually you has come to take its place, till the use of thoti, except in
the solemn style, is now wholly discontinued. You, therefore, is both sin-
gular and plural in its application, but the verb does not change its form ;
it invariably takes the plural form ; as, " You (meaning one) write," not
writest.*
EXERCISE.
Count the words in the following sentences ; then substitute personal pro-
nouns, and see hoio many words you gain thereby : — ■
The savages of North America spent the time of tJie savages of North
America in hunting, and the wives of the savages of North America spent
the time of the wives of the savages of North America in preparing food for
the husbands of the wives of the savages of North America.
Substitute the nouns and their modifying words for the pronouns in the
following sentences : —
At this time, the commander of the American forces and his army took
post at Harlem ; he now sought to ascertain the state of his enemy's forces
on Long Island. Captain Nathan Hale volunteered Jiis services ; he en-
tered the British army in disguise. On his return, he was apprehended
and sent to the cruel Marshal Cunningham, by whom he was ordered to
execution without a trial.
Alter the following sentences so as to make the szibjects represent, first the
speaker, then the hearer : —
John wrote a letter. Jacob loved Joseph. Paul preached at Athens.
He came to the rescue. They sailed at noon. The king was sick. Susan
leaves her studies. The horse ran away. Washington loved the truth.
Name the pronouns in the following, and tell what words they stand
for.—
Jacob loved his son Joseph, and gave him a coat of many colors. Peter
denied his Master ; he afterwards went and wept bitterly. Let him that
thinketh he standeth take heed lest he fall. A man's heart deviseth Iris
way ; but the Lord directeth his steps.
Collect all the eironeotis expressions which you hear to-day, write them
down, correct them, and be careful not to tcse them yourself.
DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS
The personal pronouns are thus declined : —
First Person.
Sing. Flu.
Norn. I, We,
Poss. My or mine, Our or ours,
Obj. Me ; Us.
* The Friends or Quakers still u?e thou, more commonly thee, in common conven
wtion
ETYMOLOGY — PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
43
Nom.
Poss.
Obj.
Second Person.
Sing.
Thou,
Thy or thine,
Thee;
Flu.
Ye or you,
Your or yours,
You.
Nom.
Poss.
Obj.
Third Person. Masculine.
Sing.
He,
His,
Him;
Plu.
They,
Then- or theirs,
Them.
Nom.
Poss.
Obj.
Third Person. Feminine.
She,
Her or hers,
Her;
Plu.
They,
Their or theirs,
Them.
Nom.
Poss.
Obj.
Thiri> Person.
Sing.
It,
Its,
It;
Neuter.
Flu.
They,
Their or theirs ^
Them.
Nom.
Poss.
Obj.
First Person.
Sing.
Myself,
Myself;
Plu.
Ourselves,
Ourselves
Nom.
Poss.
Obj.
Sing.
Mas.
Nom. Himself,
Poss
Obj.
Second Person.
Sing.
Thyself,
Thyself;
Third Person.
Flu.
Yourselves,
Yourselves.
Herself,
Himself; Herself;
JVeut
Itself,
Itself;
Plu
Themselves.
Rem. 1. — Of the possessives, my, thy, her, our, your, their, are used
*hen the noun is expressed ; mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs,
When it is understood, and the latter must be changed to' the former -when-
ever the noun is supplied. " That book is yours; this is mine." " Tha
dook is your Dook ; this is my book."
Rem. 2. — When mine, thine, &c, are used as in the above example,
they seem to perform a double office ; first, to represent the speaker, hear*
er, or person spoken of, as a possessor ; and, secondly, like other limiting
or qualifying words, when the l.oun is understood, to represent or stand for
M ENGLISH GRAMMAR
that noun, not as a pronoun docs, but as an adjective. Thus we saj
" This [book] is an arithmetic ;J/uU [book] is a geography." " The via
lent [persons] take it by force." " Mine [my task] was an easy task.''
Properly, neither of the above words is a noun. The first three are adjec-
tives used to limit the noun understood, which follows them, and the last
a personal pronoun in the possessive case, used to limit the noun task, un-
derstood. If it is ever proper to say that this, that, or violent are used as
nouns, it is equally so of the word mine, not in its pronominal, but in iUr
adjective office.
EXERCISE.
In parsing a pronoun, —
(1.) Tell what part of speech it is. Why ?
(2.) Tell what kind of pronoun. Why ?
(3.) Tell what its antecedent is.
(4.) Decline it.
(5.) Give the person, number, gender. Why 5
(6.) Rule for person, number, gender. Why ?
(7.) Case and construction. n
(8.) Rule for construction.
Note. — In parsing, let the pupil follow this order, and as soon as po3si
Die, without any question from the teacher. The pronoun is parsed very
much like the noun.
Study the following models for parsing : —
"David brought his book, and laid it on the table."
His . is a pronoun ; it takes the place of a noun ; perso)ial; it is used both
to represent a noun, and to show whether it is of the first, second,
or third person ; it refers to David's for its antecedent ; (singular,
nominative he, possessive his, objective him; plural, nominative
they, possessive their or theirs, objective them ;) it is of the third per-
son, singular number, masculine gender, because its antecedent is .
(Rule III. " A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender,
number, and person;") possessive case, and is used to limit book,\>y
denoting possession, according to Rule VII. (Repeat it.)
It . . is a pronoun, (why?) persona), (why?) it has .book for its antece-
dent ; decline it ; "is of the third person, singular number, neuter gen~
der, because its antecedent book is, (Rule III.,) and objective case.
Rule VIII. (Repeat the rule.)
" The messenger himself revealed the treachery."
Himself . is a pronoun, (why?) compound, composed of him and self, it
has messenger for its antecedent ; third person, singular number,
masculine gender, because its antecedent is, (Rule III.,) nomina-
tive case and used to identify or explain messenger, according to
RuleVt
Parse the personal pronouns in the following sentences : —
Joseph knew his brethren, but they knew not him. Jane dropped her
fan. ana ner brother gave it to her again. We cannot see the stars when
the light of the sun overpowers them. Thou shalt sec me hereafter. I
Know you will receive the child and love it Our house is at your service
ETYMOLOGY — RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 45
Do thyself no harm. The king found himself in great distress. We
must keep c urselves from temptation. I myself will do it.
Write Jive sentences, use personal pronouns in each, and then parse them
Give the class, person, number, gender, (when it can be determined by tht
form,) and case of the folloioing pronouns : —
I, he, his, hers, mine, you, thou, they, them, us, we, myself, himself,
they, herself, me, themselves, ourselves, my, thee, your, thine, herself,
yourselves.
Rewrite and correct the following sentences in every particular : —
The carpenter broke the augur liisself. "When i went to school, me and
my sister sarah were learned how to use capitals, the master teached us
how to speak correctly, and the scholars, writ down meny lessons their-
selves. we always had good times a-criticizing what the other scholars
had wrote. It was me, that disremembered the rules for changing the y in
dutys and glory fying, and f in sheafs, wifes, loafs, fust, i reckoned i
knowed 'em, but it 'pears i didn't. Them words that I have here koted,
"marys gownd" from marthas slate haint got no capital letter, and
she don't mind the rule for the 'sessive case, nathan haint doted his eyes,
nor crossed his teas, and his lines run down hill. Samuel offerred to 'sist
me in my 'rethmetic if i would learn them rules for spellin'.
Collect all the faulty expressions which you hear to-day, and correct them.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
A relative pronoun is used to represent a preceding noun
or pronoun, called the antecedent ; as, " Those who wish for
favors must assist others."
Hem. 1. — The relative, when used only as a pronoun, follows the ante-
cedent ; when used both as a limiting adjective and a pronoun, it always
precedes it ; as, " I will give you ichat money I have."
Rem. 2. — The following distinctions will show the difference between a
relative and a personal pronoun : —
(1.) The relative refers to an object always known, and either previously
mentioned, or so clearly implied as to need no mention ; the personal
pronouns refer always to an object known, and in the third person, to an
object previously mentioned, but in the first and second persons, to an ob
iect not previously mentioned.
(2.) The personal pronouns have a distinct form for each grammatical
person ; I for the first, thou or yoxi for the second, and he, she, or it for
the third. The relative pronouns do not change their form to represent
person.
(3.) The essential difference is seen in their use in construction. The
personal pronoun may represent the subject of an independent sentence ;
the relative never ; as, " He is present." " Which is important." Tho
first is a complete sentence ; the second needs some word, as measure.,
(which is important,) on which it may depend.
Rem. 3. — The relative serves two purposes : one, as a pronoun to rep
resent a noun in any relation ; the other, as a connective joining the rela
tive clause to the antecedent. In this use it may be considered as a kind of
auxiliary, employed to convert an independent proposition into a dependent
46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
one, and to adapt it, as an adjective, to modify some antecedent noun ; as
for example, in speaking of -a cloud, if we say," " It is dark," the expression
is an independent sentence ; but if we say, " which is dark," the expression
is still a proposition, but not a sentence ; it is now, by the aid of which t
fitted to limit the noun cloud; thus, " The cloud which is dark."
SIMPLE RELATIVES.
The simple relatives are, who, which, that, and ivhat.
Who is used to represent persons ; which and what, to rep*
resent things ; and that, to represent both persons and things.
Rem. 1. — The antecedent is the word for which the pronoun stands;
it is that on which the relative clause depends, and is either a definite or
an indefinite object.
Rem. 2. — Wlio, which, and that usually refer to a definite antecedent ;
as, " The man who came." " The horse which died." " The tree that
fell." Lithe sentence, "Who steals my purse steals trash," who refers
to an indefinite antecedent. What may refer cither to a definite or an in-
definite antecedent; as, " I gave him what money he wanted," (definite.)
" I gave him what [things] he wanted," (indefinite.) When the antece-
dent is indefinite, the relative stands alone.
Rem. 3. — Wliat, in addition to the other functions of a relative, per-
forms that of a limiting adjective, and is, hence, placed before the noun
which it limits, and which, as a pronoun, it also represents ; as, " He
had what furniture was left " = He had that furniture which was left
When the noun to which, as an adjective, it belongs, is indefinite, and
therefore not expressed, what takes its place, and is an adjective used as 3
noun, (see Adjective used as a noun, p. 33,) and may be parsed, first, ag
the indefinite antecedent, and, secondly, as a relative.
Rem. 4. — The word that is a relative only when who ox which can be
substituted for it ; as, " He that (who) gettcth wisdom loveth his own
soul." "What private grief they have, alas ! I know not, that ftohich)
made them do it." It is a pronominal adjective when immediately followed
by a noun expressed or understood ; as, " That book." It is a subordi-
nate conjunction when it joins a dependent clause to some part of a princi
pal ; as, " I know that my Redeemer liveth."
Rem. 5. — What is a relative, (1.) when it can be changed into that
which; as, "It is what (that which) I wanted;" (2.) when it both limits
and relates to a noun ; as, "What ore was found, was very poor" = That
ore which was found, &c. It is an interrogative pronoun, when used alone
(belonging to an indefinite object) to ask a question; as, " What [things]
do you want ?" It is an interrogative adjective when used to limit a noun,
(a definite object,) and also to ask a question ; as, " What excuse does he
render?" It is an interjection when it denotes an exclamation; as.
" What ! have you come?"
Rem. 6. — When that is used as the object of a preposition, the latter
is always placed at the end of the clause; and that must be changed to
whom or which whenever the preposition precedes j as, "It was James
that I depended upon" = upon whom I depended.
Rem. 7. — By an ellipsis of the relative, ax, after such, many, and same,
seems to take its place, and may be regarded as a relative, though, pro-
perly speaking, it is never a relative ; as, " The Lord added to the church
daily, such as [were those who] should be saved."
ETYMOLOGY COMPOUND RELATIVES. 4*
COMPOUND RELATIVES.
The compound relatives are whoever, whosoever, whichever^
whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever.
Rem. 1. — These are formed from the simple relatives by adding the ad
Verbs ever and soever.
Rem. 2. — Whoever and whosoever refer to some indefinite antecedent,
as he, the person, anyone, and are equivalent to anyone who ; as, " Who-
ever hopes a faultless piece to see." Whichever and whichsoever refer to
a definite object, to which they belong as adjectives ; as, " Whichever way
you take will lead to the city." They are equivalent to any — which.
Whatever and whatsoever belong, as adjectives, either to a definite or an in-
definite object, and relate, as pronouns, to the same, (see Rem. 3, above;)
as, " We are interested in ichatever occupation you follow." " WJaitsoever
is more than these comcth of evil." They are equivalent to that — which,
or any thing — which.
DECLENSION OF RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PROxNOUNS
Sing, tf Flu. Siiijr. $ Plu.
Nom. Who, Which,
Poss. Whose, Whose,
Obj. Whom J Which.
That and wJiat have no variation.
EXERCISE.
Learn the following models for parsing : —
M The man who is faithfully attached to religion, may be relied on with
confidence."
WJio . is a pronoun, (why ?) relative, (why ?) it has man for its antece-
dent; nominative who, possessive whose, objective whom; plural,
the same ; third person, singular number, tnascidine gender, be-
cause its antecedent is, (Rule III. Repeat it,) nominative case, and
used as the subject of the proposition, " who is attached." Rule I.
(Repeat it.)
" Cherish true patriotism, whose root is benevolence."
Whose is a relative pronoun ; it has patriotism for its antecedent ; nomina-
tive who, &c. ; third person, singular number, neuter gender, (Rule
III. Repeat it,) 2X>ssessive case, and is used to limit root by d«»-
no ting possession. Rule VII. (Repeat it.)
« Compassion is an emotion of which we should never be ashamed."
Which is a relative pronoun, (antecedent, decline, person, number, gen
der, Rule III.,) objective case, and used as the object of the preposi-
tion of. Rule XIII.
" Here is the sofa that he sat upon."
Thai . is a relative pronoun, (antecedent, decline, person, number, gen
der, Rule III.,) objective case, and used as the object of the preposi
tion upon. (See Rem. 6, p. 46.)
48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
" I have ascertained what lesson we must learn."
What , is &pro?v?tin, used both as an adjective and a pronoun ; as an adjec>
tive it belongs to lesson, according to Rule V. ; (repeat it . ) as a
pronoun, it is a relative, and relates to lesson for its antecedent ;
third person, singular number, neuter gender, Rule III., objective
case, and is used as the object of the verb must learn, accord-
ing to Rule VIII. (Repeat it.)
" I have ascertained what we must learn."
What . is & pronoun, used both as an adjective and a pronoun ; as an ad-
jective it belongs to some noun (thing) understood, and hence may
be taken as a noun, (see model for parsing that, p. 39 ;) indeclinable,
third person, singular number, neuter gender, objective case, and is
used as the object of have ascertained. Rule VIII. As a pronoun,
it is a relative, relating to some indefinite antecedent (thing) un-
derstood, (see Rem. 3, p. 46,) or to what, representing thing, and re-
garded as the antecedent, indeclinable, third person, singular mem-
ber, neuter gender, objective case, and used as the object of must
learn. Rule Vltl.
" "We will furnish him with ichatever clothing he may need."
Whatever is a compound relative, composed of what and ever. (Imitate
the first model for what.)
" "We provide tchatever may be needed."
Whatever is a compound relative. (Imitate the second model for what.)
Point out and parse the relative pronouns in the following sentences : —
The child who is obedient will be beloved. The bird that built her nest
on the tree was killed. The apples which you gave me are sour. The
man whom you saw was my brother. The boat in which we sailed
has been sold. The grass that was mowed by the farmer, was soon withered.
The gentleman whose kindness we experienced, was a teacher. He that
is slow to wrath, is of great understanding.
Point out the antecedents in tlie examples above.
Point out and parse the compound relatives in the following examples : —
"Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them
Whatever is, is right. Whatsoever he saith unto you, do it. Whoever
seeks the good of others, will himself be blest. Darkness besets me, which
ever way I turn.
Correct the following examples : —
The cow whom my father bought, has strayed away. The boy whicn
sets on the seat yender hasn't got his sums did. The sun lays into our
south winder beautiful. This is the man who we sent for. The boy who I
see at school yesterday was e'en-a' most as tall agin as i be. ' This 'ere
task of 'ritin' sentences is putty hard for one that don't know no more of
the grammar book than i does, howsomever i never gives up for trifles
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
The interrogative pronouns are used in asking questions.
They are who, used to inquire for persons ; what and which,
ETK MOLOGY PRON OUNS. 49
for things , as, " Wlio gave thee that authority " " Which
house does he live in?" " What have I to do with thee ? "
Rem. 1. — When a definite object is inquired for, what and which are
adjectives used to limit the objects inquired for ; as, " What books do you
want ? ' " Which road shall we take ? " When an indefinite object is in-
quired for, the interrogative takes its place, or belongs to it, understood \
as, " What (thing) do j ou want ? "
Rem. 2. — When an interrogative sentence is quoted, and incorporated
into another sentence, it loses much of its interrogative character ; the
interrogative pronoun becomes a connective, and as the incorporated clause
is an unanswered question, the pronoun refers to some person or thing
both unknoxcn and unmentioned. It may therefore be called an indefinite
interrogative pronoun. Example. " Who is concealed in the garden ?" The
name bas not been mentioned, and although he may be a familiar friend. *?t
as the concealed, one, he is unknown. The answer, therefore, must be, ■• I
do not know who is concealed in the garden." Compare this with, " I do
not know him who is concealed in the garden." Here who is a relative
pronoun having him for its antecedent.
Rem. 3. — Besides pronouns, various interrogative adverbs are used in
asking questions ; as, Why f Where f When t Hoio t
EXERCISE.
Point out the interrogative pronouns in the following examples . —
Who has learned his lesson ? "Which seat do you prefer ? "What have
you found in the garden ? For what are you punished ? Whose school
do you attend ? Who went with you ? Whom do you follow ? Which
way has she gone ?
Tell which of the above examples are pronouns, and which adjectives.
(See Rem. 1.)
Tell which of the folloicing pronmvns are relative, which interrogative : —
He whose image thou art. From what fountain flowed their light ?
What title dost thou bear ? Whose genius had angelic wings. What
readiest way would bring me to the place? Who found the flower? I
am he whom ye seek ? He found the book for which I sent him. Of
whom do you speak ? That which was lost is found.
Correct the following examples : —
Who do you want ? Whom is it ? Who do you follow ? Who are
you looking for ?
Rewrite the following sentences, and correct them in all respects : —
Why don't you eat nothin' ? ridin' don't agree with you i guess,
taint so in New York. Do you go on your own hook ? Nice go-
ings on, I dare say, Mr. Caudle. The Senate has gone it strong on th«
mileage. You cant ask me for nothin i haint got. She did it real nice.
That was first rate.
Parse the above examples according to the following models —
" Who shall separate us from the love of Christ ? "
Who . is a pronoun, (why ?) interrogative, (why?) its antecedent (subse-
quent) is not expressed ; nominative who, possessive ichose, ob-
jective whom; plural, the same; third person, singidar lumber,
masculine ge?ider, because its antecedent (subsequent^, no one im-
5
50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR-
tlied) is, (Rule III. Repeat it.) nominative case, and used ti
.ne subject of th*., proposition, " who snail separate." Itui I
(Repeat it.)
" W?iose books have you found ? "
Whose h an interrogative pronoun; nominative who, &c., (person, num
her, and gender depending upon the answer,) possessive cast, and
is used to limit books by denoting possession. Rule VII. (Re-
peat it.)
" WJiat seek ye ? "
What . is an interrogative pronoun ; indeclinable ; third person, fnumbet
and gender depending on the answer, ) objective case, and used as
the object of the verb. Rule VIII. (Repeat it.)
" What lesson shall we learn ? "
What . is a pronominal adjective, used interrogatively, and belongs to lea
son for which it inquires. Rule V.
VERBS.
ORAL EXERCISE.
Do you see me use this chalk upon the board ? What do I do ? Am.
fou write. Put this answer on your slates. Now, what do you do ?
Ant. We write. Let all who have written the words raise the hand.
What do you do now ? Ans. We raise our hands. What am I doing now ?
(The teacher walks towards his desk.) Am. You are walking. When
we do any thing, as write, walk, or raise the hand, we act, and the word
which expresses the action is called a verb, and the acting person or thing
is called the subject. What can a lamb do ? Ans. Run, frisk, frolic, jump,
play. Now write these words on your slates. What are you now doing ?
Ans. We are writing. What do you call the words which you have written ?
A?is. Verbs. What is the subject of each ? W T ho speaks? Ana. Ellen apeoka.
What do you call speaks t What can a horse do ? Ans. Run, walk, gallop,
trot, prance, eat, drink, draw, kick, sleep. What kind of words are these ?
Ans. Verbs. What is the subject of each ? Tell what a bird, ajish, a dog, a
toad, a bee, can do ? What are the words which tell what they do ? See thia
book ; it lies upon the desk. What does the book do ? Ans. It does notJi ■
inn. True, it does nothing, but what tells something about it ? Ans. Lies.
This chair stands upon the floor. What does the chair do ? Ans. Noth-
ing, What tells something about it? Ans. Stands. When words are
used to tell or say what state things are in, they are called verba. Wha*
then, aretes and stands f Ans. Verbs. (The teacher strikes tipon hie
desk.) What does the desk do ? Ans. Nothing. What was clone tc
the desk ? Ans. It teas struck. (The teacher tears a piece of paper:)
What does the paper do? Ans. Nothing. Very good ; but what is dont
to the paper ? Ans. It is torn. These words, which teH what ia done to au
object, are called verba. What does the blackboard do ? Am. Nothing. It
there a blackboard ? Ans. There is. is what? Ans. Is a blackboard. Is
there a desk ? Ans. There is. Words which tell what is or exista are
vurbs. Tell the verbs in these examples, and then learn the definition
of the verb : The boy plays. The girl sleep? The lamp is broken
There is a slate in the desk.
ETYMOLOGY — fZRBS EXERCISES. 51
A verb is a word which expresses being, action, or state
r , be, read, sleep, is loved.
Rem. I. — The being, action, or state may be affirmed, assumed, uf
toed abstractly; as, "George rum." "George running." "To run."
When an affirmation is made, the verb is either the predicate or copula of
the proposition, and is said to ha finite ; when the action of the verb is as-
sumed, it takes the construction of the adjective, is joined to the subject,
and is called a participle • when it is used abstractly, it is separated from
the subject, and being unlimited by its person or number, it is said to be
infinitive, (unlimited. )
Rem. 2. — Affirm, as here used, includes an absolute declaration; as,
** Emma learns ; " a conditional statement ; as, " If Emma learns ; " an in-
terrogation ; as, " Does Emma learn ? " a petition; as, " May Emma learn ; "
a command ; as, " Emma, learn."
Rem. 3. — The abstract or substantive verb is the simple Be, hav-
ing no other power or value than to assert some attribute of a noun.
When the attribute is a quality, this verb must always be used ; as, " Lead
is heavy ; " but when the attribute is an action, it may blend with the verb
be, and then both become one word ; as, " The sun is rising." " The suu
rises." The combined form then takes the name of verb, and undergoes
inflections to represent voice, mode, tense, number, and person ; in all other
cases, the verb to be undergoes these variations. These verbs are called
uttributive, because to the pure verb they join an attribute.
Rem. 4. — The verb to be is attributive, whenever it is used to assert ex-
istence ; as, " There was a man sent from God." Whc*. thus used, the
verb is commonly followed by its subject, and preceded by the expletive
" there," which serves no other purpose than to introduce the sentence
and indicate this peculiarity of the verb.
Every finite verb represents some person or thing, as act-
ing or existing in a certain state, and this person or thing is
called the subject ; as, " Frank plays." " She sleeps."
EXERCISES.
Point oid the verbs and their subjects in the following examples : The
clouds vanish. The vapor rises. The plant lives. Flowers die. Chil-
dren sing. They stand. Can you see ? Here they are ! The ice melts
Write appropriate verbs for the folloxoing nouns as subjects : —
Samuel, the pen, the book, flowers, we, oceans, moon, the earth, forests,
the king, Victoria.
Write appropriate noxins, as stibjectsfor the following verbs : —
Rules, is, tliinks, hopes, learns, shine, grow, dig, revolve, sits, fears
blossom, arise, sink.
Alter the following verbs so as to xorite them properly with their sub-
jects : —
Time fly. The grass grow. The rain fall. The pupil try. The officer
defy. The teacher say. The gas burn. The boy do. The peasant woo.
The dove coo. The tailor cut. The dog bite.
Alter the folloxoing nouns and pronouns so that the verbs (as given) may
unite with them: —
The merchants says. The sailor see. They thinks. He play. Yo«
P2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
nopest. Some persons believes. The honest farmers labors. The diligent
pupil learn. The old soldiers is maintained. The pleasant tasks is done.
Correct the following errors: —
Mans destiny cannot be fully none, lucy has rote these lines of po'try
on her slate i should be bizzy two for satan finds some mischief still for
idle hands to do.
CLASSES OF VERBS.
Note. — Let the teacher here give an oral exercise, tbe object of which
*hall be to exhibit the distinction between a transitive and an intransitive,
a regular and an irregular verb. After the distinction is fully made,
'et the class attempt a statement of it, before learning the following
Aefinitions : —
Verbs are divided, according to their use, into transitive
ind intransitive.
A transitive verb requires the addition of an object to
complete its meaning ; as, " The servant opened the door."
An intransitive verb does not require the addition of an
object to complete its meaning ; as, " The sun rises." " The
horse runs."
Rem. 1. — Verbs may be divided on account of their relation to the
subject into, —
(1.) The abstract or substantive verb Be, which represents no attribute of
the subject whatever, but serves merely as a copula, or li?ik, to bind an at-
tribute to the subject.
(2.) Attributive or mixed verbs, in which an*" attribute denoting an action
or state of the subject is blended with the copula; as, runs = is running;
is being the copula, and running the attribute.
Rkm. 2. — Attributive verbs, including also the copula to be, have been
divided into those which represent the subject in an active state, (active
verbs ;) those which represent it in a passive state, that is, in such a state as
to receive or suffer an action, (passive verbs ;) and those which represent the
■subject in neither of these states, (neuter verbs,) that is, a state in which
it neither acts nor receives the effect of an action. But this distinction
has little to do with the construction of language. It is the relation of
the verb to a succeeding term that renders a classification important ; *
and hence, —
Rem. 3. — The terms transitive and intransitive have been general-
ly adopted by recent grammarians, as best suited to the purposes of
construction. Although the ides, of an act originating in an agent, and
"passing over" to an object, seems inapplicable to such verbs as have,
possess, receive, acquire, and many others, still the terms, as defined above,
are liable to little or no objection.
* The did division is retained in the dictionaries, and the learner Fhould under-
stand, in consulting a dicti mary, that v. a. after a verb is equivalent to transitive, v. n.
fc intransitive. Thus, run, jly, walk, though they represent tht subjocv ir a vary a*.
t>v» state, are marked r. ?». — verb ntuter.
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — EXERCISES. &3
Rem. 4. — The object or complement of the transitive verb stands as an
answer to the question Wliat? with the verb ; is, " The ox eats (Whatf)
hay, grass, oats, corn, &c. To determine whether a verb is transitive or
intransitive, we have only to use this test : ask with it the question What t
or Whomt and if the sense requires that a noun or pronoun meaning a
different tiling from the subject should be added, it is transitive ; other-
wise it is intransitive.
Rem. 5. — When the noun or pronoun thus added means the same
person or thing as the subject, it is not the object, but is a predicate-nomi
native, and the verb is either intransitive, or transitive in the passive voice.
All such verbs perform the office of the copula, and are, hence, called cop-
ulative verbs. These are be, (the simple copula-,) become, seem, appear,
stand, walk, and other verbs of position, motion, and condition ; the pas-
sive verbs is called, is named, is styled, is appointed, is constituted, is elected
is chosen, is made, is esteemed, is reckoned, and others.
Rem. 6. — A transitive verb in a proposition necessarily implies three
terms — a subject or agent, a predicate, and an object. When the verb as-
sumes the passive form, the foregoing order is inverted, and we have an
ibject, a predicate, and a subject or agent ; as, " The locusts (agent = sub.)
devoured (pred.) the grass," (obj.J = The grass (obj. = sub.) was devoured
fpred.) by the locusts, (agent.) An intransitive verb requires but two
terms, a subject and predicate, and as it cannot assume the passive form,
(except by the aid of a preposition,) the terms can undergo no such
change as above.
Rem. 7 — Many verbs are transitive in one signification, and intransi-
tive in another. When the object is not necessarily impliea, ' is better to
consider such verbs intransitive, and not transitive, because an ubject may
be supplied ; as, " She sings beautifully," (intransitive ;) " She sings so-
prano," (transitive.)
Rem. 8. — Some verbs, usually intransitive, become transitive when
used with a causative signification ; as, " The train usually runs at the
rate of twenty-five miles an hour ; but they ran a train (caused it run)
at the rate of forty." Some verbs become transitive when they take an
object after them of a kindred signification ; as, " He ran a race, played
z.game."
EXERCISES,
Tell which of the following verbs are transitive, which intransitive : —
Dora loves her mother. The golden gates open. The moon silvers the
distant hills. Lily has found her ring. Eleanor writes poetry. The snow
melts. The icy fetters break. The innocent lamb dies. The child plays.
You found the pearl. The twilight deepens. Does Cornelia live there ?
The fragrant flowers bloom. The king rules. She received a letter.
Write an appropriate subject and object for each of tM following verbs ; —
Rings, learn, find, hide, fears, remembers, inflicts, receives, lift, hears,
renews, reviews, write.
Model. The sexton rings the bell.
Write an appropunate verb for each of the following subjects and ob
jects : —
The scholar his books. The sun the snow. I the
merrv sleigh bells. The lady her friends. We a reward. The
h 0V _: his sled. They the tables. The little boy his
rocking horse. The slave - the diamond. They charades-.
5*
&4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rosy-fingered Aurora the gates of day. Milton - i^iadls*
>jOSt.
Substitute correct and more elegant expressions for the following in
Italics : —
I have got to go. Nob-'dy told me. She 7iad not ought to tell. Ain't you
afraid ? I have came home. 1 done my work. I learnt her to do it. I
ain't alone. In she come. He knowed his lesson. Is not this grand
Weather ? Thinks says I, I will lo it. I reckon you can. It rains some
shall be ten gear old come May. Do you like those kind of things 1 Sh.6
didn't kn<w nobody. It is her. Mary and me are to home. She brought
me a f/reat big apple. She fetched me a book. I found her a-crgm'. I
am glad to see ye ; will ye se' down t
Verbs are divided, according to their form, into regular and
irregular.
A regular verb is one which forms its past tense, and
oast participle, by adding ed * to the present tense ; as, love,
loved, loved ; gain, gained, gained.
An irregular verb is one which does not form its past
tense and past participle by the addition of ed * to the pres-
ent tense ; as, see, saw, seen ; write, wrote, written.
A defective verb is one in which some of the parts are
wanting ; as, may, might, (participle wanting.)
An auxiliary verb is one which is employed in the con-
jugation of other verbs ; as, have, in have loved.
An impersonal verb is one by which an action or state is
asserted independently of any particular subject ; as, u It
rains." " It snows"
To verbs belong voice, mode, tense, number, and person.
VOICE.
ORAL EXERCISE.
In the sentence, " The bee builds a cell," which does something, the
bee or the cell ? Ans. The bee. Which is acted upon? Ans. The cell,
Now, suppose we express the same in another way, and say, " A cell is
built by the bee," what changes have we made ? Ans. We have put
cell before the verb, we have changed builds into is built, we have inserted
by, and we have placed bee last. Which noAV acts, the bee or the cell f A its
The bee, as before. Which is acted upon ? Ans. The cell, ns before
Which is the subject of the proposition now ? Ans. Cell. Which was
the subject before ? Ans. Bee. Then, when bee is the subject, the sub
* The suffix to every regular veil is ed. If the present tens? ends in e muta, Dial
«tter must he dropped by Rule II. , page 15.
ETYMOLOGY — VOICE — EXERCISE. 55
•ect acts ; but when cell is tlie subject, the subject is acted upon : and when
the subject acts, the verb is builds ; when the subject is acted upon, the
verb is, is built. The former is called the active voice, the latter the pas-
iive voice.
Voice is that form of the transitive verb which shows
whether the subject acts or is acted upon.
There are two voices — the active and the passive*
The active voice represents the subject as acting; as,
" John struck William."
Here John, is the subject, and John perfowns the act
The passive voice represents the subject as acted upon ,
as, " William was struck by John."
Here William is the subject, but he does not act: he only receives the act, or ia
acted upon.
Hem. 1. — Any sentence, having for its predicate a transitive verb, may
be changed or transformed fay changing the active to the passive voice, or
the passive to the active. The same meaning, or nearly the same, will be
expressed in either case.
Rem. 2. — A transitive verb necessarily implies the presence of an active
and a passive person or thing. The one performs the act, the other re-
ceives or suffers it. If the active one is made* the subject of the sentence,
the verb is said to be in the active voice ; if the passive one is made the sub-
ject, the verb is said to be in the passive voice ; as, " The locusts devoured
(active) the grass." " The grass was devoured (passive) by the locusta."
Strictly speaking, the ideas of active and passive, though manifesting them-
selves in the form of the verb, are not attributes of the verb, but of the per-
sons or things connected with it, just as comparison, though exhibiting
itself in the forms of the adjective, is really the bringing together of two
or more objects, and not qualities.
The following are all the possible cases which can occur : —
I. One and the same person or thing may represent both relations, the
active and the passive; as, "He struck himself." " She struck herself."
" It destroyed itself." " You struck yourself ." " I struck myself " (See
Personal Pronoun, Rem. 3, p. 35.)
II. Two different persons or things may be employed to represent these
relations.
(1.) One may be simply active, and the other simply passive; as,
" George struck William " = William was struck by George.
(2.) Exch may be, at the same time, both active and passive; as, " They
struck each other " = They struck, each [struck] the other. (See p. 3.5.)'
III. Three different persons or things may be employed ; one act re,
and the other passive.
(1.) One may act, another suffers the act, while the third stands as tr.\t
to which the act is tending; as, "He (act) gave me (tending to) a book,''
* Passive means sxiffering, that is, suffering or receiving an act, the subjec' or i*
eer."«r, meanwhile, being in an inactive state.
»>b ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
fpaso • "He tOi.d me ins history " = His history was told me by Am 2- a
was U Id his history by Aim.
(2.) One acts, another is acted upon, and thereby transformed or made
into the third ; as, " They made him an officer " = He was made an officer
by them = An officer was made of him by them. In this case there are
but two different persons or things. The second and third denote the
same individual.
Hem. 3. — When the agent is unknown, or when we wish to conceal it,
by drawing attention only to the act and the object affected by it, we use
the passive voice ; as, " Gold is found (by some one unknown, or known,
but not mentioned) in California." But if wc wish to make the agent
prominent, we use the active voice ; as, " Moses conducted the Israelites
out of Egypt."
Rem. 4. — Some intransitive verbs, when accompanied by the preposi-
tion following, admit of a passive form ; as, " They laughed at him " = He
was laughed at. So, when a verb takes two objects, one direct and the
Dther indirect, the latter is sometimes made the subject of the verb in the
passive voice ; as, " I told him a story " = He was told a story.
Rem. 5. — Certain intransitive verbs, as come, arrive, fall, rise, &c.,
admit of a passive form, yet with an instransitive signification, as will be
Been. by observing that the agent or actor, not the object, is the subject of
the sentence in either form ; as, "Babylon is fallen" (has fallen.) This
idiom is less common now than formerly, and may be regarded as an imi-
tation of the French or German forms of similar verbs.
EXERCISE.
Tell which of the following verbs are in the active voice, which in tht
passive : —
The moon gives a pleasant light. The book was written by my father. The
song of the bird is heard in the grove. Leverrier discovered a new planet.
How doth the little busy bee improve each shining hour. Knowledge
gives power. The stars were hidden by the dark cloud. The ice was
melted by the warm rays of the sun. The scholars corrected the inelegant
expressions which they used. The heavens declare the glofy of God.
The letter was written by the lawyer. He found the money.
Change in the above sentences, the verbs in the active voice into the passive,
und the verbs in the passive voice into the active.
Represent each of the folloioing objects as acted upon by some other
object : —
Pencils, paper, sound, table, looking glass, gas, chair, bell, pens, books t
gold, silver, air, ceiling, hat, cane, letters, water, ice, snow.
Model. Pencils are broken, &c.
"Represent the folloxoing objects as acting upon some other object : —
Bees, children, philanthropists, the canary birds, discipline, unagir
exercise, the boy, the glass, pins, shoes, scholars, men, clouds, the wafch,
ihe cat, father, teachers, ministers, jewdlers.
?»Iot)el. Bees gat-ier honey, &c.
ETYMOLOGY MODE. 5*7
MODE.
ORAL EXERCISE.
1 sec a dove upon the portico ; but as I approach him, he flies away. 1
now say to you, while he is yet on the wing, "The dme is flying away."
Who of you would think of looking on the portico for the dove ? Ana.
No one. But again, I see the dove as before, and I say to you, " The
dove may fly away." Where would you now look for the dove? A us.
On the portico. But have I not spoken of his flying away ? Yes, indeed,
but you have not said that he is actually flying away. Then, to say some-
thing about flying aicay, does not always mean actually flying away. 1
may think of a dove flying ; I may imagine one flying, but is he there-
fore, flying ? Am. He" is not. So, when I wish to show what actually
takis place, I have one mode of speaking, and when 1 wish to show what
Has been merely thought of, or imagined, but not yet realized, or actually
done, I have another mode of speaking. Thus, when I say. " The boy
is playing" or " The boy may play, can ]>lay, or must play," which expres-
sion shows you that he actually plays ? and which allows you to suppose
him at rest) Again, suppose' I say, "If the boy play," does he play?
A)ts. He does not. It only supposes him to play. If now the boy were
unoccupied, and you desired him to play, how would you express that de-
sire r Ana. By saying, " Come, boy, play with us." Thus you would employ
another mode of speaking. All these ways of speaking are called modes.
The following definitions will show you how many, and wha + the modes
are : —
Mode is the manner in which the action, being or state is
asserted.
Rem. 1. — Mode does not show the manner of the action or state, but the
manner of its assertion. It may be asserted as a reality, or as something im-
ayiued, that may, can, or must take place, or- as something imayiued or sup-
posed, which is placed under a condition, or as something desired. The
manner of the action or state is expressed by means of limiting words ;
as, " The soldier fought (a reality) bravely,'''' (manner of the act ;) " The
soldier may fight (something imagined) bravely," (manner of the supposed
act.)
Rem. l. — The infinitive is not properly a mode of the verb; for, since
it docs not assert action at all, it cannot be said to have any manner or
mode of assertion. The same may be said of the participles. In fact, the
infinitive is a participle, partaking of the properties of the noun and the
verb, as the (so called) participles partake of the properties of the adjective
and the verb.
There are commonly reckoned five modes — the indica-
tive, the potential, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the
infnitive.
The indicative mode asserts a thing as actually existing ;
as, u James loves." " William was struck."
The potential mode asserts the power, liberty, permission,
necessity, or duty of acting, or being in a certain state ; as
* We can sing." " You may write." " He must read.
" They -should obey the law."
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The subjunctive mode asserts a thing as conditional, or
doubtful; as, " If he leave me." "Though he slay me.'
The imperative mode asserts a command, an entreaty, 01
a permission ; as, " Write." " Go thou." " J3e admon-
ished."
The infinitive mode represents the action or state as an
abstract noun ; as, " To write." " To be seen"
Rem. 1. — The indicative mode is used in principal propositions, and is
employed to represent what is actual, real, or absolute. It may be used in
interrogative or exclamatory sentences ; as, " Has he arrived ? " " The
villain has fired the dwelling! " It is often used in subordinate proposi-
tions, but always to represent what is actual ; as, *' I know that he dis-
covered (actually) the plot."
Rem. 2. — The potential mode is also used in principal propositionst,
not, however, to represent the actual, but that which, at the time of speak-
ing, exists, or is supposed to exist, only in idea — that which is merely im-
agined or thought of. The ideal act or state, however, is supposed to have
some relation to reality. It can become a reality ; that is, there is no im
possibility in the way of its realization ; no ability is wanting : it may
become a r ality, that is, permission is granted, or in the final result per-
haps it will >e a reality : it must become actual, that is, a necessity, or an
obligation e ists. This mode may be used in interrogative, exclamatory,
or supplicate y sentences ; as, " Can he leave the city in safety ? " " lie
may be assassinated ! " " May the truth be victorious." It may be used
in subordinate propositions, but always to represent what is ideal or what
has not been realized; as, "He says that I may (I do not now) attend
school." The potential may be known by the auxiliaries, may, can, must,
might, could, would, should.
Rem. 3. — The subjunctive mode is used exclusively in subordinate
propositions, and hence its name, (sub, under, and jungo, I join.) It is
joined to the verb of the principal proposition by the subordinate conjunc-
tions, if, though, although, lest, except, that, save that, unless, provided
that, and some o hers ; they impart the idea of doubt, contingency, or
conditionality. Whatever of futurity may be implied in the subjunctive, is
to be accounted for either from the fact that any thing that is conditional
or contingent is yet to be realized, (if ever,) or from the influence of a sup-
pressed auxiliary, such as shall or should, which imparts (though under-
stood) the idea of futurity ; as, " Though he (should) slay me, yet will I
trust in him."
The subjunctive represents an ideal act, or a real act, conceived only as an
idea, and places it under a condition accompanied with more or less doubt.
As to a distinctive form of the subjunctive, it can scarcely be said to have
any, unless it be found in the present tense, or present and past of to be ;
and in all such cases, (with the single exception of were, in examples like " If
it tvere," " If I were.") by supplying an ellipsis, they may be referred to the
forms of the indicative future or the past potential ; as, " If it rain, we shall
not leave " — If it should rain, &c. " Till one greater man restore (shall
restore) us, and regain (shall regain) the blissful seat, sing, heavenly muse."
The majority of writers, at the present time, employ the forms of the indic-
ative present ; as, " If it rains ; " " If he leaves." Hence the subjunctive
may be regarded as borrowing its forms from the indicative and potential
modes.
»Rem. 4. — The imperative mode is used in principal propositions. It \a
.he mode wh Sh expresses will, or desire. It may usually be known by
ETYMOLOGY — PARTICI.' LES. 59
the omissior. of the subject; as, " Read, (thou,) xcrite." The force of this
mode, under the same form, depends upon the relation of the parties. If
a superior speaks imperatively to an inferior, it is a command; if an
equal to an equal, it is an exhortation or an entreaty ; if an inferior to a su-
perior, it is a prayer or supplication. The imperative is made subordinate
only in a direct quotation ; as, " God said, Let there be light." It is often
elegantly p;it for a conditional clause ; as, " Let but the commons hear
this testament, and they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds " =
Could the commons, &c, or, If the commons could but hear, &c.
Rem. 5. — The infinitive is used in abridged propositions, and hence is
wholly dependent, being incorporated as an element of another proposi-
tion. It does not assert any thing ; it is not limited by the number and
person of a subject, and hence its name, infinitive = unlimited, in distinc-
tion horn finite, which is applied to all verbs used in construction with theft
subjects, and thereby limited by the number and person of the latter.
The infinitive is an abstract noun, and, as such, may become, (1.) the sub-
test of a proposition ; as, " To err is human " = It is human to err. (2.)
With the copula it may become the predicate; as, "To obey is to enjoy.'"
(3.) It may be in apposition; as, Delightful task to rear the tender thought
(4.) It may be the object of a transitive verb ; as, " She loves to sin;/.'"
(5 ) It may be the object of a preposition ; as, " He is about to go" But
while it has the construction of a noun, it is modified like a verb. It may
be in the active or passive voice; as, to love, to be loved ; it may be in the
present or perfect tense ; as, to love, to have loved; it may govern an ob-
ject, or be limited by an adverb, like any verb, but is never qualified by an
adjective, although it may have an adjective in the predicate belonging to
it ; as, " To steal is base."
Although the infinitive is an abstract noun, it may, nevertheless, be as-
sociated with the object from which it has been abstracted ; as, " The sol-
dier faints," (finite,) "for the soldier to faint" (infin. ;) "He goes,"
(finite,) '■'■for him to go," (infin. ;) " we told, him to go" (infin.)
EXERCISES.
Tell the mode of each of the following verbs : —
The walk is pleasant. If it rains, I shall not go to Boston. The chil-
dren went into the garden. What is a thought-flower ? May I go to
the concert ? Hear the rain pattering upon the roof. I will stay at home.
Be entreated by me. I love to hear music. If I send her home, she will
be unhappy. Do let me help you ! The lamb is the emblem of innocence.
I must not stay. Do you see the snow flakes ? How pure and white they
are ! He maketh me to lie down in green pastures. Hope thou in God.
Whom shall I fear ?
Write a subject to each of the follotoing verbs, putting them first in thi
indicative, and then in the potential modes : —
Change, exalt, console, go, vary, turn, weep, mourn, lament, fear, ride,
travel, exhaust, walk, hope, reconcile, grow, know pity, do, sleep.
Select from your reading lessons examples of each of the modes.
Correct the faxdty expressions which you have collected.
PARTICIPLES.
A participle is a word having the signification of a verK
but the construction of an adjective ; ns, " We found him
GO ENGLISH iRAMMAR.
lying on the ground." " Having written his letter, he sent
t to his friend."
Rem. 1. — The participle is sc called from its participating the prop-
erties of the verb and adjective. It is the attributive part of tbe verb
alone ; it is the being, action, or state deprived of the power of assertion ;
and therefore, when joined without the copula to the noun whose attribute
it expresses, it must be assumed, (not predicated,) just as an adjective is
assumed under similar circumstances. It has the meaning of the verb, is
modified like the verb, but is used like the adjective.
Rem. 2. — It is not a distinct part of speech, but is derived directly from
the verb, the present by adding in//, the past by adding ed, to all regu-
lar verbs, and the perfect by prefixing to the past the auxiliary having.
There are, properly, two participles — the present and the
perfect ; as, reading, having read ; (being) loved, having
been loved.
Rem. 1. — These two participles correspond to the present and perfect
tenses of the verb. They are used in abridged propositions ; the former
when the proposition before its abridgment was in the present, past, or
future tense ; the latter when it was in either of the perfect tenses.
There are, however, three forms, commonly called parti-
ciples — the present, the past, and the perfect.
EXAMPLES.
Perf.
Active Voice . loving, loved, having loved.
Passive Voice . (being) loved, loved,* having be
Rem. 1. — The form called the past participle may have been once the
passive participle, having the same form. (See Rem. on the auxiliary
Have, p. 74.) If so, it has now wholly lost its original signification
and, strictly speaking, has lost its character as a participle. It never
partakes of the x>roperties of the adjective; it never is used to limif
a noun like that part of speech ; it is never used alone in participial con
structions, that is, whore the participle, with the words depending upon it
takes the place of a subordinate proposition ; it is always found in *h(
predicate, either of complete or abridged propositions, and is connected
with some form of have, as, have lured, had loved; having loved ; it has an
active signification, and always denotes a past, completed act, and belongs
as well to intransitive as to transitive verbs.
Rem. 2. — The passive participle of the same form, on the contrary, )!■
limited to transitive verbs, has always a passive signification, may denote
as well present as past time ; it may have the participial construction, or,
with the copula, may form the passive verb in all the modes and tenses.
* The passive participle does not necessarily denote past time. Of itself, it alttt
ply denotes the reception of an act, complete or incomplete. The time depend.-) upo*
thai of the verb with which it id associated.
ETYMOLOGY PARTICIPLES. 61
Rem. 3. — Participles, in their appropriate use, take the place of depend-
ent propositions, and consequently represent time in the tame manner as
the propositions from -which they are derived.
As the verb of the dependent clause dates from the time expressed hy
the principal verb, and not from that of the speaker, the parti -iple may be
present with a past, present, or future act ; as, " 1 saw a man walking ; "
*'I see a man walking ; " " I shall see a man walking." So, again, the
participle may denote a past act, completed at the time of a past, present,
or future act ; as, " Having ploughed his field, the fanner sowed, s ->ws, tcill
sow the seed."
The present active participle denotes an action or state
present, and in progress at the time represented by the prin-
cipal verb ; as, " We find, found, or shall find him sitting
in a chair."
Rem. 1. — This participle always ends in ing ; it has an active significa-
tion, and may be used in abridging propositions ; as, " I saw a man uxuk-
ing in the meadow." It may be used wholly as an adjective ; it is then
placed before the noun ; as, " The roaring billows." When thus used, it
1j called a participial adjective. It may be useti with the copula in the
progressive form of the predicate ; as, " I am reading." It may be used
(1.) wholly as a noun, with the preceding, and of following ; as, " The -ead-
ing of the law ; " or (2.) in the construction of' the noun with the mod fica-
tions of the verb ; as, " The eye is never satisfied with beholding the stu-
pendous works of the Creator."
Rem. 2. — Though this participle is usually active, it sometimes has a
passive signification, especially when an object is undergoing a progressive
change ; as, " The house is building." " New efforts are making for the ex-
tension of this trade." — Webster. "This new tragedy was acting." —
Everett. Recent writers of some distinction have adopted the forms, " The
house is being built." " Preparations are being made." It is not the prov-
ince of the grammarian to dictate as to questions of usage, but to admit
and explain whatever good, national, and reputable usage sanctions.
When subjected to these tests, it must be said of such forms, that they
are by no means adopted by the best writers as good English, and they
are of too recent origin to be regarded as idioms of the language.
The present passive participle denotes the reception of an
act, at the time represented by the principal verb ; a*i, " He
lives, lived, will live, loved by all."
Rem. 1. — This participle may be used as an adjective, or with the cop-
ula, to form the passive verb ; as, " A refined taste is jwssessed only by th«
cultivated." When preceded by being, it may be used as a noun ; as, " Bj
being involved in one wrong act, he was soon lost to all the appeals of his
friends."
The perfect active participle denotes an action or state
completed at the time represented by the principal verb ; as,
" Having finished his speech, he sat down."
The perfect passive participle denotes the reception of an
act, past and completed, at the time represented by the pnn
6
62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
cipal verb ; as, " Having been driven from home, he enlisted
in the army."
Rem. — The perfect participles are never used like the piesent, with
the copula, to form the predicate They may lie used as verbal nouns ; a?
" He was accused of having obtained goods on false pretences."
The action or state expressed by the participle mr y bo
either predicated or assumed ; as, u The horse is running
through the street ; " " The horse running through tne
street."
Rem. 1. — The participle, when predicated, constitutes, with the copula,
or auxiliary have, a form of the verb. The present participle is used in the
progressive form or imperfect tenses ; the past in the complete form, or
perfect; the passive, in the passive form ; as, "The farmer was plough-
inq his field. "The farmer had ploughed his field." "The field was
ploughed by the farmer."
Rem. 2. — The participle, when assumed, is equivalent to a subordinate
clause ; as, " The boat which sails on yonder lake is propelled by steam "
= The boat sailing on yonder lake is propelled by steam.
EXERCISES.
Give the present participle of the folloicing verbs : —
Find, rely, honor, obey, refuse, visit, paper, paint, exercise, study, parse,
construe, join, mature, plan, inquire, cultivate. The past participle of
the following verbs : Plant, ride, paint, suffer, hope, retreat, prow, mind, en-
dow, resemble, suppose. The perfect participle of the following : Bind,
loose, hang, perfume, make, gain,' lay, come, sit, 'dream, wind, imagine,
hinder, assist, arrive, release, take, place, sing.
Give the present, past, and perfect jjarticijyles of the following transitive
verbs : —
Trill, fill, heat, cool, weary, excite, exhaust, enchant, enjoy, dissipate
remember, write, learn, ventilate.
Change the participles in the last examples to the cotresponding jiassive
participles.
Mention any action of 'the following objects ; first predicate the act, then
assume it : —
Goldfish, carrier dove, chicken, peacock, horse, lamb, rabbit, squirrel,
Cartridge, hen, camel, man, woodcock, mirrors, chairs, swallow, scholars,
opes, (beams.
Use any of the above participles with is, and write an appropriate sub-
ject, thus : The singer is trilling his note.
Correct the following examples in all respects, not forgetting any vrror
expressed or implied in the thought : —
Ella went to my house yesterday and i and her sit by the window and
Bee how the sun drawed water from' my father's mill-pond,
abel said how last evenm he see a star fall jest over his uncle Calebs barn.
ETYMOLOGY — TENSE. C>3
peter says how his father thinks the gography hadn't ought to say that fhe
Birth turns over on its exle coz we should all fall of when we get on 'tot'aer
side.
Hoto many errors have you heard in the school room to-day ? How many
have you corrected ? How many of them are you sure you shall hereafter
avoul t
TENSE.
OllAL EXERCISE.
As I look out of the window, I see the rain falling : how can I so speak
as to show that it falls now ? Ans. By saying, " It rains." But suppose
I should wait till the next day, and then speak of the same thing as having
happened the day before, what should I say? Ans. "It rained.'' What
word has been changed ? Why was it altered ? If I felt assured that rain
would fall to-morrow, what should I say in speaking of it before it hap-
pened ? Ans. " It will ram." What word has been added to the word
rain t Why was it added ? Then we can speak of a thing token, it hap-
pens, after it happens, or before it happens. How many different times
are shown by the words rains, rained, and will rain t Ans. Three. Which
one shows that the raining and speaking both happened together ? Which
thows that the raining happened before the speaking ? Which shows that
the raining was to happen after the speaking ? If any thing happens be-
fore we speak of it, we say it is past, or it happened in past time. Wnen
any thing is to happen after we speak of it, we say, it is future, or
it will take place in future time. Then we can speak of a thing as taking
place in present time, past time, or future time.
Tell the time represented in the following examples : —
We sing. They run. He will ride. I act. John came. You will
study. David was injured. He will walk.
A farmer commences ploughing his field at six o'clock in the morning,
and continues till six in the afternoon, when he finishes his work. How
long is the act in progress ? Ans. Twelve hours. When did it begin ?
When end ? Mention any hour when it was in progress. Mention any hour
before or after it was in progress. Then the act of ploughing had a beginning,
9. progress, and an end. Now, suppose I wish to speak of the ploughing
indefinitely, as we did of the rain, without reference to the beginning, prog-
ress, or end ; how should I put it in present, past, or future time ? Ans.
By saying, The farmer ploughs, ploughed, or will plough. But suppose I
see the act in progress, and I wish to speak of it as actually now taking
place, without reference to its beginning or end ; how shall I speak ? Ans.
By saying, He is ploughing. How can I show the same thing in past or
future time ? Ans. lW saying, He teas ploughing, he will be ploughing.
Suppose, now, I shoild see him at six o'clock in the afternoon, just
as he h id finished his work, and I wish to speak, not of the beginning or
progreSS of the work, but of the end or completion of it ; how can I rep-
resent this completion in present time ? Ans. By saying, The farmer has
ploughed his field. Will you put it in past time ? in future time ? Ans
lie had ploughed, he urill hare ploughed his field. Then, if we speak of
an act without reference to its progress or end, we have one form of th*
verb . What is the past, present, and future of it ? Ans.
Present. . The farmer ploughs
Past. . . The farmer ploughed.
Future. . The farmer will plough.
How can I so speak as to put the unfinished or progressing act in th»
present ? the past ? the future .'
64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR
By saying, —
Present. . The farmer is ploughing.
Past. . . The farmer was ploughing.
Future. . The farmer will b" ploughing.
How can I so speak as to put the end or completion of the act in th»
present ? the past ? the future ?
By saying, —
Present. . The farmer has ploughed.
Past. . . The farmer had ploughed.
Future. . The farmer will have ploughed,
How many different times do we refer all actions to ? Ans. Three
The present, the past, the future. How many different states of the act can
we show ? Ans. Three. The act in progress, without reference to th<
end of it ; the end, without reference to beginning or progress of it ; and the
simple act, without reference to either. What is the time of the following
acts ? The wind blows. The dog barked. The trees have bent. The grass
will grow. The fire will have burned. The lesson ends. — The state of
the following ? The bell is ringing. The mail has arrived. The birds had
sung. The leaves fall. The fishes will be swimming. — Now give the time
and state of each.
Tense denotes the time of an action or event.
Rem. 1. — Although tense properly denotes the time of an action or
event, the tense form of the verb is made also to denote the state of an
act. If an act is spoken of without reference to its progress or completion,
we have the simple or indefinite present, past, or future : as, I love, I loved, I
shall love. But if a. progressive and unfinished state of the act is to be repre-
sented, we have another form for the present, past, and future ; as, I am
writing, I teas writing, I shall be writing. If, again, we wish to represent
the finished or completed state of an indefinite act, we have still another
form for the present, past, and future ; as, I have loved, I had loved, I shall
have loved. If we wish to represent the finished or completed state of a
progressive act, we have yet another form ; as, I have been writing, I had
been writing, I shall have been writing. If we wish to make the simple
form emphatic, we have still another ; as, I do love, I did love, for the pres-
ent and past. If we wish to show that the subject is receiving or suffering
an act in present, past, or future time, we have still another form ; as, I
am loved, I toas loved, I shall be loved.
Rem. 2. — Tense does not mean the time which elapses from the begin-
ning to the end of an act, that is, the duration of an act. But it refers
either to the present, to an indefinite period antecedent to the present, or
to an indefinite period subsequent to the present. The present, strictly
speaking, has no length ; it is the point where the past and future meet.
But for the purposes of language, any portion, as a day, a month, a year;
a century, may be taken as the present, and all other time as past or
future. The present progressive form is, however, always the moment of
speaking.
The present is the point or period of time assumed by the speaker or wri-
ter, and is the epoch to which all events are referred. Whatever occurs
in it, whether before or after the precise moment of speaking, is present ;
whatever occurs out of it is either past or future.
There are three divisions of time — the. past, the presen
and the future.
Rem , — Were it not necessary to make other distinctions in time based on
subdivisions of these three, thqre would be but three tense forms, the pros-
ETYMOLOGY — TENSE. 65
ent, the past, and the future. But it is often required tn give to an event
a double refereiue : (1.) to the time of speaking, and (2. J to a given point
or portion of the present, past, or future.
leases which require this second point of reference are called relative
tenses ; while those which have onlf a single reference to the speaker
are called absolute tenses.
Each division has two tenses — an absolute and a relative.
There are, therefore, six tenses — three absolute and three
relative ; as, (absolute,) " I write" " I wrote" " I shall
write;" (relative,) " I have written" (some time to-day or
this year,) " I had written" (before the boat sailed,) " T
shall have written" (at noon.)
Rem. 1. — The absolute tenses take their name from the division of time
to which they belong. Thus we have the present tense, the past tense,
the. future tense. The relative tenses affix to the name of the tense the
word perfect. Thus we have the p r e sent perfect, the past perfect, and the
future perfect.
Rem. 2. — To these six tenses may be added, with propriety, three
others, called the present imperfect, past imperfect, and ftture imper-
fect ; as, " I am vynting ; ** H I was writing ;" u t shall be writing." These
forms are usually relative; tenses ; as, " I atn writing while you are read-
ing ; " "I was writing when the coach arrived ; " "I shall be writing when
you return." These are, however, called the progressive form of the verb,
and may be used even in the perfect tenses, to show that a progressive act
is completed ; as, " 1 have been writing," (but I am not now ;) " I had been
writing" (but I was not at the past time referred to;) "I shall have been
writing^' (but not at? the future time referred to.)
The tenses are — the present, the present perfect ; the
the past, the past, perfect ; the future, the future perfect.
The present tense represents what takes place in present
time ; as, " I see ; " " I am seeing ; " " I do see ; " " I am seen"
Rem. 1. — By present time is meant the present of the speaker or writer,
She present of the hearer is the same as that of the speaker; but that of
he reader is not the same as that of the writer.
Rem. 2. — This tense, in the common form, is used to denote a general
• tith, or what is customary; as, " The boy attends school; :; "Vice pro-
duces misery;" "Truth is powerful." In the progressive form, it ex-
p osscs wnat is now actually taking place ; as, " lie is writing " Mark the
difference between " He sings," that is, " He is a singer," ^but is not sing-
ing now,) and " He is singing."
Rem. 3. — The present is often used for other tenses. (1.) It is used
f )i he past in animated narratives, where the writer or speaker seems
transported to the scene which he describes ; as, " He seizes his musket
ippn xches the monster, and lays him upon the ground." (2.) It. is used
for tl s present perfect in speaking of authors long since dead, when their
writin v,s are referred to ; as, " Matthew traces the descent of Joseph ; Luke
traces 'hat of Mary." (3.) It is used for the future after relative //ro-
uouns. and the subo. dinate connectives, till, until, as soon «j, when, before,
6*
$6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
if , as, " We wiU pa> him when he comes." " He will devour every insect
which amies in his way."
The present perfect tense represents a past event com-
pleted in present time ; as, " I have seen ; " " I have been
seeing ; " " I have been seen."
Rem. 1. — Whenever the attention is drawn to the completion of an act.
the question of time refers not to the entire act, but to the end of it. If
the completion takes place in a portion of time which the speaker as-
sumes as present, however long that portion may be, or however remote
the time of the completion may be from the moment of speaking, the
tense is the present perfect ; as, " I have written a letter this year. ' The
letter might have "been finished on the first of January, but the mention of
it mijht have been made on the last of the following December. But
should one moment intervene between the portion assumed as present fond
year in the above example) and the portion in which the act took place,
the past must be used if we simply refer to the act, or the past perfect if
we refer to the completion of the act.
Rem. 2. — This tense, like the present, is used for other tenses; as,
" Shakspeare has excelled all other dramatists." " When I have finished
my task, I shall return."
The past tense represents what took place in time wholly
past ; as, " I saw." " I ivas seeing." " I was seen."
Rem. 1. — The past and the present perfect may both refer to one and
the same act. If the speaker refers to an act indefinitely, that is, without
regard to its progress or completion, and places it in the past, beyond any
portion of what he assumes as present, he must use the past tense ; as,
" I wrote this forenoon ; " the afternoon being assumed as present. " I
have written (the same act) to-day ; " the whole day being assumed as
present, and the completion (how it may have boen with the beginning is
not material) has taken place in that present.
Real 2. — The past tense, common form, is to past time what the
? resent, common form, is to present time. It refers to an act indefinitely.
t denotes, like the present, what is customary ; as, " He attended school
constantly." But in the progressive form it denotes a definite act in
past time, but not completed ; as, " He teas writing when I came."
The past perfect represents a past event completed in time
wholly past ; as, " I had seen." " I had been seeing." " I
had been seen."
Rem. — The present perfect, the past, and the past perfect may each re-
fer to the same act. Suppose a person to write a letter on Monday ; he
speaks of it on Wednesday, assuming Wednesday alone as the present.
lie says, (referring to the act absolutely and indefinitely,) " I wrote a let-
ter." But while he was writing the mail arrived ; he now says, (referring
definitely and relatively to the act unfinished, but in progress,) "I was
writing a letter when the mail arrived." Again: in speaking of the same
act, he says, (referring definitely and relatively to the completion of the
act,) " I had written a letter before the mail left ; " or he may say, (r<
definitely and relatively both to the progress and completion of the act,) ''I
had been writing a letter." These fornis are used, first, because the time.
mw wholly past, including no part of Wednesday ; secondly, because as
ETYMOLOGY — TENSE8. 67
ndefinite absolute act in past time requires the simple past, wrote; a defi
nite relative and progressive act in past time requires the pas* pro
gressive form, was writing ; while a completed relative act in past time
requires the past perfect, had written, and a completed progressive past
act requires the past perfect progressive, had been writing. Now, let the
speaker assume, not Wednesday," (though that be the day of speaking, as
before.) but the wJiole week, as the present; he cannot say, "I am writ-
ing,'" for the act is not now going on ; he cannot say, "I wrote," for the
act is included in the time assumed as present, i. e., the time is not wholly
past. But he can say, (referring to the completion of the act in the as-
sumed present,) " I have written a letter," (this week ;) or, (referring bolh
to the progress and completion of the act,) " I have been writing a letter,"
(this week.*) These forms are used, first, because the time (one week) is
not wholly past, and secondly, because the nature of the act, as before,
requires them.
The future t3nse represents what will take place in future
time ; as, " I shall see." " I shall be seeing." " I shall be
seen."
Rem. — The future, like the simple present or past, is used to denote
a future custom ; as, " Ephraim shall not envy Judah, and Judah shall not
vex Ephraim." " The lion shall eat straw like the ox."
The future perfect tense represents an event as com-
pleted in future time ; as, " I shall have seen." " I shah
have been seeing" " I shall have been seen."
TENSES IN ALL THE MODES.
The subjunctive mode has six tenses — the same as the
indicative.
The potential mode has four tenses — the present, present
perfect, past, anu past perfect.
The infinitive has two tenses — the present and perfect.
The imperative has only one tense — the present.
Rem. 1. — Tense, in the subjunctive mode, doe* not usually mark tmie
with the same exactness as in the indicative.
(1.) In conditional clauses, if the thing spoken of denotes something actual, or ta-
ken as actual, the tense form usually denotes the true time ; as, " If it rained, I did
not know it." Rut if it refers to something merely hypothetical or supposed, the
oast tense represents present time, and the past perfect, past time; as, " If I we*$
going now. (but I cannot,) I should ride." " If I had had an opportunity yesterday,
t.i't I bad none,) I should have spi ken to him."
* To the Teacher. — In drilling pupils on tense, it is important, first, to give
t clear idea of what is assumed as present. It is not always expressed as above
'Wednesday, a week,) but is more frequently assumed without notice, mereiy implied ,
*s, " Fie has writt n-*' In the second place, the nature or state of the act as indefiml*
pwfrftwiw, eomplird, or progressive completed, should be Cully exhibited.
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
(•J.) The verb to be has a distinct form for tlie past tense used hypothetical!} ar.a
denoting present time ; as, " If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes."
(!1.) Wer-e in this use cannot stand for would be, or would havebrcn, although in oth-
er uses it may ; as," It were an impossibility to raise the requisite sum." Hud,'m
like manner, is used for would or would have ; as, " I hod rather be a dog, and bay the
moon, than such a Roman." " It had been better for him if he had uursucd the up
posite course."
Rem. 2. — The tenses in the potential mode have by no means the
signification which their names denote.
(1.) The present denotes present possibility, permission, ability, or necessity to per-
form an act sometimes present, and sometimes future } as, " We may (now) go (to-
morrow.)" " You can (now) write (now.)" " lie must (74010) leave," {now, to-mor-
row, next week.)
(2.) The present perfect generally denotes a present possibility, necessity, &c, that a
past act was performed ; as, " I must have written " — It is now undeniable that 1
wrote (yesterday.)
(3.) The past denotes (a.) a past possibility, &c, to perform an act ; as, " Can you
write?" " I could write yesterday.' 1 u He would often sit the entire evening with-
out uttering a word." Would, and might are now seldom, if ever, used to denote
past time. (6.) It denotes the present possibility, &c, when followed by a conditional
clause ; as, " I might or could go (now) if I would." " I should or would po (now) if I
could." (c.) It denotes & future possibility, &lc. ; as, " I shall not go ; but if 1 should
go, (hereafter,) 1 could (hereafter) walk, (d.) ft denotes a universal duty without
reference to time ; as, " Children should , bnj their parents."
(4.) The past perfect denotes usually a past possibility, &.c, but by no means a past
completed act, as in the indicative, thus: " I could have assisted you (yesterday) if
you had desired ii " — I was able to assist you.
Rem. 3. — The infinitive mode has but two tenses, the present and per
feet. They denote, the former an indefinite or progressive, and the latter
a completed state of the act; as, " To torite." " To be writing.*' " To
have written." " To have been writing."
(1.) The infinitive, like the participle, may be connected with any mode or tense of
the principal verb.
(2.) The present infinitive denotes a time present with that of the principal verb,
3nd not necessarily present with the speaker ; as, " I intend to write." " I intended
tt write." " I hail intended to writ'." " I shall hegin to write."
(.'{.) The perfect denotes a past act completed at the time denoted by the principal
verb; as, " She is stud to have sung." "She was thought to have written." "She
will be known to have done it."
Rem. 4. — The imperative has only the present tense, which denotes the
time of giving a command ; the time of its performance is future.
EXERCISES.
Tell the tenses of the folloioing vet bs : —
Did you hear the lecture ? He listened earnestly. I hope to find the
study interesting. It will not rain. He had intended to go. I have heard
the Irish orator. He saw the constellation of the Southern Cross. Is he
confident of success "> He will have learned his lesson by the time we Irish
to leave. I shall have finished my work when Sarah comes. The chil^
cried. Was the view pleasant ? Is he intelligent ? Are the notes of the
nightingale sad ? Had she read the book ? She is loved by all. The hills
were covered with snow.
Tell the tenses of the following verbs; also which denote the reception
ETYMOLOGY — FORMS OF THE VERBS. . 69
tf an act, Which the vhogkess, which the r ompeetion of an act, and
which an indefinite act : —
The paper is published in Boston. Is he planting the seed ? Has Frank
been drawing ? She found her lost treasure. I shall be allowed to go
When will she go to ride ? Have they been to the concert ? He sings.
He is teaching. Happiness will be her portion. Sorrow is the common
lot. Have you been taught to sew ? Had he heard the good news ? 1
wish to go. I will not be denied. He shall not forget the penalty. FLw«
ers bloom. Stars fade. They will have gone when you come. He tore
the book. You saw the bright star. When will you go ? What shall I
do ? William has gained the prize. Have you been to Europe ? She
writes easily. He has been learning to skate. He tells me pleasant sto-
ries. She will always do right. He did right. He loves the right. The
clock has struck. He was never known to tell a lie. He had been pro-
moted. She is contented. You do not think so. You will learn to know
her better. It shall not be. He is deceived. He has fallen from the
tree. He broke his arm. He ran away. He was carrying the package.
She had been home.
FORMS OF THE VERB.
Transitive verbs may have four forms — the common, the
emphatic, the progressive, and the passive ; as, " I love."
" I do love." " I am loving." " I am loved."
Rem. — The emphatic form is confined to the present and past indica-
tive, and the present imperative. The other forms are extended through
all the modes and tenses.
Intransitive verbs may have three forms — the common,
the emphatic, and the progressive ; as, " I sit" " I do sit."
" I am sitting"
The common form represents an act indefinitely, as a cus-
tom, or as completed without reference to its progress ; as,
'« I love." " I loved." " I shall love." " I have loved."
Rem. — The variations of this form, in the second and third persons,,
as seen in the terminations est and eth, belong to what is called the solemn
style. They are found in the Scriptures, in forms of prayer, and in various
sacred books.
The, emphatic form represents an act with emphasis ; as
kt I do write." " I did write."
Rem. — This form is used in interrogative or negative sentences without
tmphasis ; as, " Do yiu write f " " Did you write t " " I do not write."
The progressive form represents the progress of an un-
finished act ; as, " 1 am ivriting."
Rem. — In the perfect tenses, it represents the completion of a progres-
sive act; as, "I have bean ivt-'tiny." " I shall have been ivriting.
?0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The passive form represents the reception of an act ; as,
4 I am loved" " I was loved" " I shall be loved."
Rem. 1. — The perfect tenses of this form are used when we wish U
represent the completion of a passive state; as, "I have been humored.*
u I hud been honored." " I shall have been honored."
11km. 2. — The following table gives the forms for each divison of time,
with a description of the state of the act : —
FOIIMS FOR EACH DIVISION OF TIME.
Present.
Time.
Present
I.
Act.
Indefinite.
Progressive incomplete.
Complete.
Progressive complete.
Indefinite emphatic.
Indefinite received.*
Progressive received.*
Complete received.*
Example.
He writes.
He is writing.
He has written.
He has been writing.
He dors write.
The letter is written.
The house is building.
The letter has been written.
Past.
II. Past.
Indefinite.
Progressive incomplete.
Complete.
Progressive complete.
Indefinite emphatic
Indefinite received.*
Progressive received.*
Complete received.*
He wrote.
He was writing.
He had written.
He had been writing.
He did write.
The letter was written.
The house was building.
The letter had been written.
III. Future.
1. Future. Indefinite.
2. " Progressive incomplete.
3. " Complete.
4. " Progressive complete.
5. " Indefinite received.*
6. " Progressive received.
7. " Complete received.*
He will write.
He will be writing.
He will have written.
He will have been writing.
The letter will be written.
The house will be building.
The letter will have been written
Each part of the van ms forms contributes a share towards the general
meaning of the tense, and every compound tense should be analyzed.
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.
We are marching. . . , Are is an auxiliary verb, denotes present lime,
and asserts a thing as actual ; marching is a
present participle, denoting a progressive act ;
hence are marching is the present tense, indica-
tive mode, progressive form.
lie write Do is an auxiliary verb, denotes the present tense,
asserts a thin"; as actual, and imparts emphasis ;
tcrite denotes the act used indefinitely ; hence
do write is the present indies*-? nrp^atv
form.
* By the subject
ETYMOLOGY — AUXILIARIES. 71
tie will sing Will is an auxiliary verb, der. fltes future time.
(simply predicts,) and asserts a thing as actual ;
sing denotes the act used indefinitely ; hence
will sing is in the future tense, indicative mode.
He has conquered Has is an auxiliary verb, denotes present time,
is a sign of completed action, and asserts a thing
as actual ; conquered is the past participle of
conquer, denoting a completed or perfect act ;
hence has conquered is the present perfect in-
dicative.
/ had been writing Had is an auxiliary verb, denotes past time, is a
sign of completion, and with been asserts a thing
as actual ; been is the past participle of the aux-
iliary to be, and is used to denote completion :
writing is the present participle of write, formed
by adding ing, (Rule II., p. 16,) and denotes a
progressive act ; hence had been tcriti^g is the
past perfect progressive indicative.
They will have fought. . . Will is an auxiliary verb ; it denotes future time,
(simply predicts,) and asserts a thing as actual ;
have is a sign of completion ; hence will havt
is the sign of future completion ; fought is tho
past participle of fight ; it denotes completion ;
hence will have fought is the future perfect
tense indicative.
I may read May is an auxiliary verb ; it denotes present time,
asserts a thing as imagined or thought of, (not
as actual,) and gives permission; read denotes
an indefinite act ; hence may read is the pres
ent potential common form.
If he is detained. Is is an auxiliary vert), denotes present time, and
of itself asserts a thing as actual, but under the
influence of if asserts a thing as doubtful and
conditional ; detained is a passive participle,
denoting the reception of an act ; hence is de~
tained is the present passive subjunctive.
EXERCISE.
In the same manner analyze the following examples : —
The tempest has passed. The sun was rising. I shall be satisfied.
The sailor would have been discharged, if he had not gisen a satisfactory
excuse. The boys were anxious to go. The boy hoped to have finished
the wcrk before the storm approached. Go to the prison. Write an an-
swer. It may have been delayed. If you should write a correct lesson,
you would be commended.
Write three examples of the emphatic indicative past ; three of the pro-
gressive past perfect ; four of the progressive potential past perfect ; alM
any other which your teacher may give.
Select from your Reader one example of each tense, and analyze it.
Tell the mode, tense, and form of each of the following verbs:-"
Shepherd, lead on. Sweet is the breath of morn. These are J .hy works.
He will be coming. Silence filled the courts of heaven. A little new
born spirit knelt before the Eternal Throne. Thus far shalt thou g-»
He leads them forth through golden portals. Truth, crushed to earth
72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ehal! zise again Do thou in secret pray ? "When the eye saw him, then
it blessed him. If thy brother die, he shall live again. It is sown a nat
ural body, it is raised a spiritual body. By that time he will have beei
reaping his wheat Books were ready comrades, whom he could no-
tire. Thou must go to rest. He sunk to repose where the red heathi
are blended. He has been studying his lesson. She had seen better days
I would have blessed the strand. Be exalted, ye valleys. I will love the sea
because it is his grave. Pale mourned the lily where the rose had died
Suffer little children to come unto me. He would hardly have known him
She was sitting by the side of her friend. They were walking on the beach
The sun will have set when I reach home If he will do well, he shall b
rewarded.
Correct the following in all respects : —
Hull april first 18 hundred and 52 my deer ant i set down to inform you
That i am usually well i should admire to see you we was all so glad when
"Xou come to our House last febuary we was'nt a looking for you but in
You come all of A sudden i go to school now and study my rethmctic and
Grammar book i think i lern my grammer considerable "Well but the mas-
ter says how i dont rite Grammatical i shall Be twelve Year old co
me june i cant rite no more for i haint no more time to — your lovin Nef
u lemuel
AUX1LIAKIES.
Auxiliary verbs are those which are used in conjugating
other verbs. They are, —
PRES.
Do,
be,
have,
shall, will,
may,
can,
Past.
Did,
was,
had,
should, would,
might,
could,
Rem. 1. — Do, be, have, and will (when it means to will, or to leave
property by a ivill) are also used as principal verbs.
Rem. 2. — The auxiliary verbs are used to form the modes and tenses
of other verbs, and to give peculiar shades of meaning to the forms in
which they are used. In the early stages of the language, these verbs were
undoubtedly used as principal verbs followed by the infinitive of what now
Is called the principal verb; as, may (to) go; can (to) read; must (to)
sing. The to was at length dropped, as it is in case of the infinitives fol-
lowing bid, dare, feel, see, &c. ; and finally, the infinitive came to be re-
garded as the principal verb, and that on which it depended became its
auxiliary.
Rem. 3. — The auxiliaries should be regarded merely as form-words, or
words used to form the tenses, and to show relations of time and mode, as
the preposition is used to show relations of time, place, origin, cause, man-
ner, property, material, &c. In fact, all words used to show a relation, of
whatever nature, are a species of auxiliary. Prepositions aid in convert-
ing nouns into an adjective or adverbial use, thus : " She plays with ease "
= plays easily. " The oak of America " = The American oak. The rel-
ative pronoun, or the conjunctive adverb, is an auxiliary used to form an
adjective or an adverb out of a sentence ; thus : " The rain washed away
the embankment," is an independent sentence ; but in the sentence, • The
rain ivhich (\. e., the rain) washed aicay the embankment, has done much
damage elsewhere ; " the former sentence, by the aid of which, has teen
converted into an adjective, used to modify rain. So if we take the two
sentences, " The sun rose ; " " The cars left," we may convert the for
mer into an adverb by the auxiliary when thus : " When the sun rose.
ETYMOLOtxVT FORMATION OF TENSES.
73
the cars left." In the progress of language, these auxiliaries have in-
creased, aud-in the same ratio, the inflection of the principal word ha*
diminished. An exact and familiar acquaintance with their various use*
is essential to a correct knowledge of language.
Rem. 4. — The auxiliaries, as such, have only two tenses; the present
and the past, except must, which has no variation. They may he thus rep-
resented : —
CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES.
Present.
Fast. <
Singular
Plural.
1st. Per.
2d Per.
3d Per.
1st Per.
2d Per.
3d Per.
/
Tlwu
Re
We
You
They
(■Am
art
is
are
are
are
Do
dost
does
do
do
do
Have
hast
has
have
have
have
Will
wilt
will
will
will
will
Shall
shalt
shall
shall
shall
shall
May
mayst
may
may
may
may
Can
canst
can
can
can
can
, Must
must
must
must
must
must
( Was
wast
was
were
were
were
Did
didst
did
did
did
did
Had
hadst
had
had
had
had
Would
wouldst
would
would
would
would
Should
shouldst
should
should
should
should
Might
mightst
couldst
might
might
might
might
, Could
could
could
could
could
FORMATION OF TENSES — USES OF THE AUXILIARIE&
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
(1.) The common form . . is the first or simple form of the verb ; as, love %
lovest, loves.
(2.) The emphatic form . . prefixes do, dost, does, to the first form of the
verb ; as, do love, dost love, does love.
(3 ) The progressive form . prefixes is, am, art, are, to the present partici-
ple of the verb ; as, is loriting, am writing, art
loritmg.
(4.) T/ie passive form . . . prefixes is, am, art, are, to the passive* partici-
ple of the verb ; as, is loved, art loved, are
loved.
Rem. 1. — Do is used primarily for emphasis It is used without emphasis in into*-
rogative and negative sentences ; as, " Does he write ? " " He does not tell the tnith.'
It takta also at the end of the sentence the place of the principal verb ; as, " I will
go if 70a do " = go.
K*m. 2. — Be, as an auxiliary, is the pure abstract verb, (Rem. 1, p. 52,) and is used
The same in form as the past participie, but not in meaning.
7
74
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
to connect the participle, present or passive w':h the subject. It gives no shading to
the meaning of the participle, as it has no meaning to impart. It does what impla
inflection would do if it could be employed.
Present Perfect Tense.
(1.) The common form . . prefixes have, hast, has, to the past participle
of the vert ; as, have loved, hast loved, has
loved.
(2.) The progressive form . prefixes have been, hast been, has been, to the
present participle of the verb ; as, have been
writing, hast been writing, has been writing.
(3.) The passive form . . . prefixes have been, hast been, has been, to the
passive participle of the verb; as, have been
loved, hast been loved, has been loved.
Rem. — Have probably once conveyed the idea of possession, governing an object
winch was limited by a passive participle ; as, " He has treasures discovered," or,
" lie kas (or possesses) discovered treasures." It has now lost all idea of possession,
and is, in this use, a simple auxiliary ; the participle, also, having been changed from
a passive, to an active -• gnification ; as, " He has discovered valuable treasures."
Past Tense.
(1.) The common form . . is the second form of the verb ; as, loved,
lovedst.
(2.) The emphatic form . . prefixes did, didst, to the first form of the
verb ; as, did love, didst love.
(3.) The progressive form . prefixes teas, wast, were, to the present partici-
ple of the verb ; as, was writing, wast writingy
were writing.
(4.) The passive for ?n . . . prefixes was, wast, were to the passive parti-
ple of the verb ; as, was loved, wast loved, were
loved.
Rem. — Did is the past of do, and has the same uses. The samo may be said of
wis, which is the past of be.
Past Perfect Tense.
(1.) The common form . . prefixes had, hadst, to the past participle ; as,
had loved, hadst loved.
(2.) The progressive form . prefixes had been, hadst been, to the present
participle of the verb; as, had been writing,
hadst been writing.
(3) The passive form . . . prefixes had been, hadst been, to the passive
participle of the verb ; as, had been loved, hadst
been loved.
Ran — Had is the past of have, and has the same uses as the latter.
Future Tense.
(1.) The common form . . prefixes shall, shalt, will, wilt, to the first form
of the verb ; as, shall love, shalt lore, will love,
wilt love.
(2.) The progressive form . prefixes shall be, shalt be, will be, toilt be, to
the present pn^idple of the verb ; as, shall b*
ETYMOLOGY FORMATION OF TENSES. 75
writing, will be writing, shalt be writing, wiH
be writing.
(8.) 17ie passive form , . prefixes shall be, shalt be, will be, wilt be, to the
passive participle of the verb ; as, shall be loved,
shaU be loved, will be loved, wilt be loved.
Future Perfect Tense.
(1.) The common form . . prefixes shall have, shalt have, will have, wili
have, to the perfect participle of the verb ; as,
shall have loved, will have loved, wilt have loved.
(2.) The progressive form . prefixes shall have been, will have been, shalt
have been, wilt have been, to the present par-
ticiple of the verb ; as, shall have been writ-
ing, tcilt have been, writing, will have been
writing.
(3.) The passive form . . . prefixes shall have been, will have been, shalt
have been, wilt have been, to the passive par-
ticiple of the verb ; as, shall have been loved,
wilt have been loved, will have been loved.
Note. — Shall and will are used to form the future tenses, and, with have,
shall or will have,) to form the future perfect, in the indicative and sub-
junctive modes ; as, I shall or will learn, I shall or will have learned ; if 1
shall or will learn, if I shall or will have learned.
Rem. 1.— Shall and will have two significations — a primary or original, and a sec-
ondary or derived. ShaU denotes, primarily, obligation ; as, n You shall do it " = You
are under obligation to do it ; this obligation may be urged by the will or determination
of another ; as, " You are under obligation to do it, and I will, or am determined, that
the obligation shall be discharged ; " that is, " That you shall do it, is my will."
Hence shall denotes obligation, and implies determination and resolution at the same
t'me. But that which one is obliged to do, whether by necessity or the will of another,
is not now done ; it is ?/ct to be done ; hence a secondary idea of futurity.
Rem. 2. — Will denotes, primarily, volition, inclination, purpose, determination ; as,
"He will go in spite of opposition "= He is determined to go. But that which one
inclines, or wills, or determines to do himself, or to have another do, is not now done ;
it is yet to be done ; hence will also has a secondary idea of futurity.
Rem. 3. — In the present use of these auxiliaries both these elements appear.
(1.) Shall and will denote a present resolution, volition, inclination, determination,
promise, or purpose, with reference to a future act ; as, " / resolve that he shall write."
" I will write."
(2.) They denote simple futurity ; as, " / predict that he will write." " It willrain
to-morrow." " I shall (contrary to my will) be overtaken."
Rem. 4. — Besides that ot the speaker, two relations or parties are necessarily in
volved in both these cases; the one who resolves or predicts, and the one who acts.
Two cases may arise. (L) Both parties may be represented by the same person ; as,
" I resolve or determine that I will write ; " or simply, " I will write." " I predict or be-
Kece that I shall write ; " or simply, " I shall write." " You resolve that you will write."
" You believe or predict that you shall write." (2.) Both parties may be represented
one by one person, and the other by another ; as, " J resolve that you shall write ; " or
simply, " You shall write." " I predict that you will write ; " or simply, " You will
write." " You resolve that I shall write ; " " You predict that I shall (not roill)
write." "He resolves that you shall write." "He predicts that you will write."
In interrogative sentences, the same principles prevail, but the will or opinion of the
•econd person is referred to ; as, " Shall he write ? " that is, " Is it your icill or res-
thition that he shall write ? " " Will it rain ? " that is, " Is it your opinion or predic-
tion that it will rain ? "
A careful inspection of these and similar examples will justify the following rules • —
Rule I. When the person who resolves or predicts is not mentioned, the first per ton
is always understood in affirmative, and the second in interrogative sentences; as,
"Yo'i ghall go." (/will it.) "Shall he go?" (Do yon will it?) " It will rain."
'J predict it ) " Will U sin I " (Do you predict it ?)
76 ENGLISH GRAIfMAR.
Role II. Will should be used when the resolution and the action are attributed te
the same person, and shall when i/tej are attributed to different persons; " I vrill
go." (I myself resolve.) "Will you £0?" (Do you yourself resolve?) "He toiU
go." (He himself tesolves.) " lie sbu) go." (I resolve.) " They have determined
lhat you shall go." "Shall he go?" (Do you resolve?)
Rule III. Shall should be used when the prediction and the action are both attributed
to the same person, or in any case, provided the action be attributed to the first person ;
and will should be used when the prediction and. the action {except in the case of the first
person) are attributed to different persons; as, " You will be promoted." (I pre-
dict it.) " I shall teach, or he a teacher." (I, he, you, or they, predict it.) " Will lie
teach ? " (Do you predict it ?) " Will it rain ? " (Do you think so ?) « It will rain."
'I think so.)
Note. — These rules embody all the principal uses of shall and will. But there
are some exceptions and anomalous cases, which will easily be recognized.
In the following sentences, do shall, and will resolve or predict ? —
I will go to the party. You shall not leave the room. It will be a sad
day for him. He shall do as I tell him. He will come to see me. I shall
go to see my sister. I shall see him to-morrow. In the day that
thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die. Thou wilt show me the path of
life. He will be elected. Perhaps I shall find my book. I will fear no
evil. I will dwell in the house of my God forever. Shall I go to ride ?
Will she do it ? In spite of all your objections, I •will do it. The sun will
shine. The clock will strike. Shall you go to the lecture ? When will
the time come ? Will he do well ?
Correct the following examples by giving the right use of shall and will : —
I will receive a letter when my brother comes. If they make the
changes, I do not think I will like them. Will we have a good time, if we
go ? Perhaps you shall find the purse. I will be unhappy if you do not
come. I will be afraid if it is dark. Surely goodness and mercy shall fol-
low me, and I will dwell in the house of the Lord forever. I resolve that he
will return with me. I will be obliged to you. I will be punished. What
sorrow will I have to endure ! The moon shall give her light. Will I
write ? He is resolved that Mary will go. If we examine the subject,
we will perceive the error. I will suffer from poverty ; nobody shall help
me. When shall you go ^th me ? Where will I leave you ?
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present Tense.
(1.) The common form prefixes may, mayst, can, canst, must, to the
first form of the verb ; as, may love, mayst love,
oan love, canst love, must love.
(2.) The progressive forn . prefixes may be, mayst be, can be, ca?ist be, must
he, to the present participle of the verb ; as,
may be toriting, mayst be writing, can, be writ-
ing, canst be writing, must be writing.
3.) The passive form . . orefixes may be, mayst be, can be, canst be, must
*, to the passive participle of the verb; ag,
w ay be loved, mayst be loved, can be loved,
canst be loved, must be loved.
Present Perfect Tense.
(I.) The czt*mon ft rm . . prefixes may have, mayst have, can have, canst
nave, must have, to the past participle of the
verb ; as, may liave loved, mayst hive loved,
can have fovhd, canst have loved, must ham
loved.
ETYMOLOGY — FOBMATION OF TF.NSES.
77
(2k) The progressive form prefixes may have been, mayst have been, can
have been, canst have been, must Juxve been, to
the present participle of the \erb; as, may
have been writing, mayst have been writing, can
have been writing, canst liavebeen writing, must
have been writing.
(3.) The passive form . . . prefixes may have been, mayst have been, can
have been, canst have been, must have been, to
the passive participle of the verb ; as, may
have been loved, mayst have been loved, can
have been loved, canst have been loved, must
have been loved.
(1 ) The common form
(2.) The progressive form
(3.) The passive form
Past Tense.
prefixes might, mightst, could, couldst, should,
shouldst, would, roouldst, to the first form of
the verb; as, might love, mightst love, could
love, couldst love, would love, wouldst love,
should love, shouldst love.
prefixes might be, mightst be, could be, couldst
be, would be, icouldst be, should be, shouldst be, to
the present participle of the verb ; as, might
be writing, mightst be writing, could be writing,
couldst be wriiiny, would be writing, wouldst be
writing, shotdd be writing, shouldst be writing.
prefixes might be, mightst be, could be, eoiddst be,
would be, icouldst be, should be, shoiddst be, to
the passive participle of the verb ; as, might be
loved, mightst be loved, could be loved, couldst be
loved, wbidd be loved, woiddst be loved, s/iould
be loved, shouldst be loved.
Past Perfect Tense.
(1.) The common form . . prefixes might have, mightst have, could have,
eoiddst have, should have, shoiddst have, would
have, wouldst have, to the past participle of the
verb ; as, might have loved, mightst have loved,
could have loved, couldst have loved, would have
loved, icouldst have loved, should Jiave loved,
shoiddst have loved.
(2.) The progressive form . prefixes might have been, mightst have been,
could have been, couldst have been, would have
been,wouldst have been, should have been, shouldst
have been, to the present participle of the verb
as, might have been writing, mightst have been
toriting, could have been writing, couldst have
been writing, should have been writing, shoiddst
have been writing, would have been writing,
woiddst have beeii writing.
(Jw) The passive form . prefixes might have been, mightst have been,
could have been-, couldst have been, would have
been, wouldst have been, should have^ been,
shouldst have been, to the passive participle of
the verb ; as, might have been loved, mightst
have been loved, could have been loved, couldst
have been loved, would have been loved, wouldst
have been loved, should have been loved, shouldst
have been loved
78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. 1. — • May denotes power imparted by others that is, liberty or
permission t can denotes power or ability, belonging to one's self ; must
ienotes necessity.
Rem. 2. — May sometimes denotes possibility ; as, " It may rain ; " "He
may have written ; " sometimes a petition ; as, " Mai/ it please you."
Rem. 3. — In the present perfect these auxiliaries are joined with have ,
as, " May, can, or must have written; " and then the entire form denotes
the present possibility, &c, that a past act was performed ; as, " I may
have spoken " = It is (now) possible that I spoke (yesterday.)
Rem. 1. — Should and would have the same general meaning as the
present tenses shall and will, and in general they are to the past tenses
what shall and will are to the present or future ; as, " I think I shall write."
M I thought I should write." " I think he will go" " 1 thought he would
go." (See Rules for the use of shall and will.)
Rem. 2. — Might and could also express in past time the same general
meaning as in the present ; as, " I know I may or can go." " I knew I
might or could go."
Rem. 3. — Might, could, should, and woidd are used in conditional sen-
tences, might in one clause answering to coidd in the other, when poioer,
ability, or inclination is implied; as, " He might sing, if he coidd or
would.'" So, " He could sing, if he would." " He woxdd sing, if he could."
Sometimes the conditional clause is omitted. " He might write." " He
could write." " He would write." In all these examples a present possi-
bility, liberty, &c, is referred to. When past time is referred to, we use
the past perfect tense; as, "He might have written, if he would" (have
written.)
Rem. 4. — Might, could, would, and should, combined with have, form
the past perfect tense. It is the past perfect only in form. It is equivalent
to the past ; as, " He could have written " = He was able to write.
Subjunctive Mode.
"With the exception of the distinctive form in the present and past, the
subjunctive mode is the same in form as the indicative or potential, with
if, unless, though, &c., prefixed ; as, " If I love." "If I may love."
Imperative Mode.
The imperative mode has but one tense, the present, which is used gen
erally without the subject expressed, and in all the four forms of the verb
as, Study ; be thou studying ; be thou loved ; do write.
Infinitive. Mode.
The infinitive mode has two tenses -— the present and the perfect. Tht
present is used in the common, the progressive, and the passive form of the
verb, and is formed by prefixing to to the simple verb for the common
form, to be to the present participle for the progressive form, and to be to
the. passive participle for the passive form; as, to write; to be ivriting ,
to be written.
The perfect is used in the common, the progressive, and thepassive forms
of the verb, and is formed by prefixing to have to the past participle of
the verb for the common form, to have been to the present participle for
the progressive form, and to have been to the passive participle for the pas>
B.ie fornn, as, to have written; to have been writing ■ to have been written
ETYMOLOGY — • VERB, ITS NUMBER AND PERSON. 79
Participles.
The present participle is formed by adding ing to the first form of the
*erb, (Rule III. p. 15 ;) as, writing.
The past participle is formed for regular verbs by adding ed to the sim-
ple verb, (Rule III. p. 15 ;) as, honored.
The perfect participle is formed by prefixing having to the past participle
*f the verb for the common form, 'having been to the present participle
for the progressive form, and having been to the passive participle for the
oassiveform; as, having written ; having been writing ; having been written.
NUMBER AND PERSON OF THE VERB.
The number and person of the verb are properties which
ihow its agreement with the subject. Like the subject, the
verb has two numbers and three persons.
Rem. 1. — The first person singular, and the first, second, and third
persons plural, of the present tense indicative, in all verbs, (am, are, was,
tcere, excepted,) are alike. The second person singular is like the firnt,
except in the solemn or scriptural style, when it is formed by adding st, or
est, to the'first person ; as, " Thou lovest me not." The third person sin-
gular is formed from the first, by adding s, or es : in the scriptural style it
cuds in eth ; as, " He qoeth." Verbs ending in y, preceded by a consonant,
rhange :/ into i, and add es, to form the thud person singular ;• as, try, tries.
Hem. 2. — By a figure of enallage, the second person plural of the pro-
noun and verb is substituted, in conversational and familiar style, for
the second person singular ; as, " Hubert, you are sad " = Hubert, thoti
art s;id
Rbm. 3. — The imperative mode has usually only the second person;
as, " Go thou." In some languages, the imperative has also a form for
rhe first person plural, and third person singular and plural A i?w ex
amplea seem to occur in English ; as, " Rise, thy sons." " Be it decreed."
Most of these cases, however, can be explained by suj plying an ellipsis ;
as, " Let thy sons rise." " Let it be decreed."
EXERCISE.
Determine the number and person of each of the following subjects, and
then give the number and person of each of the following verbs : —
Mary sings. George will fly his kite. I know it. She would go. Henry
recites well. Who are they ? The birds picked up the crumbs. Hear tht
rain. When shall you go ? The sun does not shine. The violets bloom.
Roses will fade. Time flies on. Books are full of instruction. You may
have your choice. What shall I give her ? Cultivate a love for all that is
oeauliful.
CONJUGATION.
The conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement of
tts severa 1 modes, tenses, voices, numbers, and persons
80
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. 1. — The only tenses which change their termination are the
present and past ; as, sit, sittest, sits ; sat, sittest ; tarry, larriest, tarriea ;
taxried, tarriedst. All other changes are made by means of auxiliaries.
Rem. 2. — In adding s or es, observe the same rules as in the forma-
tion of the plural of nouns ; as, play, plays ; fly, flies ; go, goes. So, also
observe the rules (p. 15) for the changes of the radical verb ; as, drop,
dropped, (Rule I. p. 15 ;) reply, replied, (Rule III. p. 15.)
The principal parts of a verb are the present indicative
the past indicative, and the past participle.
EXAMPLES.
Present.
Past.
Past Participle
Explain,
Rely,
Write,
Shine,
Hurt,
explained,
relied,
wrote,
shone,
hurt,
EXERCISES.
explained.
relied.
written.
shone.
hurt.
Give the principal parts of the following verbs: —
Sail, smile, see, shut, close, open, burn, glaze, gild, turn, try reform,
renew, take, leave, make, build, hope, fold, alter, correct.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE.
Note. — Let the pupil study the " Formation of the Tenses ( p. 73,)
as he learns the conjugation of the different modes and tenses.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Singular.
1. I am,
2 Thou art,
3. He is ;
Present Tense.
Plural.
We are,
You are,
They are
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular.
1. I have been,
2. Thou hast been,
3. He has been ;
Plural
We have been.
You have oeen,
They have been.
ETYMOLOGY — CONJUGATION. SI
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural
1. I was, We were,
2. Thou wast, You were,
3. He was ; They were.
•
Past Perfect Tense
Singular. Plural.
1. I had been, We had been,
2 Thou hadst been, You had been,
3. He had been ; They had been.
Future Tense.
Singular. Plural
1. I shall or will be, We shall or will be,
2. Thou shalt or wilt be, You shall or will be,
3. He shall or will be ; They shall or will be.
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 1 shall or will have been, We shall or will have been,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, You shall or will have been,
3. He shall or will hi ve been ; They shall or will have been.
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may be,* We may be,
2. Thou mayst be, You may be,
He may be ; , They may be.
2
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may have been, We may have been.
2. Thou n ayst have been. You may have been,
3. He may have been ; They may have been.
Past Tense.
Singular Plural.
1 I might be, We might be,
2 Thou mightst be, You might be,
S He might be; They might be.
* t'onpgate with each auxiliary, or with all united, thus : I may. eon, or mufi be
4
f2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plut al.
1 I might have been, We might have been,
2. Thou mightst have been, You might have been,
8. He might have been ; They might have beer,
SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural
1. If I am, If we are,
2. If thou art, If you are,
3. If he is ; If they are.
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I have been, If we have been,
2. If thou hast been, If you have been,
3. If he has been ; If they have been.
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural
1. If I was, ' If we were,
2. If thou wast, If you were,
3. If he was ; If they were.
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I had been, If we had been,
2. If thou hadst been, If you had been,
3. If he had been ; If they had been.
Future Tense.
Singular. Plurah
1. If I shall or will be, If we shall <t will be,
2. If thou shalt or wilt be, If you shall or will be,
3. If he shall or will be ; If they shall or will bet
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
I If I shall or will have been, If we shall or will have been,
i. If thou shalt or wilt have been, If you shall or will h.3.73 been»
S If he shall or will have been ; If they shall or will have been-
ETYMOLOGY — CONJUGATION. 8?
subjunctive mode. ( Subjunctive jorm.)
IN otb. — Besides the forms already given, the subjunctive has anothe*
in the present and past, peculiar to itself.
Present Tense.
1.
2.
3.
Singular.
If I be,
If thou be,
If he be ;
Past Tense.
PluraL
If we be,
If you be,
If they be.
1.
2.
3.
Singular,
If I were,
If thou wert,
If he were ;
Plural
If we were,
If you were,
If they were.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular.
Be, or Be thou ;
Plural.
Be ye or you.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Present Perfect.
To be.
To have been.
PARTICIPLES.
Present Being. Past. Been.
Perfect. Having been.
Synopsis is a short view of the verb, showing its forms through the
modes and tenses in a single number and person, thus : In the first per-
Bon singular, we have, Ind. Pres. I am ; Pres. Per. I have been ; Past, I
was ; Past Perf. I had been ; Fut. I shall be ; Fid. Per. I shall have been
Pot. Pres. I may be ; Pres. Per. I may have been ; Past, I might be ;
Vast Perf. I might have been. Sub. Pres. If I am, &c.
EXERCISE.
In what mode and tense are the folloioing f —
I am. He has been. If I were. You can be. He might be. To hav«
been. They were. He wiL have been. You might be. She had been.
You will be. To be. I must have been. Thou art. If he be. If you
lire. They might have been. We were. I had been. Thou wast. He is
Give a synopsis of to be, in the Ind. second person singular, sec.
plur., first per. plur., sec. per. plur., third per. plur. Pot. third per.
sing., sec. per. plur., third per. plur. Sub. sec. per. sing., sec. per. plur.,
third per. plur., first per. plur.
84
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR VERB Tt, LOVK
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE MODE
Present Tense.
Singular.
1. I love,
2. Thou lovest.
3. He loves ;
Plural.
We love,
You love,
Thoy love.
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular.
1. I have lovec,
2. Thou hast loved,
S. He has loved ;
Plural.
We have loved,
You have loved,
They have loved.
Past Tense.
Singular.
1. I loved,
2. Thoulovedst,
3. He loved ;
Plural.
We loved,
You loved,
They loved.
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular.
1. I had loved,
2. Thou hadst loved,
3. He had loved ;
Plural
We had loved,
You had loved,
They had loved.
Singular.
1. I shall or will love,
2. Thou shalt or wilt love,
3. He shall or v/ill love ;
Future Tense.
Plural.
We shall or will love,
You shall or will love,
They shall or will love.
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular.
1. I shall or will have loved,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved,
3. He shall or will have loved ;
Plural.
We shal 1 . or will have loved,
You shall or will have loved.
They shall or will have loved
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1. I may love,
2. Thou mayst love,
3. He may love ;
Plural.
We may love,
•You may love,
They may love
ETYMOLOGY
CONJUGATION.
85
Present Perfect Tense.
1. I may have loved,
2. Thou mayst have loved,
3. He may have loved ;
Plural.
We may have loved,
You may have loved,
They may have loved
Past Tense.
1 I might love,
2 Thou mightst love,
3. He might love ;
Plural
We might love,
You might love,
They might love.
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular.
1. I might have loved,
2. Thou mightst have loved,
S. He might have loved :
We might have loved,
You might have loved,
They might have loved
subjunctive mode. (Regular form.)
Present Tense.
Singular.
1. If I love,
2. If thou lovest,
3. If he loves ;
Plural.
If we love,
If you love,
If they love
Present Perfect Tense.
Plural.
1. If I have loved, If we have loved,
2. If thou hast loved, If you have loved,
3. If he has loved ; If they have loved
Past Tense.
Singular.
1. If I loved,
2. If thou lovedst,
3. If he loved ;
Plural.
If we loved .
If you loved,
If they loved
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular.
1. If I had loved, *
2. If thou hadst loved,
3. If he had loved ;
Future Tense.
Singular.
1. If I shall or will love,
2. If thou shalt or wilt love,
3. If he shall or will love ;
8
If we had loved,
If you ha d loved,
If they had loved
Plural.
If we shall or will love
If you shall or will love.
If they shall or will love,
H6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I shall or will nave loved, If we shall or will have loved
2, If thou shalt or wilt have loved, If you shall or will have loved
3 If he shall or will have loved ; If they shall or will have lovetc
SOBJUNCTIVE mode. ( Subjunctive form.* )
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 If I love, If we love,
2. If thou love, If you love,
3. If he love ; If they love.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Singular. Plural.
Love, or Love thou ; Love, or Love you.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present, x'o love. Perfect. To have loved.
PARTICIPLES.
Present. Loving. Past. Loved
Perfect. Having loved.
PASSIVE VOICE.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular. PluraL
1. I am loved, We are loved,
2. Thou art loved, m You are loved,
3. He is loved ; They are loved.
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular. ' Plural.
1. 1 have been lorea, We have been loved,
2. Thou hast been loved, You have been loved,
3. He has been loved ; They have been loved.
* fcioe Rem. 3. page
E-n MOLOGY — CONJUGATION. 87
Past Tense.
Singular. PluraL
1. I was loved, We were lovecL
2. Thou wast loved, You were loved,
3. He was loved ; They were loved.
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular. • PluraL
1. I had been loved, We had been loved,
2. Thou hadst been loved, Yoti had been loved,
3. He had been loved ; They had been loved
Future Tense.
Singular. Plural.
i I shall or will be loved, We shall or will be loved,
2 Thou shalt or wilt be loved, You shall or will be loved,
3. He shall or will be loved ; They shall or will be loved.
^Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. PluraL
1. I shall or will have been loved, We shall or will have been loved,
2. Thou shalt or wilt have been loved, Y.ou shall or will have been loved,
3. He shall or will have been loved ; They shall or will have been loved
POTENTIAL MODE.
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. I may be loved, We may be loved,
2. Thoumaystbe loved, You maybe loved,
3. He may be loved ; They may be loved.
Present Perfect 1 Tense.
Singular. PluraL
1. I may have been loved, We may have been loved,
2. Thou mayst have been loved, You may have been loved,
3. He may have been loved ; They may have been loved.
Past Tense.
Singular Plural.
1. I might beloved, We might be loved,
2. Thou mightst be loved, You might be loved,
3. He might be loved ; They might be loved.
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular. PluraL
1. I might have been loved, We might have been loved,
2 Thoumightst have been loved. You might have been loved,
3. He might have been loved ; They might have been loved
B*
ENGLISH GRAMMAR
subjunctive mode. ( Regular form )
Singular.
1. If I am loved,
2. If thou art loved,
i If he is loved ;
Present Tense.
Plural.
If we are loved,
If you are loved,
If they are loved.
Present Perfect Tense.
Singular
I. If I have been loved,
I. If thou hast been loved,
& If he has been loved ;
Plural.
If we have been loved,
If you have been loved,
If they have been loved.
Past Tense.
Singular.
1. If I was loved,
2. If thou wast loved,
3. If he was loved ;
Plural.
If we were loved,
If you were loved,
If they were loved.
Past Perfect Tense.
Singular. Plural.
If I had been loved, If we had been loved,
If you had been loved,
If they had been loved.
If thou hadst been loved,
If he had been loved ;
Future Tense.
Singular.
1. If I shall or will be loved,
2. If thou shalt or wilt be loved,
3. If he shall or will be loved ;
Plural.
If we shall or will be loved,
If you shall or will be loved
If they snail or will be loved.
Future Perfect Tense.
Singular. PluraL
1. If I shall or will have been loved, If we shall or will have been loved.
2. If thou shalt or wilt have been loved, If you snail or will have been loved.,
S. If he shall or will have been loved ; If thev shall or will have been loved
subjunctive mode. ( Subjunctive -form.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1. If I be loved,
2. If thou be loved,
3. If he be 'oved ;
PluraL
If we be loved,
If you be loved,
If they be loved.
ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION.
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural
k. If I were loved, If we were loved, .
2. If thou wert loved, If you were loved,
3. If he were loved ; If they were loved.
IMPERATIVE MODE.
Singular. Plural.
Be loved, or Be thou loved ; Be loved, or Be you loved.
INFINITIVE MODE.
Present. To be loved. Perfect. To have been loved.
PARTICIPLES.
Present. Being loved. Past (passive.) Loved.
Perfect. Having been loved.
INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS.
A verb is conjugated interrogatively in the indicative and
potential modes, by placing the subject after it, or after the
first auxiliary ; as, Ind. Do I love ? Have I loved ? Did
I love ? Had I loved ? Shall I love ? Shall I have loved ?
Pot. Can I love ? Can I have loved ? &c.
A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb
not after it, or after the first auxiliary ; but the negative ad-
verb should be placed before the infinitive and participles ;
as, Ind. I love not, or I do not love. I have not loved. I
loved not, or I did not love. I had not loved, &c. Inf.
Not to love. Not to have loved. Part. Not loving. Not
loved. Not having loved.
A verb is conjugated interrogatively ', and negatively, in
the indicative and potential modes, by placing the subject
and the adverb not, after the verb, or after the first auxiliary
as, Love I not 5 or Do I not love ? Have I not loved ?
Did I not !ove ? Had I not loved ? &c
R*
90 EMU LI S II GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES.
Tell the mode t tense, voice, number, and person of the following , —
She has loved. I might love. We had loved. We had been loved. H»
may have loved. If I be loved. I love. He will love. He shall have
loved. I have loved. They shall have loved. She is loved. We may be
loved. You might have been loved. If I love. If they love. They
may love We will love. I had loved. Thou hast loved. Thou wilt have
loved. I love. Thou art loved. He was loved. She will have been
loved.
Write or repeat afidl conjugation of the following verbs: —
Relieve, betray, defy, persuade, resolve, determine.
Conjugate two of the above verbs interrogatively, two of them negatively,
and two of them interrogatively and negatively.
Give a synopsis of either of the above verbs in either form, in the first,
second, or third person.
SYNOPSIS — PROGRESSIVE FORM. — VERB READ.
Note. — The progressive form is the verb to be joined to the present par
ticiple. The pupil should be careful not to mistake this for the passive
form, which is the verb to &<? joined to the passive participle.
I am reading, I have been reading, I was reading, I had been reading
I shall be reading, I shall have been reading. I may be reading, I may
have been reading, I might be reading, I might have been reading. If I
am or be reading, if I have been reading, if I was or were reading, if I
had been reading, if I shall be reading, if I shall have been reading. Ee
thou reading. To be reading, to have been reading. Reading, having been
reading.
EXERCISE.
Write or repeat the full conjugation of write, play, sing, think, in the pro-
gressive form.
Givea synopsis of either of the above verbs in the second and third persons^
singidar and plural.
Tell the difference between the progressive and passive forms. (See note
above.)
Correct the following examples in all respects : —
i is going down sullur and will be lookin up some turnups and pertaties
for dinner. Mary did nothin for rufus said he seen her. The steamboat
come a puffin along faster nor the fishes would keep out er the way ont ;
im in a quandary whether the steamboat or Rail road goes fastest, indian
Rubers keeps oiit Snow, mud and Reign, its the Erly bird what ketches
the wurm.
SYNOPSIS — EMPHATIC FORM.
In the emphatic form the auxiliary do is added to the simple verb foi
the present, and did for the past. It is found only in the indicative and
inoperative modes
ETYMOLOGY CONJUGATION. 91
Indicative I do love, I did love. Imperative. Do thou love.
M
FORMS FOR EACH DIVISION OF TIME COMBINED
THE VERB TO MAKE.
INDICATIVE MODE.
Present Tense.
1st Sing.
I
2d Sing.
Thou
3d Sing
He, She, It,
t Jndef.
2. Prog, incomp.
3 Comp.
4. Prog. comp.
5. Tnd. emp.
C. Pas. ind.
7. Pas. prog.
8. Pas. comp.
make.
am making,
have made,
have been making,
do make,
am made,
have been made,
makest,
art making,
hast made,
hast been making,
dost make,
art made,
hast been made,
makes,
is making,
has made,
lias been making
does make,
is made
is making.*
has been made.
1st Plur.
2d Plur.
3d Plur.
We
Ye or You
They
.. rndef.
2. Prog, incomp
i. Comp.
4. Prog. comp.
5 fnd. emp.
6 Pas. ind.
7 Pas. prog.
8 Pas. comp.
make,
. are making,
have made,
have been making,
do make,
are made,
have been made,
make,
are making,
have made,
have been making,
do make,
are made,
have been made,
make.
are making.
have made.
have been making.
do make.
are made.
are making.
have been mad-a.
Past Tense.
1st Sing.
I
2d Siiig.
Thou
3d Sing.
He, She, It,
1. fndef.
2. Prog, incomj
3. Comp.
4. Prog. comp.
5. Ind emp.
6. Pas. ind.
7. Pas. prog.
8. Pas. comp.
made,
i. was making,
had made,
had been making,
did make,
was made,
had been made,
madest,
wast making,
hadst made,
hadst been making
didst make,
wast made,
hadst been made,
made.
was making,
had made,
had been making
did make,
was made,
was making,
had been made.
1st Plur.
2d Plur.
. 3d Plur
We
Ye or You
They
Indef.
2. Prog, incomp
3 Comp
4 Prog. comp.
5 Tnd. emp.
(3. Pas ind.
7 Pas prog.
8 Pas. comp.
made,
i. were making,
had made,
had been making,
did make,
were made,
had been made,
made,
were making,
bad made,
had been making,
did make,
were made,
had been made,
made.
were making.
bad made,
had been making.
did make,
ivere made,
were making,
had been made.
* The subject is usually some inanimate object ; as, " An effort is making " There
may be still another form — the pas. prog. comp. ; as, " An effort has been making. '
92
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Future 'Tense.
1st Sing.
I
I fndef. will make,
S Prog, incomp. will be making,
will have made,
will have been
3 Comp,
4 Ptog. comp.
5 Ind. emp.
6 Pas ind.
7 Pas prog.
P Pas cornp.
making,
will be made,
will have been made.
2d Sing.
Thou
wilt make,
wilt be making,
wilt have made,
wilt have been mak- ■
P'g. \
wilt be made,
wilt have been made.
3d Stng
He, She, It,
will make,
will be making-
will have made
will have been ma*
ing.
will be made,
will be making
will have been mad«
1st Plur.
We
will make,
2d Plur.
Ye or You
will make,
will be making,
will have made,
will have been mak-
l Tndef
2. Prog, incomp. will be making,
3 Comp. will have made,
4. Pros. comp. j wil1 h * ve been
p ( making. ) ing,
5 Tnd. emp. , — ■ ,
6. Pas. ind. will be made, will be made,
7. Pas. prog. , ,
8. Pas. comp. will have been made, will have been made,
3d Plur.
They
will make,
will be making,
will have made,
will have been mak
will be made,
will be making,
will have been made.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
An irregular verb is one which does not form its pas
tense and past participle by adding ed ; as, see, saw, seen ,
write, wrote, written.
Rem. — The following list contains the principal parts of the irregular
verbs. Those verbs which are marked R. have also the regular forms
and those which are Italicized are either obsolete or are becoming so : —
Present
Abide,
Am,
Arise,
Awake,
Bear, (to bring forth,)
Bear, (to carry,)
Beat,
Begin,
Bend,
Bereave,
Beseech,
Bid,
Bind, Un-,
Bite,
Bleed,
Blow,
Break,
Breed,
Bring,
Past.
Past Participle.
Abode,
Abode.
Was,
Been.
Arose,
Arisen.
Awoke, R.
Awaked.-
Bore, bare,
Born.
Bore, bare
Borne.
Beat,
Beaten, beat.
Began,
Begun.
Bend, R.
Bent.
Bereft, R.
Bereft, r.
Besought,
Besought.
Bid, bade,
Bidden, bid,
Bound,
Bound.
Bit,
Bitten, bit
Bled,
Bled.
Blew,
Blown.
Broke, brake,
Broken, brolce.
Bred,
Bred.
Brmight,
Brought
ETOIOLOGY IRREGULAR
VERBS. 93
Prtitn\
Past
Past Participle.
Build, Re-
Built, B.
Built.
Burn,
Burnt, R.
Burnt, R.
Burst,
Burst,,
Burst.
Buy,
Bought,
Bought.
Cast,
Cast,
Cast.
Catch,
Caught, R.
Chid,
Caught, R.
Chidden, chid
Chide,
Choose,
Chose,
Chosen.
Cleave, (to
adhere,)
Cleaved^ clave,
Cleaved.
Cleave, (to split,)
Clove, cleft, cla,ve,
Cleft, cloven, R.
Cling,
Clothe,
Clung,
Clung.
Clad, R.
Clad, R.
Come, Be-
Came.,
Come.
Cost,
Cost,
Cost.
Creep,
Crept,
Crept.
Crow,
Crew, r.
Crowed.
Cut,
Cut,
Cut.
Dare, (to venture,)
Durst,
Dared.
Dare (to challenge) is R.
Dared,
Dared.
Deal,
Dealt, R.
Dealt, r.
Dig,
Dug, R.
Dug, R.
Do, Mis-,
Un-,
Did,
Done.
Draw,
Drew,
Drawn.
Dream,
Dreamt, R.
Dreamt, R.
Drink,
Drank,
Drunk, dra»k.
Drive,
Drove,
Driven.
Dwell
Dwelt, R.
Dwelt, R.
Eat,
Ate, eat,
Eaten.
Fall, Be-,
Fell,
Fallen.
Feed,
Fed,
Fed.
Feel,
Felt,
Felt.
Fight.
Foucht.
Fought.
Find,
Found.
Found.
r'let
Flea.
Fled.
fling
Flung.
Flung.
fly.
Flew.
Flown.
Forbear.
roroore.
Forborne.
Forget,
c argot.
Forgotten, forgot.
Forsake.
forsook.
Forpaken.
Freeze,
Froze,
Frozen.
Freight,
Freighted,
Fraught, R.
Get, Be-.
For-
Got.
Got, "gotten.
Gild.
Gilt, k
Gilt, r.
Gird, Be-.
En-
Girt, &.
Girt, r.
Give. For-
. Mis-
Gave
Given.
Go.
Went.
Gone.
Grave. En
Graved.
Graven, ?
Grind.
Ground.
Ground
Grow.
urrew,
Grown..
Hang,
Hung,
Hung.
Have,
Had,
Had.
Hear,
Heard,
Heard.
Heave
Hove, it.
Hoven, r.
Hew,
Hewed,
Hewn, r.
Hide,
Hid,
Hidden, hid.
Hit,
Hit,
Hit.
* Hang, to takj way lift by hinging
, is regulai
94
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Present.
Past
Hold, Be-, With ,
Held,
Hurt,
Hurt,
Keep,
Kept,
Kneel,
Knelt, R
Knit,
Knit, R.
Know,
Knew,
Lade, to load,*
Laded,
Lay,
Laid,
Lead, Mis-,
Led,
Leave,
Left, *
Lend,
Lent,
Let,
Let,
Lie, (to recline,)
Lay,
Light,
Lit, R.
Load,
Loaded,
Lose,
Lost,
Make,
Made,
Mean,
Meant,
Meet,
Met,
Mow,
Mowed,
P*y. Re-,
Paid,
Pen, (to enclose,)
Pent, R.
Put,
Put,
Quit,
Quit, r.
Read,
Read,
Rend,
Rent,
Rid,
Rid,
Ride,
Rode, rid,
Ring,
Rang, rung,
Rise, A-,
Rose,
Rive,
Rived,
Rot,
Rotted,
Run,
Ran, run..
Saw,
Sawed,
Say,
Said,
See,
Saw,
Seek,
Sought
Seethe,
Sodi r.
Sell,
Sold,
Send,
Sent,
Set, Be-,
Set,
Shake,
Shook,
Shape, Ms-
Shaped,
Shave,
Shaved,
Shear,
Sheared,
Shed,
Shed,
Shine,
Shone, R.
Shoe,
Shod,
Shoot,
Shot,
Show,
Showed,
Shred,
Shred,
Shrink
Shrunk, shrank,
Shut,
Shut,
Sink,
Sang, sung,
Sunk, sank,
Sit,
Sat,
Past Pwicipte
Held, holdett-
Hurt.
Kept.
Knelt, R.
Knit, R.
Known.
Laden.
Laid.
Led.
Left.
Lent.
Let.
Lain.
Lit, R.
Laden, R
Lost.
Made.
Meant.
Met.
Mown, r.
Paid.
Pent, R
Put.
Quit, R.
Read.
Rent.
Rid.
Ridden, ri£
Rung.
Risen.
Riven, R.
Rotten, R.
Run.
Sawn, R.
Said.
Seen.
Sought.
Sodden, R.
Sold.
Sent.
Set.
Shaken.
Shapen, R.
Shaven, R.
Shorn, R.
Shed.
Shone, R
Shod.
Shot.
Shown.
Shred.
Shrunk.
Shut.
Sung.
Sunk.
Sat.
* Lade, to dip, is regular.
ETYMOLOGY — IRREGULAR VERBS.
95
Present.
Slay,
Sleep,
Slide,
Sling,
Slink,
Slit,
Smite,
Sew, (to scatter,)
Speak, Be-,
Speed,
Spell,
Spend., Mis-,
Spill,
Spin,
Spit, Be-,
Split,
Spread, Be-,
Spring,
Stand, With-, &c,
Steal,
Stick,
Sting,
Stride,
. Strike,
String,
Strive,
Strow, or Strew, Be-,
Swear,
Sweat,
Sweep,
Swell,
Swim,
Swing,
Take, Be-, &c.,
Teach, Mis-, Re-,
Tear,
Tell,
Think, Be-,
Thrive,
ThroAV,
Thrust,
Tread,
Wax,
Wear,
Weave,
Weep,
Wet,
Whet,
Win,
Wind,
Work,
Wring
Write,
Past.
Past Participle
Slew,
Slain.
Slept,
Slid,
Slept.
Slidden, 'slid.
Slung, slang,
Slunk,
Slung.
Slunk.
Slit,
SUt, R.
Smote,
Smitten, smit.
Sowed,
Sown, R.
Spoke, spafce,
Spoken.
Sped,
Sped.
Spelt, R.
Spelt, R.
Spent,
Spent.
Spilt, R.
Spilt, R
Spun, span,
Spun.
Spit, spat,
&£
Spilt,
Spilt.
Spread,
Spread.
Sprang, sprung,
Sprung.
Stood,
Stood.
Stole,
Stolen.
Stuck,
Stuck.
Stung,
Stung
Stroke, strid,
Stridden, strid.
Struck,
Struck, stricken
Strung,
Strung.
Strove,
Striven.
Strowed or strewed,
Strown, strewn, m
Swore, sware,
Sworn.
Sweat, r.
Sweat, R.
Swept,
Swelled,
Swept.
Swollen, r.
Swam, swum,
Swum.
Swung,
Swung.
Took,
Taken.
Taught,
Taught.
Tore, tare,
Torn.
Told,
Told.
Thought,
Thought.
Throve, R.
Thriven, K
Threw,
Thrown.
Thrust,
Thrust.
Trod,
Trodden, trod.
Waxed,
Waxen, R.
Wore,
Worn.
Wove,
Woven.
Wept,
Wept
Wet, R.
Wet, R.
Whet, R.
Whet, r
Won,
Won.
Wound, R.
Wound.
Wrought, R.
Wrought, &.
Wrung, R.
Wrung.
Wrote,
Written.
96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR
EXERCISES
Give thopajt, and past participle of teach, ling, write, read, hurt, siv
arise, take, beat, tell, &c., &c.
Give the present and past for the following past participles : Thrown,
sworn, swum, built, spoken, stolen, &c, &c,
Correct the following examples : —
The blossoms have fell from the trees. Mary come to scnool in haste.
Sarah's exercise is wrote badly. The thief stoled the money and telled %
falsehood about it. The lake is froze hard. Charles has took the wrong
course. The bell ringed loud. The soldiers fit bravely. She did not git
the premium. The exercise is writ badly. James has not spoke the
truth. A sad misfortune has befell him. The carriage was drawed by
four horses. Being weary I laid down and ris much refreshed. The
ball was throwed too high. I see the soldiers when they come. The
wind has blowed the fruit from the trees, and broke the branches.
He sit down upon the bank. The cattle were drove to pasture. Af-
ter he had strove many times he wined the prize. The bee stinged
her badly. He has took my knife. The sky has wore a cloudy as-
pect for several days. She singed the song well. The cars have ran off
the track. She has' weavcd the'cloth beautifully. Who teched him gram-
mar ? These apples have growed very fast. He clingedto the mast. He
give me some money. Anna stringed the beads quickly. The vessel has
hove in sight. She springed a leak. The stone smit him in the face
The river nas overflown its banks.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Defective verbs are those in which some of the principal
parts are wanting.
They are may, can, shall, and will, which have the past
tense, but no participles ; must and ought, which have nei-
ther a past tense nor participles ; quoth, which has neither
a present tense nor participles.
Rem. 1. — When must refers to past time, it is used in the present per-
fect tense ; as, " He must have left." When ought refers to past time, it
is followed by the perfect infinitive.
Rem. 2. — Qunth is now seldom used. Betcare (beware or wary J is
nsed mostly in the imperative mode ; as, " Beware of dogs."
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
An impersonal verb is one by which an action or state is
asserted independently of any particular subject ; as, " It
rains." " It snows."
Rem. 1. — Methinks, methought, meseems, meseemed, may be regarded
as impersonal, or rather unipersonal verbs. They are equivalent to / think,
I thought, It seems, it seemed to me.
ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 9T
MODEL FOR PARSING.
,1.) Give the part of speech, and tell why.
(2.) Tell whether it is regular or irregular, and why.
(3.) Give the principal parts.
(4.) Tell whether it is transitive or intransitive, and why
(5 ) " the voice and form, and why.
(6. ; " mode, and why.
(7.) " tense, and why.
(8.) Inflect the tense.
(9.) Tell the number and person, and why.
(10.) Give the rule.
Note. — If the verb is in the infinitive, instead of giving the number,
person, and inflection, give the construction and the rule. If the verb is
in one of the compound tenses, analyze it according to the model, (p. 70.)
If the verb is defective, tell the parts tha* are used, and parse it according
to the model. If the form is a participle, tell what kind, the verb from
which it is derived, conjugate, give the construction and rule. After the
pupil has made some progress, the following short form may be adopted : —
(1.) It is a regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive verb, (if transi
tive,) active or passive form.
(2.) Principal parts.
(3.) Mode.
(4.) Tense.
(5.) Number and person.
(8.^ Construction and rule.
EXAMPLES.
** Sarah has written a letter."
Sat written ... is a verb ; a word which expresses being, action, or state ;
irregular — it does not form its past tense, and past par-
ticiple by adding ed ; principal parts, (pres. write, past
wrote, past part, written ;) transitive — it requires the
addition of an object to complete its meaning; active
voice — it represents the subject as acting ; common form
— it represents an act indefinitely, as a custom, or as
completed, without reference to its progress ; indicative
mode — it asserts a thing as actual ; present perfect tense
— it expresses an action completed in present time ; it
is formed Ly prefixing have, which denotes present time,
and is the sign of completion to the past paj ticiple writ-
ten, which denotes completion ; (I have written, ikon hast
written, he has written; we have written, yot We writ-
ten, they have written ;) third person singular nurnher,
because its subject, Sarah, is, with which it agrees- ao-
cording to Rule IV. "The verb muz t agree with i to ub •
ject in number and person."
" She can play."
Om plaj ■ . w a verb, (why ?) regular, (why ? ) principal pari*, ( why ?)
9
99 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.
intransitive, (/why?) common form, ("why?) potciMal
mode, (why ?)' present tense, (-why ?) (analyze and in-
ject it,) first person, singular number, (why ?) Iluie IV.
" America was discovered hy Columbus.''
Wo* discovered . is a regular transitive verb, passive voice — or which 12
the same tiling, a regular passive verb — the subjectis rep-
resented as acted upon ; (discover, discovered, discovered, J
indicative mode, (why ?) past tense, (Avhy ?) (analyze and
inliect it,) third person, singular number, and agrees wilh
its subject, America, according to Rule IV.
" I love to see the sun shine."
To we is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, &c, infini
Live mode, (why ?) present tense, and limits love, accord-
ing to Rule XVI. " The infinitive has the construc-
tion of the noun &c."
" If they were reading the book "
Were reading . . is an irregular transitive verb, active voice, progressive
form, (why?) subjunctive mode, (why?) &c.
" Has he come ? "
Mas come . ... is an irregular intransitive verb, common form, (conju-
gated interrogatively,) &c.
KXiSECI8KS.
Parse the verbs in the foiloicing examples : —
Will you help me ? I hope for better things. Blessed is the consoler.
Have vou found' the paper ? I would not have believed it. I could not live
♦o see it. Do good to aii. She had gone to walk. The weather was un-
pleasant. Did you lose your umbrella ? I heard the carriage. If you
wish, I will accompany you. She must learn her lesson. She hoped to
have gone. Why will you persist ? Reverence the aged.
Add an object and change the following transitive verbs from the active to
the passive voice : —
Mary loved. They read. John wrote. I made. Henry lost. The
girls moved. The little boy hid. The children played. He threw. Anna
Found. You struck. He rowed. Hear. The father punished. Jane
broke. Give Will you lend ? They left. Thus : Mary loved the truth
as The truth was loved by Mary.
Change the following transitive verbs from the passive to the active form,
*ttd supply a subject when it is omitted.
America was discovered in 1492. Religious liberty was established in
Rhode Island. The Magna Charta was granted to the English. The
Mexicans were defeated at Buena Vista. The king was concealed in the
tree. The retreat of the Greeks was conducted verv skilfully. A great
battle was fought at Marathon. The gunpowder plot was discovered.
King Charles was restored to the throne in 1660. Paradise Lost was writ
ten by Milton. The Messiah was written by a distinguished poet. The
apples were seen + .o fall. The book was improved by the master. The
world was created Thus : Christopher Columbus discovered America in
1492.
3TVM0L0GY — AfcVETtBS. i*9
ADVERBS.
An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a
* *rb, adjective, participle, 01 other adverb ; as, " He leams
quickly"
Rem. 1. — When an idea, however expressed, is put in such relation to &
verb, an adjective, a participle, or an adverb, as to express some circum-
stance of place, time came, or manner, it is adverbial, because it is placed
in an adverbial relation in the sentence. The same idea placed in relation
to a noun or pronoun is of the nature of an adjective ; as, " He who acts
uprightly is an ujyrighi man."
Rem. 2. — When nn adverbial idea is expressed by a single word, that
wi rd is called an adverb; as, " He walks slowly." The relation is deter-
mined either by the termination, the position, or the meaning. "When the
idea is expressed by a noun, the relation is expressed by a preposition ; as,
"The affair was managed with prudence" = prudently. In this cape the
phrase, consisting of the preposition and noun, is said to be adverbial. When
the idea is expressed by a proposition, the relation is expressed by a con-
junctive adverb. Here the clause, consisting of a connective, subject, and
predicate, is adverbial; as, " Speak so that you can be understood" = dis-
tinctly.
Rem. 3. — Words properly called adverbs are abridged expressions.
They take the place of phrases consisting of a preposition and noun ; as
"He lived there " =r in that place. " He conducted wisely " = in a wise
manner.
Rem. 4. — Sometimes an adverb seems to qualify a noun, and thereby
tc partake of the nature of an adjective ; as, " I found the boy only."
Rem. 5. — Sometimes an adverb modifies a phrase, or an entire proposi-
tion ; as, " Far from home." " The old man likewise came to the city."
EXERCISES.
Point out the adverbs in the following sentences : —
She sang sweetlv. The wind moaned mournfully over her grave. O,
lightly, lightly tread. Come to me quickly. The storm raged fearfully.
When shall I see you again ? They lived very happily. They were agree-
ably disappointed. Ho you expect" them to-morrow ? She is continually
changing her mind. I saw him frequently. Mary is always happy. I
found the book there. She performs her' duty faithfully. It cannot be
true. Perhaps I shall go. Doubtless it is true. George writes elegantly.
Insert the folloioing adverbs in sentences cfyour own: —
Where, hopefully, soon, bravely, yes, surely, undeniably, sorrowfully,
briefly, quite, exceedingly, emphatically, below, above, ever, constantly,
so, yet, although, no, verily, tediously, trustingly, patiently, yesterday
thcrefoie, nearly, charmingly, lovingly, brightly, never, heroically.
Correct the following exfrressions in all respects : —
Tell Mar/ to come quick. That looks good. The flower smells sweet.
He ketchtd cold a going: out. The wind blowed dreadful. He teached me
as good as he coula . The little bov was drownded. They did the sura
iOO ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
right. She hadnt ought to tell. I don't believe a word ont. Have you
come near a mile? Taint true. Doesnt she look charming ? Aint she
handsome. Mary drawed a pictcr beautiful. Let each one do all they can.
My feet's cold. I have got a new book aint you glad. Im e'en a' most
melted. Set right down here.
CLASSES OF ADVERBS.
Adverbs may be divided into four general classes — ad-
verbs of place, of time, of cause, of manner.
(1.) Adverbs of place answer the q\iestions Where ? Whither? Whence?
as. here, there, above, yonder, below, sotneichere, back, upwards, down-
wards, &c.
(2.) Adverbs of time answer the questions When? How long ? Hot?
often ? as, then, yesterday, always, continually, often, frequently, &c.
(3.) Adverbs of cause answer the questions Why? Wherefore? as,
why, wherefore, therefore, then.
Note. — Causal relations are commonly expressed by phrases and clauses.
(4.) Adverbs of manner and degree answer the question How ? as, ele-
gantly, faithfully, fairly, &c. They are generally derived from adjectives
denoting quality.
Note. — Under the head of degree may be classed those which answer
the question How ? in respect to quantity or quality, as, How much f
•How good 1 &c. ; as, too, very, greatly, chiefly, perfectly, mainly, wholly, to-
tally, quite, exceedingly.
Rem. 1. — Modal adverbs, or those which show the manner of the asser
Hon, belong to this class also. The following are the principal modal ad
verbs : yes, yea, verily, truly, surely, undoubtedly, doubtless, forsooth, cer-
tainly ; no, nay, not, possibly , probably , perhaps, peradventure, perchance.
Rem. 2. — The adverbs tchen, where, why, how, &c, when used in ask-
ing questions, are called interrogative adverbs ; as, " When did he come ? "
Rem. 3. — Adverbs of manner are generally formed from adjectives by
adding ly ; as, bright, bright-Zy ; smooth, smooth-^/. But when the adjec-
tive ends in ly, the phrase is commonly used; as, "in a lovely manner,"
instead of lovelily.
Rem. 4. — There is used as an expletive to introduce a sentence when
the verb to be denotes existence ; as, " There are many men of the same
opinion." It is also sometimes used with the verbs seem, appear, come,
go, and others ; as, " There went out a decree from Caesar Augustus." In
this use it has no meaning.
Rem. 5. — The adverb so is often used as a substitute for some preceding
word or group of words ; as, " He is in good business, and is likely to re-
main so."
EXERCISE.
Tell the class of the following adverbs : —
Very, greafiy, perhaps, therefore, below, to-morrow, when, there, pure
hr. truly, always, continually, yesterday why, sorrowfully, painfully ; ,
above, here, vainly, exceedingly.
ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 10 1
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS.
Conjunctive adverbs are those which give to a dependent
clause an adverbial relation, and connect it with the verb,
adjective, or adverb, which it modifies ; as, " I shall meet my
friend when the boat arrives."
Rem. 1. — The principal conjunctive adverbs will be founa unaer lh«
head of connectives. (See p. 106.) They are equivalent to two phrases, the
one containing a relative pronoun, the other its antecedent ; as, " Vhe
lilies grow where the ground is moist " = The lilies grow m that place in
which the ground is moist. Here the phrase in that place modifies grows,
an 1 the phrase in which modiiies moist; hence where, the equivalent of
the two, modifies both.
Rem. 2. — The words therefore, wherefore, hence, ivhence, consequently,
then, now, besides, likewise, also, too, moreover, and some others, are ad-
verbs, and at the same time are used — either alone or when associated with
other connectives, to join propositions. But unlike conjunctive adverbs,
they connect coordinate and not subordinate clauses.
EXERCISE.
Point out the conjunctive adverbs in the following examples : —
He will be prepared when the time arrives. Where I go, you shall go
f>he may return whenever she wishes. He disobeyed the rule, although
he knew it was wrong. Whither I go ye cannot come. He came as boob
f.s his engagements would permit. 1 will go because she wishes to sec me.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
Many adverbs, especially those denoting manner, admit
i ( comparison : as, brightly, mor.e brightly, most brightly ;
iwn, sooner, soonest.
Rem. 1. — When an adjective undergoes comparison, it shows that two or
n ore objects are compared ; but when an adverb undergoes the same change,
It show's that two or more actions or qualities are compared ; as, " James
Vj. eaks more fluently than George " [speaks.]
Rem. 2. — The following adverbs arc compared irregularly: III or badly,
h me, worst; little, less, least ; far, farther, farthest; much, more, most;
tc ill, better, best.
EXERCISES.
Compare the following adverbs
Coolly,
oi Qsively
Coolly, noiselessly, famously, soon, near, little, well, much, joyfully
ly
T..11 the degree oj comparison of the /"Hawing : —
. earnestly* nearer, soonest, brightly, most, worst, comparatively,
most plentifully.
9*
102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PARSING.
To parse an adverb, tell, —
(1.) What part of speech it is, and why.
(2.) Compare it, (where it admits of it.) and tell what degre*.
(3.) Tell what it modifies.
(4.) Give the rule.
MODEL.
".The sun shines brightly."
Brightly . . . is an adverb ; it modifies the meaning of the verb ; it it
compared (positive brightly, comparative more brightly, su-
perlative most brightly ;) it is in the positive degree ; it modi-
fies the verb shines, according to Rule IX. (Repeat it.)
" Mary writes more elegantly than her brother."
More elegantly . is an adverb; it modifies the meaning of the verb; it is
compared, (elegantly, more elegantly, most elegantly ;) it is
in the comparative degree; it modifies the verb writes,
according to Rule IX. (Repeat it.)
" I will go whenever you wish."
Whenever .... is a conjunctive adverb, because it gives to the dependent
clause an adverbial relation, and connects it with the verb
will go ; it modifies both will go and wish, according to
Rule IX.
PREPOSITIONS.
Note. — For an oral exercise, see Introduction.
A preposition is a word used to show the relation of a
noun or pronoun to some other word ; as, " The ship was
seen from the citadel." " He sailed upon the ocean in a ship
q/*\var."
Rem. 1. — The-preposition always shows a relation between two terms,
an antecedent and a subsequent. The subsequent term is called the object
•f the preposition. The preposition and object united form a dependei;
element of the sentence having the antecedent term as its principal.
Rkm. 2. — The preposition always shows a relation of dependence.
When •? e antecedent term is a noun, the dependent phrase is of the nature
of an aijective ; as, " The rays of the sun " = solar rays.
When the antecedent term is a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb, the
dependent phrase is of the nature of an adverb, (sometimes an i.
object;) as, " The case was conducted toith skill" —skilfully.
Rem. 3. — The object of the preposition is not always a single word : i1
•nay be a. phrase or clause ; as, " The city was about to capitulate wfc
poleon arrived." " Much will depend on who tlie commissioners are. '
ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS.
103
Rem. 4. — Tlie preposition is sometimes placed .after its object; as,
While its song, sublime as thunder, rolls the woods along." The prep-
•sition and object sometimes precede the word on which they depend ; as
' Of sill patriots, Washington was the noblest."
The following is a list of the principal prepositions in xcse : —
aboard,
before,
for,
through,
about,
behind,
from,
throughout,
above,
below,
in, into,
till,
according to,
beneath,
'mid,
to,
across,
beside or
'midst,
touching,
after,
besides,
notwithstanding,
toward or
against,
between,
of,
towards,
along,
betwixt,
for,
under,
amid or
beyond,
on,
underneath,
amidst,
by,
out of,
until,
among ot
concerning,
over,
unto,
amongst,
down,
past,
up,
around,
during,
regarding,
upon,
with,
at,
ere,
respecting,
athwart,
except,
round,
within,
bating,
excepting,
since,
without.
Rem. 1. — According to, as to as for, out of, instead of, because of, off
from, over against, round about from among, from between, from around,
from before, and the like, may be regarded as complex prepositions, and
parsed as a single word ; or the first word of the phrase may be parsed as
an adverb. According, contrary, in the phrases according to, contrary to,
are sometimes regarded as participles or adjectives modifying some noun
iii the sentence.
Rem. 2. — In such connections as the following, put in, go itp, go down,
cut through, pass by, climb up, and the like, the preposition may be parsed
as an adverb when it is not followed by an object ; also the Italicized words
in such sentences as the following : " The captain stood in for the shore."
" They rode by in haste."
R-em. 3. — Some words, most commonly prepositions, are occasionally
used as adverbs ; these are, before, after, till, until, above, beneath, for, on,
in. X:c. So also some words commonly employed as adverbs are some-
times used as prepositions ; as, bid, save, despite, &c. Off is usually an
adverb, but may be parsed as a preposition when followed by an object.
Instead, is either a preposition, or equivalent to a preposition and noun =
in stead.
Rem. 4. — In such expressions, as, a hunting, a fishing, and the like, if
authorized at all, the a may be regarded as itself a preposition, or a con-
traction of at, in, or on.
PARSING.
To parse a preposition, tell, —
(1.) What part of speech, and why.
(2.) Between what words it shows the relation.
(3.) Give the rule.
Froi
" He went from- England to France."
s a preposition ; it is used to show the relation between a noun o»
104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
pronoun and some other word ; it shows the relation Detween
the noun England and the verb went, according to Rule XIII.
(Repeat it.)
To . . . is a preposition ; it shows the relation between the noun France
and the verb went, according to Rule XIII.
Point out the prepositions in the following sentences, and tell between what
words they show the relation.
He heard the birds sing in the morning. The buds are swelling m the
sun's warm rays. The winds will come from the distant south. The bees
gather honey from the flowers. I bring fresh showers for the thirsty flow-
ers from sea and stream. I shall be Queen of the May. In the garden the
crocus blooms. The hills are covered with a carpet' of green. We shall
have pleasant walks with our friends. We shall seek the early fruits in
the sunny valley.
Make use of the following prepositions in sentences of your own; —
Under, above, on, before, behind, from, beneath, by, except, during,
around, through, ?er, past, without, within, till, towards, according to,
beyond, across, in, ap, with, notwithstanding.
Correct the following expression;; in oil rcsjiects : —
The ship lays in the harbor. They sung very good. She laid down.
Will you shut up the winder ? I have took that book from its place. They
spended all then money. He begun his work. The wasp stinged him.
He knowed it wasnt true. Somebody lias stole my pen. Her shoes are
wore out. The sun has rose. The trees growed fast. She throwed the
ball jist so high as she could. He set down. He has went away afore I
come. Ive beam tell. They come right home. A dog drawed the wagon.
The books are tore bad. She had fell down, and hurted herself.
How many instances of incorrect expressions have you noticed to-day *
CONJUNCTIONS.
Note. — For oral exercise, see Introduction.
A conjunction is a word used to connect sentences, or the
parts of sentences ; as. " The horse fell over the precipice,
but the rider escaped." " The horse and rider fell over the
precipice."
In the first example, but connects tw« sentences; in the second, and connects the
two parts, horse and rider.
Rem. 1. — A pure conjunction forms no part of the material or sub-
stance of a sentence ; its office is simply to unite the materials into a sin-
gle structure.
Rem. 2. — Besides pure conjunctions, there is a large class of word?
which enter into the sentence as a part of its substance, and at the same
time connect different elements or parts; as, " This is the pencil -Inch I
lost." Here Wuc/t is the obje t of lost, and at the same time connects the
dependent clause, which I lost to pencil. All such words are e&llod con>
iiectives or conjunctive words.
ETYMOLOGY CONJUNCTIONS. 105
CLASSES OE CONNECTIVES.
All connectives (whether pure conjunctions ?r conjunc-
tive words) are divided into two classes — coordinate and
subordinate. Coordinate connectives are those which join
similar or homogeneous elements ; as, " John and James
were disciples."
Here John and James are similar in construction, and have a common relation to
tiie predicate.
Hem. 1. — Two elements are coordinate, and consequently demand a
coordinate conjunction, when they are placed in the same relation or rank ;
as, " The insects devoured leaves and blossoms." Here leaves is dependent
on devoured ; blossoms also is not only dependent, but has precisely the
same sort of dependence as leaves ; hence' they are coordinate with each
other. In the sentence, " The insects devoured the leaves greedily," leaves
and greedily are both dependent on devoured, but they have by no means
the same dependence ; hence they are not coordinate, and cannot be con-
nected by and, or any other coordinate conjunction.
Coordinate connectives are always conjunctions, and may
be divided into three classes — copulative, adversative, and
alternative.
Copulative conjunctions are those which add parts in har-
mony with each other; as, "The day dawned, and our
friends departed."
The cop llative conjunctions are, —
(1.) And, a connective of the most general character, placing the con-
nected parts in a relation of perfect equality, without modification or em-
phasis.
(2.) So, also, likewise, too, besides, moreover, furthermore, now, hence,
whence, therefore, wherefore, consequently, even, connectives associated
with and expressed or understood, and used to give emphasis, or some
additional idea ; as, " She sings ; [and] besides she plays beautifully."
(3.) Not only . . . but, but also, but likewise, as well . . . as, both . . .
and, first . . . secondly, thirdly, &c. ; connectives employed when we wish
not only to make the second part emphatic, but to awaken an expectation
of some addition. As these parts correspond to each other, these connee
tives are called correlatives.
Adversative conjunctions are those which unite parts in
opposition to, or in contrast with, each other ; as, " The fish
was brought to the shore, but plunged into the water again."
Rem. — Adversative conjunctions are employed, (1.) "When the second
part is placed in opposition to the first; as, '"'It doe* not rain, but it
•nows." (2.) When the second partis placed in opposition to a suppose* 1
106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
inference from the first ; as, " The army was victorious, but the general was
slain. Here, lest the inference should be that all was prosperous, the sec-
ond clause with but is added.
The adversative conjunctions are, —
(1.) But, which simply shows opposition without emphasis ; as, " I shall
go, hut I shall not walk."
(2.) Yet, still, nevertheless, notwithstanding, however t now, and some olii
rrs, which are associated with but, either expressed or understood, and give
emphasis or some additional idea ; as, " The delinquent has been repeated-
ly admonished, (but) still he is as negligent as ever."
Alternative conjunctions are those which offer or deny a
choice between two things ; as, " We must fight, or our lib-
erties will be lost." " She can neither sing nor play."
The alternative conjunctions are, —
(1.) Or, which offers, and nor, {not or,) which denies a choice.
(2.) Else, otherwise, associated with or for the sake of emphasis.
(3.) Either and neither, correlatives of or and nor.
Note. — Parts standing in a causal relation to each other are some-
times coordinate ; but usually there are, in such cases, two connectives,
one expressed and the other understood; as, "The south wind blows,
[and] therefore, there must be rain."
Subordinate connectives are those which join dissimilar or
heterogeneous elements; as, "I shall go when the stage
arrives."
Here when joins the subordinate clause, when the stage arrives, to tie verb shall go
It is a part of the clause itself, being equivalent to at the time in which. Hence it should
be introduced in naming the clause ; but not so with the pure coordinate conjunctions.
Rem. 1. — The second element is always a proposition ; it is subordinate,
and consequently demands a subordinate connective, because it becomes
merely a limiting expression of the antecedent term on which it depends.
It is unlike the part with which it is connected in its form, in its relation or
rank, and in its grammatical character.
ItSM. 2. — A subordinate connective, like a preposition, always shows a
relation of dependence. But the second term is a proposition, instead of a
noun or pronoun.
Subordinate connectives are divided into three classes —
ihose which connect substantive clauses, those which con-
nect adjective clauses, and those which connect adverbial
clauses.
(1.) Substantive clauses containing a statement are connected by the
conjunctions that, that not, and sometimes but, but that. Substantive
clauses containing an inquiry are connected by the interrogatives who
which, tohat, where, whither, whence, when, how long, how often, tchy
wnertfore- how
n.
ETYMOLOGY CONJUNCT ONS. '.0 i
(2.) Adjective clauses are connected by the relative pronouns who,
which, what, that, whoever, xohosoever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever,
whatsoever, and sometimes the relative adverbs why, when, where.
(3.) Adverbial clauses are connected by the conjunctive adverbs where,
whither, whence, wherever, whithersoever, as far as, as long as, farther thin,
which denote PLACE; ichen, ivhile, whilst, as, before, after, ere, till, until
since, whenever, as long as, as soon as, the moment, tfie instant, as frequently as,
us often as, which denote TIME; or the conjunctions because, for, as, where-
as, since, inasmuch, (causal,) if, unless, though, lest, except, provided, pro
nitled that, (conditional,) that, that not, lest, (final,) though, although ,
notwithstanding, however, whatever, whoever, ichichever, while, with the
correlatives yet, still, nevertheless, (adversative,) which denote CAUSAL re-
I'd ions; as, just as, so ... as, same . . . as, (correspondence,) so . . .
that, stick . . . that, (consequence,) as . . . as, (comparison of equality,)
the . . . the, the . . . so much the, (proportionate equality,) than, ?nore
than, less than, (comparison of inequality,) whim denote MANNER.
PARSING.
In parsing a conjunction or connective, tell, —
(1.) What part of speech, and why.
(2.) To what class it belongs.
(3.) What elements it connects.
(4.) Give the rule.
M Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers."
And ... is a conjunction ; it is used to connect sentences, or the parts of
sentences ; coordinate, because it connects similar elements ;
it connects Socrates and Plato, according to Rule XI. (Re-
peat it.)
" Wisdom is better than riches."
. . is a conjunction, (why ?) subordinate, because it connects dissimi-
lar elements ; it connects the proposition than riches (are) with
better, according to Rule XV. (Repeat it.)
" We must either obey or be punished."
Either . is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative,) used to awaken expec-
tation of an additional element, and also to introduce it with
emphasis.
(>* . . . . is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative,) and with its correlative
either is used to connect the element be punished with must
obey. Rule XI. (Repeat it.)
" Though he slay me, yet -will I trust in him."
though . is a subordi?iate conjunction, (adversative,) used to awaken ex-
pectation of an additional idea..
Yet ... is a subordinate conjunction, (adversative,) and with its correla
tive thouqh is used to connect the subordinate clause, " he slay
me," with the principal one, " will I trust in him," according
to Rule XV.
108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR
EXERCISES.
Point out the conjunctions in the following examples : —
The moon and stars are shining. David or his sister will come. Tht
king and queen were on a journey. He neither went himself nor allowed
his friends to go. Let us go and play. Come with us, and we will do you
good.
Tell which of the following connectives are coordinate, and which are sub'
ordinate : —
The pen and ink are poor. The horse and the rider were plunged into
the water. If ycu come, I shall have the work in readiness. When the
million applaud, seriously ask yourself what harm you have done. He
knew that he had disobeyed instructions. That which cannot be cured
must be endured. Take heed lest ye fall.
Parse the connectives in the following sentences : —
I have found a knife and fork. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I
to the lame. He can neither stand nor walk. They stopped where night
overtook them. Truth is powerful, and will prevail. If you have nothing
to say, say nothing.
Write appropriate connectives in place of the dashes in the following : —
it should rain, I shall not go. the cat is away, the mice
will play. Samuel his brother came to town. We learn to read
write.
INTERJECTION.
An interjection is a word used to express some strong or
sudden emotion of the mind. " Alas ! I then have chid
away my friend."
Rem. 1. — As the interjection is not the sign of a thought, but merely
an expression of emotion, it cannot have any definable signification, or
grammatical construction ; but as it is of frequent use in colloquial and
impassioned discourse, it should not be omitted in parsing.
Note. — Interjection is derived from the Latin word interfectus= thrown
between.
Rem. 2. — The most common interjections are, hey, hurrah, huzza, ex-
pressing joy or exultation ; aha, hah, ah, expressing surprise ; ho, lo, halho %
hem, calling attention ; fie, pshaio, pugh, tush, fon, expressing aversion or
contempt ; alas, woe, alack, O, expressing sorrow, grief, or compassion ;
hist, hush, mum, expressing a wish for silence ; heigh-ho, heigh-fto-hum,
expressing languor ; ha, ha, he, he, expressing laughter.
Rem. 3. — Some words used as interjections should be parsed as verbs,
nouns, or adjectives ; as in the sentence "Strange! cried I." Strange is
an adjective, and the expression is equivalent to " it is strange ; " and iit
the sentence, " Behold ! how well he bears misfortune's frowns ! " behold
Is a verb in the imperrsave, equivalent to behold ye.
ETYMOLOGY
INTERJECTION. 109
PARSING.
To parse an interjection, tell, —
(1.) What part of speech, and why ?
(2.) Give the rule.
" O, lightly, lightly tread."
. . is in interjection ; it is used to express some strong or sudden emo-
tion of the mind ; it has no grammatical connection wi£n any othec
word. Rule X.
EXERCISE.
Point out and parse the interjections in the following sentences : —
O, I shall love the sea "because it is his grave. Hark ! they whisper, an
gels say, " Sister spirit ! come away ! " He died, alas ! in early youth
Long live Lord Robin ! huzza ! huzza !
GENERAL EXERCISES.
ALL THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
Parse the words in the folloicing examples : —
The wedding will take place to-morrow. The school was dismissed at
five o'clock. Every tndeavor to do right brings its own reward. They
heard the music of the band. Ask them to come and spend the evening
with us. The hero of a hundred battles is no more. He must study, for
without attention he cannot improve. O, why did you deceive me ? The
hour of retribution has at length arrived. Could he do this, and I remain
silent ? He sacrificed every thing he had in this world : what could we ask
more?
If he confessed it, then forgive him. The effect of this devotion of ele-
gant minds to rural occupations has been wonderful on the face of the
country. The low of herds blends with the rustling of the heavy grain.
The Creator of all things is infinitely good.
On the sad evening before the death of the noble youth, I was with him.
The ship leaps, as it were, madly from billow to billow. Man, we believe
never loses the sentiment of his true good. How different would have
beon our lot this day, both as men and citizens, had the revolution failed
of success ! He that loveth not his brother, whom he hath seen, how can
he love God, whom he hath not seen ? We one day descried some shape-
less object drifting at a distance. The most exalted virtue is often de-
spised.
They resided for along tira ? in Italy. The nightingale sings most anect-
ly when it sings in the nigh * Think on me, when it shall Is well *jtk
10
110 ENGMSH GRAMMAR.
SYNTAX
ORAL EXERCISE.
When [ have a single idea in my mind, as that of a lamb, how rnani
wuris do I use to express it ? Ans. One. But if I have an idea of a lamb
and also an idea of its playing, how many ideas have I ? Ans. Two. Hon
many words must I now use ? Ans. Too, lamb and playing. But when 1
think of tite lamb and the playing, I think of them both together. I can
not see the playing without seeing the lamb. How can I show that they
are both united ? Ans. By uniting the words a playing lamb. But when
1 wish to tell you, or say to you what the lamb does, and not to express what
kind of a lamb I see, what should 1 then say ? Ans. The lamb plays.
Then, in either case, I must put the words together. What is this nutting
words together called ? Ans. Syntax = putting together. Now, when we
5mt two words together so that one merely describes the other, as, blooming
ily, we show that the ideas are connected ; also when we put them together
so as to tell or declare what we think or judge, as, " The lily blooms," we
show a connection ; but what else do we express ? Ans. A thought or judg-
ment. Now sentence (sententia = thought) means a thought; what, then,
shall we call such expressions as dogs bark, trees grow, jknoers fade?
Ans. Sentences. Which of the following are sentences, and which are
not ? — Flowing water, water flows ; melting ice, ice melts ; falling rain,
rain falls ; the fierce dog, the dog is fierce ; the white sheep, the sheep is
white.
Syntax treats of the construction of sentences.
A sentence is a thought expressed in words ; as, " The
winds blow." " The snow melts."
To understand a sentence we must attend to its construc-
tion, its analysis, and the principles or rules by which its
parts are combined.
I. CONSTRUCTION— Sentence-making.*
Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate ; as,
Trees (sub.) grow (pred.)
As every structure must have a foundation, so every sentence must htrs
% subject, (subjectus = thrown under as a foundation,) or something of
* To the Teacher. — The object of the teacher in this important department of
syntax should he to draw the attention of the pupil to the parts of a sentence ;i> t ley
cluster around the Btibject and predicate. Although it implies a species of ai
to be able to point out the parts as in the exercises under " ("(instruction," yet the spe-
cific rules and models for analyzing are placed, for the sake of convenience, in a sepa-
rate division. The following examples are classified according to certain peculiarities,
«hich will, in the pupil's progress, become obvious ; but at first it will be best for
tue teacher to be guided by the order of thought, regardless of the forms of evm
SYNTAX WORDS — SUB. AND PRED. UNMODIFIED. 1 1 1
which we speak Again : as a foundation is not a complete building, so a
Bubject alone does not form a complete sentence ; a predicate must be add-
ed to show that something is said of the subject, thus : if we have tree*
for the subject, we must unite with it something, as grow, for the predicate,
to show what is said of trees. In the same manner we have water Jiows,
<<e melts.
SECTION I.
SIMPLE SENTENCES — WORDS — RELATIONS
UNREPRESENTED.
A simple sentence contains but one proposition ; as, " The
crocus blooms."
A proposition is the combination of a subject and a predi-
cate ; as, " Virtue ennobles."
When the parts of a sentence are placed together without
any intervening word to show the connection, the relation is
said to be unrepresented.
A. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE UNMODIFIED.
The simplest possible sentence contains only two parts —
a subject and a predicate.
The subject is that of which something is affirmed ; as,
u The winds blow."
The following will serve as a model : The teacher, standing at the board, says, " Wfco
will mention something for a subject?" The pupils raise their hands — one says,
Lamb. The teacher writes upon the board lamb. The teacher now says to the
boy who gave the subject, " Had you in mind a particular lamb ? " If so. what sign
should we prefix? Ans. The. The teacher writes, " The Iamb." Now, what have
you to say of the lamb? What did the lamb do? Ana. " The Iamb ran." The
teacher or some pupil asks, " Wtotkind of lamb ? " Ans. "The youii<r lamb ran."
The teacher asks, " What has been added to the word lamb ? " Ans. Young. What
kinds of lambs are excluded by it? Ans. All kinds but young ones. The teacher or
some pupil (let the members of the class be encouraged to ask questions) asks, " How
did he run ? " Ans. Stoifthj. " The young lamb ran swiftly.''' What effect has the
wcid swiftly? Ans. It shows how the lamb ran, and forbids us think, ig of bis
running in any other manner than swiftly. Other questions will naturally be suggest-
ed, such as, When, Where, or Why did he run ? Let these be answered in the same
way. The teacher will now see how he can give out a lesson which will both occupy
and interest the whole class. He proposes, or allows the members to propose, soma
four or five subjects ; ho then requires them to bring in well-written sentences, hav-
ing something to show what kind, how many, what, when, where, or hew, &c. After
several exercises of this kind, the teacher can show the class that one word sometimes
answers a question how, where, &c. ; at other times, two or mere words are required,
and thus the way is prepared for tho classified examples whic i follow.
112 .ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject
as, " The winds blow."
Note. — The subject may be known by its answering the question Who ? or What 1
thus: Who speaks ? Ans. Susan speaks. Waat tell i Ans. Jlpvles w\\ fne predicate
may be known by its answering the question. Whnt, is doimj ? or What dot*
-— — do 1 What does John do ? Ans. John writes.
EXERCISES.
Point out the subject and predicate in the following : —
(1.) (Subject expressed.) Roses fade. Time flies. S;nrsshme. Chil-
dren play. She reads. I hope. They hear. Grass g/ jws. I live. He
knows. We ride. God exists. Jesus wept. Fruit rj/ms.
(2.) (Subject understood.) Come. Learn. Go. {fnAy. Wait. Spell.
Construct. Tell. See. Behold. Return. Awake. Arise. Sing. Shout.
March. Halt. Aim. Fire.
Supply the part which is wanting in the folhwi'vi . —
(3.) (Subject wanting.) frisk. sta.g. buzz.
whisper. study. open jhut. rule.
eat. drink. freezes. r jngeals.
(4.) (Predicate tcanting.) Ducks . Fishes . Mice .
Frogs . Vapor . De^- — - .Zephyrs . Pines
Waves . Billows . LigLcrorg . Thunder .
Supply a subject and precis' zate ofyw own in Jive examples.
vo.) (Subject and predicate wanting.) , , &c.
Unite the folPAcing words between the commas into sentences, and tell
which word uude/gots a change : —
(6.) (Parts AOf cennbined.) Wind roar, queen reign, he speak, she sit,
t snorr, Peter dray^ do <e coo, time fly, corn ripen, sugar melt, tree bud,
3erpent hies.
B. SUBJECT MODIFIED.
ORAL EXERCISE.
Whm the subject may mean any one of a great number of objects, how
oan we signify that we mean one, but not any particular one ? Ans. By
prefixing a or an; as, a book, an apple. But when the subject may
mean any one or more of a great number of objects, how can we signify
th^t we mean some particular object or objects ? Ans. By placing the be-
fore it, thus : the book, the apples. But does the show "what particular
v jooks or apples are meant ? Ans. It does not ; it only shows that the
speaker is thinking of something in particular. How can he show what
particular thing he is thinking of ? Ans. By adding some word or words
to describe or i?idividualize it. (See Introduction, p.xxx.) Thus the word
horses means ah the horses in the world ; but the phrase whits horses
means only a part of them ; the phrase, tioo tohite horses, means only a
email part of the white horses, while the phrase, the two white horses in yon-
der stable, means the particular ones intended. Which of the above Itnli-
tized expressions denotes the greatest number of horses ? Ans.
How did we first modify it, or limit the number? Ans. By adding
white. What kinds of horses does the word tohite exclude? Ans. Red
SYNTAX — WORDS -COMPLfiA SUBJECTS 113
brown, black, gray, &c, horses. What does the word tyx, exclude ? Am.
It excludes any number greater than two. What does the expression in yon-
der stable exclude ? Am. Any two horses, even though they may be white,
if found any where else than in the stable. Now, if we use horses, thus
limited as a subject, what kind of a subject shall we have ? Am. A modi
fied subject.
When the subject is described or limited by adding to it
some other word or wvcta, it becomes the modified subject
Hence, to distinguish it from the simple subject, we call it
ll\e complex or logical subject ; as, " Five birds flew."
Here birds is the simple subject, and jive fttrrfathe complex subject.
A sentence having a modified subject consists of three
parts — a subject, a predicate, and an adjective part, called
the adjective element.
VARIOUS KINDS OF COMPLEX SUBJECTS.
(a.) The complex subject may be the simple subject, and
only one added word ; as, " These trees grow."
When one word depends upon, and limits another, the lat-
ter is called the basis or principal element ; as, " Summer
heat debilitates." Here heat is the basis.
EXERCISES.
In the following examples point out the subject and the added word. De-
scribe the latter, and explain its modifying effect : —
(1.) (Limiting adjectives.) This man came. Five dogs ran. One tree
fell. The ink fades. A cat plays. Many flowers bloom. Some boys
study. These fishes swim. Every one stands.
(2.) (Qualifying adjectives.) Old wood burns. Wise men err. Faith-
ful horses draw. Hot water scalds, (rood scholars learn. Wicked men
fear. Cold winter comes.
(3.) (Nouns in apposition * ) King Latinus ruled. Queen Mary reigned.
President Taylor died. Marshal Soult conquered. Prince Eugene com-
manded. Madame Elizabeth suffered.
(4.) (Nouns or jrronouns in the possessive case.) Mary's mother came.
George's horse ran. Wellington's renown increased. Ellen's hopes
Vanished. Maria's journey begin' William's invention failed. His fin-
ger bleeds Our door creaks. Pier head aches.
Add limiting words to the following subjects so as to form sentences con-
* See Model for apposition, page 31, or Rule VII.
10*
1 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
taining th ee parts — three like (1), three like (2), three like (3), and thr~4
uke (4)
(o.) ( Adjective element wanting ) iron melts. kitten mews.
rabbit leaps. men prosper. lions devour.
letters arrive. King sang. Professor studies. Doctor
rides son reigned. Messiah pleases. daughters
wept.
Supply a subject and adjective part for the following predicates : —
(6.) (Subject and adjective element wanting.) chirps.
crawls. fade. ■ twinkles. -
hops. feed. sinned. sail
flourishes. teaches. bites.
fail.
Combine the folloicing elements between the commas, and tell what changes
you mtist make : —
(7.) (Elements not constructed.) Three dove coo, high school change,
Victoria children study, Valentine day come, apple tree bloom, I country
bleed, fair Rhins flow, pale Melancholy sit, the plum ripen, one boy go,
six dog bark.
Correct the following examples, and tell xohat words you alter : —
(8.) (Elements incorrectly constructed.) Some people says. I knows.
This ostriches runs. That girls sleeps. Those kind grow. Many insect
buzzes. Little acorn grows. Six chicken dies. They hears. Boston
Journal arrive.
(b.) The complex subject may be the simple subject with
two or more added words ; as, " That good ship sailed."
Here the adjective part consists of two elements, good, which describes the ship,
and that, which points out what good skip is meant.
Two cases may arise ; the added words may belong directly
to the subject, or they may first be added to each other, form-
ing a complex adjective element, and then be joined as a com-
bination to the subject, forming a complex subject ; as,
" Those old soldiers suffered." " Very large supplies
arrived."
Case 1. Added words pined directly to the subject.
EXERCISES,
Point oxd the added words in the following examples, and explain the*.'
effect :-
(1.) (Two limiting adjectives.) The first dawn appeared. The two travel-
lers returned. This second class recites. The three Horatii fought. The
twelve Cawars reigned. Many a gem sparkles. Such an assertion startles.
( 2. ) ( One limiting and one qualifying adjective.) That popular sovereign
defended. The old" boiler burst. Every new lesson puzzles. The calorio
snip sails. Any good book instructs Several old \ ouses fell.
SYNTAX — WORDS — SUBJECT MODIFIED. 115
(3.) (Two limiting adjectives and one qualifying one.) The iiist pleasant
day came. Those two young men contended. Many a serious thought
arose. Every third division remained.
(4.) ( One limiting and two qualifying adjectives.) Those, bright, happy
children play. The old, sad memory comes. The little feathered songster
warbles. That ambitious young man excels.
(•5.) (An adjective with the -noun in apposition.) The empress Eugonia
reigns. The apostle Paul preached. The Eiirtjr Stephen died. This boy
George repents.
(6.) (A noun or pronoun in the possessive, and a noun in apposition, )
His daughter Sarah dances. Isaac's son Jacob deceived. Elizabeth's
cousin Mary suffered. Christ's disciple Judas betrayed.
Put the proper words in the following blanks : —
(7.) (A limiting and a qualifying adjective, and a subject wantitig.) — ~
blows. ■ fades. — — —
sows. sleeps. cries.
— — howls. crows. cut.
(8. ) ( A noun in the jiossessive, and a noun in apposition wanting.)
teacher approves. son married. sister
travelled. daughter wrote. student practised.
Case II. Added words joined to each other., and then joined
to the subject, complex adjective element.
EXERCISES.
Point out the words which are added to each other, and explain their effect
upon each other, and their combined effect upon the subject.
(1.) (An adverb added to an adjective.) Very strange reports arose.
Exceedingly heavy rains fell. Dearly-beloved friends ' depart. A truly
great man appeared.
(2.) ( Adjectives and nouns in the possessive.) The old man's daughter
awoke. The huntsman's horn aroused/ The bright sun's rays illumine.
The wild wind's roar alarms.
(3.) (Adjectives and nouns in apposition.) Bunyan, the distinguished
author, composed. Demosthenes, the celebrated orator, declaimed. Frank-
lin, the American ambassador, negotiated. Arnold, the base traitor,
escaped.
(4.) (A noun in the possessive, and a noun in apposition.) Victoria, Eng-
land's queen, defends. Elizabeth, Henry's daughter, delayed. George,
Ellen's teacher, instructed. Peter, Christ's disciple, denied.
Supply the proper words in the following blanks : —
(5.) (Adjective and noun in the possessive wanting.) sword
#lew. mate mourned. - crash frightened.
_ clerk absconded.
(6.) (Adjective and noun in apposition wanting.) David
lepented. Solomon prayed. Daniel
Moses defended. M ; iain sang. Bancroft
1 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAK.
C. PREDICATE MODIFIED.
ORAL EXERCISE.
If I say, " The boy opened," and should stop there without saying any
thing more, what question would you naturally ask ? Am. What did h«
open ? Will you mention any thing that he might open ? Am. A book, a
knife, a box, a door, his eyes, his hands, his mouth, a letter, a window, an
umbrella. Now, if we should add to opened either of these words, it would
restrict its application to that one, thus : " The boy opened the door."
What does the Avord door exclude ? Am. Book, knife, &c. Now, when a
word is joined to a transitive verb so as to limit its meaning by ansAvering
the question what f it is called the object or objective element, and the predi-
cate becomes a modified predicate. So, again, if I should say, " The boy
runs," what Avould you ask, if you Avished to knoAV where he Avas running ?
Am. Where does he run ? Right ; and I should answer, pointing, He
runs yonder. In a similar manner you may ansAver the question, Wh&x
docs he run ? How does he run ? When a word is added to a predicate
restricting its meaning, and answering the questions Where 1 Whtu 1 Why f
or Hotv ? it is called an adverb, or an adverbial element, and the predicate
becomes a modified predicate.
When the predicate is described or limited by adding to it some other
word or Avords, it becomes the modified predicate. Hence, to distinguish
it from the simple predicate, we call it the complex or logical predicate ;
as, " They found gold."
Here, found is the simple predicate, and found gold the logical predicate.
A sentence having a modified predicate consists of at least three parts,
a subject, a predicate, and an additional part called either the objective of
the adverbial element.
VARIOUS KINDS OF COMPLEX PREDICATES.
(a.) The complex predicate may be the simple predicate
and onty one added word ; as, " The refiner purifies silver."
EXERCISES.
Point out in the following examples the predicate and the added word ;
describe the latter, and explain its modifying effect : —
(1.) (Objective element.) They pared apples. Henry gathered hazel
nuts. Sarah found violets. He killed mice. John sold matches. George
melted lead. Mary boiled chestnuts.
(2.) ( Adverbial element — place.) She dAvells there. Who comes here ?
The shadow moved backAvards. The thimble lies somewhere. She resides
yonder. You may come up. The child sits doAAii.
(%. ) (Adverbial element — time.) I hope ahvays. Anna arrived yester
day. She often yields. You change continually. I hear frequently. He
*omes occasionally. He rides noAV.
(4 ) (Adverbial element — cause.) Why came ye ? Wherefore ask you ?
(5.) (Adverbial element — manner.) She played finely. The cam
paign opened vigorously. The cars run rapidly. The eagle soared proud
ly. The owl screeches mournfully. The curtains hang gracefully.
SYNTAX — PREDICATE MODIFIED. 117
Add limiting words to the following predicates so as to farm sentences
t&itaining three parts ; —
(6.) (Subject and object wanting.) seal - < . devours
i . denied . whipped . drank
. tied . ploughed . reaped
caught . admits . command-
ed
(7.) (Verb and adverb wanting.) Wolves . Bears —
Vtt"
Signs . Vultures . Crocodiles
Hvenas . Wheat . Rye-
Steamboats
Combine the following elements between the commas, and tell wltat changes
you must make : —
(8.) (Elements not constructed.) Sarah help I, Frank play ball, John
strike she, Child gather moss, Ink finger stain, Itain wet ground.
Shower revive plant, Dust cover coat, Cloud obscure sun, Judge sen-
tence he, He climb tree.
(b.) The complex predicate may be the simple predicate
with two or more added words ; as, " He examined them
critically.''''
Here the predicate examined receives two additions, them and critically. The com
plex predicate consists, tiierefore, of the simple predicates and two added words.
Here, as in the subject, two cases may arise ; the added
words may belong directly to the predicate, or they may first
be added to each other, forming a complex objective or a
complex adverbial element, and then be joined to the predi-
cate, forming a complex predicate ; as, " He wrote elegant
letters.'''' " She walked very slowly. n
Case I. Added words joined directly to the predicate.
EXERCISER.
Point oid the added words in the following examples, and explain their
effect: —
(1.) (Two objective elements.) Give me flowers. They lent him money,
They made him king. I wrote him letters. She taught me geogiaphy.
He appointed John monitor. They called him George.
(2.) (Objective and adverbial elements. ) They planted seeds there. They
raised corn abundantly. He attends lectures constantly. The master
taught him skilfully. He never found it. He now eats met t. The Bible
teaches truth impressively. He utters subvocals distinctly.
Fill the fo'lmoing blanks with appropriate words : —
(3.) (Subject and predicate wanting.) The skilfully. Ha
beautifully. Napoleon triumphantly." Kos
•uth eloquently. The lady exquisitely. The
dock now. lie seldom — . She often" — — ..
118 • ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
(4.) {Subject and adverb wanting.) caugfci fish — — •
sold books . spent money . struck William
. gathered strawberries . cultivated tree*
■ . mowed grass tended sheep — — •
dressed vines — — — . sawed wood -. hunted dees
Combine the following elements between the commas, and tell what change*
you must make : —
(5.) {Elements not constructed.) Clergyman preach forcible sermon,
Widely open gate porter the, Carriage coachman drive rapidly, Boy gun
carelessly handle, Poetry often wrote she, Hear occasionally music they,
Carpenter saw suddenly break.
Case II. Added words joined to each other, and then joined
to the predicate — complex objective and complex adverbial
elements.
EXERCISES.
Point out the words which are added to each other, and explain their com-
bined effect upon the predicate : — ■
(1.) {Adjective added to the object.) He lived a desolate life. They
fauna agreeable companions. The merchant sold damaged goods. The
sailor climbed the slippery mast. The vessel reached the desired haven.
The islands yield delicious spices. The lady wrought a beautiful divan.
The teacher received a handsome present.
(2.) {Possessive case and object.) She recognized Henry's voice. Helen
read the Dairyman's Daughter. The boy heeded his father's advice. He
hurt his finger. She lent her scissors. They kept their work. We rented
our house. I lost my knife. They felt Fortune's frown.
(3.) {Object and noun in opposition.) They burned Huss the reformer.
They executed Andre the spy. They read Chaucer the poet. They
obeyed William the Conqueror. Herod beheaded John the Baptist.
(4.) {An adverb added to an adverb.) She hears very imperfectly. He
performs more skilfully. They go too often. She sews very neatly. He
managed most adroitly.
Fill the following blanks with appropriate words : —
(5. ) ( Object and adjective omitted.) He refused . He sough.
He drove . The merchant kept ■
The captain commanded . The clerk transcribed •
■ The legislature passed — — — . The committee appointed
(6.) {Complex object and adverb wanting.) The lawyer argued
— The physician healed . The company insured — —
— — — . The president issued . He burned ■ .
The shoemaker hammered . The carpenter planed
D. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE' MODIFIED.
The subject and predicate of a sentence may both be»
modified at the same time, forming a complex subject and
SYNTAX — PHF, ASES — RELATIONS REPRESENTED. 1 IS
a complex predicate ; as, " Refreshing showers soon revived
the drooping plants. ■
We may thus have a sentence consisting of five parts or
elements — a subject, a predicate, an adjective element, an
objective element, and an adverbial element.
EXERCISES.
Point ozd the Jive elements in the following sentences, and tell whethw
they are simple or complex : —
The distinguished historian Xenophon skilfully conducted the dangeioua
retreat. Leonidas, the brave Spartan hero, gallantly defended the narrow
pass. Cornelia, the noble Roman matron, proudly called her sons her
tewels. Socrates, the Grecian philosopher, calmly drank the poisonous
lemlock.
Add to the following subjects and. predicates any elements which will render
them complex ; also construct entire sentences having Jive elements : —
The fire burns. The cloud obscured. The planets revolve. The sun
attracts. The moon has. The mines yield. The Scriptures afford.
section n.
SIMPLE SENTENCES — PHRASES — RELATIONS
REPRESENTED.
When the parts of a sentence are brought together with
an intervening word to show a connection, the relation is
said to be represented ; as, " The flag of the Union was
floating in the breeze."
Here the relation of floating to flag (predicate relation) is represented by was; that
of Union to flag (adjective relation) is represented by of; that of breeze to floating (ad-
verbial relation) is represented by in.
The connective and word following it constitute an ele-
ment or component part of the sentence ; as, " To steal
(sub.) is base" (pred.) Hence an element with its relation
expressed is a phrase consisting, in its simplest state, of two
words ; and in order to distinguish it from an element of the
first class, which consists of only one word, the relation be-
ing implied, it is called a phrase, or element ot the sem^4
class.
1*50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. — When to, for, or that, introduces the subject, it can have no an-
teceder t terra on which to depend, since the subject is that on which all
r>ther parts depend. Hence it is scarcely correct to say that to, for, or
that, in such uses, shows a relation, although each is a relation-word ; as,
" To err is human." " For you to deceive is surprising." " That you
should deceive is surprising."
A. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE NOT MODD3TE1)
Here, again, the simplest possible sentence contains only
two parts — a subject and a predicate.
When the unmodified subject consists of two words, it must
be the infinitive, or first form of the verb, with " to " pre-
fixed ; as, " To deceive is criminal."
When the unmodified predicate consists of two parts, it is
composed of the copula (link or connective) and the attribute.
The attribute may be either a participle, an adjective, or a
noun or pronoun in the nominative.
In the predicate two classes of relations should be distin-
guished, (1.) A predicate relation expressed by the copula,
or some copulative verb, (Rem. 5, p. 53,) and (2.) A rela
lion of time and mode expressed either by the form of tho
verb, or by some auxiliary ; as, " We were successful."
1 We shall have written."
Note. — When the attribute is an adjective, a noun, or an active or passive parti
ciple, the former relation is shown by the copula, and the latter by the various form*
of the copula j as, " He was active, has been active, may haw. been active," &c.
EXERCISES.
Point out the subject and predicate in the following examples, and thovt
which has a connective : —
I. Only one Connective.
(1.) (Subject having a connective.) To love exalts. To exercise strength-
ens. To walk invigorates. To forgive ennobles.
(2.) (Attribute having a connective — participle.) The boat is approach-
ing. The fruit was destroyed. The ceremony was performed. The prunes
were purchased. Her health is improving. Night is coming. Hopes
were frustrated. Imagination was painting. Property was inherited.
Estates are entailed. Science is progressing.
(3J (Attribute an adjective.) Medicine is nauseous. Coffee is fragrant
SYNTAX — ■ SUBJECT AND PREDICATE NOT MODIFIED. 12\
Oranges are delicious. Games are pleasant. Questions are hard. Heat
is oppressive. Appearances are deceitful. Scholars are docile. Study is
delightful. Geometry is difficult. Teachers are faithful. Mines are
dark.
(4.) i Attribute, a noun or pronoun.) Gold is a metal. It is I. Otho ia
a kinu. He is the superintendent. You are my brother. Mary is hei
cousin. He is our physician. The gentleman is a politician. Dickens is
an author. It is she. He is a merchant. Ireland is an island. Aspin
wall is a city. Panama is an isthmus.
(5.) (Copulative verbs, page 53.) He seems inattentive. She was es»
teamed a lady. General Pierce is elected president. He became poor.
The ore is called silver. I walk a queen. Aristides was called the Just.
Pisistratus was called a tyrant. Moses was esteemed faithful. The prop-
osition remains true.
Give the mode and tense of the folloioing predicates, and explain the use
of the auxiliaries, then change them to other modes and tenses : —
(6.) (Simple relation's of time and mode.) They have written. He may
come. Stop. You have returned. I went. She will play. They may
attend. It will be. You can reply. I have heard. I study. You re-
ceived. They might have known. I have exercised. We win promise
If he had thought. It can be done. He expelled. You will record.
He bade. We walked. You might have been riding.
Point out the copida and attribute, and give the mode and tense of tJie
copula : —
(7.) (Predicate relation, and relations of time and mode combined.) He
may have been sick. You have been ricli. That may be true. The storv
is false. Knowledge is power. It would have been wise. He should have
been rewarded. It mil have been finished. The relation is sustained.
You were angry. The truth must be acknowledged. The man was wick-
ed. It must be the same. He is alive. She will have been esteemed
good.
(8.) (Subject omitted.) Be active. Be industrious. Be a man. Become
wise. Appear calm. Remain standing. Be kind.
Fill the following blanks with approirriate words : —
(9.) (Subject wanting.) is sitting. is a scholar.
is delayed. are mended. ; was pleasant. should be
writing. was grateful. is freighted. has been neg-
lected. is fulfilled. had been allowed. will be man-
ufactured. may be lost.
(10.) (Attribute wanting.) David was . Thou art . The
vessel would have been — . The cargo was . The port will be
. The harbor is . The freight is . The machinery was
. The lifeboat was . The passengers had been . The
state rooms would have been . The wheeDiouse was . TLf
berths are . The waiters will be .
(11.) (Copida wanting.) The wind boisterous. The rocks
dangerous. The danger unheeded. The storm terrible. Th«
pumps leaking. The waves mountain high. Hope
abandoned. They clinging. Many despairing. No on*
left. All quiet. The sea peaceful. They
lost. Friends mounting.
(12.) (Subject and attribute wanting.) might have been ■
was . is . could have been' '.
• must have oeen . — wert . wast — - — •
11
122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
art will be . will have been
•would have been regarded . might ha-v e been coa
kidered
II. Two Connectives.
x 13.) (Subject an infinitive.) To err is human. To forgive is divine,
T > lie is wicked. To cheat is mean. To tattle is disgraceful. To betraj
is infamous.
(14.) (The last examples changed.) It is human to err, &c.
(15.) (Predicate an infinitive or preposition and noun.) His expectation
is to ride. Her hope is to return. Her desire is to leave. The child is ia
good health. The pupil is without books. The lady is in sorrow.
III. Three Connectives.
(16.) (Subject and predicate infinitives.) To pilfer is to steal. To love
is to obey. To pray is to supplicate. To be good is to be happy.
B. SUBJECT MODIFIED.
The subject may be modified, —
(1.) By a single element — a phrase.
(2.) By two or more elements, one of which is a phrase.
When the unmodified adjective element consists of two
words, it is either an infinitive, or a phrase composed of a
preposition, (connective,) and its olject. The object is either
a noun, pronoun, or participle in the objective.
We have here, as in Section L, two cases : first, when both
elements are added directly to the subject ; and second, when
they are first added to each other, and then added to the sub-
ject, forming a complex adjective element.
If the basis or principal element is of the first class, the
complex element is of the first class, whatever the additions
to it may be. So, again, if the basis is of the second class,
the entire complex element is of the second class.
Rem. — When two elements are added together, three cases may occur
The first, that is, the basis, or principal element, may have a connective,
and the second may have none ; the second may have a connective, and
the basis none ; both may have a connective ; as, " The hope op great
wealth." " William, Pkince of Oraruje." " A collection of books oj
travels." In the second example, " AVilliam " is modified by a complex
adjective element o' the first class, because " prince," the basis, is joined
*l " William " will out a connective. In the first example, " hope " is
SYNTAX PHRASES ADJECTIVE ELEMENTS. 123
modified by a complex adjective element of the second class, because the
basis "of wealth " has its connection represented by " of." To this is
addeil an element of the first class, " great." In the third example, both
the basis and itt. dependent element are of the second class.
An element is said to be transformed, when it is changed
from one form or class to another ; as, " The dews of the.
morning have passed away " = The morning dews have
Di=sed away.
EXERCISES.
Point out the adjective element in the following examples, and explain the
ctmjjicx subject : —
I. Only one Added Element.
(I ) ( 0? ie adjective element — a phrase.) Statues of marble were chis-
elled. Works on history were consulted. Men of science have appeared.
Days of fasting were appointed. Bouquets of flowers were presented.
Fields of grain were waving.
(2.) (Adjective elements of Exercise, (1.) transformed.) Marble statuea
were chiselled, 9 s.
II. Two on Moiie Added Elements.
Case I. Both elements addtd directly to the subject,
(3.) (Tioo or more adjective elements of different classes.) The laws of
England were established. The first settlers at Plymouth were called Puri-
tans. The £reat bard of Avon sleeps. Huge waves of the ocean over-
whelmed. Many men of distinction arose.
(4.) {The adjective element of the last exercise transformed.) The Eng-
lish laws were established, &c.
In the following transform the adjective clement of the first to an adjective
element of the second class : —
(5.) (Adjective clement tra?isformed.) Brazen hinges were made =2
Hinges of brass were made. Solomon's temple was destroyed. A teacher's
meeting was held. The lecturer's voice was heard. The convent's gates
closed. Tsew year's day has passed. An hour's delay occurred. The
shepherd's dog barks. The huntsman's horn resounds.
Add to the following subjects an adjective element of the second class, and
then change it to one of the first : —
(6.) (Adjective element wanting.) Men were appointed. The
resemblance was striking. The office was closed. The fate
■ was unknown. Men will be rewarded. Gems were
found. The voice was heard. The truth was corroborated.
The size was great. The morals improved.
i24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Case II. Added elements joined to each other — complex
adjective elements.
Point out the complex adjective element in the following, and describl
it: —
(7.) (Basis or principal element of the first class — added element of the
second.) Paul, the apostle to the Gentiles, was imprisoned. An army,
confident of success, is invincible. Peter, moved by the Spirit, became
fearless. The duke, the general of the allied army, was distinguished.
Hortense, the daughter of Josephine, was beautiful. The maiden, the
beauty of the village, was chosen. George, the elder of the brothers, won
the prize.
( 8. ) ( Principal element of the second — added one of the first. ) A disease
of great malignity prevailed. A king of great distinction succeeded. The
father of the lost, prince never smiled. The man of many sorrows lived.
The wind of the winter night moaned. The sufferings of the beautiful
child were ended. The grave of little Nelly was visited. Flowers of
many hues were described.
(9.) (Both elements of the second class.) Jewels of gold from California
were made. An observation of the sun in 'the meridian was taken. The
brother of Richard I. of England reigned. A king of the house of Bruns-
wick was insane. A jailer of the dauphin of France was named Simon.
The friend of the son of the king was pardoned.
(10.) Fill the following blanks with the appropriate complex elements : —
The genius - demands it. The diamonds spar-
kle. The treasures were seized. The jealousy
was annoying. The parents were unknown. The bells ■
were chiming. The analysis was perspicuous. The
jrass is mown.
C. PREDICATE MODIFIED.
The predicate may be modified, —
(1.) By a single phrase, (preposition and object.)
(2.) By two or more elements, one of which is a phrase.
The simple objective or adverbial element when a -phrase
is either an infinitive, or is composed of a. preposition and its
object.
We have here, as in Section I., two cases: first, when
both elements are added directly to the predicate ; and second
when they are first added to each other, and then added to
the predicate, forming a complex objective, or a complex ad
verbial element.
SYNTAX — ADDED ELEMENTS. 125
EXERCISES.
Poivt out the complex predicate in the following examples, and explain
the effect of the added elements : —
I. Only one Added Element.
(1.) (Objective element * direct.) He hoped to succeed. She desired to
write. Thev wished to do right. He seeks to excel. You are expected
to attend. I am trying to learn. She means to obey. I hope to traTel.
Tl e watch needs to be repaired. They like to travel. She wills to do it.
The book deserves to be read. The man ought to be imprisoned.
(2.) (Objective element, indirect.) I spoke to him. We heard of his suc-
cess. They gave it to the church. Speak to him. They know of the
opportunity.
(3. ) (Adverbial element — place.) She came to the party. The plums fell
from the tree. The ball lay on the hearth. Anna sat in the carriage. His
thoughts were concentrated on the subject. The letter was found in the
post office. The express will come from New York. The cucumbers are
abundant on the vines.
(4.) (Adverbial element — time.) In the morning it flourisheth. I shall
go in the evening. It will be finished in a fortnight. Caesar fought on
the next day. The book will be finished in four weeks. Come on
Tuesday.
(5.) (Adverbial element — cause.) She cried from fear. We remained to
hear the report. The man suffered from poverty. The children were
speechless from delight. Christ was betrayed for money. Tne party were
travelling for pleasure. The martyrs suffered for Christ's sake.
(6.) (Adverbial element — manner.) The dove flew with rapidity. The
messenger came in haste. He writes with accuracy. The world was made
by him. James walked with his sister. The Greeks succeeded by strata-
gem. Milk is good for children. She was diffident to excess. Emily
was delighted with her present.
II. Two ok More Added Elements.
Case I. Both elements added, directly to the predicate.
(7.) (Two direct objects, one first mid one second class.) He urged him
to go. He sought friends to help him. The doves besought the hawk to
defend them. Martha invited Emily to visit her. I saw the rain [to] fall.
He bade me tell you. Let us sit. They made the man labor.
(8.) (Direct object, first class, indirect second.) George gave a book to
me. Charles t$d him of his father's death. He begged a favor of me.
Mary brought a present to me. He taught writing to me. Send the
bracelet to me. You may throw the ball to me. You promised a reward
to the best scholar. They played games for us. I lent a book to father.
Note. — Let the pupil rewrite these examples, anil place the indirect object first,
and dispense with the preposition, thus : "I lent father a book.' ;
(9.) (Objective of the first, adverbial of the second class.) We heard their
songs in the grove. We left our home in the morning. You wrote the
* See Rule VIII. - Rem. 1.
11*
126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
letter to hasten Ids coming. T'hcy learned to sins? in their childhood. W*
gathered the wild flowers in the meadow. He made the effort for their
good. He faughl Uic Bible class with great earnestness.
FiU the following blanks with appropriate adverbial elements of time, place,
cause, or manner : —
(10.) (Adverbial element wanting.) The kangaroo lives . A treaty
of peace was concluded . The consul resides . They wished
to go . The cars will arrive . The visit was anticipated .
My dear friend came . Cornwallis surrendered . He mar-
ttged . Past events were recalled . The young lady was ad-
mired . I have been here . The work must be completed
. We were sitting . The horse ran .
Case II. The elements added to each other.
(11.) (Objective first class, adjective, second.) I found masses of rock.
They made a fire of coals. They elected a professor of history. She threw
the apple of discord. They asked the son of Priam. He awarded the prize
of beauty. He tended the flocks of sheep. He admired the beauty of
Helen.
(12.) {Indirect objective second, adjective second.) The book was given to
the chairman of the committee. He wrote to the friend of his sister. He
sought for the truth of the report. The arrangement was made for the
child of my brother.
(13.) (Infinitive and adverbial, first or second.) He desires to write elegant-
ly. They attempted to remain at home. He seems to sleep quietly. Chil-
dren love to change constantly. We hope to see clearly. I hope to write
with great diligence. I wish to return in two years. We strive always to
excel. He loves to rise with the early dawn.
(14.) (Adverbial second, adjective first.) The bear came from a dense for
est. The child returned after a long absence. The governor departed for his
southern tour. The experiments were made in a mysterious manner. The
room was filled with the sweet perfume. He departed in the early morn-
ing. The fruit must be gathered before next week.
( 15. ) (Adverbial seco7id, adjective second.) Moses stood on the summit of
Pisgah. The city was situated at the head of the bay. We left on the
morning of the new year. The Bible was translated by men of learning.
Napoleon was banished to the Island of St. Helena. We sailed around the
Island of Juan Fernandez. I stood on the steps of the Capitol.
Construct sentences of your cwn illustrating any of the above elements*
». SUBJECT AND PKEDICATE MODIFIED.
A sentence may contain a subject and a predicate, each
modified in any of the above ways.
* The teacher should multip>v and vary these exercises according to the wants «
the learner
SYNTAX COMPLEX SENTENCES CLAUSES, ETC. 127
EXERCISES.
Point out the subject and predicate, and point out the various modifications
in the following : —
The news of his death filled his mother's heart with sorrow. To be-
nme an admiral was Nelson's noble resolution in his childhood. It is the
work of a lifetime to become truly good. The children of my brother have
some to visit me. The son of the king succeeded to the throne. The
authorship of the book has never been ascertained with certainty.
Add elements to the following subjects and predicates, so as to illustrate
any of the foregoing cases : —
The watch was given . He attempts . She manages .
William brought . Lucy sought — . The pigeon flew .
He remained — . "We spoke . Mary came . Grass grows
. Come . Robert seems . They love . The
three women . Peter denied . John learned . Thou
rarest . Ruth was . The storm caused .
The church has been built . My sister came .
The news was received . The minister has gone .
The time is coming .
SECTION III.
COMPLEX SENTENCES — CLAUSES — RELA-
TIONS REPRESENTED.
The propositions which unite to form a sentence are called
its clauses; as, "The wicked flee — when no man pur-
sueth ; but the righteous are bold — as a lion [is.] "
A proposition standing alone, or not affected by a connec-
tive, is a simple sentence. il Vice degrades."
A proposition under the influence of a subordinate con-
nective is called a subordinate or dependent proposition or
clause ; as, " When spring comes, the flowers will bloom."
Here, " when sprint? comrs " is a subordinate proposition. The subordinate connec-
twe when changes trie simple sentence "spring comes " to a mere element of the
other proposition to which it is joined. And as it is made to take the place of an ad
verb of time, it is called an adverbial proposition.
The proposition on which the subordinate one depends is
called the principal proposition or clause ; as H When spring
comes, the Jlowers will bloomy
An entire sentence, consisting of a principal and a
128 ENGLISH GRA ffMAR.
subordinate clause, is called a complex sentence , as, " I will
remain until you return."
The dependent proposition, consisting of the connective
and the subject and predicate following it, constitutes an ele-
ment or component part of the complex sentence. It is
called an element of the third class, to distinguish it frcra
those of the other two classes.
When the subordinate clause takes the place of a noun,
it is called a substantive clause ; when it takes the place ot
an adjective, it is called an adjective clause ; when it takes
the place of an adverb, it is called an adverbial clause.
A. SENTENCES HAVING A SUBJECT AND PREDI-
CATE ONLY.
A sentence may have for its subject, or for the attribute
In the predicate, a dependent proposition; as, " That the
earth revolves on its axis has been proved.'" " My hope ; s,
that you will recover your losses."
EXERCISES.
(1.) (The subject a substantive clause.) That you have wronged me
doth appear. Who wrote Junius's letters is uncertain. Why lie left the
city is a mystery. "When the assembly will rise is unknown. Where the
villain has" gone has been ascerts mod. How shall we escape? is the
question.
(2.) (The attribute a substantive clause.) My desire is, that you may
succeed. His pretence was, that the storm of the preceding evening pre
vented his attendance. Our hope is, that no such results will follow.
Your belief is, that the enemy has crossed the mountain. My determina-
tion is, that you shall attend school in the country.
Fill the blanks icith appropriate clauses in the following : —
(3.) (Subject wanting.) is apparent. cannot be denied
is desirable. — is deplorable. is determined. ■ is
believed. is amusing. is undesirable. is unac-
countable.
Note. — Let the learner change these examples and those in Exercise
(1.) by using "it" as an introductory word to the sentence, placing the
subject after the predicate, thus : " It doth appear that you have wronged
me."
SYNTAX CLAUSES SUBJECT MOI /FI ED. 129
(4.) {Attribute wanting.) My determination is . His decision
was . Her complaint was . Our hope is . Their ex •
pectation is . The remark was . The suggestion is
B. SUBJECT MODIFIED.
The subject may be modified, —
(1.) By a single subordinate clause.
(2.) By two or more elements, one of which is a clause.
We haye here, as before, —
Case I. Where both elements are added directly to the.
subject.
Case II. Where the elements are added together, and then
added to the subject, forming a complex adjective element.
Rem. — When two or more elements are added together, a variety of
cases may occur. The basis may be a single word ; this may be modified
by a phrase; this again by a clause; as, "The pear, fruit /row a tree
which he had grafted, was found most delicious." Some seven or eight
other combinations may take place. These can easily be formed by chan-
ging the order of the elements.
EXERCISES.
I. Only one Added Element.
Point out the adjective clauses in the following examples : —
(1.) {Added element, an adjective clause.) Evils which cannot be cured,
must be endured. Rays which fall perpendicularly upon the earth, are
called vertical. Lines which are drawn parallel to each other, will never
moot. Money which is easily acquired is, for the most part, easily spent.
Who steals my purse, steals trash. Whatever is, is right. Whoever sins,
must sutfer.
Transform the adjective clauses in the above exercises.
(2.) {Adjective element transformed.) Incurable evils must be endured.
Rays falling t &c.
II. Two or More Added Elements.
Case I. Added elements joined directly to the subject.
(3.) {Adjective, and adjective clause.) That lesson which caused him st
much trouble, has since been mastered. The missing vessel, which he
looked for so anxiously, has at last arrived. The unwearied pains which
*ie took to accomplish 1 is plans, injured their success. The distant land
130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
which, lie discovered, was rich in mineral wealth. The bright sun, which
foretells warmer weather, comes nearer to us in his course. The parlor
tire, which burns so brightly, gives a cheerful light.
Transform the above adjective clauses.
(4 ) (Adjective clause transformed.) That troublesome lesson has since
been mastered, &c.
Convert the following adjective elements in Italics into clauses : —
(5.) (Adjective element tra?isformed.) Trees growing at the foot of the
mountain lire taller than those on the summit. A persevering man will
overcome obstacles. Thep?vmised rewards shall be given. A discontent'
ed man cannot be happy. The great globe is only a planet. Milton, the
poet, was blind. The house of my father stands near the road. My
brother's dog was killed. Honorable men presided.
Fill the blanks in the following examples with adjective clauses : —
( 6.) (Adjective clause wanting.) The journey was delightful. The
opinion seems to prevail. The reason has never been satis-
factorily given. The man desires to please. Cicero was put
to death. Socrates was a great philosopher. The scholai •
should be commended. The pride is contemptible. A man
will be rewarded. The tabernacle contained the ark.
Case II. Added elements joined to each other* — complex
adjective element.
Point out the complex adjective element in the following examples, and
explain its parts : —
(7.) (The basis an element of the first class.) Thucydides, living when
Pericles did, wrote a history of that splendid era. Peter the Hermit, who
preached the first crusade, was a native of Amiens, in France. The phy-
sician, knowing that his advice was needed, hastened to visit his patient.
The agent, suspicious that all was not right, examined the matter closely.
(8.) ( The basis an element of the second.) The reply of the queen who came
to prove the wisdom of Solomon was, that the half had not been told her.
A desire to dwell where her mother-in-law dwelt induced Ruth to follow
Naomi. The hope of Esther, who was the beautiful queen of Ahasuerus,
was to save the Jewish nation. The mother of Samuel, who was devoted
to the service of the Lord, brought him each year a little coat. The dreams
of Joseph, who was the favorite son of Jacob, were the occasion of much
ill will.
(9.) (One of the first, one of the second, and one of the third.) The bird,
singing on the tree which stands in the garden, fills the air with its melody.
The boy, eager to stand where he could witness the show, fell from the roof.
The plan, changed in the manner which we have described, was unsatisfac-
tory to the architect. The friend, coming at a time which was unexpected,
was cordially received.
(10.) (Ttco of the third.) The stream which flows from the mountain
range that bounds the valley on the east, takes its name from an early
custom of the inhabitants. JEneas, who resided in Troy until it was de-
stroyed by the Greeks, is said to have sailed to Italy. The ten command-
ments, which were given to Moses when he was upon the mount, were
written on tables of stone. Cecrops, who founded Athens, to which after-
wards Solon gave laws, is said to h we been an Egyptian.
SYNTAX CLAUSES PREDICA1E MODIFIED. 131
C. PKEDICATE MODIFIED.
The predicate may be modified, —
(1.) By a single element of the third class.
(2.) By two or more elements, one of which is of the third class.
We have here, as before, — -
Case I. Where both elements are added directly to tht
predicate.
Case II. Where they are added together, and then added
to the pi edicate.
EXERCISES.
I. Only one Added Element.
Point otd the complex predicate in the following examples, and explain ths
effect of the added clause : —
(1.) {Substantive clause — objective.) Will you tell why you are sad?
He inquired, " Who knocks at the door ? " Do you know that you have
injured your friend ? I thought that he was sincere. Many suppose that
the planets are inhabited. lie showed me wherein I had done wrong.
Fill the following blanks xoith substantive clauses in the objective : —
(2.) (Objective clause wanting.) He heard . The insane imagine
. Who said ? You may explain . The Stoics believe
The ancients believed . I forgot . I wish
He announced . The good ask . The farmer declared .
Transform the following tcords in Italics into objective clauses : —
(3.) (Object transformed.) I do not remember the time of the lecture.
Show the manner of its operation. Will you tell the object of this meeting i
We asked him to stay. The ancients believed the earth to be a vast plain.
He anticipated a pleasant evening. Did you hear of his success t Tha
general commanded the army to be in readiness.
Thus, I do not remember when the lecture will take place.
(4.) (Adverbial clause — place.) Where your treasure is, there will youi
heart be also. Where thou goest, I will go. Whither I go, ye cannu*
come. As iax as the east is from the west, so far hath he removed oui
transgressions from us. They were sitting where the branches of a spread
ing elm protected them from the burning rays of the noonday sun.
Fill the following blanks with adverbial clauses denoting place : —
(").) ( Adverbial clause wanting.) , 'tis haunted, holy ground. I
travelled . , there is no transgression. nothing can be
magnanimous. The soldier stopped — , I wall go . We musl
follow . He sank to repose .
132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
(6.) (Adverbial clans? — time.) We talked earnestly, as we were walking
together. While I was musing, tha fire burned. When two lines cross
each other, the opposite angles are equal. The truth of the theorem will
be acknowledged when you have proved it. I will write until he returns.
I was sad when I thought of the changes that must come. Whilst 1 live,
I will bless thy name.
Fill the following blanlcs with clauses denoting time : —
(7.) (Adverbial clause wanting.) You may go . We should assist
the poor . He will return . I understood as a child .
She sits . I was pained . The company separated „
Supper was ready . They rejoiced .
(8.) (Adverbial clause — cause.) Ye shall not see me, because I go unto
my Father. You should honor your parents, for this is the command of
God. Cultivate agreeable maimers, since these make you attractive. If
you will read the report, you can judge for yourself. Should he stay
late, I shall regret it. I have brought the work, that you may see it. I
went myself, that 1 might ascertain the truth We should take exercise,
that we may be healthy. Though it was cold, the walk was pleasant.
Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. I love him, not-
withstanding he is in error.
Fill the following blanks with clauses denoting cause : —
(9.) (Adverbial clause wanting.) The children sing • . Many men
live idly . He is a useful man . Take heed . We have
uo other means . Water will become ice . The plants mil
not grow — . I will cut down this tree . Love your enemies
— . I shall stay at home . I shall see him . Will you
answer my letter ? How old would he have been ?
Note. — It will he well for the teacher to give adverbial clauses of different kinds
and require the pupil to write, or give orally, a suitable principal clause, thus: Give
a suitable principal clause for the following: "When the storm has subsided.'
" We ahull leave when," &.c
(10.) (Adverbial clause — manner.) The traveller was so weary that he
fell asleep. Speak as you think. You may do as you said you should.
Mary is as old as her cousin. The rose is more beautiful than the thistle.
Happiness is more equally divided than some suppose. The more pru-
dent one is, the more cautious he is. Can you describe the scene, as she
can ? Our lesson is the same as we had yesterday.
Fill the following blanks : —
(11.) (Adverbial clause wanting.) As a man thinketh . Wili
you be so good ? The pupil wrote the copy just as . Make
the mark just as . The hour seemed so long . It is so cold
. 1 am so lonely . This apple is larger . The streai
is as deep . The more I read it .
II. Two or Moke Added Elements.
Case I. Added elements joined directly to the predicate.
(12.) (Objective element, third class, adverbial first or second.) He was
soon convinced that the supposed object was an optical illusion. I at first
believed that all these obj sets existed, within me. During this moment of
darkness, I imag ned thai I had lost the greatest part of my being. By
SYNTAX CLAUSES — PREDICATE MODIFIED. 133
this exercise, I soon learned that the faculty of feeling was expanded oyer
every part of my frame.
(13.) (Adverbial element, third class, objective element, first class.) The
nhepherd gave the alarm when he discovered the approach of the wolf.
He closed his career before he had completed his thirty-sixth year. I have
brought a passage that you may explain it. He visited the springr. that
he might improve his health. He would pull a mote out of his brother's
eye, while he has a beam in his own. Place the package where it will not
be injured.
(14.) ( Two adverbial elements, thirdclass.) Although it was very incon-
venient, he came to see me when he was requested to come. Aj he passed
cu he felt his strength diminish from day to day, though his suffering'}
were by no means severe. Had he reformed, I would have assisted him,
as I encouraged him to hope. If he can arrange his affairs, he will sail for
Europe when the next steamer leaves.
(15.) (Tico elements of the thirdclass, one objective, one adverbial.) If
such be the character of the youthful mind, am I to ask you what must
be the appearances of riper years ? When the farmer came down to break
fast th;it morning, he declared that his watch had gained half an hour in
the night. Although he had labored diligently, he found that his efforts
were unavailing.
Case II. Added elements joined to each other — complex
objective and complex adverbial elements.
Note. — A word or phrase may first be added to the predicate, and a clause may be
added to either of these, or the clause may be added directly to the predicate, and a
word or phrase may be added to that. Hut it is generally best to regard a modified
proposition as a simple element, unless one of the modifying elements is itself a prop-
position. Thus, m the following sentence, the clause in Italics may be regarded as
simple : " We knew that the heavy sturmmust do much damage to the harvest." But in
:he folkjwing the clause in Italics is complex : " We are persuaded that the work will
Advance as soon as all obstacles shall have been removed."
Point out the complex predicate, and tell to which class it belongs.
(1G.) (Complex objective element, basis first.) I soon perceived the fact
that the study of geometrv strengthened my reasoning poweis, so that I
could more readily trace relations of cause and effect. I experienced a pleas-
ure which I cannot describe. You cannot understand the view which I take
of the subject. They improved the opportunities which they enjoyed.
Celsius invented the centigrade thennometer, which is considered tb e "best
by scientific men.
(17.) {Complex adverbial element, basis second.) He was saved by
ropes which were thrown from the ship. The bard dwelt on those high
lands which overlook the sea. Temptation comes at the time in which we
are least prepared to meet it. He came for a purpose which will be satis-
factorily explained.
Construct examples of your own, illustrating any of the previous element*,
tnd take subjects from history or geography.
12
134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
D. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE MODIFIED
The subject and predicate may both be modified by sub
ordinate clauses.
EXERCISES.
Point out the subordinate clauses in the following examples, and tell what
they modify : —
The views which we have now unfolded show that a vigorous action of the
Olind is dependent upon a healthful condition of the physical functions.
The letter which she expected came, as she had anticipated. A report
that the enemy had capitulated was circulated before the embankments
were completed.
Add subordinate clauses to the subject and predicate of each of the follow-
ing sentences : —
He must believe . Many were journeying
The reason was so unsatisfactory . Oranges are found
. The wicked will be punished . The pretensions
convinced us . The wind causes . The ques
tion was so answered . They shall receive .
He will learn . Oxygen is the agent .
Co7istruct sentences containing either substantive, adjective, or adverbial
clauses. Sag something about domestic affairs — something about the growth
of flmc&fi — something about the cultivation of silk — something about geog-
raphy — relate some incident in the life of Washington, Franklin, Richard
I., Queen Elizabeth, or write about any other subject which your teacher shall
mention.
SECTION IV.
COMPOUND SENTENCES — SIMILAR PARTS COM
BINED.
Note In tlie foreeoinjr sections the parts of a sentence are united — an adjective, a
veib, or a noun to a noun ; a noun or pronoun to a verb or adjective ; an adverb to a verb,
an adjective, or an adverb ; and the relatione in Sections I!, and III. are represented by
connectives, while in Section I. the same relations are unrepresented, being indicated
either by the position or altered form oi the element itself. The parta united' are, foi
the most part, different parts of speech — d liferent in the functions which they perform ,
different in the rank which they hold, one being principal, and the other subordinate
to it ; and often different in form or class, one being a single word, another a phrase or
clause. But it often happens that we wish to unite two elements which shall be the
name part of speech, which shall stand in the same relation to some other element,
which shall be of the same form or class, and perform the same functions. Such e.le
men a are united by a peculiar class of conjunctions, called Coordinate Conjunction*,
(See Conjunctions, p. 104,) because they join parts coordinate with each other.
Instead of parts, one of which depends upon and modifies
another, we may u'rite two or more similar elements, bv
SYNTAX — COORDINATE ELEMENTS. 136
placing them in the same relations to some other element
as, " Peter and John went up to the temple."
Hera Peter and John are both nouns, both used as subject, and both in the same re-
lation to the predicate, and in respect to eacli other they are placed in a reiatica of
perfect equality. Hence they are coordiiaw, that is, in the same rank.
Two cases may occur —
(1.) The coordinate parts may be either of the five elements of a sen-
tence, the combination being called a compound element ; as, " She reads
and writes."
(2.) The coordinate parts may be entire propositions, the combination
being a compound sentejiee ; as, " Exalt her, and she shall promote the*.''
Case I. Coordinate elements.
EXERCISES.
Point out the compound elements in the following examples, and fill the
blanks wherever elements are worsting : —
( 1. ) ( Compound subject, first class.) Exercise and temperance strengthen
the constitution. Virtue and vice form a strong contrast to each other.
John and James reside at home this summer. The rocks and hills of New
England will remain till the last conflagration. And the chief priests and
scribes stood and vehemently accused him.
(2.) (Compound subject , second class.) To be or not to be, that is the ques»
tion. To soothe thy sickness, and to watch thy health, shall be my pleasure.
To toil for, and yet to lose, the reward of virtue, is the hard lot of man. Tc
deprive me of liberty, to torture me, or to imprison me, is not your right.
To live temperately, to avoid excitement, and to take alternate exercise
and rest, are essential to health.
(3.) ( Compound subject, third class.) That their poetry is almost uniform-
ly mournful, and that their views of nature were dark and dreary, will be
allowed by all who admit the authenticity of Ossian. Why we are thus de-
tained, or why we receive no intelligence from home, is mysterious. Where
he will obtain the means, and how he will be relieved from the pressure, ia
extremely uncertain.
(4.) {One component part wanting.) Wit and are capti
vating. Eloquence and are gifts of nature. Love and min-
gled in the regard of Helon's eye. Why , or why , interest*
mc very much. That the book will be successful, and that , will be
shown by its extensive circulation.
(5.) (Compound predicate, relation not expressed.) And the king went
up to the chamber over the gate, and wept. No fascinated throng weep,
and melt, and tremble at his eloquence. Approach, and behold, while I lift
from his sepulchre its covering.
(5.) (ComjMund predicate, relation exjyressed.) The present life is net
wholly prosaic,* precise, tame, and finite. This is per.ee, and the true
* In coordinate constructions, the connective, or any commrn part, Is omitted afta
the first element. (See Ellipsis, p. 193.)
J 36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
happiness of man. He is willing to risk his life in its defence, and is con-
ecious that he gains protection while he gives it. J can be contented and
fully happy in the good which I possess.
(7.) (Compound predicate, third class.) My proposition is, that your son
shall be sent to college, that you shall go abroad, and that the house shall
be closed during your absence. His direction was, that the patient should
take a great deal of exercise, that his diet should be very carefully attend-
ed to, and that every thing of an exciting nature should be avoided. His
answer was, that he approved the plan of the measure, and that ho was
confident of its success.
(8.) (Adjective element, compound, first class.') The middle, the fairest,
and the most conspicuous places in cities are chosen for the erection of
statues and monuments. Wise and good men are frequently unsuccessful.
A bright and glorious prospect is opened by Christianity. Lord Corn
wallis, the English peer and general, surrendered at the battle of Yo'k-
town.
(9.) (Adjective element, compound, seco?id.) The parting of Hector and
Andromache is beautifully described by Homer. The reign of William
and Mary commenced with the glorious revolution of 1688. The tops of
Olympus and Parnassus reached above tbe clouds. The grating of th<5
old-fashioned bars and bolts was answered by the clash of chains.
(10.) (Adjective element, compound, third.) A cottage which is shaded with
trees, and which is situated far from the noise and bustle of the city, is a
very pleasant retreat. That faith which is one, which renews and justi-
fies all who possess it, which confessions and formularies can never ade-
quately express, is the property of all alike. The baron, who knows our
manners, and lives near our country, will apprise you of the time and
means to be their protector.
(11.) (Adjective element wanting.) A and behavior
makes a person contemptible. Her and hands helped to bar
the door against want. Every or thought is
a violation of our obligation to our Maker. A and influence
breathes around the dwellings of the dead. The artist who , and
, is coming to reside in the city.
(12.) (Compound objective element, first class.) And he said, Behold my
mother and my brethren. 1 examined its form and its color. I note his
dress, the sound of his voice, and the turn of his countenance. Pope wrott
the Messiah, and the Essay on Criticism.
(13.) (Compound objective element, second.) It teaches us tc be thankful
for all favors received, to love each other, and to be united. He chooses
to die, and to redeem his friend. She is led to engage in calmer pursuits,
and seek for gentler employment.
(14.) (Compound objective element, third.) He heard that his wife had
fallen a lingering sacrifice to penury and sorrow ; that his children were
gone to seek their fortunes in distant or unknown climes ; and that the
grave contained his nearest and most valuable friends. He found that
every thing was changed, that strangers inhabited the home of his child-
hood, and that he was alone in the world. I know that the eye of the
public is upon me, and that I shall be held responsible for every act.
(15.) (One objective element wanting.) I have neither wit, nor , nor
■ It gave him the manners and of the most perfect gentle-
man. The warm sunny days will cause the grass to grow, and . He
'ound that the lecture was postponed, and .
(16.) (Adverbial element, compound.) How bright and goodly shines the
SYNTAX — COORDINATE CLAUSES. 137
aaoon ! When and where he lived, I cannot tell you. The voice of the
preacher grew fainter and fainter.
(17.) {Co7tipound adverbial element, second.) With trembli .g limbs and
faltering steps, he departed from his mansion of sorrow. I have spent n.y
days, in darkness and error. I see new meaning, every hour, in his arch eye
and speaking face. With surprise and joy, she espied a monk support-
ing Marmion's head.
(18.) {Compound adverbial element, third.) When a few more friend*
have left, a few more hopes deceived, and a few more changes mocked us,;
we shall be brought to the grave, and shall remain in the tomb. He takej
us from earth that he may lead us to heaven, that he may refine our nature
from all its principles of corruption, that he may share with us his own
immortality, that he may admit us to his everlasting habitation, and thai
he may crown us with his eternity.
(19.) ( One adverbial element wanting.) She studied diligently and .
The great Scipio treated his captives with magnanimity and . How-
ird spent his life in relieving the distressed, , and . Every
•jne rejoices when spring comes, , and . She will return be-
fore we expect her, and .
(20.) {Elements both complex and compound.) To carry on with effect
an expensive war, and yet be frugal of the public money ; to oblige those
to serve whom it may be delicate to offend ; to conduct, at the same time,
i complicated variety of operations; to concert measures at home, answer-
able to the state of things abroad; and to gain every valuable enu m
»pite of opposition from the envious and disaffected, — this is more difficult
u .han is generally thought.
Case II. Coordinate clauses.
(21. J {Copulative clauses.) I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat.
"Green is the most refreshing color to the eye ; hence Providence has made
It the common dress of nature. It is sown a natural body, it is raised a
spiritual body. Not only am I instructed by this exercise, but I am also
invigorated. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. We
shall feel the same revolution of seasons, and the same sun and moon will
guide the course of our year. You know I love a country life, and here
we have it in perfection. Submission and obedience are the lessons of her
life, and peace and happiness her reward.
(22.) {Adversative clmises.) She took them, but she could not tear them
from me. The man was communicative enough, but nothing was distinct
in his mind. We must not expect that our roses will grow without thorns ;
but then they are useful and instructive thorns, which, by pricking the
fingers of the too hasty plucker, teach future caution. The tunes are ex-
tremely gay and lively, yet they have something in them wonderfully
soft. I believe there are few heads capable of making Sir Isaac Newton'8
calculations, but the result of them is not difficult to be understood by a
moderate capacity.
(23) {Alternative clmises.) Never utter any profane speeches, nor make
a jest of any Scripture expressions. Learn your lesson, otherwise you must
tose your rank. I neither learned wisdom, nor have I a knowledge of the
holy. Either he will hate the one, and love the other, or else he will
hold to the one, and despise the other. Neither hath this man sinned,
tor his parents.
(24.) {Compound setxtemes with complex tnembers.) When he rose ererj
12*
l68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
sound was hushed, and when he spoke every eye was fixed upon him. If
the means were in themselves bad. you would not say that the end justi-
fied them ; or if the means were good, you would not sf.y that they justified
all the results which might flow from their use. You take my house, when
vou do take the prop that doth sustain my house ; you take my life, when
you do take the means whereby I live. Employ thy time well, if thou
meanest to gain leisure ; and since thou art not sure of a minute, throw
not away an hour. If you would have your business done, go j if not,
send.
ELEMENTS.
Note. — A careful examination of the preceding sections, with a proper attention to
each construction, will prepare the learner for the distinctions here to be made. Each
definition should be verified by a reference to the section and exercise which illus-
trates it
An element is an expression which represents an idea
and its relation ; as, " He walked in the gar-
den."
Rem. — An element of a sentence is either the subject or predicate, or
some nart immediately connected with one of these. Every remote ele-
mer.o, that is, one not immediately connected with the subject or predicate,
is to be regarded as a component part of a complex element of the
sentence ; as, " He walked in the garden of the prince." Here,
of the prince is a remote element, dependent immediately on garden,
and is a component part of the complex element, in the garden of the
prince.
CLASSES OF ELEMENTS.
Elements may take three different forms, called the first,
(1.) When the relation and idea are both represented by one word, with-
out a connective, we have an element of the first class ; as, " John — —
writes."
(2.) When the relation is expressed by one word, and the idea by anoth-
er, forming a phrase consisting of a preposition and its object, or an infini-
tive, we have an element of "the second class ; as, " John lives in
hope." " He desires to improve."
(5.) When the relation is represented by one word, and the idea or
thought by a proposition, forming a clause consisting of a connective, a
subject, and a predicate, we have an element of the third class; as, "I
know — that he told me the truth."
EXERCISES.
Point out the elements in the following sentences, and tell to what class
they belong : —
On a sunny bank buttercups are bright. The trees are leafless. Tha
gath ering darkness of night comes on. A life of prayer is the life of heaven.
Thy brother shall rise again. The ransomed shout to their glorious King,
SYNTAX ELEMENTS, PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE. 139
where no sorrow shades the soul as they sing. The darkness waved wider
its sable wings. With these words I quitted him. She appears to know
every tiling. Swans sing before they die.
The elements, according to their rank in construction, are
either principal or subordinate.
A principal element is one on which others depend ; as,
" A good man honors any calling."
Here, man and honors are principal elements.
A subordinate element is one which depends upon a
principal.
A, good, calling, and any, in the above example, are subordinate elements.
The principal elements are the subject and the predicate ,
as, " Time flies."
Rem. 1. — The subject naturally takes the first rank, and is the only
element which is, strictly speaking, independent. The predicate, being an
attribute of the subject, is naturally dependent upon it, borrowing its
number, 2>erson, and case, and in some languages its gender also, directly
from the subject. Yet in the construction of a proposition, there is a mu-
tual dependence ; there can be no subject without a predicate, and no predi-
cate without a subject, and no sentence without both. Hence they may
well be called principal elements, although there is in the nature of things
a dependence of the one upon the other.
Rem. 2. — The subject may be known by its answering the questions,
Who? or What? with the predicate; as, Who wrote? Ans. "Frank
wr»te." What was written ? Ans. " A letter was written."
Rem. 3. — The subject may be, —
(1.) A noun ox pronoun; as, " Angels appeared." "J7ewept."
(2.) The adjective or participle used as, a noun; as, "The wise protect
themselves." " The persevering will conquer."
(3.) Any word, syllable, or letter, used as a noun ; as, " Is is a verb "
" A is a vowel." " Re is a prefix."
(4.) An infinitive; as, " To labor is to exert ourselves."
(5.) A proposition ; as, " That this story is true, is very evident."
R >3M. 4. — The predicate may be known by its answering the question,
What is said of ? What dc, or doing? as, What is said of
the water? Ans. " The water is clear." What is George doing? Ans*
*' George is reading."
Rem. 5. — The predicate consists essentially of two parts — the copula
and attribute; as, ".The ocean is deep."
Rem. 6. — The copula is some modification of the verb to be, {am, %»,
was, were, &c.)
Rem. 7. — The attribute may be, —
(1.) A participle ; as, "I am walking." " He is loved."
(2.) An adjective ; as, " The moon is pale."
(3.) A noun or protwun ; as " Gold is a metal." ' I am He."
140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
(4.) An infinitive or phrase ; as, " He is to sail." " George is to ie edu
tated" " Ihey are without money.'''
(5.) A subordinate proposition ; as, M My intention is, that t \e whole
\eork shall be completed before the appointed time."
Rem. 8. — When both parts are blended, the word which represents
them is always a verb ; as, " He is walking " = He walks.
The subordinate elements are the adjective element, the ob-
jective element, and the adverbial element ; as, " The good
man performs his duty faithfully ."
Rem. 1. — The adjective element may be known by its being connected
with a noun or pronoun, without an assertion, and by its answering tbe
questions What ? Wliat kind off How many f Whose ? Of what ?
Which? as, What kind of hat? Ans. " A black hat."
Rem. 2. — An adjective element, when both the relation and idea are
expressed by one word, is either an adjective or a substantive. When the
relation and idea are expressed separately, it is either a phrase, consisting
of a preposition and object, or an infinitive, or a subordinate proposition.
Rem. 3. — The objective element may be known by its being connected
with a transitive verb, and by its answering the questions What or Whom?
as, What has he brought ? Ans. " He has brought an orange." Whom
do you see ? Ans. " I see David."
Rem. 4. — The objective element, when both the relation and the idea
are expressed by one word, is a noun or proiwun. When the relation and
idea are expressed separately, it is either an infinitive or a subordinate
proposition.
Rem. 5. — The adverbial element may be known by its answering the
questions Where? When? Why? How? with a verb, adjective, or ad-
verb ; as, How does she play ? A?is. " She plays correctly."
Rem. 6. — The adverbial element, when both the relation and idea are
expressed by one word, is an adverb. When the relation and idea are
expressed separately, it is a preposition and object, or a subordinate prop-
osition.
EXERCISE.
Poi?it out the different elements in the following sentences : —
The flowers of the meadow she plucks no longer. He was not clad in
costly raiment. Such was the state of Eden when the serpent entered
its bowers. Our life is compared to a falling leaf. He who has tamed the
elements shall not live the slave of his own passions. We love liberty.
The crow, which had found the cheese, signified her joy with a loud voice
Ariovistus replied that he had crossed the Rhine, not by his own will, but
entreated and hired by the Gauls. The boy begged that they would come
to his assistance.
Aside from connectives, the elements, in regard to their
nature, are either substantive, adjective, or adverbial.
Rem. — This classification supposes the pure verb (copula) to be only a
oennective, and whatever is united o • blended with this verb, making \i a
mixed voxb, to be of the nature of an adjective
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS, SIMPLE, COMPLEX, ETC. 141
We have, therefore, —
(1.) Substantive words, phrases, or clauses ; as, man, to sing, that he
ould be detected.
(2.) Adjective words, phrases, or clauses ; as, wise man, a man of vsu-
ttom, a man icho is wise.
(3.) Adverbial tcords, phrases, or clauses ; as, rising early, rising at tun-
rise, rising before tlie sun rises.
EXERCISE.
Point out the substantive, adjective, and adverbial elements, and tell wheth*
er they are words, phrases, or clauses.
We went to ride in the early morning. The beautiful rose bears the
name of the " Cloth of Gold." The invitation was accepted with great
pleasure. He labored diligently to complete the work. It is easy to main-
tain authority where it is once established. He was a youth full of prom-
ise. They mourned his untimely death. Shonstnne wrote the " Village
Schoolmistress," to immortalize the teacher of his boyhood. He improved
rapidly under the tuition of so distinguished a teacher. He thought that
she would do much good. The adage, " Knowledge is Power," is verified
by experience.
Elements, in regard to their state or condition, may be sim-
ple, complex, or compound.
A simple element is a single expression for an idea and
its relation, without modification or addition ; as, " We left
early." " We left at dawn." " We left
as day dawned."
A complex element is a simple element modified by another
element subordinate to it ; as, " We left very early."
M We left at early dawn." ** We left as the day
first dawned in the east."
Rem. — So a complex sentence is a simple sentence modified by
another sentence subordinate to it; as, "I perceived that the party h&d
separated."
A compound element is a combination of two or more
coordinate simple or complex elements. ; as, " We work
-early and late." "We are employed in the
morning, at noon, and at night." ' We were travelling
when the wind was blowing, and when the storm was
heating against our carriage."
Rem. — So a compound sentence is the combination of two or mow
simple or complex sentences; as, "He that trusteth in his riches snal'
fall; but the righteous shall flourish as a branch."
142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
EXERCISE.
Point out the simple, complex, and compound elements in the following ;—>
" How have you secured this good order ? " said we to the teacher. In
early childhood, the conscience is most active. During three years, he
made surprising progress in useful knowledge. Peace, tranquillity, and
innocence shed their mingled delights around him. Every door, and por-
tal, and avenue is thrown open. He thinks not of duty, or of future use-
fulness. When the poor aud needy seek water, and there is none, and
their tongue faileth for thirst, I, the Lord will hear them, I, the God o!
larael, will not forsake them
KELATION OF ELEMENTS.
All ele nents or parts of a sentence, are united in one or
the other of two general relations — a relation of equality,
or a relation of dependence.
The former subsists between coordinate elements ; the
latter between a subordinate element and its principal ; as,
" The sun and the moon stood still."
When an element is brought into a coordinate relation
with another, the former has no control over the latter ; but
when an element is placed in a subordinate relation to anoth-
er, the latter, as principal, often controls the case, mode,
tense, number, or person of the former, regarded as its sub
ordinate.
When the influence of the principal element is such as to
cause the subordinate to take its own modifications, (number,
person, case,) the latter is said to agree with the former •
when the subordinate element is made to take a certain form,
as the possessive or objective case, it is said to be governed
by the principal, or by the word which shows the dependent
relation, as the preposition, for example.
Rem. 1. — The relation between the subject and predicate is called the
predicate relation, (See Rem. 1. p. 139 ;) that of the noun and the adjec-
tive element is called the adjective or attributive relation ; that of the
objective element and the transitive verb is called the objective relation;
and that of the adverbial element and the verb, adjective, or adverb, is
tailed the adverbial relation. The last three arc always dependent
relations.
Rem. 2. — Any element in a ubordinate relation may h^ve auothei in
SYNTAX RELATIONS. 143
the sarce subordinate relation joined to it co5rdinateiy ; as, " A good and
faithful servant. "
.Relations may be either represented or unrepresented ,
as, " The Doy was running with rapidity " =r The boy ran
rapidly.
Hem. — In elements of the first class, the dependent relations are a]
ways unrepresented. (See " Construction," Sec. I.) In thoso of the set
ond class, the dependeit relations are expressed by appropriate connec
tives, called. prepositions. (See " Construction," Sec. II.) And in those of
the third class, the dependent relations are expressed by conjunctive words
called subordinate connectives. (See " Construction," Sec. III.) Coordi-
nate relations are always expressed by a class of connectives called coQrdv-
nate conjunctions. (See " Construction," Sec. IV.)
EXERCISES.
In the following sentences, point out the different relations ; tell whether
they are represented or unrepresented : —
The pope went to Paris to crown the emperor. If it should storm,
the lecture will be postponed. The latest intelligence was repoited
by the telegraph. I do not fancy the picture. \Ve hear of several
removals in the different departments. The president's levee was
thronged, and was a very brilliant affair. The statement that the treaty
was concluded, was a mistake. He only asks their sympathies. Let agri-
culture clotha our vast wastes with waving plenty. I wish to speak with
some reserve upon this subject. Providence has placed us between the two
great world oceans, and we shall always be a maritime power of the first
order.
In the following sentences, trace the relation of the last word back to the
subject, describing each as you pass : —
It was not thus with the places I visited during the short space of cessa-
tion from task and toil that the week allowed. I have lately traversed my
native village without discovering one familiar face. Our early recollec-
tions are pleasing to us because they look not on the morrow.
Thus, in the sentence, " I will simply say that the story I am about to
relate has its foundation in an old legend of the first settlers of the coun-
try," country is a subordinate element, related to settlers by means of of,
settlers is an element subordinate to legend, and having its relation repre-
sented by of; legend is subordinate to foundation — its relation is rep-
resented "by" in; foundation is related subordinately to has — its relation
is unrepresented; has is related to story ; they are mutually dependent
apon each other — relation unrepresented. Combined as a proposition,
the) are related subordinately to will say, by that, and will say is related
to /, winch stands as the subject of the sentence.
Reverse the order, and trace the relation of the subject down thrt ugh th*
predicate to the remotest term.
Any te> m being given, state, in connection wUh it, its antecedent, or prin
>ipal term. Thus, in the sentence above, ' country " being given, sat
4 Settlers of the country."
144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
ENTIRE SENTENCES.
A sentence, considered as an entire structure, either <&>
dares something^ asks a question, expresses a command, <?i
contains an exclamation.
A declarative sentence is one which declares something;
as ? " The truth will prevail."
An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question 3
as, u Wilt thou be made whole ? "
An imperative sentence is one which expresses a com
mand ; as, " Put up thy sword into its sheath. 1 '
An exclamatory sentence is one which contains an ex*
clamation ; as, " How art thou fallen ! "
EXERCISES.
Point out the different kinds of sentences in the folloioing : —
I heard their drowning cry mingling with the wind. And has it come
to this ? The stores of his mind were inexhaustible. Give it here, my
honest fellow. Think on my chains ! I will paint the death dew on his
brow ! Is any sick among you ? Stands Scotland in its place ? Why
weeps the Muse of England ? Over these matchless talents Probity threw
her brightest lustre. Let him not faint. Screen not a traitor from the
law. The starless grave shall shine the portal of eternal day ! Sin not
against thy God ! When will you finish my picture ? Thou wouldst net
have me make a trial of my skill upon my child !
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
An interrogative sentence relates either to the whole or a
part of a corresponding declarative sentence, called the an-
swer, or responsive ; as, " Whom did you see ? " Ans.
John ; that is, " I saw John." " Did you see John ? " Yes
= I did see John.
Interrogative sentences are of two kinds — direct and
indirect.
A direct interrogative refers to the whole of the sentence
which answers the question, and is always introduced by a
verb or its auxiliary ; as, " Did you see John ? " Yes = I
did see John.
SYNTAX TRANSFORMATION. 145
Rem — Direct interrogative sentences are answered by yes or «o. When
ottered, they end with the rising inflection.
An indirect interrogative sentence always refers to some
part or element of the sentence which arfswers the question,
Rnd is always introduced by some interrogative word, which
corresponds with the element inquired for ; as, Who came ?
John came. When did he come ? He came in the morn*
ing. Which pen have you ? I have the gold pen.
Rem. 1. — Indirect interrogative sentences cannot be answered by jftfff
or no. They commonly end with the falling inflection.
.Rem. 2. — The interrogative is of the nature of the substantive, adjec-
tive, or adverb, to correspond to the element inquired for.
Rem. 3. — Indirect questions are commonly answered elliptically by in
troducing simply the element referred to, the rest of the answer being
borrowed from the question; as, " Where do you live ? " "In Smith-
field " = I live in Smithfield.
EXERCISES.
Point 9ut the direct and indirect interrogative sentences in the following
examples ; in the indirect, tell which element is inquired for ; —
Why could not we cast him out ? Believe ye that I am able to do this ?
Whose is this image and superscription ? Am I to forgive if he will not
repent ? When can you hope for another, if this be neglected ? Hast
thou seen the doors of the shadow of death ? Do all speak with tongues ?
Why do I suffer so many sorrows ? Will you suffer your glory to be sul-
lied? Who can estimate the influence of the Sabbath school ? At what
time this evening will the moon rise ? Am I my brother's keeper ? Have
f 11 the gifts of healing ? Why, what evil hath he done ? Shall the Turk
still pollute the soil sanctified by the brightest genius ?
TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES.
Whenever a sentence undergoes a change, either by alter-
ing, suppressing, or transposing any of its parts, it is said
to be transformed ; as, " After he had discovered Hispaniola,
Columbus returned to Spain " = Having discovered His-
jwniola, Columbus returned to Spain == Columbus returned
to Spain, after he had discovered Hispaniola.
I. Altered Constructions.
We may alter the forms of a sentence, or of an element,
in the following cases : —
(I.' We may use the active for the passive voice, or the passive for the
13
146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
active ; aa, " Columbus discovered America " — America was discovered by
Columbus.
(2.) We may change an clement of the first class to one of the second,
or one of the second to one of the first; as. ' A morning ride is refresh
ing " = A ride in the morning is refreshing.
(3.) A complex sentence maybe changed to a simple sentence (or a con>
traded complex) by abridging its subordina e clause ; as, " When the
shower had passed, we resumed our journey " — The shower having passed
we resumed our journey.
Rem. — A proposition is abridged by changing the predicate to a parti-
ciple, or an infinitive; as, " The winds bloio = Thc winds blowing or to
blow. The predicate relation is destroyed, and the attribute is placed in an
adjective relation to the subject. For" the mr .hod of disposing of the sub-
ject in such constructions, see Abridged Propositions, page 185.
(4.) A simple sentence may be changed to a complex by expanding any
of its elements into a proposition ; as, " A m- rcif'al man is merciful to hia
beast " ss A man who is merciful, is merciful to his beast.
(5.) A complex sentence may be changed 1 1 a compound, by raising the
subordinate clause to an equal rank with the principal, and changing the
subordinate connective to a coordinate; as. " When spring comes, the
flowers will bloom " == The spring will come, and the flowers will bloom.
(0.) A compound sentence may be changer, to a complex, by depressing
one of its propositions into a subordinate r?nk ; as, "Man lias a moral
sense, and therefore he is an accountable be'oig " ss Since man has a mor-
al sense, he is an accountable being.
(7.) A question for gaining assent may be changed into a declarative
sentence, or a declarative sentence maybe (hanged into a question for
gaining assent ; as, " Will he plead against me with his great power ? " =
lie will nut plead against me with his great p->wer.
Rem. A question for gaining assent, or a question of appeal, is employed,
not when the speaker is in doubt, but when ic wishes to gain the assent
of the hearer, and, as it were, commit him to his own views. Hence, when
the speaker expects a negative answer, he or, .its the negative in the ques-
tion ; and when he expects an affirmative answer, he inserts the negative
in the question.' In the declarative senten-c, the opposite of this rule
should prevail. See example above.
(8.) Any sentence is said to be reconstmcti i, or recast, when the former
construction is wholly disregarded; as, " That which agrees with the will
of God should please'us " = We should be phased with whatever is agree
able to the will of our heavenly Father.
EXERCISES.
(1.) Use the active for the passive, and the passive for the active^ m tl
following examples, supplging the agent whenever omitted : —
He has bestowed a great many favors upo-i us. Gold has been disc <
ered in Australia. I will call you in the morning. The work was rinis' 0d
at the appointed time. A battle was fought at Waterloo. He was b? »ed
in Westminster Abbey. They spent the summer at the sea shore. He
made great progress in his profession.
(2.) In the folloioing examples, change ary element of the first c js U
one of the second, and the reverse : —
SYNTAX — ELEMENTS SUPPRESSED. 147
A morning walk is conducive to health. A marble statue was placed in
the grove. Joseph's father gave him a coat of many colors. Jonathan
ivas the friend of David, lney reached the top of the mountain. Achilles
Was a Grecian hero. The <.iege of Troy continued ten years. The city
of Corinth was taken by Mammius. Her sister's death was a great afflic-
tion. The gentleman's ch;< vacter is above suspicion. My son, hear the in
Btruction of thy father, anc. forsake not the law of thy mother.
(."M Change the following complex sentences to simple or contracted com-
phx i mtences by abridging the subordinate clause : —
Si ice such is the fact, you have no cause for solicitude. When you look
into the Bible, you see holiness and purity its great characteristics. Be-
cause I tell you the truth, ye believe me not. A man who is deceitful can
Dover be trusted. A short time since, and he who is the occasion of our
Borrows was the ornament of his country. Happy is the man that findeth
wisdom. I do not know where he is concealed.
(1.) Expand the Italicized elements, in the following simple sentences,
into subordinate clauses : —
The crocuses, blooming in the garden, attracted the bees. Hannibal, the
Carthaginian general, conquered the Romans in four battles. Having ac-
cumu/itted a fortune, he will retire from business. We told him to leave.
Gliding along the edge of the horizon, a distant sail attracted our attention.
He should have perished upon the brink, before attempting to cross it. The
body, having reached its maturity, falls inevitably into decay.
(5.) Change the examples in exercise (3) into compound sentences, and
then back again to complex.
MODEL.
Such is the fact, and therefore you have no cause for solicitude = Since
such is the fact, you have no cause for solicitude.
(6.) Change the following sentences, the declarative into interrogative,
and the interrogative into declarative ; —
He listened to the music of the running brook. He found pleasure in
giving instruction. He made the experiment successfully. Were thev not
gone longer than you expected ? Was not the lecture interesting ? Hast
thou commanded "the morning since thy days, and caused the dayspring to
know his place ? Have the gates of deatli been opened unto thee? De-
clare, if thou knowest it all. You may be allowed to speak.
(7 ) Reconstruct the following • —
He left the home of his childhood. He came unexpectedly. Death if
the common lot of all. The season for the singing of birds is near. Honest 1
is the best policy. Reverence the aged. A river in France is called th»
Loire. Cold is the hearth within their bowers. He paused upon the brink
Let me have leave to speak. It was the night of the soul. Like a spc
tre in the night, the grandeur of Rome nas vanished. Beauty dwells is
all our paths.
II. Elements Suppressed. — Ellipsis.
When the construction requires the repetition of any par
of the sentence, that part, if the meaning is sufficiently evi-
dent, may be suppressed or omitted by ellipsis.
148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Note. — For all the varieties cf ellipsis, see " Peculiarities and Idioms,'
By an ellipsis of a common part, a compound sentence
may be reduced to a partial or contracted compound sen-
tence ; as, " Bacon was a distinguished writer, Shakspeare
was a distinguished writer, and Butler was a distinguished
writer" = Bacon, Shakspeare, and Butler were distinguished
writers.
By supplying ellipses, any contracted compound sentence
may be changed to a complete compound ; as, " The king
and queen were absent " = The king was absent, and the
queen was absent.
EXERCISES.
Take any of the examples in " Construction," Sec. IV., and convert them
into complete compounds ; then change them back to partial or contracted
compounds.
III. Elements Transposed.
The arrangement of the elements is the position which
they take in the sentence.
There are two kinds of arrangement, the natural and the
inverted or transposed.
In a proposition, by the natural order, the subject is placed
before the predicate ; the adjective element is placed before
the noun when of the fir»* class, but after the noun when of
the second or third , me objective element is placed after
the verb which governs it ; and the adverbial element com-
monly follows the objective element ; us, " The good boy
studied his geography attentively." u The kingdom of Sar-
dinia is situated in the south of Europe."
An element is transposed whenever it is placed out of its
natural order ; as, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians."
" Copernicus these wonders told." " Wisely were his efforts
directed."
SYN TAX ANALYSIS. 149
EXERCISES.
Putiit out the elements which are transposed in the following sentences
%nd then arrange the»i in their natural order : —
Welcome thou art to me. From the king I come to learn how you have
dealt with him. For now his son is duke. Unto my mother's prayers, I
bend the knee. Infected be the air whereon 'they ride. Accursed be the
tongue that tells me so. How bright and goodly shines the moon! How
beautiful is all this visible world !
Transpose any of the elements in the jolloxcitvj ; tell whether the sen-
tence is thereby improved or not : —
A 6hort time since, and he who is the occasion of our sorrows was the or-
nament of his country. Approach, and behold, while I lift from his sepul-
chre its covering. 'Where is the mother who would willingly forget the
infant that perished like a blossom from her arms, though every recollec-
tion is a pang ? But, as if this were not enough, the unfortunate victims
of this law are told, in the next place, that, if they can convince the presi-
dent that his suspicions are unfounded, he may, if he pleases, give them a
li cense to stay. Man, we believe, never loses the sentiment of his true
good.
II. ANALYSIS.
Analysis consists in resolving a sentence into its elements,
and pointing out the offices and relations of each.
Parsing consists in naming the parts of speech, giving
their modifications, relations, agreement, or government, and
the rules for their construction.
Note. — The learner having now, by the process of construction, become acquaint-
ed with the various kinds of sentences, their componerjl parts in ail their relations
and forms, is prepared fur the opposite process of taking i.i pieces What lie has learned
to build up. He should proceed carefully at first, mastering each sentence as he
advances, it will be well for him to mingle the two exercises of constructing and
analyzing, and in all cases to keep up the habit of parsing according to the nior.e'
already given. Lei any or all of the examples in Construction be analyzed by t
pupil.
GENERAL DIRECTIONS.
In analyzing a sentence, the learner should observe th
following directions : —
(1.) Read the sentence, and determine whether it is declarative, inter
togaiive, imperative, or exclamatory.
(2.) Endeavor to realize all the ideas in the sentence, by thinking or im«
agining what the writer describes as if you were with him, and could see with
the mental eye just what each word represents.
13*
150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
<3.) Arrange '■'•<■ sentence, if inverted, in the natuial order.
(4.) If necess iry, supply ellipses.
(5.) Find out the fewest possible words which make the principal <u
tcrtion. and then see what words or groups of words are added to these, to
show what, how many, what kind, whose, where, ichen, why, fiow, etc.
(6.) If the principal assertion, with all the words, and groups of words,
which make up the sentence, is found to contain but one proposition, it »
a. simple sentence.
It should be analyzed, —
(a.) By stating what hind of a sentence it is.
(o.) By pointing out the simple or grammatical subject.
(c.) By pointing out the simple or grammatical predicate.
(d.) By pointing out the words or groups of words which are added to
the subject, showing what kind of element; how connected; what effect
;ach addition has upon the subject, that is, how it limits, what it excludes,
&c. ; whether it is simple, complex, or compound — if complex or compound,
what are the simple elements which compose it, and what effect one has
upon another.
(e.) By showing what the complex or logical subject is.
{/.) By pointing out separately all the words, or groups of words, which
are added to the predicate, and disposing of them as in the subject.
(ff.) By showing what is the complex or logical predicate.*
(7.) If the subject or predicate of the principal assertion is a proposi-
tion, or if any of the groups of words, added directly or remotely to modify
either of these, contain a proposition, then the sentence is complex, and
should be analyzed, —
(a.) By pointing out the principal and subordinate proposition or prop-
ositions.
(6.) By commencing with the principal proposition as though it were a
single sentence, and analyzing it as above, introducing the subordinate
proposition as a group of words forming an organic or component part of
the principal, and calling it substantive, adjective, or adverbial, as the case
may be. Then show its modifying effect, as in the case of any other element ;
explain the connection, point out the connective, and then analyze the
proposition as if it were a simple sentence.
(8.) If the sentence contains one proposition, to which is added another
that in no way modifies the construction of the former, (it may modify the
thought,) it is compound, and should be analyzed, —
(a.) By separating it into its several coordinate propositions.
(b.) By pointing out the connection, explaining its nature, and disposing
of the coordinate connective.
(c.) By pointing out the parts of each proposition, as in the case of a
simple sentence.
(9.) If the sentence is a contracted complex, analyze it as a simple
sentence, but point out the part which is equivalent to a subordinate clause.
* This minute method is to be pursued when great accuracy is desired. At time*
it is best to adopt a much .shorter method. Sometimes it will be well to vary tin
above order, giving the complex subject or predicate first, and then the simple, point-
ing out all the added words which make up the complex. Various models of the
ihorter methods will be given
SYNTAX MODELS FOtt ANALYSIS. 1^1
(10.) If the sentence is a partial 01 contracted compear'!, analyze it
lis a simple sentence, regarding the coO: dinate elements as one compound
element.
(11.) Every element consisting of parts should be separated into it
parts.
MODELS FOR ANALYSIS.
I. Elements with the Relations Unrepresented.
" George writes."
It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one
proposition ; declarative, because it declares something
\1eorgt . , is the subject, because it is that of which the action
"writes" is affirmed.
Writes is the predicate, because it is that which is affirmed
of " George."
Note. — It is well often to combine parsing with analysis, thus : Crorge is the subject,
&c. ; it is a proper noun, third person, singular number, masculine gender, nomina-
tive case, by Rule I. Write* is the predicate — an irregular verb, indicative nioiio,
present tense, third person singular, and agrees with its subject, George, by Rule IV
At other times, the two exercises may be separated, and sometimes it is well to re
quire the pupils to parse Ihe words, taking them in the exact order of construction .
first, the subject ; second, the predicate; third, mod ideations of the subject; fourth,
modifications of the predicate.
Exercise. — Any examples in " Construction." — Sec. 1.
" The summer shower fulls gently."
It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one
proposition ; declarative, because it declares some-
thing.
Shower is the grammatical subject ; it is simply that of which
something is affirmed.
Fulls is the grammatical predicate, because it is that which
is affirmed of " showers." The subject is limited by
summer, a simple adjective element of the first class ;
adjective, because it is used to limit a noun ; of the
first class, because it is a single word joined directly
to the subject, without a connective ; it limits by am
swering the question, " What kind oft" it excludes
the idea of all showers falling at any other time than
summer ; it n a simple element, because nothing it
added to it. The subject is also limited by the, a sim-
ple adjective element of the first class; it limits by
showing that some particular shower is meant.
T* imk'j thower is the logical subject, because it is the grammatical
subject with all its limitations. The predicate is lim-
ited by gently, a simple adverbial element of the first
class ; it is adverbial, because it is added to a verb, and
denotes manner; of the first class, because it is joined
directly to the predicate without a connective ; it lim-
its by answering the question " How ? " it excludes
the idea of ail showers which do not fall gently ; it is
simple, becaus 3 nothing is added to it.
fiilk gently . . is the logical predicate, because it is the grammatical
predicate with all its limitations
152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Note. — The same proposition may be analyzed briefly in tht following
manner : —
It is a simple declarative sentence; the summer shower 'is the logical sub-
ject; shower is the grammatical subject; it is limited by the two simple
adjective elements of the first class, the and summer ; falls gently is the
logical predicate ; falls is the grammatical predicate, and is limited by
a simple adverbial clement of the first class, gently.
" Whom seek ye ? "
It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one
proposition ; interrogative, because it asks a question ;
indirect, because it inquires for only a part of the cor-
responding declarative sentence, (it inquires for the ob-
jective element of the answer, " I seek David ; ") in-
verted because the objective element is placed first.
ft . . is the subject, because it is that of which something is
affirmed, (inquired.)
Seek is the predicate, because it is that which is affirmed of
ye; grammatical, because it is the predicate without
any of its limitations ; it is limited by whom, a simple
objective element of the first class.
Seek whom is the logical predicate, because it is the grammatical
predicate with its limitations.
Note. — When the subject or predicate is not modified, the logical subject or predi-
cate is the same as the grammatical. But it is not necessary to make any distinction
in such cases ; simply say, subject or predicate.
Exercise. — Examples in " Construction." — Sec. I. p. 112.
" His enemies, the Germans, crossed the Rhine."
It is a simple declarative sentence ; (why ?)
Enemies is the simple subject ; (why ?) His enemies, the Get
mans, is the logical subject ; (why ?)
Crossed is the simple predicate ; (why?) Crossed the Rhine is
the logical predicate ; (why ?)
Enemies is limited by his, a simple adjective element of the
first class ; and also by the Germans, a complex adjec-
tive element of the first class, of which Germans is the
basis, and is limited by the.
Crossed is limited by the Rhine, a complex objective element
of the first class, of which Rhine is the basis, and is
limited by the, a simple adjective element of the first
class.
" A very high hill overlooks an extensive valley."
It is a simple declarative sentence ; (why ?)
Etll is the simple subject; (why ?) Avery high hillis the
complex subject; (why ?)
Overlooks is the simple predicate; (why?) Overlooks an exten-
sive valley is the complex predicate ; (why ?)
Hill is limited by a, a simple adjective element of the firs I
class, and by very high, a complex adjective element
of the first class, showing what kind of hill ; adjective,
because it limits a noun ; complex, because the simple
element high is itself limited by very, a simple ad-
verbial element of the first class ; of the first class_. be-
cause the basis high is a single word joined without a
connective to hill.
SYNTAX MO.'Ef.S FOR ANALYSIS. 153
Overlooks , ... is limited by an extensive valley, a complex objective
element of the first class, showing what it overlooks ;
valley is the basis or principal part of the objective
element, and is limited by an and extensive, simple ad
jective elements of the first class ; (why ?) IS o\v parsr
each word in order, beginning with the subject.
II. Sentences having the Relations Represented.
" To steal is base."
It is a simple declarative sentence.
To steal is the subject ; (why?) It is an element of the sceono
class, since it has one word (steal) to express an idea,
and another (to) to represent its relation. (See Rem.
p. 120.)
It base is the predicate ; (why ?) It is of the second form,
having the attribute base to express the predicate
idea, and is, the copula, to represent its relation, (predi-
cate relation.)
" The brother of Richard I. usurped the throne."
It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one
proposition.
Brother is the subject.
Usurped .is the predicate.
The aubject, brother, is limited by the phrase " of Richard," an adjective
element of the second class, denoting the family re-
lation of " brother," and " Richard ; " it is equivalent
to " Richard's." " Of " is the connective, and " Rich-
ard " is the object.
Of is a preposition, and shows the relation of " Richard "
to " brother," according to Rule XIII.
Eichard is a proper noun, of the third person, singular num-
ber, masculine gender, objective case, and is the ob-
ject of the preposition ''of," according to Rule
" "We left on Tuesday."
It is a simple sentence, because it contains but one
proposition.
We is the subject, and
Left is the predicate.
We is not limited.
Left is limited by the phrase "on Tuesday," which denotes
the time of leaving, and is an adverbial element of the
second class; on is the connective, and Tuesday is
the object.
On is a preposition, and shows the relation between "Tues
day" and " left," according to Rule XIII.
Tuesday is a noun, &c, and is the object of " on," according
to Rule XIV.
" The wnole course of his life has been distinguished by generous actions "
It is a simple declarative sentence ; (why ?)
154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Course . is the subject ; * (why ?)
Has been distinguished is the predicate ; (why ?) It it an element of tL »
second form ; of which distinguished is tl e attribute,
expressing the idea of the predicate, and has been is the
copula or connective, showing the predicate lelation;
been denotes completion, and has been, present com-
pletion.
Course is limited by the and whole; (describe them ;) also by
the phrase of his life, a complex adjective element H:
the second class, of which life is the object, ex pressing
the idea, and o/'is the preposition or connects , show
ing the adjective relation. It is an adjective element,
because it is joined to a noun to limit its meaning ;
complex, because the object, life, is limited by his, (an
adjective element of the first class ;) of the second
class, because the word life is joined to course by the
connective of forming the phrase " of life." The com-
plex subject is, The whole course of his life, because it
is the simple subject, with all its modifications.
The predicate, 7ia* been distinguished, , is modified by the phrase by generous
actions, a complex adverbial element of the second
class, of which actions is the object, expressing the
idea, and/;?/ is the preposition, representing the athcr-
bial relation. It is an adverbial element, because it ia
added to the verb has been distinguished, and answers
the question how ; complex, because the object, actions
is limited by generous ; (describe it ;) of the second
class, because the word actions is joined to distinguished
by the connective by, forming the phrase by actions.
The complex predicate is, has been distinguished by generous actions.
Notk. — The thorousli and min ite method of analysis, like the above, should be
often resorted in, fur the purpose < I giving the learner accurate ideas of the elements
and their relations. When these are understood, or occasionally, for the sake of
Variety, the brief method should he allowed, thus : course is Use simple, and the
whole course of his life is the complex subject; has hrcn distinguished is the simple,
and has been ditiin<ruishcd by generous actions, the complex predicate. Course id
limited by the, whole, and of his life ; has been distinguished is limited by the phrase
by generous actions.
EXERCISES.
Now turn to the. exercises in Construction, Sec. II, and analyze any of
the examples. Construct and analyze examples of your own.
III. Comflex Sentences.
w Who was the author of Junius's Letters has never been satisfactorily
determined."
It is a complex declarative sentence ; complex, because
it contains a principal and a subordinate proposition ;
declarative, because it expresses a declaration. The
* When tire term subject or predicant is used alone, the grammat cal subject or predi-
cate is always understood.
SYNTAX — .MODELS h'OR ANALYSIS. 155
entire sentence (since the subject is the subordinate
Clause) is the principal proposition, and the subject of
the sentence, namely, " Who was the author of
Junius's Letters," is the subordinate substantive prop-
osition. " Who teas the author of Junius'* Letters " *
is the subject of the principal proposition.
Eos bi.e»\ determined is the simple, and has never been satisfactorily deter-
mined is the logical predicate. Has been determined
is modified by never and satisfactorily ; (describe them.)
Who is both the subject and connective of the subordinate
clause ; as connective, it is subordinate, but as a sub-
*ect cannot depend on any superior term, there ia
nothing to which the subordinate clause (as subject)
can be joined ; hence who is here a connective without
an antecedent term. As a pronoun, it is an interroga-
tive used in a subordinate clause (see Rem. 2, page
49,) and hence has no definite antecedent.
fas autho) is the simple, and was the author of Junius's Letters is the
complex predicate ; author is limited by the and by of
Junius's Letters.
*' A man who finds not satisfaction in himself, seeks for it in vain else>
where."
It is a complex sentence, because it contains two dis-
similar clauses. "A man seeks for it in vain else-
where " is the principal, and " who finds not satisfac-
tion in himself is the subordinate adjective clause.
bJan is the subject of the principal clause.
.Set/i.' is the predicate.
The subject .... is limited by •' a," also by the adjective clause, "who
finds not satisfaction in himself," which describes
" man."
The complex subject is " A man who finds ;iot satisfaction in himself.'
The predicate ... is limited by " for it," "in vain," and "elsewhere."
The cemplex predicate is "seeks for it in vain elsewhere."
W7to is the subject of the adjective clause.
Finds is the predicate.
The pjtdicate • • • * s limited, first, by'"not; " secondly, by "satisfac-
tion ; " and thirdly, by " in himself."
Who is a relative pronoun, of the third person, singular
number, masculine gender, according to Rule V. ; it is
the subject of the proposition, "who finds," See., ac-
cording to Rule I., and connects this proposition with
"man," the subject of the principal clause, according
to Rule XVI.
" Do you know that you have wronged him ? "
It is a complex sentence, because it is composed of
dissimilar clauses; interrogative, because it asks a
question ; direct, because it can be answered by yes or
* Btrklty speaking, "Who 7oas author" is tlie grammatical, and " Who teas the au-
thor tf Jim**'* Letters " the logical subject. i?i> ; , unless great accuracy is required,
the entire proposition may bo regarded as simple, except when it contain? in itself a
subordinate proposition.
156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
no. " Do you know " is the principal, and " that you
have wronged him," the subordinate substantive
clause.
You is the subject of the principal clause.
Do Know is the predicate.
fhc predicate ... is limited by " that you have wronged him," an ob-
jective element, denoting what is known. It is used
as a noun, third person, singular number, neuter gen-
der, and is the object of " do know," according to
Rule VIII. " Do know that you have wronged hun "
is the complex predicate.
You is the subject of the subordinate clause.
Have wronged ... is the predicate.
The predicate . . . is limit* 1 by "him," a simple objective element, show
ing whom.
That is a subordinate conjunction, and connects the sub-
stantive clause, " you have wronged him," to the
predicate of the principal clause, " know," according
to Rule XV.
" W hen the wicked are multiplied, transgression increaseth."
It is a complex sentence. (Why ?) " Transgression
increaseth" is the principal, and " when the wicked
are multiplied," the subordinate clause.
Transgression ... is the subject of the principal clause.
Increaseth is the predicate.
The predicate ... is limited by " when the wicked are multiplied," an
adverbial clause denoting time. (See Rule IX.) The
complex predicate is, " increaseth when the wicked
are multiplied."
Wicked is the subject of the subordinate clause.
Are multiplied ... is the predicate.
When is a subordinate connective, (conjunctive adverb of
time,) and joins the adverbial clause, which it intro-
duces, to the predicate of the principal clause, accord-
ing to Rule XV. It limits "are multiplied " and
"increaseth," according to Rule IX.
" The Cynic who twitted Aristippus, by observing that
the philosopher who could dine on herbs might despis*
the company of a king, was well replied to by Aris-
tippus, when he remarked, that the philosopher whG
could enjoy the company of a king might also des-
pise a dinner of herbs."
This is a complex sentence, containing seven clauses, one principal, and
six subordinate.
(1.) The Cynic was well replied to by Aristippus,
(2.) Who twitted Aristippus by observing,
(3.) That the philosopher might despise the company of a king,
(4.) Who could dine on herbs,
(5.) When he remarked,
(6.) That the philosopher might also despise a dinner of herbs,
(7.) Who can enjoy the company of a king.
The first is the principal claus ?, and the others are subordinate.
tynic is the subject of the principal clause.
SYNTAX — CLAUSES — MODELS.
Was repned to ... is the predicate.
The subject, Cynic, is limited by • who twitted Aristippus by observing,
&c, a complex adjective element of the third class ,
"who "is the connective and subject, " twitted " is
the predicate, and is limited, first, by " Aristippus," a
simple objective element of the first class, and also by
" by observing that the philosopher might despise the
company of a king," a complex adverbial element of
the second class ; " by observing " is the basis, " by"
is the connective, and " observing " is the object;
"observing" is limited by "that the philosopher
might despise the company of a king," a complex
objective element of the third class, of which " that"
is the connective; "philosopher" is the subject, and
is limited by " who could dine on herbs," an rdjective
element of the third class ; " might despise " is the
predicate, and is limited by "the company of a king,"
a complex objective element of the first class.
The predicate, was replied to, is limited, first, by " well," a .simple adverbi-
al element of the first class, and by " by Aristippus," an
adverbial element of the second class', and also by tho
clause " when he remarked, that the philosopher,"
&c, a complex adverbial element of the third class, of
which " when " is the connective, " he " is the subject,
and " remarked" is the predicate ; " " remarked " is
limited by "that the philosopher," &e., a complex
objective clement of the third class, of which " that"
is the connective, " philosopher " is the subject, " tho
philosopher who could enjoy the company of a king"
is the logical subject, " might despise "is the predi-
cate, and "might also despise a dinner of herbs " is
the logical predicate ; the subject, " philosopher," is
limited by the clause " who could enjoy the company
of a king," a complex adjective element of the third
class, of which " who " is the connective and subject,
" could enjoy " is the predicate, and is limited by " the
company of a king," a complex objective element of
first class ; the predicate "might despise" is limited
oy " a dinner of herbs," a complex objective element
of the first class, of-which "dinner" is the basis, and
# is limited by "of herbs," a simple adjective element
of the second class.
EXERCISE.
Analyze any of the sentences in " Construction," Sec. III.
" A ship gliding over the waves, is a beautiful object."
This is a simple sentence, or, more properly a con
traded, complex.
Ship is the simple, and
A ship gliding over the waves is the complex subject.
Is object ...... is the simple, and
Is a beautiful object is the complex predicate.
The subject, ship, . . is limited by "gliding over the the waves," a complex
adjective element of the first class; it is equivalent
to " which glides over the waves," and is therefore an
abridged proposition, obtained by drop oing the subject
14
15S ENGLISH liRAMMAft.
and connective " which," and chancing "glides," th«
predicate, into the participle " gliding."
Object is limited by M a " and "beautiful."
IV. Sentences having Coordinate Parts.
" Socrate3 and Plato were distinguished philosophers."
It is a partial or contracted compound sentence.*
Socrates and Plato . form the compound subject, because they are united
by " and," and have a common predicate, " we^»
philosophers."
The subject .... is not limited.
fhe predicate ... is limited by " distinguished," an adjective element
of the first class, used to describe " philosophers."
And is a coordinate conjunction, and connects the two sim-
ple subjects, according to liule XL
" You may buy books or slates."
It is & partial or contracted compound sentence.*
You is the subject.
May buy is the predicate.
Ymi is not limited.
May buy is limited by "books or slates," a compound objec-
tive element of the first class, showing w hut may be
bought.
Or . is a coordinate conjunction, (alternative.) showing
that a choice is offered between " books " and
"slates," which are connected bv it, according to
Rule XI.
'* If men praise your efforts, suspect their judgment ; if they censure them,
your own."
It is a compound sentence, consisting of two coordi-
nate parts ; each part consisting of a principal and a
subordinate clause.
The natural order would lie. " Suspect the judgment of men, if they praise
your efforts ; your own, if they censure them.
There is an ellipsis of the principal clause in the second part ; this, if sup-
plied, would be, " If they censure them, suspect youi
own judgment."
In the first part, "suspect their judgment" is the principal clause, and,
"if men praise your efforts" the subordinate. In
the second part, after the ellipsis is supplied, "sus-
pect your own judgment*' is the principal clause, and
'if they censure them " is the subordinate. " You"
(understood) is the subject of the principal clause in
liie first part, " suspect " is the predicate ; it is lim-
ited, first, by " their judgment," a complex objective
element of the first class, used to answer the question
" What? " ana also by " if men praise your efforts,"
an adverbial element of the third class, denoting con-
dition. (Analyze according to the model.)
* Let the pupil become accustomed to completing such sentences by Btipplyinf
«4Ji; ses. tfcus : Socrates vas a distinguished philosopher, and Plato was a ii 'stinguishaa
philosopher.
SYNTAX KULES. I5H
M You" (understood) is the subject ot the principal clause in the second
part; " suspect " is the predicate; it is limited by
"your own judgment," a complex objective elemeu*
of the first class, and also by " if they censure them.,**
an adverbial element of the "third class, denoting coa-
dition, &c.
Die two coordinate parts of the sentence are connected by the adversatire
conjunction "but" understood, which denotes op-
position or contrast.
EXERCISES
Analyze and parse the following sentences according to the models • —
A r.oble income, nobly expended, is no common sight.
Hu man foresight often leaves its proudest possessor only a choice of
evils.
Applause is the spur of noble minds ; the end and aim of weak ones.
Grant graciously what* you cannot refuse safely.
Most men know what they hate ; few what they love.
lie who openly tells his friends all that he thinks of them must expect
that they will secretly tell his enemies much that they do not think of
him.
That nations sympathize with their monarch's glory, that they are ira-
{>roved by his virtues, and that the tone of morals rises bitach when he that
eads the band is perfect, are truths admitted with exultation, and felt
with honest pride.
Highly elated by his unexpected good fortune, he returned home. Sav-
ing carefully the fruits of his labor, he at length was able to purchase a
farm.
A pretended patriot, he impoverished his country.
III. RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION.
Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a prop-
osition must be in the nominative case.
Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of a
proposition after the finite verb to be, or any intransitive or
passive verb, must be in the nominative case.
Rule III. A pronoun must agree with fts antecedent in
gender, number, and person.
Rule IY. The verb must agree with its subject in num
bcr and person.
* What, as antecedent, is the objective clement of the principal clause, and as rela-
te, is the objective element of the subordinate clause.
160 ENGLtSH GRAMMAR.
Rule V. An adjeztive or participle must belong to some
noun or pronoun.
Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify
another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same
case.
Rule VII. A noun or pronoun used to limit another
noun hy denoting possession must be in the possessive case,
Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as the olject of a
transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective
case.
Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, participles,
adjectives, and other adverbs.
Rule X. The nominative case independent, and the in-
terjection, have no grammatical relation to the other parts
of the sentence.
Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect
similar elements.
Rule XII. When a verb or pronoun relates to two 01
moie nouns connected by a coordinate conjunction, —
(1.) If it agrees with thera taken conjointly, it must be in the plural
number.
(2 ) But if it agrees with them taken separately , it must be of the same
number as that which stands next to it.
(3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take the numbei
of that one.
Rule XIII. A preposition is used to show the relation of
its object to the word on which the latter depends.
Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a
preposition must be in the objective case.
Rule XV. Subordinate connectives are used to join dis
similar elements.
Rule XVI. The infinitive has the construction of tho
noun, with the signification and limitations of the verb, and
when dependent, is governed by the word which it limits.
Rule XVII. Participles have the construction of adjee-
ttva<'< and nouns, and are limited like verbs.
SYNTAX RULE I. REMARKS. 161
RULES, CAUTIONS, AND REMARKS.
Rule I. A noun or pronoun used as the subject of a
p. ^position must be in the nominative case ; as, " Ccesar
conquered Gaul." " To see the sun is pleasant." ' That
there will be an eclipse of the moon, has been predicted."
Examples to be analyzed and parsed : —
We found the simple cottage of the artist. The gardens are full of ibs
freshness and beauty of morning. Would you see in what peace a Chris.-
tian can die ? Our steamer staggered in the current. A curious echo is
here. The accused was reconducted to his prison. 1 could not sustain
the picture of confinement which my fancy had drawn. * rose, and
prepared to leave the abbey. The must come, when the shall
twine round the fallen columns. Now fades tin glimmering on the
sight. That the king can do no wrong, is adi lifted without reluctance.
To conquer Gaul was Caesar's purpose in his campaign.
Construct, analyze, and parse —
Five Examples in which the subject shall be a noun or pronoun, mas-
culine, singular ; five in which it shall be feminine, plural ; five in which
it shall be neuter, singular ; five in which the subject is a group of words.
Caution. Never use the objective as the subject of a finite
verb. Say, I did it, not me did it.
Examples to be corrected and parsed : —
You and me will go together. Him that is studious will improve. She
found the place sooner than us. Them that seek wisdom will be wise
They are people whom one would think might be trusted. Who told you
the story ? Him and her. I know it as well as him or her. Who saw "the
eclipse ? Us. Here's none but thee and I. They have more friends than
me. Them are the ones.
Model. — " You and me will go together " is incorrect, because the ob-
jective pronoun me is made the subject of the verb will go ; but by Cau-
tion I., the objective should never be used as the subject of a finite verb.
Correct, " You and I will go together."
Rem. 1. — An infinitive, a sidistantive clause, or any thing that may be
used as a noun, may be the subject; as, " To steal is base." " That you
have wronged me doth appear in this." " S is a consonant."
Rem. 2. — Although every subject of a finite v-^rb must be in the nom-
inative case, every nominative .case is not the subject of a verb. 1 he
predicate noun, or pronoun, after a finite verb, is put in the nominative;
A noun or pronoun, in apposition with the subject or predicate nominative,
is put in the nominative ; the noun denoting the person addressed is
put in the nominative ; a noun with a participle or an infinitive, in an
abridged proposition, may be in the nominative ; a noun used in a mere
exclamation is put in the nominative. See Rule X.
Rem. 3. — The subject is usually omitted in the imperative mode, and
* When blank* occur, words are to be supplied and parsed bv the pur-Q
li*
162 ENGLISH GRAMMA H.
after than, while, when, if or though, as, when the verb is made otic of the
tonus of comparison ; as, " Arise." " Go." "He reads as well as [he]
writes." " We shall go, tf [it is] possible."
Rem. 4. — The subject is commonly placed before the predicate, but is
sometimes placed after it; as, " Were I not Alexander, I would bo
Diogenes."
Hem. 5. -—In an abridged proposition, the subject may remain un-
changed, may be changed, or may be wholly dropped.
(1.) It remains unchanged when it denotes a different person or thing
Crorc that of the principal clause, and (though logically it is still the sub-
ject) is said to be in the nominative case absolute, with the participle of the
predicate ; as, " When shame is lost, all virtue is lost." " Shame being
lest, all virtue is lost."
(2.) It is changed to the possessive case when the abridged predicate,
as a noun, becomes the object of its possession ; as, " I was not aware
that he was going." " I was not aware of his going."
(3.) It is cnanged to tl e objective case when it follows a transitive verb,
and is followed by the infinitive of the predicate, or (when the infinitive is
omitted) by the attribute of the predicate ; as, " We supposed that he
was writing, was honest, or was the commander." " We supposed HIM to
be xrriting, to be honest, or to be the commander ; " or, (omitting the infini-
tive,) " We supposed him writing, supposed him honest, supposed HIM
the commander.
(4.) It is dropped when it represents the subject or object of the princi-
pal clause, or, in general, when it represents the noun which the subordi-
nate daise limits ; as, " 1 wish that I might go." " I wish to go." " Re-
proof WHJCTf is given in public hardens the heart." " Reproof given in
public hardens the heart." See "Abridged Propositions," page 187.
Rem. 6. — The nominative case absolute is sometimes omitted; as,
" Allowing tins to be so, what then ? that is, " We allowing."
Rem. 7. — The object of the verb in the active voices becomes its subject
in the passive voice ; as, " John granted the Magna Charta" = The Magna
Charta was granted by John.
Examples to be corrected and parsed by the Remarks under Rule /.*
A is an article. We shall return as soon as possible. Repeat the lesson as I shall
dictate. They sins as well as play. Silver and gold have I none, but such as I have
give 1 thee I was not aware of his being her cousin. We supposed that lie waa go-
ing We supposed him to he going. His work being finished, he will be able to
leave May siic lit- happy Who broke this knife? J\lc. You are as old as her
Paul was there [know sayest it ; says thy life the same? The t's are
not crossed. Jt u certain that the offender will be punished.
Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as the attribute of a
proposition, after the finite verb to be, or any intransitive or
passive verb, must be in the nominative case ; as, " 1 am he.*'
" He is a scholar/'
* To thi Teacher. — It is recommended that the exercises on the Remarks be de
ferred till tb.9 pupil shall go through the book a second or third time. The words i?j
Italics are to be corrected. The blanks are to be filled. The sentences are to be ana-
lyzed, and any or all of the words to be parsed. It is thought best to throw in
the examples promiscuously without a definite reference to the Remarks, that the pa-
oil may learn to search and apply for himself, as he is now supposed to have acquired
tome skill in analyzing and parsing.
SYNTAX RJLE II. REMARKS. 10.1
Examples to be parsed : —
A life of prayer is the life of heaven. lie returned a friend who came
a foe. Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he ? No contemptible orator
he was. The tree w»d called the " Charter Oak." John was called the
beloved disciple. He was elected governor by a large majority. He
died a madman. It will remain a monument of his greatness. You are
my friend. It could not be she. Has he been a studeut ? His meat was
locusts and mid honey.
Construct, analyze, and parse —
Five Examples in which the noun or pronoun shall be masculine plu-
ral ; fice in which it shall be feminine singular ; jive in which it shall be a
noun, or a group of words, neuter singular.
Caution. The attribute after a finite verb should never
le in the objective. Say, It is I, not me.
Examples to be corrected : —
It is me. It is them that must be blamed. I would do so, if I were
him. Whom do you think it is ? It may have been her. I do not know
whom it is. It is not me ; it is her. Whom do men say that I am ?
Rem. 1. — The predicate nominative always denotes the same person or
thing as the subject, and must agree with it in case. When the predicate
nominative denotes a person, it usually agrees with the subject in gender
number, and case.
Hem. 2. — By a peculiar idiom of the English language, the neuter pro-
noun it, as subject, may represent a noun or pronoun as predicate of any
number, person, or gender; as, " It is I." " It is they." " It is James."
'"It is she."
REM. 3. — This rule applies when copulative verbs are used; as, " He
is becoming an artist."
Rem. 4. — An infinitive or substantive clause may be used as the predi-
cate nominative; as, " To live is to exist." "My impression is, that
he null come."
Hem. 5. — In an abridged proposition, (see "Abridged Propositions,"
page 185,) the predicate nominative may remain unchanged, may hf
changed, but can never be dropped.
(It) It remains unchanged in the nominative when the suc/ect remains
in the nominative ; as, " As a youth was their leader, what could they
do?" " A youth being their leader, what could they do ? " Here
leader is in the nominative, after the participle being, because youth is in
the nominative.
(2.) It remains unchanged in the nominative, relating logically (not
grammatically) to the omitted or altered subject, when, in connection with
the infinitive, or participle of the copula, it forms a verbal noun : as,
u That one should be a thief, is strange." " Being a thief, or to be a
thief, is strange." " I was not aware that it icas he." " I was not
aware of ITS being he." Here thief and he are in the nominative after be-
ing, or to be, because the subject, being either changed to the possessive or
dropped, has no power over the predicate noun.
(3.) It is changed to the objective when the subject is changed to the
objective, or when the noun which the omitted subject would represent (see
Rem. 5. (4) Rule I.) is in the objective ; as, " I believed that it teas he."
«' 1 believed it to be HIM." " We found a plant which is called the lilac."
** We found a plant called the lilac." Here he becomes him, because it
is changed to the objective, and lilac is in the objective, because, which
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Deing dropped, it derives its case from the antecedent, plant. Had plant
been in the nominative, as in the following, " The plant which is called
the lilac is fragrant," lilac would have been in the nominative, cfter the
change of the adjective clause; as, " The plant called the lilac is fra-
grant."
RBM. G. — The form of the verb is not affected by the predicate, but by
the subject nominative; as, "Apples are fruit." " His food was vege-
tables."
Hem. 7. — The predicate nominative is commonly placed after the verb,
and the subject nominative before it; but in questions, both direct and
indirect, this order is not observed ; as, " Is that the master? " " Who i%
het " that is. " lie is who ? "
Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule IT.
Ho became his faithful . To teach is to . Mr. being tl:er:
teacher, they made rapid progress. Uein^ a stranger, lie was very lonely. 1 know
not who tiiou art. I believed it to lie trim. They believed it to be /. Who do you sup-
pose it to be." Me was not known to be a . A man he was to all the country
dear She is the person who ,. understood her to be. His pavilion were dark waters,
and thick clouds of the sky. We found an animal called a weasel.
Rule III. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in
gender, number, and person ; as, " Those men who are most
consistent are not more unlike to others than they are at times
to themselves.''''
Examples to be analyzed and parsed : —
Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your eons to love it too. Othei
sheep I have, which arc not of this fold.
This is the friend of whom I spoke. He who had no mercy upon others
is now reduced to a condition which may excite the pity of his most im
placable enemy.
At sea, every thing that breaks the monotony of the surrounding ex-
panse attracts attention. They found that all their efforts were unavail-
ing. That life is long which answers life's great end. He is the friend
whose arrival is daily expected.
Construct, analyze, and parse — -
Six Examples in which a personal pronoun shall be in the nominative
singular ; six in which a personal pronoun shall be possessive singular ;
six In which the personal pronoun shall be objective plural; six in which a
relative pronoun shall be in the nominative singular, three referring to
persons, and three to things or animals ; six in which the relative shall be
in the possessive or objective case ; six in which an interrogative pronoun
shall be used, two in the nominative, two in the possessive, and tioo in
*he objective.
Caution I. Avoid the use of a noun and pronoun as sul-
ject jr object of the same verb, unless great emphasis is re-
quired. Say, The boy did it, not, the boy, he.
Examples to be corrected: —
Many words they darken speech. That girl she is very ignorant. The
king he was very angry. Anna, she told me so. The teacher approving
"".e plan.; he immediately adopted it. Whom when they had washed, they
_.;l her in an upper chamber. What he said, he is now sorry for it
SYNTAX RULE 111. CAUTIONS AND REMARKS. 165
Caution II. Avoid the use of a plural pronoun having
a singular antecedent. Saj , Let every one attend to his,
not their, work.
EXAMPLES to be corrected : —
Let each schola. who thinks so raise their hands. A person can con-
tent themselves on small means. Let everyone answer for themsehes.
Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them upon Jacob. Can any one bs
sure that they are not deceived ?
Caution III. In the use of a pronoun, avoid ambiguity in
its reference to an antecedent.
Examples to be corrected : —
Thou hast no right to be a judge, who art a party concerned. A hawk
caught a hen, and eat her in her own nest. A purse was lost in the street
which contained a large sum of money. There are millions of people in the
empire of China whose support is derived almost entirely from rice.
Caution IV. Never plate a pronoun of the first person he-
fore a noun or pronoun of the second or third, or one of the
third before one of the second. Say, George, and you, and
I, not I, and you, and George, will go.
ro
M;
Examples to be corrected : —
I and you may go, if I and he can agree. I, and you, and Harriet ar«
Father said, that I and Henry should stay at home. When will
ary and you be ready ? Horace, and I, and you are invited.
Caution V. Avoid the use of who, when speaking of ani-
mals and inanimate objects, and of which, when speaking of
persons. Say, The cat which mews, not who.
Examples to be corrected : —
There was a certain householder which planted a vineyard. He has a
soul who cannot be influenced by such motives. This is the dog whom
my father bought. The lady which we saw was hi jhly educated. 'He ha*
some friends which I am acquainted with. The iadge which pronounced
the sentence was an upright man Those which deoire to be happy should
be careful to do that which is right.
Caution VI. Avoid a change of number, or a change of
pronouns, when reference is made to the same antecedent in
the same sentince.
Examples to }e corrected : —
Though thou art wise, you sometimes misjudge. Do thyself no harm,
«id no cne will harm you. This is the man who discovered our distress,
166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
and that brought us relief. I know you, who thou art ti.at annoyest me
at thy gate. O thou who art all-wise, and that rulest over all !
Rem. 1. — Interrogative pronouns commonly refer to objects unknown
to the speaker ; and hence the gender, number, and person must be as~
turned, till the person or thing inquired for becomes known. Although
the pronoun in such cases may not agree with the actual object in ques
tion, consistency should be preserved in every reference to the assumed
one. The following sentence is wrong, owing to a change of number in
the supposed object. " Who teas not charmed with the music they
heard just now ? " Was should be changed to were, or they to he.
Rem. 2. — The English language being destitute of a pronoun of the
third person, which may apply equally to either sex, an erroneous use of
they, referring to poson, any one, or some one, has been adopted oven by
respectable writers, to conceal the gender or to avoid an awkward use of
he, or she, thus: "If any one would test these rules for the preservation
of health, they (he or she) must persevere in all states of the weather."
The want of such a pronoun is still more apparent when the speaker has
a definite person before his mind, and wishes to conceal the gender, thus :
" The person who gave me this information desired me to conceal
name." When the person referred to belongs to an assemblage, known
to be composed wholly of males, or wholly of females, the masculine or
feminine pronoun should be used accordingly. But when the person be
longs-to an assemblage of males and females, usage has sanctioned the
employment of a masculine pronoun, thus : " Is any among you afflicted ?
let him " (not them, — not him or her) " pray."
Rem. 3. — When a pronoun refers to a collective noun in the singular,
it should be neuter singular, if the noun conveys the idea of unity ; as,
" The school was opened under favorable auspices ; but it was dismissed
for want of patronage." But when the noun conveys the idea of plurali-
ty, the pronoun should be plural, taking the gender of the individuals
composing the collection ; as, " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as
their chief good."
Rem. 4. — When things or animals are personified, they should be rep-
resented as persons by the pronouns employed ; as, " Grim darkness furls
his leaden shroud." " The wolf who from the nightly fold fierce drags
the bleating prey."
Rem. 5. — The pronoun it does not always refer to a definite object.
See t: Etymology," page 41, Rem. 2.
Rem. 6. — The pronoun usually follows its antecedent, but sometimes
it is placed first; as, " Hark ! they whisper, angels say."
Rem. 7- — Relative and interrogative pronouns are usually placed at the
beginning of their clauses, even though the order of construction would
assign them some other position ; as, " Patcrnus had but one son, whom
he educated himself."
Rem. 8. — The relative in the objective is sometimes omitted; as,
** Here is the present [which] he gave me."
Rem. 9. — In disposing of a personal pronoun, two rules should be
given, one for its agreement, and one for its construction : in disposing cf
a relative, we should add to these the rule for it as a connective.
Rem. 10. — The construction of the relative is independent of its ante-
cedent. It may be in the nominative case, as subject of a finite verb —
nominative absolute, jjossessive case, or in the objective case governed by a
transitive verb, or by a preposition ; as, " They who speak. ' " We ordered
the horses to be harnessed, which being done, we commenced our jour-
ney." " He hastened to the palace of his sovereign, into whose presence
his hoary locks and mournful visage soon obtained admission." " The
person whom T saw." " Whom did "ou take him to be." See Rem. 10
SYNTAX RULE IV. — CAUTIONS. 167
R sle VIII. " Hie man whom they call the janitor." "This is the rule
lo which we called his attention."
Hem. 11. — The relative, when used in a restrictive sense, joins the prop-
osition which it introduces t:> the antecedent, imparting to the chaise the
qualities of an adjective. When thus used, it commonly has, prefixed
to the antecedent, a correlative, such as the, this, that, these, those ; the ad-
iective clause becomes a necessary adiition to the antecedent to complete
the limitation intimated by these words. When not used in a restrictive
scr-^e, the relative introduces an additional proposition, and is equivalent
to and he, and s/ic, and it, and they ; as, " He gave me a book, which
he requested me to read " = H<* gave me a book, and he requested me to
read it.
Rem. 12. — When the relative is governed by a preposition, it is gener-
ally best to place the latter at the beginning of the clause; as, " This is
the subject to which he alluded," not which he alluded to. But when the
relative that is thus governed, the preposition is always placed at the end ;
as, u Here is the last bridge that we shall come to." It is better not to
employ that when the governing preposition is understood ; it is, however,
sometimes used; as, " In the day that thou eatest thereof, thou shalt sure-
ly die."
Rem. 13. — The relative that should be used, —
(1.) After the interrogative who ; as, " Who that marks the fire still
sparkling in each eye," kc.
(2.) After an adjective in the superlative degree ; as, " He was the last
that left."
(3.) After wry, all, same ; as, "This is the very book that I want."
" Is not this all that you ask ? " " He is the same person that I took him
to be."
(4.) When the relative refers to both persons and things ; as, " Here
are the persons and papers that were sent for."
Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule TIL
She is handsome, and she has the misfortune of knowing it. Whowas not delighted
with the walk which they took in the ? If any one would make progress,
th- y must resist temptation. Is any one tad? let him seek the consolation of ^m
gospel. Every one must judge of their own . fie met crowds, who were go-
ing up the streets. The council were divided in Us sentiments. The lion said to liie
ass, which had been hunting with it. He found the books which he sought. He found
tint he had formed plans which could not be accomplished. He gave me an exercise,
and requested me to correct it. He gave me an exercise which he requested me to cor-
rect. This is the very which I need. He needs no spectacles, that cannot nee
It is the same which I showed you before. Who, iclw has any regard ihi his
reputation, would act thus? Many a man loses their character by such acts. I io
not care who knows it. Whom the cap fits, let him put it on. Blessed is the r.au
Who feareth the Lord, and who keepeth his commandments. It was that Mary
ivhictl anointed the Lord with ointment, and wiped his feet with her hair, whose
brother was sick
Rule IV. The verb must agree with its subject in num
bor and person : as, " I crm." " Thou art sitting." " Wi
have come.''''
Ex A.MEI.ES to he parsed : —
I do entreat thee. I do think you could contrive to find r*er employment
If yoa are inclined to it. They will follow your advice. He gave up all hope
of obtaining his object. Murmur at nothing. That the evidence of this
168 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
tran's guilt will insure bis condemnation, is admitted. To do to others as
we would have them do to us, is the golden rule.
Construct, analyze, and parse —
Fouu Examples in which the verb shall be in the first or second per
son, present tense ; four in which it shall be in the third person, present
perfect tense; four in which the verb shall be second person singular,
potential, present, or present perfect; four in which it shad be present,
past, or future, progressive form; four in which it shall be passive, pres-
ent perfect, past perfect, or future perfect; four in which it shall be sec-
ond person singular, emphatic form ; four in which it shall be use 1 inter-
rogatively in the indicative or potential ; four in which shall or will simply
predict. .
Caution I. Avoid the use of a singular verb with a phh
rail subject., or a plural verb and a singular subject.
Examples to be corrected : —
Where was you this morning when I called ? He dare you to do it.
They was unwilling to go. Relatives agrees with their antecedents.
There's ten of us going. His pulse beat quick. She have not done it.
Was you certain of it ? We was allowed the privilege. Circumstances
alters cases. Has those books been sent home ? On one side was sloping
banks.
Caution II. Never use a singular verb ivith a collective
noun intended to express plurality of idea ; or a plural verb
with a collective noun intended to express unity of idea.
Examples to bs corrected: —
The committee has accepted their appointment. The majority was dis-
posed to adopt the measure which they at first opposed. Blessed is the
people that know the joyful sound. The fleet were seen sailing up the
channel, where afterwards it anchored. The peasantry goes barefoot with-
out endangering their health. There are a flock of birds. The public is
requested "to attend for their own benefit. All the world is spectators of
your conduct. The regiment consist of two thousand men. The church
have no power to adopt the measure which it advocates.
Caution III. Never use a plural verb with a singular sub-
fcet, though the latter be modified by a noun in the plural.
Say, Each of his brothers is well, not are well
Examples to be corrected : —
Four years' interest were expected. The derivation of these words are
uncertain. The story, with all its additions, were believed. The increase
of his resources render the change necessary. The number of applicants
increase. The general with all His soldiers, were taken. The sale of the
poods take place to-m >rrow. The hope of retrieving his losses increase
his diligence.
Cauticn IV. Be careful not to use the wrong verb, as,
set for sit, lay for lis come for go; nor the WRONG form,
SYN'l'AX — RULE V.
169
*S, DONE for DID WROTE for WRITTEN, &C. , nor the WRONG!
TENSE, AS, SEE for SAW, GIVE for GAVE ; nor ^PROPER CON-
TRACTIONS, as, ain't for are not, &c.
Examples to be corrected: —
I seen him when he done it. Some one has broke my pencil Tell them
(o set still. She laid down by the fire. He soon begun to be weary of the
employment. I am going to lay down. Mary has wrote a letter. I see
biro when he went. Ain^l it true ? We ain't going this evening. He has
dxank too much. The tree has fell. You have not did as I told you.
John his stole the knife. They are going to our house next week. He
give me a great many books. He knowed. his lesson better than Henry.
They had sang very well. I have lain your book on the shelf. Will you
sit the pitcher on the table, and let it set there. The ship lays in the
harbor. I done my sums first.
Rem. 1. — To this rule there are properly no exceptions. The collec-
tive noun in the singular may take a plural verb, but never except when
the mind sees in it a collection of individuals.
Rex 2. — The nominative and verb after many a (an) should be sin-
gular ; as, u Full many a flower is born to blush unseen."
Rem. 3. — Verbs in the imperative mod'j usually agree with thou, ye,
or you, understood.
Rule V. An adjective or participle must belong to some
noun or pronoun; as, "The guilty man ; " == " The man
wa.s guilty" Or, more specifically, —
(1.) An adjective or participle used as the attribute of a proposition after
the verb to be, or any intransitive or passive verb, belongs to the subject ;
as, " The tree is tall." " To see the sun is pleasant." " Where the muds
will be obtained is doubtful."
(2.) An adjective or participle used to limit or qualify a noun belongs
to the noun which it modifies ; as, " An upriy/U judge." " Five boxes."
" The good old man."
Examples to be analyzed or parsed: —
When the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of God shouted
for joy, where wast thou ? The influence of such pursuits is ennobling. He
was a good man, and a just. He was a burning and a shining light. These
opportunities, improved as they should be, must produce the desired results.
The hopes of the whole family were centred on him. His resources were
inexhaustible. To insult the afflicted is impious. Pity the sorrows of a
poor old man, whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door. Th;.t
ho should refuse such a proposition, was not unexpected. Every thing
which is false, vicious, or unworthy, is despicable to him. though all the
world should approve it.
Construct, analyze, and parse —
Five Examples in which a limiting adjective shall modify the subject ,
five in which a qualifying adjective shall modify the predicate nominative ;
five in which a limiting and qualifying adjective shall modify the object of
a verb, or preposition ; five in which the qualifying adjective shall, witb
the copula, form the predicate ; five in which the adjective shall be in tb#
comparative or superlative degree.
15
170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Caution I. Never use the limiting adjective (article) i
before the sound of a vowel, nor an before the sound of a con"
zimant. Say, An appie, not a apple.
Examples to be corrected: —
He found a acorn in the woods. He was a honorable man It is m
wonderful invention. He is an younger man than we thought. She
showed an uniform adherence to truth. This is an hard saying.
Caution II. Avoid the use of a plural adjective to limit
,7 singular noun. Say, This sort of people, not those.
Examples to be corrected : —
I do not like remarks of these kind. Those sort of people are very dis
agreeable. Will you buy six pair of boots ? I have bought eight foot of
wood. It cost a thousand pound. The lot is fifty foot in width. Th«
water is six fathom deep. \\'c walked three mile in a short time. Hi
ordered ten ton of coal.
Caution III. Never use the pronoun them, for the adjec
tive those. Say, Those books, not them books.
Examples to be corrected : —
I found them books on the table. AVhich of them scholars recites the
best ? Go and tell them boys to come here. Ask them children to bring
them apples here.
Caution IV. Avoid the use of the adjective for the ad-
verb. Say, Speak promptly, not prompt.
Examples to be corrected : —
She dresses neat. The time passed very quick. The ship glides
smooth over the water. The stream flows silent on. It is not such a great
distance as I thought it was. He behaved much wiser than the others.
• Mary speaks French very fluent. I am exceeding sorry to hear such
tidings.
Caution V. Avoid the use of the superlative degree when
two objects are compared, or the comparative when more than
two are compared.
Examples to be corrected • —
He was the larger of them all. He was the oldest of the two brothers.
He preferred the latter of the three. Which is the oldest of the tw« ?
John is the wisest of the two.
Caution VI. Avoid the use of double comparatives and
guperlatives.
Examples to be corrected : —
After the most straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee Thi«
was the most uuiundest cut of all. The rose is mostlairest of all flower'
SYNTAX RULE V. — REMARKS. 17 1
f e is the most kindest friend I have. Solomon was more wiser thtn any
<»ther king.
Rem. 1. — The appropriate use cf the adjective is to restrict the appli-
cation of a noun used as x common name applicable to each individual of a
class. The adjective thus used is always a dependent term, having the
restricted noun as its principal.
Rem. 2. — A noun may be restricted or limited in its application,—
(1.) Without affecting any of its properties ; as, " Tioo men." " These
books."
(2.) By designating some property or quality ; as, " Good men." " In-
(Htstrioas boys."
(3.) By identifying it ; as, " Paul the Apostle" " Peter the Hermit."
(4.) By representing it as an object possessed; as, "David's harp."
The first two limitations are affected by adjectives; the last two vy
%ou7is >r pronouns performing the office of the adjectivft.
Rem 3. — Any word, or group of words, employed to limit a noun, is aa
adjective element, that is, it is of the nature of an adjective ; as, " Indus
trious men." " Men of industry." " Men who are industrious."
Rem. 4. — Limiting adjectives, when used in connection with qualifying,
are generally placed first; as, " The old man." " This valuable hint.*'
" Ten small trees." When two limiting adjectives are used, one of which
is an article, the latter is usually placed first ; as, " The ten command-
ments." But after many, such, all, what, and both the article stands next
to the noun ; So also, after adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or Jiow ; as,
" Many a man." " Such a man." " All the boys." " What a boy."
u Both the girls." " Too great, as great, so great, hoxo great, a man."
Rem. 5. — A, or an, belongs to nouns in the singular number. But before
few, hundred, or thousand, it seems to belong to a plural noun ; as. '• A
few men." " A hundred ships." " A thousand pounds."
Rem. 6. — The belongs to nouns, either singular or plural ; as, " Th*
man" " The men."
Rem. 7. — When two or more qualifying adjectives belong to a noun
representing but one object, the limiting adjective should not be repeated ;
as, " A red and white flag ; " i. e., one flag having two colors. But when two
or more such adjectives belong to a nbun used to represent as many differ-
ent objects as there are adjectives employed, the limiting adjective must
be repeated , as, " We saw a black, a white, a red, andagray horse ; " i. e.,
four horses of different colors.
Rem. 8. — Adjectives which imply number should agree in number
wrth the nouns to which they belong ; as, " All men ; " " Several men."
When two numerals precede a noun, one singular and the other plural,
the plural should generally be placed next to the noun ; as, "The first fwc
lines," not, " The two first lines." In such expressions as, " Five yoke of
oxen" " Ten head of cattle," " Fifty sail of vessels," the plural adjective
belongs to a noun in the singular.
Rem. 9. — When objects are contrasted, that refers to the first, and this
to the last mentioned ; as, " Wealth and poverty are both temptations ;
that tends to excite pride, this discontent."
Hem. 10. — By a peculiar idiom, the is used with comparatives, to de-
note proportionate equality and is used adverbially; as, " The more I see
it, the better I like it."
Rem. 11. — The adjective is often used as a noun, the noun to which it
belongs being understood ; as, " The good are respectsd." On the other
hand, the noun is often used as an adjective : as. " Gold beads " See
fdic matic expressions, p. 193.
1/2 ENGLISH <7 It AM MAR.
Rem. 12. — One adjective often limits the complex idea expressed "by
toother adjective and a noun ; as, M Two old horses."
Rem. 13. — The predicate, adjective or participle, following copulative
verbs, generally indicates the manner of the action, while, at the sams
time, it denotes some property of the subject; as, "The boy was made
sick " " The fruit tastes sweet." " The horse came galloping."
Rem. 14. — When two objects, or sets of objects, are compared, the com-
parative degree is generally used ; as, " George is taller than William, or io
the taller of the two." " Our oranges are sweeper than yours."
Rem. 15. — When more than two objects are compared, the superlative
degree is used ; as, " Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks."
Rem. 16. — When the comparative degree is used, the latter term should
r1 wnys exclude the former , as, " New York is larger than any other city
;>f the United States." " He was wiser than his brothers." But when
the superlative is used, the latter term should always include the former ;
as, " Rhode Island is the smallest of the United States."
REM. 17. — Each, one, either, and neither belong to nouns in the third
person singular. Hence, when used as nouns, verbs and pronouns should
agree wita them accordingly; as, "Each of his brothers is (not are)
well."
Rem. 18. — An adjective after the participle or infinitive of the copula
is sometimes used abstractly, referring, it may be, logically (hut not gram-
matically) io some indefinite object ; as, " To be good is to be happy."
EsiiirLES to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule V.
Good men will be rewarded. William the Conqueror fought at the battle of Has-
tings. Shakspeare's Hamlet lias been much admired. Then they, that loved the
Lord, spake often one to another. The ten commandments were given by .
The old has often been repeated, He gave a thousand for the house.
She wore a blue and black silk dress. You may read the two first pages. Hope is as
•strong an incentive to action as fear ; this is the anticipation of good, that of evil.
Of all other idle habits, idleness is the most . Let each of them be heard in
their turn. He is the most of all the rest. Every one of us have our faults.
Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used to explain or identify
another noun or pronoun is put by apposition in the same
sase; as, "William the Conqueror defeated Harold, the
Saxon king"
Examples to be analyzed and parsed : —
The patriarch Abraham was accounted faithful. The Emperor Nero
whs a cruel tyrant. James, the royal Scottish poet, was Imprisoned in
Windsor Castle. In the fifth century, the Franks, a people of Germany,
invaded France. Frederic William III., King of Prussia, son of Frederic
William II., and Louisa, Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, was born Au-
gust 3, 1770.
Construct, analyze, and parse —
Three Examples in which the noun in apposition shall be in the
nominative, modifying the subject ; three in which it shall be in the
nominative, modifying the predicate noun ; three in which it shall be in
the objectr e, modifying a noun, used as the object of a verb or preposi-
tion.
Hsm. 1. — The explanatory noun or pronoun must denote the same per-
son or thing as that which it identifies. It usually explains by showing
the office, rank, rapacity occupation, or chnxacter, of the principal term;
as, " Pptev the Hermit. ' ; John the Evangelist."
SYNTAX RULE VI. REMARKS. ll'A
Rem. 2. — When, for the sake of emphasis, the same name is repeated,
It is in apposition with the former ; as, " A horse, a horse ! my kingdom for
ft horse."
Rem. 3. — When the limiting noun denotes a person, it generally agrees
with the limited, in number, gender, and case ; as, " Paul the Apostle.''
Rem. 4. — Two nouns may denote the same person or thing, and even
be in the same case, but yet not in apposition. A noun in apposition as<
sumes what by the predicate noun is affirmed ; as, " Adam, the first man."
"Adam was the first man." Even when two n'uns denoting the same
person or thing become the objects of certain transitive (copulative) verbs,
they are not properly in apposition. Compare " They called David the
psalmist," with " They called David, the psalmist," that is, who was the
psalmist.
Rem. 5. — A noun or pronoun in the plural may be represented, not by
one, but by two or more nouns, which, together, are equivalent to it ; as
" The victims a brother and a sister." The reverse of this rule is equal-
ly true ; as, " Intemperance, oppression, and fraud, vices of the age." In
the case of the reciprocal pronouns, each other, and one another, the first
words, each and one, are in apposition with a preceding plural noun or
pronoun, or with two or more singular nouns taken conjointly ; as, " The
boys struck one an other "= The boys struck — one struck an other;
" John and David love each other " s= John and David love — each loves
the other. Each and one are in the nominative case, and other is in the
objective case.
Rem. G. — Two or more proper names, or a title and a proper name, ap-
plied to one person, though in apposition, should be taken as one complex
noun ; as, " George Washington." " General Gates."
Rem. 7. — The proper name of a place, instead of being put in apposi-
tion with the common name, is usuauv governed by the preposition of; as,
" The city of Home."
Rem. 8. — A noun is sometimes in apposition with a sentence, and
sometimes a sentence with a noun ; as, " They devoted then whole time
to the promotion of our happiness — attritions which we shall not soon for-
get." " The maxim, Enough is as good as a feast, has silenced many a
vain wish."
Rem. 9. — When possessives are in apposition, the sign of possession
('.v) is commonly used with only one of them ; as, " John the Baptist's
head." " His majesty King Henry's crown."
Rem. 10. Sometimes as, denoting capacity, rank, or office, intervenes be-
tween two nouns, one of which is in apposition with the other ; as, *' The
moon as satellite attends." In the example, " I am pleased with my posi-
tion as a teacher," teacher seems to be in apposition with the expression
my position-, denoting the same person as my, but taking the same case as
position*
Examples to be parsed and correct d by the Remarks under Rule VI.
Company, villaaous company, bath been the spoil of me. Absalom, the of
, died in battle. Marcus Tuilius Cicero was a great . I am going to see
my mends in the country — they that we visited last summer. Queen Victoria's chil
dron are carefully educated. I am pleased with her improvement as a scholar
Jonathan and David loved each other. Go ye every man unto his own .
Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred. He recovered — a result which was not
expected. - He permitted me to make use of his , a kindness which I sh»«l
not soon forjret.
Rule VII. A noun or pronoun, used to limit another
noun by denoting possession, must be in the possessive case
174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
us, " Stephen* * courage failed." u Their fortune was am-
ple." " Wtiose work is this ? "
Examples to be analyzed and parsed : —
Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The joy of
his youth was great. Rotha's bay received the ship. Her ways are ways
of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace. A mother's tenderness, and
a father's care, are nature's gifts for man's advantage. A chieftain's
daughter seemed the majd. Yet my last thought is England's. She
etooped her by the runnel's side. Hushed were his Gertrude's lips. Our
harps we left by Babel's streams.
Construct, analyze, and parse —
Twenty Examples in which a possessive noun, o pronoun, shall limit
the subject, the predicate, a noun in apposition, or a noun in the objec-
tive after a transitive verb or preposition.
Caution I. In writing nouns in the possessive, never
omit the possessive termination. Write man's, not mans.
Examples to be corrected : —
On Lindens hills of blood-stained snow. It was the grand sultans pal
ace. The nations hopes were blasted. Next Mars, Piazzis orb is seen.,
It is against the laws of Plutos empire. His brothers offence is not his.
Midst glorys glance, and victorys thunder-shout. The mans story was
false. If of Drydens fire the blaze is brighter, of Popes the heat is mere
regular and constant.
Caution II. In using pronouns in the possessive, never
insert the apostrophe, nor add the letter n. Write theirs
not their 's. Say his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, not hisn,
hem, ourn, yourn, theirn.
Examples to be corrected : —
This book is your's. I listened to it's song. The slate is hisn. This
map is their's. This knife is mine, and not yourn. That handkerchief
is hern. These sheep are ourn. Will you drive yourn out of the pasture ?
Our's is a pleasant task.
Caution III. Never make the limited noun plural because
the possessive is plural. Say " their decision." not their
decisions, one only being meant.
Examples to be corrected: —
I will do it for your sakes. "We intend, for our parts, to follow his ad
rice. Their healths have improved. We will submit to our lots. It was
not worth their whiles to remain so long in port.
Rem. 1. — The relation of the possessive is one of dependence. There
must, therefore, always be (expressed or understood) the name of the ob-
ject possessed on which the possessive term depends. This dependence
may be shown either by a change of termination or by a preposition ; a»,
4 My fattier 's house " = The h mse of my father " The kinc's court " =»
SYNTAX — HULE VIII. 175
The court of the king. The possessive term always limits a noun, and
nence it performs the function of an adjective, and in analyzing may be
reckoned as an adjective element.
Rem. 2. — The limited noun is often understood; as, "This pen is
Mary's [pen]."' " We worship at St. Paul's [church]." " This is a book
of my brother's [books]." " Mine [that is, my task] is a pleasant task."
\fter mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, the limited noun is always
understood.
Hem. 3. — When two or more words are used to designate one object,
ne possessive sign is affixed to the last; as, M General George Washing-
ton's administration." The sign of the possessive belongs to the group,
ind is sometimes applied when the last word is the object of a preposition ;
*s, "■ The King of England's death." Here England is in the objective
after of
Rem 1. — When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected
coordinately ; first, if they imply the possession of one object in common,
the sign is applied only to' the last ; as, " Little and Broicn's store; " but,
secondly, if they imply the possession of different objects, though of the
s une name, the possessive sign should be applied to each ; as, " I have an
Emerson's and a Greenleafs Arithmetic"
Rem. 5. — The limited word is often a participial noun; as, "I am in
favor of his bringing the dispute to a speedy close."
Rem. 6. — Sometimes the possessive sign is annexed to an adjective
used as a noun ; as " This is the wretched's only plea."
Examples to be parsed and corrected by the Remarks under Rule VII.
He is at the governor's. The Representatives House convened to-day. I assure you
it is theirs. General Franklin Pierce's administration commenced on the fourth of
Match, 1853. John and James's letters have been received. Day and Martin's black
mg is celebrated. Lady, be thine the Christian's walk.
Rule VIII. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a
transitive verb, or its participles, must be in the objective
case ; as, " He found the object which he desired."
Examples to be parsed: —
Ambition makes the same mistake concerning power that avarice makes
concerning wealth. If you have performed an act of great and disinter-
ested virtue, conceal it. Imperial Rome governed the bodies of men, but did
no '; extend her empire farther. In former times, patriots prided themselves
on their own poverty, and the riches of the state. He endeavored to in-
culcate right principles. He sought to follow the example of the good.
They say that they have bought it. The truly great consider, first, how
they may gain the approbation of God. He inquired, " Who comes there ? "
Construct, analyze, and parse —
Five Examples in which a noun, five in which a personal pronoun,
five in which a relative pronoun, and Jive in which an interrogative pro-
loun, shall be the object of a transitive verb ; also Jive in which two objects
jhall limit either of the verbs in Rem. 9 or 12.
Caution I. Never use. the nominative as the object of a
transitive verb. Say, WJmm did he visit ? not who
t-lQ ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Examples to be corrected : —
Who did yox. xce yesterday ? Who did \ie marry ? They that help us wt
should reward. He who committed the o 'fence thou shouldst punish not
I, who am innocent. Who should 1 find but my cousin r Will you let him
and I sit together ? I did not know who to seiid.
Rem. 1. — When a noun or pronoun is used to complete the meaning
of a transitive verb, without the aid of a preposition expressed or under-
stood, it is called the direct object ; but when it is added to a verb, either
transitive or intransitive, to show that to or for which anything is, or in
done, or that from which any thing proceeds, it is called the indirect ob-
ject ■ as, " Ellen gave an apple to her brother."
Rem. 2. — When an indirect object precedes the direct, the prepesitioa
snould be omitted ; when it follows, it should be expressed as, " I lent
him a book " = I lent a book to him.
Rem, 3. — The indirect object is sometimes used alone witn intransitive
verbs, sometimes with an adjective, and in a few instances with a noun;
as, " He spoke of his trials. " To me this rule is obvious." " To the
hero 8va* was a proud day."
Rem. 4. — The object of a transitive verb may be an infinitive, or a sub-
stantive clause ; as, " I love to write." " 1 have heard that he was sick."
Rem. 5. — When a substantive clause is governed by the verb say, or its
equivalent, —
(1.) It is said to be quoted directly (oratio directa) when it expresses
the thought of another in his own words ; as, " He said, I will go."
(2.) It is said to be quoted indirectly (oratio obliqua) when it expresses
the thought of another in the speaker's words ; as, " He said that he
would go."
Rem. 6. — Some intransitive verbs arc folloAved by an object of kindred
signification ; as, " He ran a race." " She dreamed a dream."
Rem. 7. — The object of the active verb becomes the subject of the
{>assive ; as, "Pwomulus founded Rome" .- Rome was founded by Romu-
us.
Rem. 8. — To avoid ambiguity, the object should be placed after the
verb, especially when the subject and object are both nouns ; as, " Alex-
ander conquered Darius," not, " Alexander Darius conquered ; " but when
the subject or object is a pronoun, the form usually determines the rela-
tion ; as, " Him followed his next mate."
Rem. 9. — The following verbs, make, appoint, elect, create, constitute,
render, name, style, call, esteem, think, consider, regard, reckon, and some
others, not only take after them a direct object, but predicate of it another
object, which may, therefore, be called its attribute. The attributive object
may be either a noun, an adjective, or a verb. " They made him an officer."
" They made him sick." " They made him labor." Though it is evi-
dent that the attributive object, when a noun, denotes the same per-
son or thing as the first, it is by no means in apposition with it In
the case of apposition, the principal noun completes the meaning of the
verb, and the second limits the first; as, "They called Miles, the carpen-
ter" But in the case of two objects, (the object and its attribute,) Doth
are necessary to complete the meaning of the verb ; as, " They called Mites
a carpenter" In one case, the second noun has no grammatical relation
to the verb ; in the other, it is directly related, both to the verb and to the
first noun. In the first example, " carpenter " should be parsed as a noun
in the objective, put in apposition with the first, by Rule VI. In the sec-
ond examph? "carpenter" should be parsed as a "noun in the objective
SYNTAX RULE IX. ADVERBS. 177
forming, in connection with " Miles" the object of '' called" being also an
attribute to the first object. In a similar way, parse "sick," and ' labor,"
'in the above examples ; or one may be called tbe first) or principal, and
the otber the attributive object of the verb.
Hem. 10. — This construction, in many instances, may be traced to an
abridged proposition in which the infinitive has been dropped ; as, " They
considered him a poet" that is, to be a poet. In fact, the infinitive of the
copula is often expressed, the first object representing, in the objective, what
was the subject nominative ; the second, in like manner, what was the
predicate nominative before the proposition Avas abridged ; as, " I knew
that he was a scholar." " I knew him to be a scholar." In such cases the
infinitive and second noun form the attributive object of the verb, the
second noun being in the objective after " to be."
Rem. 11. — The infinitive of any verb may be the second or attributive
object; the first object being its subject, and the two together forming a
kind of abridged proposition; as, "They ordered the soldiers to march."
" They ordered that the soldiers shoidd march."
Rem. 12. — The following verbs, buy, sell, play, sing, get, lend, draw),
send, make, pass, write, pour, give, teach, leave, bring, tell, do, present,
throw, carry, ask, shoio, order, promise, refuse, deny, provide, and some
others, take after them, besides a direct object, an indirect object, showing
to or from what the action tends ; as, " Give me a book."
Rem. 13. — The indirect object is generally said to be governed by a
preposition understood.
Rem. 14. — When any of the above verbs assume the passive form, the
direct object generally (though not always) becomes the subject; as, "A
book was given me." The indirect object sometimes becomes the subject ;
as, "He was asked his opinion." "I was taught grammar." Ojnnion
and gra?nmar are in the objective case after a passive verb.
Rem. 15. — Instead of a single word, or an infinitive, a substantive
clause may become one of the objects ; as, " He informed me that the boat
had sailed."
Exercises to be parsed or corrected by thr. Remarks urtler Rule VIII.
Practice will make her a ready writer. Yet your mistrust cannot make me a trai-
tor. Give that ring to me. He spoke of the diligent efforts which lie had made. Let
the end try the man. Joseph dreamed a droam. Then call we this the field of Agiu-
court. Darius Crcesus conquered. 1 will glVe them an everlasting name. Thou
shalt make his soul an offering for sin. But I exhort them to consider the Faerie
Queen as the most precious jewel of their coronet. They denied me this privilege.
I was denied this privilege. He was paid the money. You were paid a high com-
pliment. He said, " If I tell you the truth, ye will not believe me." He said that he
preferred to take a different course. I prayed that God would give him strength-
Rule IX. Adverbs are used to limit verbs, particij les,
adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, " Lightning moves sxoiftljj."'
Examples to be analyzed and parsed —
You both are truly welcome. Speak softly, for a breath might wake her.
Yet we may strongly trust his skill. How heavily her fate must weigh her
down ! Freely to give reproof, and thankfully to receive it, is an indis-
pensable condition of true friendship ! How happy they who wake no
more . How soon man's earthly enjoyments pass away ! How easily are
men diverted from a good cause !
Construct, analyze, and jmrsc —
Examples in which a verb adjectm or an adverb shall be limited ot
ITS ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
tdvcrbs, four denoting time, four, place, four, manner, four, nega
riOX, 6t DEGREE.
Caution I. Two negatives should never be employed to
express a negation ; as, " I have no book," not, " I haven't no
book "
Examples to be corrected, : —
I will not take that course by no means. I did not like neither his prin-
ciples nor his practice. I cannot write no more. Nothing never can justi-
fy such conduct. He will never be no better. Neither he nor no one else
behoves the story. I never go nowheres. I am resolved not to trust him,
Deither now, nor any other time. Nj one knows neither the causes nor
the effects of such influences.
Caution IT. Avoid the use of an adverb when the quality
of an object, and not the manner of an action, is to be ex
pressed ; as, " The apple tastes siveet,'''' not sweetly.
Examples to be corrected : —
His expressions sounded harshly. Satin feels very smoothly. Give him
a s-)on and decisive answer. Such incidents are of seldom occurrence.
The then emperor issued a decree. Did he arrive safely ? She seemed
beautifully.
Caution III. Avoid the use of no to express negation,
with a verb or participle ; as, " I shall not change my course
of action, whether you do or not," not no.
Examples to be corrected : —
Know now whether this be thy son's coat, or no. Tell me whethei 1
shall do it, or no. I will ascertain if it is true, or no.
Caution IV. Never use now before that, or instead of
it ; as, " He said that he should come," not how he should
come.
EXAMPLES to be corrected : —
He said how he believed it. She told me now that she would come if
%hc could. He remarked how time was valuable.
Rem. 1. — Some adverbs, instead of modifying any particular word, are
either independent, or are used to modify an entire proposition; as, yes,
»w, nay, amen, likewise truly, etc. " Will you go ? Yes." " Tridy, God
is good to Israel."
Rem. 2. — Anv word or group of words performing the office of an ai
verb is called an adverbial element or expression. If it be a group of
words, it should first be disposed of as an adverb, and then resolved intl
its component parts. See Analysis.
Rkm. 3. — An adverb or adverbial expression should be placed so neai
the word which it limits as to make its relation obvious ; yet no element
of the sentence can be so easily transposed without causing ambiguity aa
SYNTAX — IU?LE X. 179
the adverbial. It may be placed at the beginning, m the middle, or at the
end of the sentence ; as, " He carefully examined the document " = Care-
fully did lie examine the document. lie examined the document carefully .
Rem. 4. — Adverbs are used sometimes to limit the meaning of a prep-
osition, sometimes a phrase ; as, " He held his hand exactly over the
place." " We were absent almost a year."
Rem. 5. — Adverbs are themselves sometimes modified by phrases, or
clauses ; as, " He left four years afterward*." " He came rome time ago"
" He run faster than his brother.' - '
Rem. 6. — Conjunctive abverbs are complex words usually modifying
two words, and at the same time joining an adverbial clause to the word on
which it depends ; as, " We shall be present when the boat arrives " = We
shall be present at the time at, or in which, the boat arrives. Here, when
modifies present, instead of at the time, and arrives, instead of in which.
It also connects " the boat arrives " to present.
Examples to be parsed by the Remarlcs under Rule IX.
Did ye not lieat it? No. Tie remained where (lie days of his ywuth were passed.
He arose before the sun. Tlie stream flowed silently on. Tliey will be absent
almost three years. It is impossible continually to be at work. He beard the news
some time rum. And the rest will I set in order when I come. Verily I say unto
you, Remember thy Creator in the days ot'tliy youth.
Rule X. The nominative case independent and the in-
terjection have no grammatical relation to the other parts
of the sentence.
Five cases occur in which a noun or pronoun may be independent or
absolute. It may be so —
(1.) By direct address ; as, " Plato, t.vou reasonest well."
(2.) By mere exclamation ; as, " my misfortune!"
(3.) By pleonasm, or when the attention is drawn to an object before
any thing is said of it ; as, " Harry's flesh, it fell away." " Gad, a troop
shall overcome him."
(4.) When in connection with a participle, it is equivalent to a proposi-
tion, of which it was the subject befopc the former was abridged ; as, " He
having a**-'*^, we returned."
(5.) When, in an abridged proposition, it follows the infinitive or parti-
ciple of the copula, and is uncontrolled by a preceding noun ; as, "I waa
not aware of his being a scholar." " To be a scholar requires industry and
perseverance."
Examples to be analyzed arid parsed : —
Fair daffodils ! we weep to see you haste away so soon. Odayrrost calm k
most bright ! the fruit of this, the next world's bud ! the week were dark
but for this light. The pilgrim fathers, where are they ? He having given
us the direction, we departed. I was not aware of his being the preacher
O the times ! O the manners ! Ah, father ! these are wondrous words
The savage rocks have drunk thy blood, my brother !
Construct, analyze, and parse —
FIVE Examples containing an interjection, and two for each of the five
cases of nominative absolute, or independent.
Rem. I. — In the ast two cases, though the noun is absolute, the group
180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
if words to which it belongs, including the participle or infinitive, ha*
•orne connection with the rest of the sentence.
Rem. 2. — In ease of the nominative absolute, that is, the nominative
preceding a participle, sometimes the noun or pronoun is understood, and
sometimes the participle ; as, " Properly speaking, there is no such thing
as cold; " that is, toe, or one, speaking properly. " This done, and all is
safe; " that is, being done. " This matter at an end, we will proceed; '
ksing at an end
Rem. 3. — Both of the last two cases result from abridging a dependent
clause. The abridged construction may usually be resumed to a corj&p.ete
proposition.
Examples to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule X.
Whose gray top shall tremble, Aim descending. And me, what shall do?
IViis done, and wo are sure of success. The prophets, do they live forever? This
Blatter finished, we will proceed. There all thy gifts and graces we display, toe,
siily thee, directing all our way. These matters arranged, the company separated.
Fair pledges of a fruitful tree, why do ye fall so fast?
Rule XI. Coordinate conjunctions are used to connect
similar elements ; as, " Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob were
Jewish patriarchs."
Examples to be analyzed and parsed : —
Mrs. Unwin and Lady Hesketh were friends of Cowper. Clouds and
darkness are round about him, righteousness and judgment are the habita-
tion of his throne. They were united by ties of friendship and of kindred.
I am debtor both to the Greeks and to the barbarians.
Construct, analyze, and parse —
Ten Examples in which either of the different kinds of coordinate con-
junctions, connect only elements; ten in which they connect clauses.
Caution I. In a series of coordinate terms, unless great
emphasis is required, never use the conjunction, except between
the last two.
Examples to be corrected : —
They confess the power, and wisdom, and love, and goodness of their
Creator. John, and James, and Henry, and Charles will return this even
i/ig. His conduct was unkind, and unjust, and unmerciful.
Caution II. Avoid dissimilar and disproportionate
coordinate terms.
Examples to be corrected : —
He neither came nor was sent for. We pervert the noble faculty of
speech when we use it to the defaming, or to disquiet our neighbors. We
hope that we shall hear from him, and that he has returned. I always
have, and I always shall be of this opinion. The work was executed with
rapidity ar.d promptly. 1* is a region distinguished by many charming
SYNTAX — RULE III. — REMARKS. 181
rarieties of rural scenery, and which may le termed the Arcsiia of Soot
land.
Rule XIL When a verb or pronoun relates to two or
ir.cre nouns connected oy c coordinate conjunction, —
(1.) If it agrees with them token conjointly, it must be
in the plural number.
(2 ) But if it agrees with them taken separately, it mi 5 **
be of the same number as that which stands next to it.
(3.) If it agrees with one, and not the other, it must take
the number of that one.
EXAMPLES.
" Charles and his sister were absent, but they were sent for." " Charles
or his sister was absent." " Charles or his sisters were absent." " Charles,
and not his sister, was absent."
Examples to be analyzed and parsed : —
Where was it when winds and clouds were its only visitors, and where
the sun and blue heaven by day, and the moon and stars by night, alone
looked down and beheld it, the same as they behold it now ? " One day the
poor woman and her idiot boy were missed from the market-place. Neith-
er his vote, his influence, nor his purse, was ever withheld from the cause
in which he had engaged. Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved.
Whether one person or more were concerned in the business does not appear.
Construct, analyze, and parse —
Four Examples in which a plural verb must agree with two singular
nominatives, four in which a pronoun in the singular shall relate to two
or more singular nouns.
Rem. 1. — In the following cases, nouns in the singular seem to be taken
conjointly, and yet the verb and pronoun should be singular : —
(1.) When the coordinate nouns denote the same person in different ca-
pacities; as, "This great statesman and orator died lamented by all Aw
friends."
(2.) When the coordinate nouns are considered separately, by means of
such limiting words as each, every, ox no; as, "Each d?.y and each hour
brinys its own duties and trials." " Every apple and every pear teas take U
from its place." " No book and tio slate should be left out of its place.' 1
(3.) When the coordinate nouns are distinguished with emphasis by
means of not, only, too, as toell as, or when there is an emphatic enumera-
tion of individuals ; as, " George, and not James, is at his task."
" Truth, and truth only, is worth seeking for its own sake." " The man,
and ids servant too, was rewarded." " The father, as well as his son, uxu
in fault." " Thine is the kingdom, and the power, and the glory."
(4.) When the coordinate nouns are regarded by the mind as represent-
ing one thing ; as, " Bread and milk is excellent food for children." " Th»
borse and chaise is in its place."
Rem. 2. — The Rule and Rem. 1 have reference only to the number of
16
-82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
the verb and pronoun. It often happens that the coordinate words aie of
different persons. When the coordinate parts are of different persons, tlio
verb or pronoun agrees with the first rather than the second, and with tkt
second rather than the third ; as, " Thou and thy sons Avith thee (that is,
ye) shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood." "John, thou and / (that
is, loe) are attached to our country."
Rem 3. — When the coordinate parts are each singular, and of different
genders, several cases may arise : —
(1.) Ihe verb may relate to them conjointly, while the pronoun may relate
to but one; as, "James and his sister tcere destroying her bonnet"
u James and his sister were destroying his cap."
(2.) Tne pronoun may relate to them taken conjointly, while the wrl
relates to them taken separately ; as, " James or his sister lias destroyed
their dictionary," the dictionary being theirs by a joint ownership.
(3.) When the pronoun has a common reference to both coordinate
nouns taken conjointly, the gender cannot be distinguished by the pro-
noun, since the latter is plural, and consequently has, in English, the
same form for all genders.
(4.) When the pronoun refers to two or more coordinate nouns taken
separately, there is no personal pronoun, in English, applicable to each, and
there is an inherent difficulty in constructing the expression properly ; as,
" John or Ellen has lost his or her pencil." To use his alone or her alone
would reveal the ownership, which is supposed to be unknown. Hence it does
not avail to say that the masculine is preferred to the feminine, and the
feminine^to the neuter ; for either would become explicit, as in case (1.) To
avoid this difficulty, it is best to recast the sentence, or so construct it aa
to escape 'such a dilemma. Yet, contrary to the general rule, frequent
instances occur in which the pronoun, in such cases, is put in the plural,
and thus the gender is concealed; as, "Then shalt thou bring forth that
man or that woman unto thy gates, and shalt stone them with" stones, till
they shall die."
Rem. 4. — When each of the coordinate parts is denoted by the same
word, and that a singular noun referring to different objects, and each, ex-
cept the last, is understood — being represented by some modifying word,
the agreement of the verb or pronoun follows the general rule ; as, " A
Webster's, a Worcester's, and a Richardson's dictionary were consulted ; "
that is, three dictionaries. " A literary, a scientific, a wealthy, and a poor
man wei'e assembled in one room."
Examples to be parsed and corrected by Remarks under Rule XII.
T iris philosopher and poet was banished from his country. Every limb and every
appears with their respective grace. Ambition, and' not the safety of the state,
toere concerned. Bread and cheese is good for a luncheon. Then I, and you, smi
all of us fell down, whilst bloody treason flourished over us. John and Mary at*
taking care of her garden. Charles and Ellen are learning their lessons. Neither be
r..ir I am capable of it. Wayland's and Upham's Moral Philosophy was consulted.
if efined, educated, and people present. Has not sloth, or pride, or ill
t«-»;per, or sinful passion misled you from the path of sound and wise conduct?
ltut,S XI11. A preposition is used to show the relation
of its object to the word on which the latter depends ; as
11 George went into the garden" " A life of virtue is a life
of happiness."
Examples to be analyzed and parsed: —
■ cail to you with all my voice. From end tc end, from cliff to lake, 'twat
&YNTAX RULE XIV. 183
free. Her tears were now flowing -without control. She is like seine ten-
der tree, the pride and beauty of the grove — graceful in its form bright
in its foliage, but with the worm preying at its heart.
Construct, analyze, and 'parse —
Five Examples in which the preposition and object shall limit a noun;
five in which the phrase shall limit a verb, and five in which it shall
limit an adjective or adverb.
Rem. 1. — The noun or pronoun following the preposition is always de-
pendent on some term, usually a preceding one, and the preposition is used to
shore that dependence. Properly speaking, the objective is not the object of
the preposition, but of the preceding term. In the case of the transitive verb,
there are two terms, the verb itself and the objective, and the relation be-
tween them is closer, if possible, than between those in which the preposi-
tion is used ; the objective is not called the object of that relation, but
rather of the antecedent term, the verb. Yet custom makes the noun the
object of the preposition.
Rem. 2. — Sometimes the antecedent term is omitted, and sometimes
the subsequent ; as, " In a word, he is ruined " — To express all in a word,
&c. He looked arottnd [him.] When the object is understood, the prep-
osition is usually parsed as an adverb. For, used before an infinitive and
its objective subject, when the group is taken as the subject of a proposi-
tion, has no antecedent, term; as, '* F(tr him to lie is base." The Lj of
the infinitive, when both together constitute the subject, represents no re-
lation to an antecedent term ; as, " To lie is base."
Rem. 3. — Between and betwixt refer to two objects ; among jpiAanwnqsi
to more than two; as, " He walked between the trees," (two trees.) "He
walked among the trees," (many trees.)
Rem. 4. — ("are should be observed to employ the proper preposition to
show the relation intended. The proper use of the prepositions is best
learned from a careful observation of the custom of good writers.
Exercises to he parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Ride XIII.
He was well known to all tlie country round* In vain lie tried every remedy.
For him to take such a course was not unexpected. Thou pendulum betwixt a
smile and tear. I am disappointed 0/ the work. The story is founded in facts. I
left my hooks to home. I entertain no prejudice to him. That was agreeable with
his principles. They resided at Italy. There is eternal war between me and thee
Rule XIV. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a
preposition must be in the objective case ; as, u The ruins
of the Parthenon stand upon the A'cropolU in the city of
AtliensP
Examples to be analyzed and parsed : —
A similar improvement may be made of the memory of our good deeds
What ground of hope is there so sure to his spirit, next to the mercy of
his Gcd, and the intercession of Christ, his Savior ? It was not long be
fore he returned with his man, whom he introduced to me as a person of
exceeding honesty ; and we went into the yard all together.
Construct, analyze, and parse —
(1 ) Examples in which of, or any other preposition with a noun, shall
describe another noun.
(2.) Examples in which in, at, during, since, about, after, bqfore.
ifr4 El GLISH GRAMMAR.
between, oy, ere, from, till, to, and toward, with a noun, shall denote the
time of an action, or answer the question When? How longt or Hoio
often f
(3.) Examples in which aboard, about, above, across, against, along,
amidst, among, around, at, athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside,,
beticeen, beyond, by, down, from, in, into, on, out of, over, round, through.
throughout, to, toioard, under, underneath, up, upon, with a noun, t-:hall
denote the place of an action, or answer the question Where ?
(4.) Examples in which from, for, by, out of, with a noun, shall dtr.ote
tho cause, source, or origin of an act, answering the question Why f On
what account 1 or From what source t
(5.) Examples in which loith, without, in, on, by, within, with a noun,
shall shoAV the manner of an action, or answer the question How f
Rem. 1. — The preposition is omitted, or rather seldom, if ever, used,
before nouns denoting time, measure, distance, value, or after the words
like, near, nigh, worth; as, "The wall is six feet high." "We walked
t.venty miles that day" " He helped a worthy man, and is not a penny
poorer." " He is like [to] his father." " They live near [to] the city.*
"We came nigh [toj the gale." "The book is worth a dollar." The
word worth is by some called a preposition ; but it can be predicated of a
noun, like an adjective, and it can be qualified by an adverb ; as, " The
matter is well worth your attention." True, it is not easy to supply a prep-
osition after it, nor is it after high or revolves in the following examples :
" The house is forty feet high." " The wheel revolves ninety times in a
minute."
Rem. 2. — Prepositions are sometimes followed by adjectives or adverbs,
an object in some cases being understood; as, "In vain" = In a vain
manner, on high, in secret, at first, at once, from thence, from above, till noiv,
forever, till lately, &c.
Rem. 3. — Than before whom seems to perform the office of a preposi-
tion; as, " Than whom none higher sat." This construction is rare in
modern usage, and should be avoided as anomalous.
Exercises to be parsed or corrected by the Remarks under Rule XIV.
We walked a great distance this morning. The child is like his mother. Pray to
thy Father, which is in secret. Tliey could not be convinced at first. That has
never occurred until recently. It was worth the money. Near yonder copse, the
village preacher's modest mansion rose. I was resolved, at least, to know my let
ters. He came from afar. He lived in the country, near the city.
RtjLE XV. Subordinate connectives are used to join dis-
similar elements ; as, " He that hath pity on the poor lend*
eth to the Lord."
Examples to be analyzed and parsed : —
We have brought nothing into this world ; therefore we shall take nothing
out. While there is life, there is hope. However friendly he might ap-
pear, his heart was full of anger. Herod wished to know where the' star
had appeared. Whether the moon has an atmosphere has not been ascer-
tained. He that plants trees loves others beside himself. What comes
from the heart goes to the heart. Time will bring to light whatever is
hidden. The more we serve God, the better we serve ourselves. As far as
the eye could see, all was ruin and desolation. Work as long as you can.
The more one has. the more he requires. Revenge always costs more than
it is worth. That you may be loved, be deserving of love. If you would
thrive, you must rise at five.
ST* TAX — ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 18&
Construct, an aly ze, and parse —
Five Examples in which who, which, and that shall join an adjective
■lausc to the subject ; five in which they shall join the clause to the cnject
of a verb or preposition ; five in which they shall join the clause to the
predicate nominative.
Five Examples in which who, or whoex^er, shall connect an adjective
chaise to some indefinite subject or object (he or any one) understood.
Five Examples in which what, which, whatever ; whichever, whatsoever,
whichsoever, shall first limit, as an adjective, a. definite noun expressed, and
then connect to it an adjective clause ; five in* which they shall limit cr
represent an indefinite noun (thing) understood.
Tex Examples in which that, whether, when, why, where, how, who,
which, what, introduce substantive clauses used as the subject ; (see
Rem. 1 ;) ten in which they are used as an object of a transitive verb.
Tex Examples in which where, whither, whence, wherever, whitherso-
ever, as far as, as long as, farther than, shall connect an adverbial clause
of place to a verb or adjective.
Fifteex Examples in which when, while, whilst, as, before, after, ere,
till, until, since, whenever, as long as, as soon as, the moment, the instant
shall connect adverbial clauses denoting time to a verb or adjective.
Examples for each of the following catisai connectives : because, for,
Q3. whereas, since ; (conditional,) if, though, except, provided that; (pur-
pose,) that, that not, lest ; (adversative, ) though, although, notwithstand-
ing, however, while, and as, (with an adjective — " Hard as it was")
Examples for each of the following, denoting manner : (correspondence,)
as, just — OS, so — as ; (consequence,) so — that, such — that ; (comparison
of equality,) as — as ; (comparison of inequality,) than, more — than
less — than; (proportionate equality,) the — the, the more — the more, or
the less.
Rem. 1. — That, whether, or the various interrogatives when, where,
&c, when used to introduce a substantive clause employed as the subject
of a proposition, do not connect the clause to an antecedent term, since
the subject can be subordinate to no other part of the proposition. These
connectives thus used serve to convert a principal proposition into a sub-
ordinate substantive proposition which, like any other noun, may be used
as the subject.
Rem. 2. — In many cases the subordinate connective has a correspond-
ing word in the principal clause called the correlative ; as, " Then— when,
there — where, if — then, though — yet, so — that, so — as, as — as, the, this,
that, these, those — who, that] or which.
Rem. 3. — The subordinate connective alway? unites the clause which it
introduces to the word which the clause limit: ; as, "I perceive that
you need assistance."
Rem. 4. — Subordinate connectives are a kind of proposition placed be-
fore a sentence which is to be converted into a no\m, adjective, or adverb
Hence their piosition is almost invariably at the head of the clause.
ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS.
A proposition is said to be abridged when its predicate is
changed to an infinitive or to a participle, the former partak*
16
186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
mg of the i-ature of a noun, the latter parte King of the nature
of an adjective ; as, " The light shines." " The light to shine"
or " for the light to shine." M The light shining" or u having
shined ''
A complex sentence may be reduced to a simple, or a contract
ed complex sentence, by abridging its subordinate clause ; as,
• A man who perseveres will prosper " — A persevering man
will prosper. " When we entered the city, we found all in
commotion w rr On entering the city, we found all in com-
motion. " I knew he was an honest man " = 1 knew him
to be an honest man.
Rem. — The connective of the subordinate clause is dropped ; as, " 1
thought that he was alone " — I thought him alone. But in such ex-
amples as, " I know not what to do ; whom to send — which to leave —
where to go — when to stop — how to begin, the connective is not dropped,
since it contains something material to the sense, not previously expressed.
See page 104, Rem. 2.
The infinitive is commonly employed in abridging a sub-
stantive clause, and the participle in abridging the adjective
or adverbial clause.
When the predicate consists of the copula and attribute,
the infinitive or participle of the copula indicates the abridg-
ment ; and the attribute remains unchanged, unless some-
thing in the dependence of the abridged expression causes a
change.
EXERCISE.
Abridge the dependent clauses in the following complex sentences : —
Vapors rise, because they are light. If wishes were horses, beggars
would ride. If we subdue not our passions, they will subdue us. That
fine feathers make fine birds, we can see every day. Therein consists our
true merit, that we fulfil our duties. Our own conscience will tell us
whether our actions are right. Those who play with edge tools must ex-
pect to be cut. He should have silver on his tongue whose purse is
«mpty. When we shall die is kindly concealed from us. The sluggard
knows not how sweet is repose after labor. Whom we love we also esteem.
Superstitious persons imagine that there are ghosts. Never expect other*
will always do what they promise.
SYNTAX RULE XVI. 187
THE SUBJECT IN THE ABRIDGED EXPRESSION.
I. The subject of the dependent proposition is retained
m the abridged expression, when it has not been expressed
in the principal clause, —
(1.) In the nominative absolute, (see Rule X.;) as, " When the party
arrived, the dinner was prepared " = The parti/ having arrived, the dinner
Was prepared.
(2.) In the possessive limiting the abridged predicate used as a noun;
•s, "I was not aware that David had come " = I was not aware of D<i'
vid's having come.
(3.) In the objective, when the abridged expression follows a transitive
terb, or a preposition, (see Rule VIII., Rem. 11;) as, "I knew that he
was present " = I knew him to be present. " It was improper that he
should go " s= It was improper for htm to go.
II. The subject may be dropped when its equivalent is
expressed in the principal clause ; as, " A prince who was
renowned for his courage succeeded to the command "=:A
prince renowned for his courage, &c. u I wish that /
might go " = I wish to go.
THE PREDICATE NOUN OR PRONOUN.
The predicate noun or pronoun is always retained, ap-
pearing, —
(1.) In the nominative case, (a.) when the subject remains in the nom-
inative ; as, " Since he was her te/icher, she must learn " = lie being her
teacher, she must learn ; (b.) when (the subject being dropped) it is
placed in apposition (with or without the participle of the copula) with a
noun in the nominative ; as, ° Paid, who was an apostle " = Paul [being] an
apostle, (c.) When the subject is so changed as to have no control over
its case ; as, I am sure that this man is a foreigner " = I am sure of this
man's being a foreigner. " I am certain that it is he " = I am certain of
its being he.
(2.) In the objective case, (a,) when the subject is changed to the objec-
tive; as, " I believe that it is he " — I believe it to be him. (b.) When
(the subject being dropped) it is put in apposition with an objective; as,
" We found a fossil which is called the trilobite " = We found a fossil
called the trilobite
THE INFINITIVE.
Rule XVI. The infinitive has the construction of the
noun, with the signification and limitations of the verb, and,
ISS ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
whou dependent, is governed by the word which it limits
as, " To err is human." " They desire to travel ?n a
foreign country." " He wishes to obtain a treatise on the
deposition of dewy
Note. — It will be seen that the first infinitive, to err, is a noun in the nominafrv*
case, and the remaining two, to tnvel and to obtain, are used as nouns in the objec-
tive case, both being limited as if they were finite verbs.
Examples to be analyzed and parsed : —
Full of admiration, I hardly know how to express my devotion. We
ought to learn as long as we live. Let any man resolve to do right now,
leaving then to do it as it can ; and if he Avere to live to the age of Me-
thuselah, he would never do wrong. We did think it writ down in our duty
to let you know of it. And what wealth would not many a sinner give to
purchase that which the wealth of both the Indies is too poor to buy ?
We stretched out a willing hand to heal, to help, to guide, to save. I might
compare these faculties to tbe valuable friends, who are always found ready
to minister to our amusement, and participate in our gayety, and equally
ready to counsel our sober hours, and assist our emergencies with effectu-
al help.
The infinitive may be used with or without a subject ; as, " We wish you
to stay." " We wish to stay."
I. The infinitive may have a subject in the objective ; as,
" They ordered him to leave."
(1.) The infinitive of the copula may also have & predicate objective ; as,
" I knew him to be a preacher."
(2.) The infinitive with its subject may be the subject of a proposition ;
the phrase must then be introduced by for ; as, "For you to deceive is
criminal." " For him to be a scholar is impossible."
(3.) The infinitive and its subject may be made the object of a transitive
verb, or of the preposition for ; as, " He" ordered the horse to he harnessed."
" They considered him [to be] a traitor." " They appointed him [to be]
chairman." See Itule VIII. , Rem. 10 and 11. " They ordered some
water for the boy to drink."
(4.) When the infinitive, (with or without its objective subject.) fol-
lows bid, dare, let, need, make, see, hear, and feel, in the active voice,
the " to " is omitted ; as, " I saw him do it." " They let him go." " We
heard them sing."
II. The infinitive usually occurs without its subject : as
4 They wish to ivalk.''
(1.) The infinitive alone may be used as the subject of a proposition bj
Rule I ; as, " To retaliate is censurable."
(2.) The infinitive alone may be used as the attribute of a propositios
ky Rule II. ; as, " To obey is to enjoy."
Note. — When the infinitive is thus used, it denotes, (1.) An equivalent term ; as
K To pray is to supplicate." (2.) What is possible or obligatory ; a?, " The passage i
to bef'ound." " Our duty it to be done." (3.) What is settled oi determined upon
»6, " The work is to commence to-morrow "
SYNTAX — HULK XVII. 180
' x 3.) The inflictive', without its subject, may be the object of a transitive
?erb, a preposition, or it may be used to complete the meaning of some
intransitive verbs ; as, " lie wishes to remain." " They are about to go."
'' She seems to sleep."
(4.) The infinitive may be used as an adjective element ox noun in apposi*
tion, limiting another noun ; as, " Time to come." " A desire to go "
"A hope to recover." "A wish to stay."
(5.) The infinitive may be used adverbially, —
(1.) To denote purpose, or motive ; as, " What went ye out to see ?"
Note. — In this use the infinitive is sometimes said to be absolute ; as, " To con-
fess Vie truth, I was in fault."
v 2.) To denote a result, after too, than, so — as ; as, " He is too proud
to beg." " He is wiser than to attempt such an enterprise." " Be so good
as to hear me."
Rem. 1. — The preposition for should never be used before the infinitive
employed to express motive qx purpose ; also the sign to should not be used
at the close of a sentence ; as, " He went to see," not for to see. " He
spoke, or intended to speak," not intended to.
Rem. 2. — The infinitive is often understood; as, "They considered
him [to be] upright."
EXERCISE ON THE INFINITIVE.
I have brought a book for you to read. Johnson declared wit to consist
in finding out resemblances. These passages prove that materialists wiU
sometimes find Hume to be a very dangerous ally. For him to assert and
deny the same sentiment on different pages, is proof of the instability of
his opinions. It was well for him to die at his post, with his armor on.
I heard him repeat whole pages of poetry. Few things are more destruc-
tive to the best interests of society than the prevalent but mistaken no-
tion that it requires a vast deal of talent to be a successful knave. It is a
disgrace to be the author of such a report. To take away the benevolent
affections from the moral world would be like extinguishing the sun from
the natural. I love to roam over the green fields. He seems to think the
rule inapplicable to his case. They appear to rest upon the solid earth.
A desire to see his face once more induced us to attempt the journey. The
work is to be commenced to-morrow. To be good is to be happy. They
remained to see what was to be done. He was too feeble to write a letter
Will you be so good as to pass me that book ?
Rule XVII. Participles have the construction of adjec-
tives and nouns, and are limited like verbs ; as, " He, stoop-
ing down, and looking in, saw the linen clothes lying ; yet
went he not in." " A habit of sincerity in acknolw edging
faults is a guard against committing them."
Examples to be analyzed and parsed ; —
He employs part of his time in teaching hif brother arithmetic. There
n no doubt of Ms being a great statesman. Ihe young maiden was seen
standing on the shore, exposed to the merciless winds, "and extending her
hands towards heaven. Whom not having seen we love ; in whom
190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
oelieving we rejoice. In avoiding one error, do not fall into another. By
consulting the best authors, he became learned. Draw not thy bow before
naving fixed thy arrow. A drowning man will catch at a straw. Stretch-
ing from horizon to horizon, losing itself like a limitless wall in the clouds
above,, it came pouriag its green and massive waters onward, while the
continual and rapid crash of falling forests, and crusbed cities, and uplom
mountains, thus prostrated, one after another, under its awful power, and
the successive shrieks that pierced the heavens, rising even above the
roar of the on-rushing ocean, as city after city, kingdom a iter kingdom,
disappeared, produced terror and horror inconceivable, indescribable.
I. The participle used as an adjective assumes of its
subject what the verb asserts ; as, " Hyacinths blooming."
" Hyacinths bloom."
(1.) The participle may be used wholly as an adjective ; it is then called
a participial adjective, and is placed before the noun ; as, " The rising sun.'*
" The roaring billows."
(2.) The participle may be used like an adjective, having the same signi-
fication and limitations as the verb; the participle, with the words which
limit it, is then called the participial construction ; as, " Encouraged by this
magnificent invitation, the inhabitants of the globe considered labor as
their only friend."
(3.) The participle of the copulative verbs may be followed by a predicate
nominative, (1.) When the noun or pronoun to which it belongs is nomin-
ative. (2.) When the noun or pronoun to which it logically belongs is
changed to the possessive; as, "He being an accomplished ivriter." "I
have heard of his being an accomplished writer."
(4.) The participle of copulative verbs may be followed by a predicate ob-
jective when the noun or pronoun to which it belongs is in the objective ; as,
M We regarded him as being a good writer" " lie intrusted his son to
a gentleman named Edric."
(5.) The participle, like the adjective, may be used with the copula to
form the predicate ; but in this construction it is regarded as a form of the
verb ; as, "They were riditig." " He was deceived."
II. TJie participle may be used either wholly as a noun,
or as a noun having the meaning and limitations of the
verb ; as, " It is pleasant to walk at the rising of the sun.*'
"We should avoid giving pain to others."
(1.) The participle used wholly as a noun is preceded by an article or
adjective, and followed by of; as, " The sighing of the poor." " The err-
ing of the needy." In this case the participle cannot be limited, like the
Verb.
(2.) The participle having the construction of the noun with the mean-
ing and limitations of the verb may be the subject, or predicate nominative
or the object of a transitive verb or preposition ; as, " Loving our neigh-
bor as ourselves is fulfilling the law." " Steali?ig is taking without lib-
erty." " We should avoid breaking a promise." " On a^jproaching ths.
house, the sound of a bell was faintly heard."
(3.) In this construction the participle is called the jMr&ieipie 1 «"•■•<
md as such, may bo limited by a noun or proa urn in the poss?Wv,. "
/
SYN1AX — PECULI iRITIES AND IDIOMS. 191
". What d> you think of his writing a letter — his being a writer ? " Foi
this last, see I. 3, above.
EXERCISE ON THE PARTICIPLE.
A far more interesting personage in their mythology was the god of the
air. It is doing injustice to the heroic war god of antiqtiity to identify
him with this monster. We expect the dancing master to teach, our chil-
dren " manners," as well as the act of cutting awkward capers to music
Why is the experiment of an extended republic to be rejected ? He came
near being devoured by a panther. These islanders are far from being
cannibals. The ease is well worth considering. They came upon him with-
out his being apprised of their approach. The urchin's becoming so re-
spectable a man surprised every one. The gentleman's reputation as a
scholar was the cause of his being appointed professor of rhetoric.
They narrowly escaped being taken prisoners. Being convinced of his
guilt, we resolved to punish him. We descried a vessel stripped of its
masts. Having declined the proposal, I determined on a course suited to
my own taste. They have said, Come, and let us cut them off from being
a nation. He had been there but a short time, before the old man alighted
from his gig, with the apparent intention of becoming his guest. Such
persons commence by being their own masters, and finish by being their
own slaves. He had just been reading a book called the "Young Alan's
Guide." I cannot understand adding three columns at once. On our
arriving at the pier, all was commotion.
PECULIARITIES AND IDIOMS.
I. IN THE CLASSIFICATION, USES, AND PROPERTIES
OE WORDS AND SENTENCES.
A.. The same Word as different Parts of Speech.
What is (L) An interrogative pronoun ; as, " What do you see ? "
(2.) A compound relative ; as, " He received what he wanted "
(3.) An interjection; as, " What! have you come ? "
(4.) A limiting adjective; as, "He gave me what books I
needed."
• (5.) An adverb; as, "The enemy having his country wasted,
what (partly) by himself, and what (partly) by the sol
diers, findeth succor in no place."
*HAT I« (1.) A subordinate conjunction ; as, " I know that he is faith
ful."
(2.) A relative pronoun ; as, " An idler is a watch that ^which ,
wants both hands."
(3.) A limiting adjective ; as, " That book is soiled."
Afi ib (1.) Part of a compound pi'eposition ; as, 'Ms to that, said tht
pendulum.'
(2). \ subordinate vnnective, when it denotes, —
192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
(a.) Manner ; as, " Speak as you think."
(b.) Comparison of equality ; as, " He is as large as hia
brother."
(c.) Time ; as, " I arrived as (when) he was taking hiu
leave."
{d.) Cause or reason ; as, " As (since) a youth was theij
leader, what could they do ? "
(e.) Correspondence ; as, " As the door tunieth on hi
hinges, so doth the slothful man upon his bed.''
Non — Besides the above Uhes, it takes the place of the relative pronoun (thoi gh
never properly a relative) after such, same, and many; as, " Such as I have, gi\e 1
tusto thee."
(3.) A mere index of apposition, or of a peculiar relation of
some property to its object; as, " The moon as satellite
attends." " They regarded him as innocent."
BUT 18 (1.) A coordinate conjunction; as, " He is not sick, but faint*
(2.) A preposition ; as, " They gave him all but (except) one.'"
(3.) An adverb; as, " We saw him but (only) twice."
Much is (1.) A noun ; as, " Where tnuchis given, much is required."
(2.) An adjective ; as, " Much ado is made."
(3.) An adverb ; as, " I was much pleased with the visit."
Fob is (1.) A subordinate connective ; as, " The battle ceased along tho
plain, for the bard had sung the song of peace."
(2.) A preposition ; as, "The soldier fought for glory."
Note. — The same is true of after, before, since, till, until, &c.
When is (1.) An interrogative adverb; as, " When did you arrive ? "
(2.) A subordinate connective ; as, " When sinners entice thee,
consent thou not."
Note. — The same is true of all the interrogatives ; as, where, why, how, &c, &.&
EXERCISE.
Parse the following words : —
What ! have you but one book for me ? I knew that that was the tree
that was girdled. As yoti have what you will need for the present, I shall
give much of what remains to your sister as a reward. All but three of
these rivers are navigable ; but you must recollect I shall tell you this but
once ; for it is unpleasant to repeat.
"B. The same Part of Speech in Different Rela-
tions and Uses.
I . The noun may be used, —
(a.) As a noun.
(1.) In the nominative as subject ; as, " Kings reign."
(2.^ In the nominative as attribute ; as, " He is a pupil."
6FNTAX — SAME PART OF SPEECH. 193
(3.) In the nominative in apposition; as, " George the king reigned."
(4.) In the nominative independent ; as, " 0, George, the king."
(5.) In the possessive always as a modifier; as, " David's harp."
(8.) In the objective as subject of an infinitive ; as, " I told John
to go."
(7.) In the objective as attribute after an infinitive ; as, " I took it
to be John."
(8.) In the objective after a transitive verb ; as, " He writes Otters."
(9.) In the objective after a preposition; as, " He sits upon a sofa.'*
(10) In the objective in apposition; as, "They visited John the
printer."
r;3.) As an adjective, or adjectively.
(1.) Without a preposition; as, " A ^o/d pencil." " A safety lamp."
Note — Nouns thus used should be called adjectives, [n many languages they
undergo some change of termination, and in some instances in our own; as, " A
brazen gate." But we say, " A brass kettle." So, " A golden censer/' hut never
*' A gulden watch." See " Idiomatic Constructions."
(2.) With a preposition ; as, " A man of wisdom " = A wise man.
\c.) As an adverb, or adverbially.
(1.) Without a preposition; as, " He did it four times a day."
Note. — In such constructions, it is customary, hut scarcely necessary, to suppose
o preposition understood.
(2.) With a preposition ; as, " He labored with assiduity.
2, The pronoun may be used, —
(a.) The personal in all resjjects like the noun.
(b.) The relative and interrogative the same, with the excep-
tion that they can never be used in apposition, and the relative sti-
dom, if ever, as predicate nominative.
££, The adjective may be used, —
(a.) As an adjective. \
(1.) To limit or qualify a noun ; as, " Good men."
(2.) To denote a predicated quality ; as, " He is ivise."
(b.) As a noun.
(1.) Wholly as a noun, {a.) When it is taken abstractly ; as, " Good-
ness," " Virtue; " (b.) When it receives the plural ending ; &b,
" The blacks are abused."
(2.) To stand as a noun, when the latter represents some indefinite
person or thing; as, "The wicked.' "The good." "The
true."
f« ) As an adverb, or adverbially, when by enallage it qualifies a verb ;
as, " They fall successive, and successive rise ; " or when in the
predicate it expresses a quality which the subject acquires by
means of an action ; as, " The bread was baked l»iwm ; " that is
the bread became brown by means of baking.
17
194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4. The verb may be used, —
(a.) As a predicate, in the various forms, modes, ten*., *,. urn*
hers, and persons.
(b.) As a noun.
(1.) Wholly so, wilAi some substantive termination, wrier taken.
abstractly; as, "Move, 1 ' " Movement" "Act" " Acaoii."
(2.) Partially so, when it has the meaning and limitations of the
verb, with the construction of the noun ; as, " To see the sun
is pleasant." " Seeing the sun is pleasant." (See Rules XVI.
and XVII.)
{c.) As an adjective, rchen the action is assumed of the subject.
(1.) It may be wholly an adjective; as, " A floating population."
(2.) Partially so, when it has the construction of the adjective
and the limitations of the verb ; as, " The flag floating in the
breeze." (See Rule XVII.)
Xote. — The verbal noun can be put in all the relations of the noun, except the
possessive case.
5. The adverb is used, —
(a.) To limit a verb, adjective, or other adverb; as, "Speak distinct-
ly." " He was very dull." " He moves too slowly."
(b.) Soinetimes, though not properly, as an adjective ; as, " Thine often
infirmities."
6. Prepositions are used., —
(a.) To shore relations ; as, " The love of truth."
(b.) As adverbs. " Will you walk in? "
(c.) Rarely as adjectives ; as, " The above quotation." " The rain it
o'er."
7. Conjunctions are used simply as connectives.
8. Interjections are used to express ^lotions.
Rbm. — Any word, Avhatever be its classification, when used merely M
a word, is a noun. The s;ime may be said of a group cf words
C» The same Word, Element, or Sentence in its
Different Properties.*
A word may be considered, —
(a.) .4* the representative of a sound.
(1.) It may be classified as a monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllabh
polysyllable.
* The object of this division is to present, at a glance, the different methods which
may be resorted to, in order to give interest and variety to drill exercises in langvage.
The study of language becomes dull and dry when parsing alone is attended to "''n
teacher may resort to any or all of these method?.
SYNTAX — SAME ELEMENT. 195
(2.) It may be analyzed into its syllables. The accented syllable
may be pointed out. As an exercise on accent, the syllables,
in turn, iray be accented by the pupil.
(3.) Each syllable may be separated into its vowel and consonant
elements, and each may be described.
r y b.) As tO its FORMATION.
(1.) It may be simple, derivative, or compound.
(2.) If derivative, or compound, it may be analyzed into its primi-
tive part or parts, its prefixes and suffixes. The effect of each
may be given, and all the alterations, or changes, which the parts
undergo.
^5 ; As to its meaning or USE.
(1.) What part of speech is it ? Why ? Is it ever used as any
other part of speech ? Give an example.
(2.) Parse it. Now, suppose it to be changed in any of its modifi-
cations, as number, person, gender, case, mode, tense, voice,
degree of comparison ; what other changes in the sentence
must take place to correspond ?
3.) Change its relation in the sentence, or construct another sen-
tence in which it shall be either a different part of speech, or
in a different relation.
(d.) As to its relation in construction.
(1.) Is it a principal or a subordinate term, or is it both ?
(2.) Point out its principal term ; point out its subordinate term.
Read it with each.
(3.) Is its relation represented or unrepresented? If represented,
point out the relation-word, and describe it. Read it with its
superior term, omitting the relation-word, thus : " Trees gar-
den; " then read it, inserting the words, " Trees of the garden."
"e.) As to the number of functions it performs.
(1.) Does it perform but one office, requiring but one rule of syn-
tax, or does it perform two or more ? How many rules are
applied in parsing a personal pronoun ? A relative pronoun ?
The relative what, when placed before its antecedent ?
(2.) Explain it in all its functions.
'jf.~) As tO its APPLICATION.
(1.) Is it correct in its application, or it is misapplied 1 !
(2.) Is it elegantly applied, or has it merely a jilain or corimon ap-
plication ?
(3.) Is it used figuratively ? What is the figure ?
(4.) Is the word modern or antique f as, " Fetch ' = bring.
" Wist " = know. " Let " = hinder.
(5.) Is it low, vulgar, or provincial? If so, give the correct word.
(6.) What other word has nearly the same application ? Subst*
tute it, and point out the difference.
•7.) Can the expression be improved ? If so, improve it-
An element may be considered, —
(a.) As a whole.
(1.) If it is a single word, it may then be parsed; if a vhraas
196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
clattse, it may first be parsed as if it were one word, by calling
it substantive, adjective, or adverbial, as the case may be, and
by giving its construction as if it were a single part of speech.
(2.) Its relation may be given, whether subordinate or principal;
also its antecedent or subsequent term.
(3.) It may be transformed by expanding or abridging it, and in ita
transformed state it may "be regarded, as a whole, equivalent to
the element in its former state.
(6.) As composed of parts.
(1.) If it is a phrase, point out the connective and object.
(2.) If it is a clause, point out the connective, and analyze the clause.
(3.^ If it is complex, point out and dispose of the basis, then the
term depending upon this, then the next, and the next, in the
order of dependence.
(4.) If it is compound, point out its component parts, and dispose
of them separately, giving first their relation (coordinate) to
each other, and then their common relation (subordinate) to
the term on which they depend.
(5.) If it is transposed, restore it to its natural position.
(6.) If elliptical, supply the ellipsis.
(7.) If incorrectly constructed, point out the error, and correct it.
(8.) If it is left blank, or given as an exercise to be constructed,
construct it, in the relation, form, condition, or modification
required.
A sentence may be considered, —
(a.) As a whole.
(1.) Is it declarative) interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory?
(2.) Is it simple, complex, or compound f
(3.) Is it close or loose in its structure ?
(4.) Transform it from declarative to interrogative, &c. ; from com-
pound to complex, &c.
\b.) As composed of parts.
(1.) Analyze it into its elements.
(2.) Trace the relation of the most remote word up to the subject,
or the relation of the subject down to the most remote term,
pointing out all the connectives or relation-words.
(3.) Reconstruct the sentence ; take some other noun or pronoun,
standing in a remote relation, and make that the subject, or
change it for the purpose of improving the arrangement, unity,
or harmony of its parts.
(4.) Construct a sentence so as to make it represent a scene or men-
tal pictwe, relating to clouds, dew, vapor, rain ; a meadoio, a
vaUey, a stream of water, a flower, a flock of birds, &c, &c., &c.
Note. — By exercises varied as above, and in many other ways, such as the in-
genuity of the teacher will suggest, the whole subject of language may be made in-
tensely interesting to children. It will be well, at length, to analyze whole paragnphs
into the sentences which compose them, pointing out the relation of rach semesK-e
lo the general thought.
SiNTAX — FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. \91
11 PECULIARITIES IN THE FORM, CONSTRUCTION,
AND APPLICATION OF WORDS.
These peculiarities are called figures. A. figure is a deviation from the
ordinary form, construction, and application of a word. Hence figures are
divided into those of Etymology Syntax, and Rhetoric.
FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.
A figure of Etymology is a deviation from the ordinary
form of a word.
Figures of Etymology consist either in a defect, an excess, or a change,
in some of the elements of a word.
Aphccresis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning
of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, for against, began.
Syncope removes a letter or syllable from the middle of a
ivord ; as, o'er, e'er, lov'd, for over, ever, loved.
Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of a
word ; as th\ tho\ for the, though.
Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of
a word ; as, adown, enchain, for down, chain.
Epenthesis adds a letter or syllable to the middle of a
word ; as, preventative, retractation, for preventive, retrac-
tion. This figure seldom occurs in English.
Paragoge adds a letter pr syllable to the end of a word ;
as, withoutew, bounden, for without, bound.
Synavresis contracts two syllables into one ; as, thoiCri
'tis, for thou art, it is.
Dicer esis separates two vowels which otherwise might foim
a diphthong ; as, coordinate, zoology.
Tmesis separates a compound word by inserting a word
between its parts ; as, to us ward, for toward us.
EXERCISE.
f*oint out the figures in the following examples : —
Around 'qan Marmion wildly stare.
17*
198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The 1. "> 'pg shone o'er fair women and brave m*n
Did yc not hear it ? No : 'twas but the wind.
Tis mine to teach th' inactive hand to reap
Kind nature's bounties, o'er the globe diffus'd.
O, what's the matter ? what's the matter ?
What is't that ails young Harry Gill ?
A heart has throbb'd beneath that leathern breast,
And tears adown that dusky cheek have rolled.
He led, I wot, the softest way to death,
And taught withouten pain and strife to yield the breath.
What figures would you employ to render the following lines \ar
monious ; —
It is the sunset of life gives me mystical lore.
For ice have sworn, by our countries assaulters,
By the virgins they have dragged from oui altars
And every tempest howling over his head
Renders the savage wilderness more wild.
FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the ordinary con-
struction of a word.
Figures of Syntax consist in a defect, an excess, or a change in some of
the elements of a sentence
Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, or clause,
which is necessary to complete the construction ; as, " We
were absent [during] one day."
It should be understood that the words omitted by this figure as truly
belong to the sentence, grammatically considered, as those which are
expressed. They are omitted for rhetorical effect, that is, to render the
sentence more agreeable and forcible.
Ellipsis generally takes place, —
1. In coordinate constructions, to avoid the repetition of
•ome common part ; as, —
" There are some who write, [and who] talk, [and who] think so much
about vice and [about] virtue, that they have no time to practise either
the one or the other."
2. In certain sul 'ordinate constructions, especially those
which denote comparison, for the same reason ; as, —
" Revenge is a stronger feeling than gratitude [is.]" "Our hiil'iS ar«
jia different as our faces [are.] "
SYNTAX — FIGURES OF SYNTAX. ■ 199
3. In cert tin idiomatic constructions : —
(l.J In elements of the first class — the subject of imperative sen-
tences ; as, "Go [thou.]" "Awake [ye.]" The noun after adjectives
or after the possessive case ; as, "The violent [persons] take it by force."
" This book is mine" i. e., my book.
(2.) In elements of the second class. The connective may be omitted.
Examples. The to before the indirect object ; as, " He gave [to] me a
book." The to of the infinitive after bid, dare, let, make, hear, need, feel, see.
jT; or unto after like, near; as, like [to] his father, near [to] the house.
During, over, for, in, or on, before nouns, denoting time, the measure of
distance, magnitude, or excess; as, " They left [on] Monday." "They
travelled [through] twenty miles."
The object may be omitted; as, "The leaves were scattered around
[us.] " In such cases, the preposition is usually called an adverb.
(3.) In elements of the third class. The connective may be omitted
in substantive clauses in the objective ; as, " My heart whispers [that] God
is nigh." In adjective clauses when the relative is in the objective; as,
" The paper [which] we purchased is damaged." " The house [which] we
went to stands on a hill."
The subject and copula in expressions like " If [it is] possible, if neces-
sary, if convenient, when agreeable, while absent, &c.
The whole clause between as and if, as and though ; as, " He seemed as
[he would seem] if [he were] deranged."
4. In exclamatory sentences, m responsives, in inscrip-
tions, and titles ; as, " [It is] strange ! " " Whom did you
see ? [1 saw] George.'" " [This is] the New Testament. 1 '
Pleonasm is the use of superfluous words ; as, " I know
thee who thou art."
Pleonasm is the opposite of ellipsis, and may be said, in general, to take
place where ellipsis should, but does not, take place.
Feonasm takes place, —
(l.) "When the same idea is repeated in the same or in different words ;
as, " Verily, verily, I say unto you." " All ye inhabitants of the world,
and dwellers on the earth."
(2.) When a noun is introduced into a sentence, and then immediately
represented in the same relation by a pronoun ; as, " Now Harry he had
long suspected."
(3.) When a noun or any other word is repeated in the same relation
for the purpose of modifying it; as, " That great God whom jou see me
daily worship ; — * — * — that God who created the heavens and the earth ;
— — * — * — this God who has done all these great things — * — * — this
great God, the Creator of worlds, of angels, and men, is your Father and
Friend."
Enallage is a change of one part of speech for another,
or some modification of a word for another ; as, " They fall
successive [ly] and successive [ly] rise." So when a smglo
200
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
individual says, " We have done so and so," he uses the
plural number for the singular.
HyperbaLon is the transposition of words ; as, " While ite
song rolls the zvoods along."
EXERCISE.
Siqyply the words omitted by ellipsis in the following : —
Cassius. I am a soldier, I,
Older in practice, abler than yourself
To make conditions.
Brutus. Go to ! you're not, Cassius.
Cos. I am.
Bru. I say yoxi are not.
Write or repeat the folloioing, leaving oxd all words which may be omit'
ted: —
If it is possible, I will come. What would be the consequence though
we tarry ?
Tell what figures occur in the folloioing examples : —
Anxiously did we watch every movement. Dark burned the candle.
For llenard close attended at his heels. Sometimes with early morn, he
mounted gay. Seven circling planets we behold. He speaks as if he were
sick. Say, burst they borrowed from her father's wounds these drops t
FIGURES OF RHETORIC.
A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordiniry
application of a word ; it is commonly called a trope.
Metaphor gives to an object the appropriate name of
another object, on account of a resemblance between them ;
as, " Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear."
Simile is a formal comparison, introduced by like, as, 01
so ; as, " He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of
water."
An Allegory is a continued metaphor, forming a Kind of
parable or fable. For examples, see Pilgrim's Progress.
See also the eightieth Psalm.
Personification attributes to inanimate objects some of
the qualities of living beings; as, " The sky saddens with
me gathered storm "
SYNTAX — FxGlRES OF RHETORIC 201
Metonymy is a change of name ; as, " You will address
the chair ; " i. e., the president.
Vision represents imaginary objects as real and present
to the senses • as, —
" See lofty Lebanon his head advance ;
See nodding forests on the mountains dance."
Synecdoche is the use of a part for the whole, or the whole
for a part, as a sail for a ship, a roof for a house, the
head for the person.
Irony is the use of a word for its opposite ; as, " He was
as virtuous as Nero ; " i. e., as vile as Nero.
Antithesis is the placing of contrary or opposite objects in
contrast ; as, " Immortal, though no more ; though fallen,
great"
Hyperbole magnifies or diminishes an object beyond the
truth ; as, " Rivers of water run down mine eyes, because
they keep not thy law."
Exclamation is used to express some strong emotion of
the mind ; as, " O the depth of the riches both of the wis-
dom and the knowledge of God ! "
Interrogation is used to express a strong affirmation under
the form of a question ; as, " Hath he said it, and will he
not do it ? "
Apostrophe is a taming off from the subject to address
some other person or thing ; as, " Death is swallowed up in
victory. O Death, where is thy sting ? O Grave, where is
thy victory ? "
Climax is a series of members in a sentence, each rising
in importance above the preceding.
EXAMPLE.
" What hope is there remaining of liberty, if whatever is their pleasure
it is lawful for them to do ; if whatever it' is lawful for them to do, they
are able to do ; if what they arc able to do, I hey dure to do ; if what they
iare to do, they really execute; and if what they execute is no way offen-
sive to you ?"
202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISE.
Point out the figures in the following : —
" Yet at thy call the hardy tar pursued,
Pale, but intrepid ; sad, but unsttbdued."
He has at last assumed the sceptre. The power of appointment is vested
in the crown. The garrison was put to the sword. In the sweat of thy
face shalt thou eat thy bread. The sea sato it and fled. Joseph is a fruit-
ful bough. Devotion is a delicate and tender plant. A virtuous man.
slandered by evil tongues, is like a diamond obscured by smoke. I will be
to her a wall of fire. What ailed thee, thou sea, that thou fitddest f
They are swifter than eagles, they are stronger than lions. Read 1 Kings,
xviii. 27, and explain the figure. Canst thou by searching find out God ?
Canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection ? What a piece of
work is man! how noble in reason! how infinite in faculties! in action,
ho v.- like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a God.
III. IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS.
Note. — The following examples are intended to draw the attention of the teach-
er to the various idiomatic peculiarities in the constructions which follow certain
words or forms of words, and not to be a complete system which exhausts the subject.
1. The perfect teiises, and generally the tenses of the
progressive form, are followed by some phrase or clause
used to specify the time to which they relate; as, " I had
finished my letter before you came."
2. The comparative degree is followed, —
(1.) By an adverbial clause introduced by than, when both the compared
objects are distinctly named ; as, " The ash is taller than the oak [is.] "
(2.) By a phrase (preposition of) when one of the compared objects is
distinctly named, and the other is involved in a general term which in-
cludes both ; as, " The ash is the taller of the two trees."
3. The superlative degree is followed by a phrase, (prep.
of) and shows a comparison between a single object dis-
tinctly named, and all other objects with which it is com-
pared ; as, " Achilles was the bravest of the Greeks."
4. Many adjectives, as able, unable, — necessary, unneces-
sary, — desirable, undesirable, — agreeable, disagreeable,
&c, are followed by an infinitive, or a preposition and its
object, when in the positive degree. When in the compara-
tive or superlative, they are also followed by the construc-
tion required by the above rules, (3 and 4, above ;) as,
" George was unwilling to write" " George was more un
willing to write than his sister"
5. The verb " to be,' when used to predicate existence
SYNTAX IDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS. '203
^and not as a copula,) is generally preceded by the expletive
' there," and followed by its subject ; as, " There was light."
When such a proposition is abridged, the expletive remains
»s, " God said, Let Mere be light." " There being no provis
ions, we were compelled to leave." " I am not sure of ther
seing a supply."
6. The verbs tell, teach, say, wish, declare, order, and, ih
general, those which denote some state or act of the mind,
>r some declaration or statement, are generally followed, —
(1.) By a substantive clause ; as, " I say, that he was angry."
(2.) By a personal object and an infinitive, which together are equivalent
to a substantive clause abridged ; as, " I told him to stop."
7. It is always placed at the beginning of a sentence
whose subject is an infinitive, (with or without its objective
subject,) or a. substantive clause, when the infinitive or clause
is placed after the predicate ; as, " For you to leave me would
be unkind " = It would be unkind for you to leave me,
" That this measure will prevail is quite certain " = It is
quite certain that this measure will prevail.
This idiom usually prevails when an objective clause be
comes the subject by changing the preceding verb into the
passive voice ; as, " I believe that the resources of this coun-
try will go on increasing from year to year " = It is be-
lieved thai, the resources, &c.
Another idiom in which"*' it" introduces a sentence occurs
when we wish to bring forward a person or thing with em-
phasis. Instead of saying, " Arnold betrayed his country,"
we say, " It was Arnold that betrayed his country."
8. Had before rather, as liof, and as well, seems to be an
auxiliary with the present tense, instead of the past participle
of the verb ; as, " I had rather be a dog, and bay the mccn."
u I had as lief go as stay.'''' " You had as well stop." Pres-
ent usage substitutes would. Still these expressions are often
found, and are to be disposed of. It seems most probable
that what we call the present tense of the verb was original-
ly an infinitive governed by had ; as, " I had to go" 4
*204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
had to write ; " but when the comparative rather, or as lief
was inserted, the " to " was dropped ; as, " I had rather go,"
*' I had as lief write" "You had as well go." Would, in
the expressions, " Would to God," " Wculd God it were
fo" is a principal verb, equivalent to desire, or wish. It is
past in form, but present in meaning.
9. The forms resulting from abridging dependent clauses
alibi d many idiomatic difficulties. Most of these are ex-
plained under " Abridged Propositions." The following are
some of these forms : —
(1.) A predicate noun follows the infinitive, or participle of the copula
without a subject, or with the subject changed to the possessive ; as, " To
be a good writer requires much practice." Here writer must be considered
in the nominative, unless we supply the words, "Jbr one" before it: if
such were the construction, it would be in the objective. " I have no fear
of his being an idler." Here nothing can be supplied to control the case
of idler. It was nominative before the clause was abridged, and nothing
has changed its case.
(2.) " Give me something to fasten the door icith." Here it is not ap-
parent how with should be disposed of. This idiom results from abridging
the following proposition in Italics : " Give me something with which I
may fasten the door " = Give me something with which to fasten the
door = Give me something to fasten the door with [which].
(3.) Contrary to the general rule, the connective of the dependent clause
is retained in such expressions ; as, I know not what to do, where to go,
when to stop, hoio to wait, with what to write, with which to remain ; and
in the above example, ichich, the subsequent term of the relation expressed
by with, mus' be supplied.
10. Some difficulty arises from the facility with which, in
English, a noun, without change of form, can be used as an
adjective ; as> " An iron bar." " A variety store." Re-
specting such cases, it should be observed, —
(1.) That though the noun is used like an adjective, it is qualified (not
ly an adverb, as is the case with a real adjective, but) by an adjective ; as,
" A high pressure engine" not " A high engine ; " nor " A highly pressure
engine."
(2.) That this idiom may lead to ambigxious expressions, which can be
avoided only by making a compound word of the two which should b .•
united ; as, " A white oak pail." " A white mountain moose." Is it " a
white oak-pail," or " a white-oak pail"? "A white mountain-moose,"
or " A white-mountain moose " ? It often happens that the defining noun
is joined to the other by a hyphen, thus forming a compound noun ; as,
" Barn-boor" " Brick-walk."
(3.) That sometimes a noun has an adjective termination, and tben both
forms may be used as adjectives, yet with very different effects; as, "A
woode?i house ; " "A wood house." " A golden harvest ; " "A gold
harvst "
SYNTAX — THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 205
(4.) That the noun thus used must be in the singular number ; as, " A
hoi'se power," not " A horses power." " A foot poie," not " A feet pole.''
(•'5.) That this last rule is observed even though a numeral adjective,
which would otherwise require the following word to be plural, is added
as, " A forty horse power," not " A forty horses power."
(6.) That it is observed even in words which, otherwise used, have no
singular form ; as, " UcweZ-complaint," not " iJo^eis-complaint." " Spen-
tacfe-maker," not " Spectacles-maker."
11. A very forcible idiom arises from the formation of ar
adjective out af a participle combined with some other word
as, uninterestijig, unimpeached, labor-saving, heaven-dt
scended These words must be regarded as adjectives, an
not participles, since they have no corresponding verbs.
IV. THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.
In sentences containing more than one proposition, two
kinds of structure prevail — the loose, and the periodic, or
compact.
A loose sentence is one in which the parts are related in
thought, but are wholly independent of each, other in con-
struction ; as, " Three days they mourned over Carthon ;
on the fourth, his father died."
Rem. t. — The parts of a loose sentence are called its members. The
members of a loose sentence may be simple, complex, or compound ; as,
' In the narrow plain they lie; and a dim ghost defends their tomb."
• On that rising ground, where the green turf looks black with fire, yes-
terday stood a noble mansion ; the owner had said in his heart, Here will
I spend the evening of my days, and enjoy the fruit of my years of toil."
" My name shall descend with mine inheritance, and my children's children
Bhall sport under the trees which I have planted."
Rem. 2. — The loose sentence is to be found chiefly among compound
sentences.
A compact sentence, sometimes called close, is one in
which the parts are closely united both in thought and con-
si ruction ; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him."
Hem. 1. — Compact sentences maybe either complex or compound ; as,
'« In order to succeed in their enterprises, it is necessary that they should
\ it on, at least, the appearance of virtue." " Seek ye first the kingdom
of God and his righteousness, and all these things shall be added unto
foil "
18
206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Rem. 2. — Both loose and compact sentences may hare connectives to
combine their parts. When the connective is expressed, the union of the
parts is considered closer than when it is omitted ; and when correlatives
are used, the union is still closer.
Rem. 3. — In uttering a loose sentence, the voice should fall at the end
of each member ' in uttering a compact sentence, the voice should be kept
up till the close.
EXERCISES.
Point out the loose and the compact sentences in the following exam-
ples : —
Morning rose in the east; the blue waters rolled in light. If the war
should be unsuccessful, you will aggravate existing evils ; if successful,
your enemy will have no treasure left to give our merchants. Thp first
losses will be confounded with much greater, and be forgotten.
The very men who charged the Indian war on the detention of the post*
will call for no other proof than the recital of their own speeches. If 1
could find words for them, if my powers bore any proportion to my zeal, I
wo*»'d swell my voice to such a note of remonstrance, that it should reach
Pre. v h)g house beyond the mountains.
PUNCTUATION. — THE COMMA. 207
PUNCTUATION.
Punctuation is the art of dividing written compositior by
means of points.
Rem. 1. — Points, are used to separate either sentences or the elements
of sentences. The elements, in by far the greater number of instances, are
not separated at all. It is only when there is some peculiarity in the struc-
ture, use, or condition of an element that it is pointed off. Usually, the
point is employed where the position of the words may lead to a wrong
connection or dependence of words, and consequently to a misapprehen-
sion of the author's meaning: thus the following sentence may have sev-
eral meanings according to the punctuation. James Johnson says lie has
written beautifully. James, Johnson says he has written beautifully.
James Johnson, says he, has written beautifully. James Johnson says he
has written l< beautifully."
Rem. 2. — Although a pause is usually made where a point is placed,
the points mark rather the sense than the pauses. Sometimes no pause
whatever should be made where a comma is required ; as, " No, sir."
"Yes, sir." '
These points may be divided into two classes — those
which separate the elements of a sentence, and those which
separate entire sentences.
The following are the principal marks used in punctuation : —
The comma (,), the semicolon (5), the colon (:), the dash
(— ), the parenthesis ( ), the period (.), the interrogation
point (?), and the exclamation point (!).
I. POINTS USED WITHIN A SENTENCE.
The Comma.
The comma is used principally to separate the elements
of close sentences.
Three rules may be given for the use of the comma.
Kflf . When the elements of a sentence are simple^
an^ are arranged in the natural order, they should not
be separated ; but when any element, whether simple or
complex, is transposed, loosely connected, or usei paren-
thetically, it should be pointed off.
208 ENGLISH GRAMM 1R.
EXAMPLES.
" Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce conviction. The path 01
virtue is the path of pence. He lived, as he said, on a vegetable diet.
False de'icacy is affectation, not politeness. Intrinsically, the other
is the r..'.st valuable. Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must
make
Examples to be punctuated according to Rule I.
Thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. Whoever firmly wills will be a
good man. Light whether it be material or spiritual is the best reformer.
lie who teaches often learns himself. Cherish true patriotism which has
its root in benevolence. Here comes his body mourned by Mark Antony.
Study I beseech you to store your minds with the exquisite learning of
former ages.
(1.) The following words and phrases are pointed off by this rule:
Again, besides, moreover, further, nay, hence, once more, as yet, Jirst, sec-
oiidly, lastly, namely, in short, in truth, in fact, in fine, in general, in par-
ticular, in the mean time, in the next place, on the contrary, without doubt,
of course, for the most part, noio and then, consequently, accordingly, un-
questhmably, indisputably, &c, fire.
(2.) The nominative case independent, and several of the interjections,
are separated by the comma ; since thoy are not elements of the sentence,
and consequently are not closely connected ; as, " My son, hear the in-
structions of thy father." " For, lo, I will call all the families of the
kingdoms of the north."
(3.) When a simple element of the third class is not closely connected,
or used in a restrictive sense, it is punctuated by a comma, though arranged
in the natural order ; as, " He will go, if it is possible."
Examples to be puMiuated by the subordinate rules.
Punctuality is no doubt a quality of high importance. The most vigor-
ous thinkers and writers are in fact self-taught. Unfortunately he thinks
too highly of himself. Antonio light my lamp within my chamber.
Boast not my dear friends of to-morrow. Come companion of my toils
let us take fresh courage. Where thoughts kindle words spontaneously
flow. Go where a man may home is the centre to which his heart turns.
It were no virtue to bear calamities if we did not. feel them.
Rule II. When an element is complex, and considerably
extended, it should be pointed olT by the comma.
EXAMPLES.
Remember your own feelings, in order that you may judge of the feel-
ings of of hers. That a peculiar state of the mere particles of the brain
iHoidd bejolloioed by aclmnge of the state of the sentient mind, is truly won-
derful.
Examples to be punctuated according to Rule II.
Grace of manners is so essential to rulers that whenever it is neglected
tneir virtues lose a great degree of lustre. The more highly we cultivate
our minds here the better shall we be prepared for the nobler pursuits of
the next stages of our existence. It had been better for them net to have
Known the way of righteousness than after they had known u to tura
frim the holy commandment committed to them.
PUNCTUATION.
209
(1.) By this rule, the complex subject of a .simple sentence, when long,
should be separated by the comma from the predicate as, " The intermix-
ture of evil in society, seems to exercise the noblest virtues of the humajr.
soul."
(2.) The clauses of a complex sentence should be separated by tne com-
ma, where tbe subordinate clause is complex, and is not used in a restric-
tive sense ; as, " We sometimes forget our faults, when we are not reminded
if them." Abridged clauses generally follow the same rule as complete
dauses ; as, " Shame being lost, all virtue is lost."
(3.) A single noun in apposition with another, is not separated from it
by a comma; as, " Paul the apostle ; " but when the noun ir opposition is
limited by several words, the comma should be inserted ; as, " Paul, the
apostle of the Gentiles."
(1.) When a sentence contains several extended adverbial elements,
phrases, or clauses, they should be separated, by the comma ; as, " The an-
cients separated the corn, from the ear, by causing an ox to trample on the
sheaves.
(5.) A short expression quoted, or used as a quotation, should be sepa-
rated by the comma ; as, " The first lesson of a judicious education is,
Learn to think and to discriminate ; " also the verbs, say, reply, and the like,
with their dependent words, introducing a ([notation or remark, are usually
separated by the comma ; as, " Ossian says, That sorrow shades the soul of
Clessammor."
Examples to be punctuated by the subordinate rules.
A government directing itself resolutely and steadily to the general
good becomes a minister of virtue. He who sees : a. building as a common
spectator contents himself with speaking of it. The word philosopher
signifies lover of wisdom. The twin sisters Piety and Poetry are said to
dwell together. Diogenes the Greek philosopher lived in a tub.
General Washington the first president of the United States was a true
patriot a genuine lover of his country. The wise and good of every
name are with diversity of gifts but the same spirit striving each in his own
way to carry society forward into a healthier condition than the present.
Patrick Henry commenced by saying " It is natural to man to indulge
in the illusions of hope."
There is much truth in the proverb " Without pains no gains."
Rule III. When an element is compound, the compo-
nent parts are generally separated by the comma ; as, " Some
men sin frequently, deliberately, and presumptuously."
EXAMPLES.
Beauty haunts the depths of the earth and sea, and gleams out in the
hues of the shell and the precious stone. Speak as you mean, do as
you profess, and perform what you promise. Has God provided for the
poor a coarser earth a thinner air, a paler sky ?
Suffering often calls forth our best feelings, and the highest energiei
of the mind.
Examples to be punctuated by Rule II.
Great moral principles pure and generous dispositions cannot be con
fined to this or that spot. The true worshipper of beauty sees it in the
lowliest flower meets it in every path enjoys it every where. Get justly use
»jbetly distribute cheerfully ?nd live contentedly. The one had no more
10 *
210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
reason than the other to repine at his fortune and war against mankind.
To be wise in our own eyes to be wise in the opinion of the world and *o
*te wise in the sight of our Creator seldom coincide.
^1.) When a compound element consists of but two simple elements,
trie parts should not be separated, unless the conjunction which connects
them is understood ; as, " Peter and John went up into the temple." " A
bold decisive blow was struck."
(2 ) When or denotes an alternative of words, and not ideas, the twc
connected words should be separated by the comma ; as, " The gulf, or
bay, is dangerous." Nearly allied to this construction is that in which the
same word is repeated ; as, " Verily, verily, I say unto you."
(3.) Two simple elements, so connected as to show opposition or con-
trast, should be pointed by the general rule ; as, " Though deep, yet clear"
" Ikough fallen, yrcat.'"
(4.) If both elements are complex, and considerably extended, or if one
is complex and the other is not, the comma may be placed between them.
This rule applies particularly to the compound predicate ; as, " He left,
and took his brother with him."
(o.) "When words are joined in pairs, the pairs are separated from each
other, but not the words composing them; as, "Hope and. fear, pleasure
and pain, diversify our lives."
(6.) When the conjunction which connects two elements is omitted,
the comma takes its place ; as, " Thomas is a plain, honest man." So,
also, when a verb is understood, the comma takes its place ; as, " From
law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge."
(7.) When the connected parts are clauses, whether coordinate or sub
ordinate, and are closely united, they should be separated by the comma
as, " Life is short, and art is long." " I neither knew what I was, wheri
I was, nor from wlience I came."
Examples to be punctuated by the subordinate rule.
A healthy body and a sound mind should be preserved as real blessings.
Some men would be distinguished in their occupation or pursuit or pro-
fession or in the style of living, or in the dignity of office or in the glare
and pride and pomp of power. Truth is fair and artless simple and sin-
cere uniform and consistent. A wise man seeks to shine in himself; a
fool to outshine others. The benevolent man is esteemed ; the penurious
despised. We are fearfully and wonderfully made. He departed and hope
departed with him.
The Colon and Semicolon.
The colon and semicolon are used chiefly to separate the
members of a loose sentence
EXAMPLES.
Make a proper use of your time ; for „he los* of it can never be re-
gained. The noblest prophets and apostles have been children mce; lisp-
ing the speech, laughing the laugh, thinking the thought oi boyhood.
Stones grow ; vegetables grow and live ; animals grow, live, and feel
Cowards die many times ; the valiant never taste of death.
Rem. 1. — The colon is now but little used, except before examples fo<
PUNCTUATION. DASH AND PARENTHESIS. SHI
towing tie expressions as follows, the following examples, in these word*
&c. ; as; "Perform the following exercises:" "He used *^iese words
Mr. Presiuciit:" &C. It is also used to separate the terms of a pro>
portion; as, " A : B : : C : D."
Rem. 2. — When, in a complex sentence, several subordinate clause*
are united to each other, having a common dependence upon the principal
clause, they are separated by the semicolon ; as, " Philosophers assert that
Nature is unlimited, in her operations ; that she has inexhaustible treses*
urcs in reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that fu-
ture generations will continue to make discoveries."
EXERCISE.
Insert the cemma, the semicolon, and the colon w/iere they 'ire ""quired in
the following examples : —
Never value yourself upon your fortune for this is the sign of a weak
mind. Pope had perhaps the judgment of Drydcn but Dryden certainly
wanted the diligence of Pope. The groat tendency and purpose of poetry
is to carry the mind above and beyond the beaten dusty weary walks of
ordinary life to lift it into a purer element and to breathe into it more pro-
found and generous emotion. Write on your slates the following exam-
ple Mary and John will go. The great and good were there. Endeavor
to excel much may be accomplished by perseverance.
The Dash and Parenthesis.
The dash is used where there is a significant pause, an
unexpected transition in the sentence, or where a sentence
is left unfinished ; as, " He sometimes counsel takes — and
sometimes snuff." " But I must first ."
Rem. — The dash is now frequently used instead of the parenthesis ,
as, " The colonists — such is human nature — desired to burn the town in
which they had been so wretched."
The parenthesis is used to enclose a part of a sentence
.iot necessary to the construction, but in some way ex-
jdanatory of the meaning of the sentence ; as, " Consider
(and may the consideration sink deep into your hearts) the
fatal consequences of a wicked life."
EXERCISE.
Insert the dash and the parenthesis where they are required in the follow
ng examples : —
Horror burst the bands of sleep ; but my feelings words are too weak,
too powerless to exp*ess them. TVe Egyptian style of architecture see
212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Dr. Pocock, not his discourses but his prints was apparently the mother
of the Greek. While they wished to please, and why should they not
wish it, they disdained dishonorable means. If thou art he, so much re
spec ted once but, O, how fallen ! how degraded !
II. POINTS USED AT THE CLOSE OF A SENTENCE.
The Period.
The period is used at the close of a declarative or an im-
perative sentence. It is also used to denote an abbreviatior
EXAMPLES.
Knowledge is not only pleasant, but useful and honorable. Let. what
you have gained be an impulse to something higher. If you will, you car.
rise. The age of MSS. is, in some instances, known by dates inserted
in them I was invited to meet Mr. and Mrs. Clifford.
EXERCISE.
Insert the period where it is required in the following examples : —
Truth is the basis of every virtue It is the voice of reason Let its pre
cepts be religiously obeyed Never transgress its limits Abhor a falsehood
I would say to the people, You cannot, without guilt and disgrace, stop
where you are The oration was delivered by J L Thompson, Esq The
event occurred B C 1001 To It II Dana Jun Esq the well-known author of
"Two Years before the Mast," the community are greatly indebted Put
the seasons are not alike in all countries of the same" region, for the
reasons already given See Chap VI § 2 11 4 p °>30
Interrogation Point.
An interrogation point is used at the close of a question ,
as, " Who comes there ? "
Rem. — When an interrogative sentence is used as a subordinate
clause, —
(1.) The interrogation point is employed when the clause is quoted di ■
rectly ; as, " He said, Why do you weep ? "
(2.) The ^lterrogation point is not employed where tie clause is quoted
fadirectly • as, " He. asked me why I wept."
Exclamation Point.
An exclamation point is used at the close of an exclama-
tory sentence ; as " How unsearchable are h'< 'vays ! "
PUJNOTUATION. OTHER MARKS, EIU. '«& 13
Keai. — An exclamation point is often used within a sentence, after an
exelamatory expression or an interjection ; as, " O, Jotp Supreme! whom
aaen and gods revere ! " " ! let soft pity touch the mind ! "
EXERCISES.
Insert interrogation and exclamation jwi7its where they are requited
m the folloxcing examples : —
Daughter of Faith awake arise illume the dread unknown the chaos
of the tomb Whither shall I turn Wretch that I am To what place shall
I betake myself O Pascal thou wert pure in heart in this world, and now
thou art in full sight of God. Apostles of liberty what millions attest the
authenticity of your mission. Did she fall like Lucifer, never to hope
again To purchase heaven has gold the power VVho shall separate us
from the love of Christ What "kill thy friend who lent thee money, for
asking thee for it The secret I implore : out with it speak discover utter
Punctuate coirectly in all respects the following examples : —
_ What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite in facul-
ties in form and moving how express and admirable in action how like ;tn
angel in apprehension how like a God The air wraa mild as summer all
corn was off the ground and the skylarks were singing aloud by the way I
saw not one at Keswick perhaps because the place abounds in birds of
prey Dr H Marsh F 11 S &c Bishop of Peterborough b 1757 d 1839 As
the pupil is often obliged to bend all his faculties to the task before him
and tears sometimes fall on the page he is studying so it is in the school
of God's providence there are hard lessons in it When the poor victims
Were bayoneted clinging round the knees of the soldiers would my friend
but I could cannot pursue the strain of my interrogation
OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING.
Brackets ([ ]) are used when a word or phrase is intro-
duced for explanation or connection ; as, " He [the teacher]
thus explained the difficulty."
The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used either to denote the possessive
case, or the omission of a letter ; as, " John's." " O'er."
The Quotation Marks ( "" ) are used to include a passage
taken verbatim from some other author ; as, "He said, ' 2
relinquish my claim. ' "
The Asterisk (*), the Obelisk ( t ), the Double Dagger (}),
and the Parallels ( || ) are used to refer to notes in the mar-
gin, or at the bottom of the page. Sometimes the Section
( § ) and the Paragraph ( fl ) are used. Also small letters,
or figures, which refer to notes at the foot of the page.
214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The Caret ( A ) is used in writing to show that jsome
letter, word, or phrase has been omitted ; as, " The pencil
lies X the table."
The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the parts of a com*
pound word ; as, " Book-binder." When placed at the end
of a line, it shows that a word is divided, the remaining part
being carried to the next line.
The Ellipsis ( * * * ) ( ) is used to denote the
omission of certain letters or words; as, "C* * * 11."
«K g."
Th Rrace I connects a number of words with one cor/i-
e \ mon term.
The Index ( $W ) points to some remarkable passage.
The Section ( § ) also denotes the divisions of a treatise.
A Paragraph (fl ) also denotes the beginning of a new
subject
The vowel marks are the Diaeresis ( •• ), placed over the
second of two vowels which are separated ; the Long
sound ( - ), placed over a long vowel ; the Breve or Short
sound (v> ), placed over a short vowel ; and accents, Grave
( \ ), Acute ( f ), and Circumflex ( a ).
Rem. — The best practical exercises on all these marks and points will be
given by the teacher. Let the pupil be required to construct sentences
requiring the use of them ; or let the teacher read from some book, any
passage which demands the use of them, iind let the class be reo/uirexl to
insert them in their proper places.
PROSODY. — VERSE — FEET. 2! i
P R O S D Y .
Prosody treats of the laws of versification.
VERSE.
A verse is a succession of accented and unaccented syi
lables, constituting a line of poetry.
A couplet is the combination of two lines or verses.
triplet consists of three lines.
A stanza is the combination of several lines forming a
division of a poem or song.
Rem. — Verse is sometimes erroneously applied to a stanza.
Verse is of two kinds — rhyme and blank verse.
Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one
'erse to that of another.
Blank verse is verse without rhyme.
FEET.
A foot is a portion of verse containing two or moie syl-
lables, combined according to accent.
Rem. 1. — The quantity of a syllable is the time employed in uttering
it. All syllables are either long or short.
Rem 2. — In English, an accented syllable is considered long ; and an
unaccented, short.
Rem. 3. — A straight line ( - ) over a syllable shows that it is accented,
and a curved line ( w ) that it is unaccented.
The principal feet in English are the iambus, the trochee t
the anapast, and the dactyl.
The iambus consists of a short and a long syllable ; aa
u invite," " devote" " benign.''''
The trochee consists of a long and a short syllable ; as,
" grateful, 1 '' " grievous.' 1 ''
The anapast consists of two short syllables and one long
one • a« M incomplete " " condescend."
2 iti * ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Thb dactyl consists of one long syllable an.i two short
ones ; as, " positive" " loneliness"
Rem. 1. — Besides the kinds of feet mentioned above, four others
Sometimes occur — the pyrrhic* and the spondee, the amphibrach and the
tribrach. The pyrrhic consists of two short, and the spondee sf two long
syllables; as, "in tht (vale;)" " vain twin." The amphibrach has three
syllables, of which the first and third are short, the second is long; as,
"cdnUntmtnt.** The tribrach consists of three short syllables; as>
Rem. 2. — These last four feet are seldom found in English poetry.
They sometimes mingle with other feet, and give thereby a pleasing
variety; as,
" Fr6m peak | to peak | the rat- | tling crags | among.
Leaps thi | live thun- | der ! not | from one | lone cloud."
Here the first fooi is a trochee, and the second is a spondee. They cccur
in a single verse of an iambic poem.
EXERCISES.
What foot does each of the following icords contain: —
Absent, control, viewing, darkness, complete, correct, glory, reproduce,
indite, reconstruct, compose, gloriously, positive, acquiesce, reunite, beau-
tiful, sweetest, comforter, overcome, churlishness, nourishing, intercede,
foolishness.
Piejix one or more words to the following, so as to make a phrase consist-
ing of two iambic feet, thus : —
" A new supply. defeat. disgrace. accord.
proclaims. commends. divine. entreata.
believes.
A. line consisting of one foot is called monometer ; of two,
dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; of four, tetrameter ; of five,
pentameter ; of six, hexameter ; of seven, heptameter.
Rem. — When a syllable is wanting, the line is said to be catalecti-c ;
when the measure is full, the line is acatalectic ; when there is a redundant
?y liable, it is called hypermeter.
SCANNING.
Scanning consists in dividing a verse into the feet which
compose it.
IAMBIC VERSI.
t /<*#*/.•« ,/ ut* foe* — monometer : —
They go
To sow.
IROSODY. IAMBIC V1SRSE. 217
2. Iambic of tico feat — dimeter : —
To me | the rose
No longer glows.
3. Iambic of three feet — trimeter : —
No roy | al pomp | adorns
This Iving of righteousness.
4. Iambic of four feet — tetrameter : —
And cold ) er still | the winds | did blow,
And darker hours of night came on.
0. Iambic of five feet — pentameter: —
On rift- | ed rocks, | the drag- | fin's late | abodes,
The green reed trembles, and the bulrush nods.
6. Iambic of six feet — hexameter : —
His heart | is sad, | his ho
He sits and mourns in silent grief the Iiv
His heart | is sad, | his hope | is g6ne, | his light I rs passed ;
geringday.
7. Iambic of seven feet — heptamcter : —
Th£ lof- | ty hill, j the hum- | ble lawn, ) wrth count- | less beau- I
ties shine.
The silent grove, the solemn shade, proclaim thy power divine.
Iambic of five feet is called heroic verse ; thai cf six feet
is called Alexandrine.
Iambic of seven feet is commonly divided into two lines —
the first containing four feet, the second three. This is
called common metre ; as,
The lofty hill, the humble lawn,
With countless beauties shine ;
The silent grove, the solemn shade,
Proclaim thy power divine.
Tn long metre, each line has four iambic feet ; in short
metre, the first, second, and fourth lines contain three iambic
feet, the third four.
Each species of iambic verse may have one additional
short syllable, thus : —
1. Relent- | Tng.
'2. Upon | a moun- | tain
3. When on | her Ma- | ker's bo- j som.
4. First this | large par- | eel brings | you tl- | dings.
5. Each sub- | stance of \ a grief | hath twen- | ty shad- | fiws.
t> Thine eye | Jove's light- | nlng seems I thy voice | his dread- | ftU
thfin- | drr.
7. How gai- | ly 6- | xvr fell I and f<"n | y6n spArts- I m;"n light j is
dash- | ing !
19
218 ENGLISH GRAMMA*.
TROCHAIC FERSE.
1 . Trochaic of one foot : —
Changing
Ranging.
2 T) ochaic of two feet : —
Fancy | viewing,
Joys ensuing.
3 Trochaic of three feet : —
Go where | glory | waits thee.
But when fame elates thee.
4 . Trochaic of four feet : —
Rounda | holy | calm dif- | fusing,
Love of peace and lonely musing.
b. Trochaic of five feet : —
All that | walk 6n | foot or | ride In | chari6ts,
All that dwell in palaces or garrets.
6. Trochaic of six feet : —
On a | mountain | stretched, be- | neath a I hoary | willtiw,
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow.
In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the odd syil*
hies ; in iambic, on the even.
Trochaic verse may take an additional long syllable ; as,
1. Where we | may
Think aud pray.
2. And at | morn they | play,
In the foaming spray.
3. Heaving | upward | to the | light.
4. O'er the [ past too | fondly | wander- | ing.
5. Reared 'mid | fauns and | fairies, | knew he | no com- | peers.
6. Casting | down their | golden | crowns a- | round the | glassy | asa.
ANAPiESTIC VERSE.
i . A napecstic of one foot : —
But In vain
They complain.
2. A napeestic of two feet : —
Where the sun | loves td pause
With so fond a delay.
3 Anaptfstic of three feet : —
From the cen- | tre, all round j t5 the sea,
I'm lord of the fowl and the brute.
PROSODY. POETIC PAUSES. 219
4. Anapassvc of four feet : —
At the close | 6f the day, | when the ham- | let Is still,
And mortals the sweets of fo-rgetfulness prove.
In anapaestic verse, the accent falls on every third syllable.
The first foot of an anapaestic verse may be an iambus ; as,
And mot- | tals the sweets | 6f forget- | fulness prove.
DACTYLIC VEKSE.
1. Dactylic of one foot : —
Cheerfully,
Fearfully.
2. Dactylic of two feet : —
Free from anx- | iety,
Care and satiety.
3 Dactylic of three feet : —
Wearing a- | way In his | yoiithfulness,
Loveliness, beauty, and truthfulness.
Boys will an- I ticlpate, I lavish, and I dlsslpilte
Ant"
4 Dactylic of four feet ; —
rs will an- I 1
that your busy pate hoarded with care.
Few poems are perfectly regular in their feet. The dif-
ferent kinds of feet are often mingled in the same verse,
t.'ius : —
I ctime, | I come ; | yS have cfdled j me long ;
I come | S'er the moun- j tains with light | and song.
POETIC PAUSES.
Besides the pauses required by the sense or grammati-
cal construction of verse, two pauses — the Jinal and caswcil
— may also occur.
The final pause occurs at the end of each line, whether
the sense requires it or not.
The casural pause occurs within the line itself, and is
only a suspension of the voice ; as,
" Ask for what end — the heavenly bodies shine."
220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES.
ConJncct a line to i hyme with the following : —
" The soldier marched upon the burning sand* '
Soft the breeze in yonder vale,"
The leaves are falling one by one,"
t/Uji**. «ri?ig, and tell what kind of verse it is ; —
When all thy mercies, my God !
My rising soul surveys,
Transported with the view, I'm lost
In wonder, love, and praise."
• from Greenland's icy mountains,
From India's coral strand,
Whore Afric's sunny fountains
Roll down their golden sand ;
From many an ancient river,
From many a palmy plain,
Thev call us to deliver
Their land from error's chain."
14 The morn is up again, the dewy morn,
With breath all incense, and with cheek all Dlooia-
Laughing the clouds away, with playful scorn,
And living as if earth contained no tomb, —
And glowing into day : we may resume
The march of our existence : and thus I,
Still on thy shores, fair Leman ! may find room
And food for meditation, nor pass by
Much that may give us pause, if pondered fittingW *'
'' Hail, holy light, offspring of heaven first born,
Or of th* eternal co-eternal beam !
May I express thee unblamed ? since God is light,
And never but in unapproached light
Dwelt from eternity, dwelt then in thee,
Bright elllucnce of bright essence increate.
Or hear'st thou rather pure ethereal stream,
Whose fountain who shall tell ? "
M Ye nymphs of Solyma ! begin the song ;
To heavenly themes sublimer strains belong.
The mossy fountains and the sylvan shades,
The dreams of Hindus and tl\' Aonian maids.
Delight no more ! thou my voice inspire,
Who ttuche^ lsa,'.^.h's hallowed lips with fire 1"
VINIS,
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