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 THE AET 
 
 OP 
 
 TEACHING AND STUDYING 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
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 IVIicrosoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/artofteachingstuOOgouirich 
 
THE ART 
 
 OP 
 
 TEACHING AND STUDYING 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
 BX 
 
 FEANgOIS GOUIN, 
 
 PfiOFESSEUK D'ALLEMAND A L'lICOLE SUPERIEURE ARAGO, PARI3. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH 
 
 BY 
 
 H W A R D S W A N 
 
 AND 
 
 VICTOR BETIS, 
 
 JlEilBRK DE L'ENSEIQNEMENT PUBLIC EN FRANCE. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 LOITDON: 
 GEORGE PHILIP & SON, 32 FLEET STREET; 
 
 NEW YOKK : 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, 743 & 745 BROADWAY. 
 
%/ 
 
 First Edition^ May 1892, Second Edition^ July 1892. 
 
PKEFACE 
 
 Mankind has long passed from the stage in which speech is 
 used for the mere expression of physical facts and desires, to 
 that in which language is employed as the highest tool within 
 the grasp to paint the pictures of poetic imagination, and 
 sway a world-wide audience to noble thoughts and deeds. 
 Not only to satisfy the necessities of travellers in far countries 
 has the study of language been ever desirable, but to penetrate 
 the spirit and genius of Homer, Yirgil, Shakespeare, Goethe, 
 Hugo, Dante, it has become, to the cultured of every country, 
 a necessity for the full gift of a liberal education. Since 
 language became literature, the necessity for the mastery over 
 other tongues than his own has forced the attention of student 
 and of professor to the problem of the study of languages ; and 
 the great intellectual value of a complete and logical system 
 for the mastery of tongues, if such could be found, is so 
 apparent, that the greatest honour has always been awarded 
 to discoverers in this region, which is still felt, however, to be 
 to a large extent unexplored, or at least unconquered.. 
 
 The world has this year seen a magnificent celebration of the 
 grand services to the cause of education rendered by Comenius. 
 In spite of this we are still far from having definitely adopted 
 in our school and college practice the now acknowledged 
 principles perceived by Comenius — that education must be 
 organic and not mechanical, that language teaching, modern 
 and classic, should proceed by dealing with things and not 
 with words and grammatical abstractions, and that before all 
 else education should have direct bearing upon actual life. 
 
 The late Mr. W. H. Widgery, M.A., has a veiy pregnant 
 sentence in almost the first paragraph of his admirable booklet 
 
vi PREFACE. 
 
 on " The Teaching of Languages in Schools " (D. Nutt), where 
 he says — 
 
 " Our great modern reformers, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel, 
 have been the sources of mighty inspirations; they have 
 pointed out in the rough the paths along which we must 
 travel. They failed in system. We now need rather some 
 powerful organiser, well trained in philosophy, in logic, in 
 psychology, one who will do actual school-work for some years, 
 and then clear for us the jungle of educational literature." 
 
 Mr. Widgery evidently looked for his language-organiser 
 to come after many years and after weary labour. This labour 
 is, happily, as will be seen, already in great part accomplished 
 and the work organised ; and perhaps no sentence could better 
 express what it is that the work of M. Frangois Gouin, here 
 presented, attempts to perform. 
 
 This work might not inaptly be entitled "The Gift of Lan- 
 guages, and How to Acquire it ; being an Investigation into 
 Linguistic Psychology." It will be found to appeal, not only 
 to the teacher and the specialist in pedagogic science, but to 
 the student and the general reader, for in its train it draws 
 interesting and far-reaching developments. 
 
 It is primarily an investigation into the psychological laws 
 underlying the universal act of learning the mother-tongue 
 by the little child, and, springing therefrom, the exposition of 
 an artificial system of teaching foreign languages — a system 
 which produces peculiarly successful results and endows the 
 learner with the gift for languages : and these results ^-e 
 curiously easy of explanation, being based on the laws of 
 gradual development of the human mind itself. 
 
 It may be well to point out at once that the work of M. 
 Gouin is essentially a new departure ; it is based upon a close 
 observation of nature — that of the little child at its games 
 weaving its own individuality and learning its native tongue ; 
 its mental operations are analysed with extreme care and 
 described with a clearness and simplicity to which one is 
 not always accustomed in subjects so apparently abstruse as 
 that of psychology. 
 
 The system set forth is not a variation of the ordinary col- 
 
PREFACE. vii 
 
 lection of exercises. That which is therein presented consists 
 of the expression of the real facts of life itself ; not accidental 
 facts merely, but those which every one has lived, is now 
 living — external and internal phenomena, deeply imprinted 
 upon the mental background of every human being. And 
 these facts are not seen at hazard ; they are grouped, analysed, 
 organised, studied in the exact order of succession which is 
 marked out by Nature. These facts are lived over again, as it 
 were, a second time by remembrance ; they are reconstituted 
 as a part of the individuality of the student, who again learns 
 to express them, but this time in a foreign language. Our 
 common life is once more begun at the mother's knee, and 
 lived through with the rapidity of thought ; and the conscious 
 knowledge of self thus acquired is obtained as well as the 
 mastery of a foreign language. 
 
 The act of speaking and understanding any sentence in 
 one's native tongue may be thus briefly analysed. We may 
 take as example the phrase "The shepherd-dog collects the 
 flock of sheep." The speaker forms in his mind a picture 
 (in this case of a pastoral subject), being a generalisation " of 
 many mental photographs; the words, that is, the "sounds," 
 expressing this picture he knows by long association. He 
 utters these sounds in the right order ; they strike against the 
 ear of the listener, and the same association between the sound 
 and the mental picture, having to him also long become habi- 
 tual, arises at once in the mind of the listener. There is 
 here nothing in the nature of translation, but the act is one 
 of pure intuition — seeing in the mind. There is nothing here 
 of printed signs : the signs or letters are but the phantom 
 or symbol of the sounds, carefully analysed phonetically ; they 
 also by long habit are associated both with the sounds and 
 with the mental picture, but mental picture, sound, and 
 written symbol of the sound are all distinct elements of what 
 collectively is termed Language ; and in learning the language 
 the first two are evidently the most important. 
 
 It is in the recognition of the vast part the imagination — 
 or, to be more accurate, the faculty of visualisation — plays in 
 the learning of languages, as in all mental operations, that the 
 
viii PREFACE. 
 
 originality and success of M. Gouin's " Series " system depends. 
 Not only so, but it opens up an almost unlimited field for the 
 organisation and training of the faculty until now almost un- 
 heeded, possibly the principal one the mind exercises (besides 
 that of control of the muscles), namely, the recollection of 
 sense impressions — those of sight, sound, taste, smell, and 
 feeling — but especially the first two — memory of sights and 
 sounds — which may be termed mental visualisation and mental 
 vocalisation. This power of visualisation in the mind, actually 
 denied to a portion of mankind by some physiologists (amongst 
 others Galton himself), is probably the one great and simple 
 faculty of the mind — that which makes man more than the 
 beasts of the field and gives him his mastery over Nature ; and 
 the power of converting one mental image into another, and 
 of comparing two mental images, will be found when analysed 
 to be that which we term Reason. So that we might venture 
 the statement that "man is not a reasoning animal," using 
 the word "Reason" as the name for some abstract and 
 abstruse mental operation, but simply "a mental picture- 
 making animal." This theory has far-reaching aspects. 
 
 Desirable as the discovery of the rationale of the gift of 
 languages may be and certainly is — for language underlies 
 the acquisition of all knowledge and the study of all arts and 
 sciences — the investigation of this "gift "must be, whether 
 it be recognised or not, in reality the investigation of the 
 rationale of all " gifts " and all powers of the mind. The 
 "gift for languages" once proved to be a method and not an 
 abstruse faculty of the mind, inherited or acquired, is there not 
 an a 'priori reason that the gift for calculation, for drawing, for 
 music, may be methods % What is it that constitutes talent, 
 and what genius itself ? And if we reply, " The strength of 
 the power of mental representation," we are perhaps near to 
 the answer. The extremely important questions such an idea 
 raises are hinted at in this work, and the basis is laid for the 
 initiation of an intuitive method of teaching. 
 
 The work of M. Gouin has within it therefore the promise 
 of awakening other discoveries. One of these is hinted at on 
 p. 6, where the act of mental calculation, so wonderfully 
 
PREFACE. ix 
 
 employed by so-called ''calculating prodigies," is suggested 
 for investigation; and, again, on p. 292, where the gift for 
 drawing is alluded to, and the principles of its development 
 are sketched out. 
 
 In the definite organisation of language, first into two 
 great divisions of objective and subjective, and then into the 
 groups corresponding, on the objective side, to the varied 
 occurrences in the external world ; and on the subjective 
 side, to the varied play of the faculties — in the organisation 
 of the totality of the expressions of any language into con- 
 centric groups, viz., of those expressions known by a child of 
 seven, those by a boy of ten, those by a youth of sixteen, and 
 those by a graduate of twenty one — in all this M. Gouin gives 
 a grouping eminently helpful not only to language teachers, 
 but also to philologists. In the methods of teaching arranged 
 in accordance with the psychological law of the development 
 of individuality in the child, we have not only a possibility of 
 greater efiiciency and adaptability in the methods of teaching 
 all subjects, but in the abrogation of the wearisome correction 
 of exercises and construing, and in the presentation of a less 
 abstract grammar, we have a deliverance of both pupils and 
 teachers from their weariest drudgery. 
 
 The latter, the exposition of a universal psychological con- 
 jugation (Part III. Grammar), calls for some more particular 
 remark. All grammars up to the present have been cast in 
 the same mould, without questioning if this were the only- 
 possible one or the best. The form of the word or words and 
 their endings is the material organised by them, and not the 
 thought which underlies these words and endings. The difii- 
 culty of accurately fixing the exact thought-subtleties under- 
 lying the tense-forms is almost absurd, as the writer well 
 knows, compared with the simplicity of the result when once 
 determined as embodied in a table such as the one given on 
 pages 231 and 238-9. In suggesting a new mould for the 
 setting forth of grammatical forms in lieu of the time-honoured 
 divisions of Pass^ Indefini and so forth, clearness of visualisa- 
 tion of the exact act expressed by the verb has been the only 
 guide, and is also the main result aimed at. 
 
X PREFACE. 
 
 By the present methods we are all well aware that even 
 after four or five years' courses at ordinary school-classes, 
 pupils are certainly usually not able to understand native 
 speakers or lecturers, or capable of speaking correctly and 
 idiomatically themselves, until after some considerable period 
 of residence abroad. Indeed, it is no unusual occurrence to 
 find that students, on the usual methods, may have passed 
 examinations with, success, and yet be utterly unable to sustain 
 a simple conversation, or even understand a native speaker. 
 The ordinary class method, so well known by all of us, is here 
 alluded to ; other teachers have partly advanced on the lines 
 so thoroughly carried out by M. Gouin. To them all honour ! 
 
 The reason of the success of M. Gouin's system, and the 
 ill-success of the ordinary class methods, may be briefly 
 summed up as follows : — 
 
 The ordinary classical method sets the students (i) to read 
 from a book what they do not yet know |iow to pronounce ; 
 (2) to connect the printed word in one language with another 
 printed word in another language ; (3) therefore, to perceive 
 the sense of the foreign language, always through the inter- 
 mediary of their own language, i.e., by translation, and not as 
 a native, by direct association ; (4) more often than not the 
 class exercises given are void of real sense or signification — 
 a set of more or less absurd, illogical (and untrue) statements, 
 having no application whatever to the learner's own individu- 
 ality, are used for exercises, introduced solely to employ the 
 vocabulary and to illustrate the rules of grammar; lastly, 
 the whole process throughout is abstract and arbitrary, 
 resting on no other foundation than the fancy of the 
 compiler. 
 
 To this process the system set forth by M. Gouin is opposed 
 in almost every particular, (i.) The learner has for exercises 
 sentences which bear a distinct and sensible meaning, and are 
 true in substance and in fact ; these are linked together in 
 logical sequence of the development of their action, forming 
 separate and simple dramatic scenes of primitive life, giving 
 rise, naturally, to good literary expressions; (2.) the learner 
 has the significance of the word or phrase always given to 
 
PREFACE. xi 
 
 him or called up in his mind hefore he is introduced to the 
 foreign word or phrase which express it; (3.) the association 
 of the foreign word or phrase is thus not with an English 
 word, but with the actual fact or mental conception which the 
 English word only stands for and expresses ; (4.) he is given 
 the pronunciation orally first, and hefore he sees the printed 
 form, and this several times successively and methodically, until 
 it is engraven on his memory; (5.) only after he thoroughly 
 knows the meaning and pronunciation is he allowed to see 
 the written or printed word ; and lastly, no rule, no word, no 
 expression, is given in an abstract condition, but always as 
 depending on some concrete fact previously known and directly 
 applying to the student's own individuality. . 
 
 In this way the foreign language becomes in reality a 
 *' language" to the learner, not a slow translation or a set of 
 printed signs ; it is associated with actual facts, and expresses 
 his ideas and mental conceptions in the foreign language 
 itself — in other words, the student "thinks in the foreign 
 language." 
 
 All that is developed in this work is evidently in strict 
 accordance with the principles which have guided the work 
 of Pestalozzi and of Froebel, as of Herbert Spencer. The 
 Series System indicates, indeed, a direction in which the long 
 acknowledged principles of the Kindergarten system can be 
 carried on into more advanced work — languages, modern and 
 classical, science and technical education ; and in this it may 
 serve a doubly useful purpose, for it may give into the hands 
 of teachers the method so long desired of enabling the training 
 of the mind to go hand in hand with the teaching of useful 
 knowledge, while it may also reduce the time necessary for 
 elementary instruction by furnishing more efiicient means, and 
 so leave more time for higher and technical education. 
 
 To many minds the chapters on the teaching of classical 
 languages will doubtless have most interest, especially at a 
 juncture when the compulsory teaching of Greek at the Univer- 
 sities is hotly challenged as against the spirit of the age. The 
 system of teaching the classics here proposed will unfailingly 
 call forth many and very varied opinions. The author's ideas 
 
xii PREFACE. 
 
 upon these points are very fully set forth in the chapters on 
 Greek and Latin (Part V., p. 362 ef seq.). 
 
 The original work was written in Geneva, and, it is interest- 
 ing to learn, was set up and composed in type by the author 
 himself, and printed at his own expense. It was published 
 in 1880 in Paris by G. Fischbacher, ^:^ Kue de Seine, and has 
 therefore been before the educational world for the last twelve 
 years. It is now out of print. Curiously enough, for such 
 an original and daring work, it has remained entirely unknown 
 to the British public, so far as the present writer can find, 
 until his introduction of it to those interested in educational 
 literature. At the time of the great Paris Exposition of 18S9, 
 being interested in language teaching, he had a copy of the 
 work put into his hands by a friend with the remark, " I do not 
 know whether the system has been carried into practice, but the 
 book is an attempt to reconstruct the child's mental life, and 
 is almost as interesting as a novel" — as indeed he found it. 
 Meeting, by a happy coincidence, M. Victor B^tis, the ardent 
 disciple of M. Gouin, who came to England on purpose to 
 introduce the system, the writer has given the time since to 
 preparing a faithful and careful translation of the book, which 
 embodies the life-work of one who may, perhaps, deserve to be 
 enrolled amongst the reorganisers of Pedagogy. This transla- 
 tion, undertaken with the close collaboration throughout of 
 M. Victor B^tis, presents a few modifications in one or two 
 particulars to adapt it to English requirements. 
 
 These modifications consist solely in the omission of two 
 or three paragraphs having more direct reference to French 
 schools ; the rather important modification of the chapter on 
 grammar (pp. 236-240), due to an extended comparison of the 
 English and French forms of the verbs, leading to a somewhat 
 deeper analysis of the author's investigations into the psycho- 
 logical differences underlying the tense forms of the conjuga- 
 tion ; the addition by the author of a scene from " Bomeo and 
 Juliet," illustrative of English literature in the form proposed ; 
 and yie publication in the Appendix of the certificate from 
 M. Lockroy, the French Minister of Public Instruction. 
 
PKEFACE. xiii 
 
 The following facts with reference to the author, M. 
 Francois Gouin, it may be desirable here to mention. Born 
 in 1 83 1, a native of Normandy, he was educated at the Col- 
 lege of 8eez. Advised by the professors of the College of Caen 
 to complete his philosophical studies in the German univer- 
 sities — as he relates in the book — he made a dismal failure 
 in his attempt to learn the German language by following out 
 in its simplicity the ordinary or classical method of learning 
 a language, which no one probably has ever before carried to 
 its extreme limits. Studying, on his return, a child, his little 
 nephew of three years old, who had meanwhile leamt to talk 
 its native tongue, he made the discovery which is the keystone 
 of the book, and therefrom worked out his system of "The 
 Art of Teaching and Studying Languages." M* Gouin returned 
 to Germany, and lived for many years in Berlin, eventually 
 holding the position practically equivalent to that of Professor 
 of French to the Berlin Court, and enjoying the personal 
 friendship of Alexander von Humboldt. In i860 he made a 
 brief stay in England ; and shortly after was nominated by 
 one of the Ministers of Roumania to organise the system of 
 public instruction in that country. But the continual change 
 of Ministry, and finally the fall of Prince Couza (1864), forced 
 him to leave the country, and he eventually settled in Geneva, 
 where he established a school, and during this period his book, 
 "L'Art d'Enseigner et d'Etudier les Langues," was written 
 and published. Later (1880) he became Director of the Ecole 
 Superieure of Elboeuf, but left, much to the regret of the in- 
 habitants, who looked to his system to endow the rising genera- 
 tion with the knowledge of languages, and thus to furnish 
 them with the means of becoming the most successful of com- 
 mercial correspondents. 
 
 M. Gouin was then (1883) appointed Professor of German at 
 the Ecole Superieure Arago, Paris, which position he now occu- 
 pies. Here he taught German, and in his private time Latin 
 and Greek, upon his "Series System," and pubHshed further 
 works dealing with the practical part of the method. His book 
 falling into the hands of a certain French gentleman of wealth, 
 M. Tempie, he was accorded ( 1 885) the means to carry on experi- 
 
xiv PREFACE. 
 
 mental classes for the teaching of German in the Ecole Normale 
 d'Instituteurs of Paris, the result of which, as given in the 
 certificate which is found in the Appendix (p. 395), was to 
 demonstrate that a thorough knowledge of the ordinary spoken 
 and written language, ability to understand a native speaker 
 or lecturer, with command of the grammar (and also some 
 knowledge of the literature of the country), with ability to 
 give lessons in the language, was obtained by students in less 
 than one year's course. 
 
 One word should be said in reference to the present methods 
 so heavily attacked in this volume. Methods, not men, alone 
 are criticised. There is no possibility of any personal feeling 
 having been imported, for the original work was directed 
 against French methods. Many there are who will welcome 
 this volume as a deliverance from purgatory — those who feel 
 the insufiiciency of present methods, as well as those who are 
 already arrayed against the classical process of abstract teach- 
 ing by grammar and vocabulary. Yet, nevertheless, it would 
 almost have been well to have had a head-line to every page, 
 in the words of the author's preface : — 
 
 METHODS AND NOT MEN ARE CRITICISED. 
 
 From the interest already shown by many persons of influence 
 to whom the work has been mentioned, it is certain that a 
 large measure of appreciation will be accorded in many direc- 
 tions in England to the life-long task of M. Gouin ; and if it 
 is felt that in any way a better study of the beauties of our 
 own or of foreign or classical literature, or the possibility of a 
 more useful and inspiriting education can be given by its 
 means, then the small amount of work done in presenting the 
 book in its English dress would have more than ample repay- 
 ment. 
 
 HOWAllD SWAN. 
 
 Richmond, Surrey, 
 
 July 1892. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Preface v 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 I. Need of a " mental railway " between nations — Character, 
 conditions, and final aim of a good linguistic method — 
 Possibility of its construction — Its prototype in nature . i 
 II. Means of demonstrating a truth and of setting forth a 
 
 system — Analysis and synthesis 7 
 
 III. The author attempts to learn the German language — Clas- 
 
 sical antecedents — The commencement — Hamburg Uni- 
 versity 8 
 
 IV. The first effort — The grammar and irregular verbs — Un- 
 
 successful result . . 10 
 
 V. The study of the roots — Second deception . . . .12 
 VI. An attempt at conversation — Disgust and fatigue — Reading 
 
 and translation, their worthlessness demonstrated . . 14 
 VII. The Ollendorf method — Enchantment— Thirty lessons in 
 
 ten days — Sad acknowledgment of the master — Delusion 18 
 VIII. Jacotot and Robertson — Disorder and arbitrariness esta- 
 blished as principles — Disconnected steps — The syste- 
 matic vocabulary by Plcetz 22 
 
 IX. Berlin University — Mixing with the Students — Fruitless 
 
 attendance at the classes 2 C 
 
xvi CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGR 
 
 X. A heroic resolve — Study of the Dictionary — Struggle and 
 
 victory— Third deception— Futile toil .... 26 
 
 XI. A child of three years old — Development of language in 
 
 Nature's school — New point of departure — Observation 
 
 of the child — A clue — Looking at the mill — The intel- 
 
 ^ lectual digestion — Saying and doing— The game — Light 
 
 ^n- in the darkness 34 
 
 vJ*/" XII. First insight — Transformation of a perception into a 
 
 3 O conception — The scholastic process compared with 
 
 ' f ^C a^ that of the child — Secret logic and marvellous order of 
 
 " C^ ^ Nature 39 
 
 XIII. Second insight — Principles of classification employed by the 
 
 child — Order of succession in time — Relation of end to 
 means — The incubation — Secret of the child's memory — 
 Explanation of my failures 42 
 
 XIV. Third insight — The child assimilates the mother-tongue 
 
 sentence by sentence, and not word by word — Hevela- 
 tion of the high value of the verb — The true pivot of the 
 natural system 44 
 
 XV. The web of language — Law of its formation — What is the 
 receptive organ of language ? — Incomprehensible error of 
 the College 46 
 
 XVI. Formation of the individuality by language — Precise defi- 
 nition of the work to be accomplished for the acquisition 
 of the basis of any given language — The idea of Series — 
 A generalisation — The mystic ladder of human indivi- 
 duality 48 
 
 XVII. Fourth insight — Two languages in one language— Objective 
 language and subjective language — The relative phrase 
 — Figurative language — Intuition of the system in its- 
 totality 52 
 
 XVIII. Return to Berlin — The test — A philosophical bout at the 
 
 University — The triumph — Excuse to the reader . . 56 
 
 XIX. Epilogue and prologue 59 
 
CONTENTS. xvii 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. Division of the subject— Order to be followed ... 60 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 Organisation in Series. 
 
 II. Definition and material of the Series 61 
 
 III. Construction of the Series — Outline of the general process 
 
 to be followed in organising them 62 
 
 IV. Construction of one " theme " of a Series .... 67 
 V. Character and properties of the exercises on the new method 70 
 
 1. Logical cohesion and original arrangement of the 
 
 sentences in the exercises 70 
 
 2. The number of words contained in a lesson . . 73 
 
 3. Intrinsic value of the terms contained ir> an ordinary 
 
 exercise 74 
 
 4. Two kinds of substantives — Common and general 
 
 nouns — Specific nouns — Their relation ... 76 
 
 5. Two kinds of verbs — ^Verbs of ends and verbs of 
 
 means — Their relation 77 
 
 6. Epitome and general view 79 
 
 7. Mnemonic properties of the method .... 80 
 VI. Critical observations upon the art of composing Series . 82 
 
 1. The pprpetual speech — Written Series — Hidden 
 
 difficulties 82 
 
 2. A method is a system necessarily artificial ... 85 
 
 3. Requisite capacities — Pedagogic measure of the Series 
 
 — Their division into exercises — Construction of these 
 exercises — Rules to be observed .... 86 
 
 4. Logical linking together of the sentences in an exer- 
 
 cise — Order and disorder — The human breath — 
 Measure of the phrase — Placing line by line — The 
 intellectual effort, its extent — Pedagogic measure of 
 
 a linguistic exercise 90 
 
 
 
XVlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 VIT. Specimens of the Elementary Series 
 Tlie Pump 
 The Well . 
 The Spring 
 The Fire . 
 The Stove 
 
 VIII, Co-ordination of the Series — Importance of the Domestic 
 Series 
 
 PAGE 
 
 96 
 
 99 
 108 
 III 
 112 
 120 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 Mode of Teaching the Series. 
 IX. A Language Lesson 127 
 
 1. Urgent need of a reform in the art of teaching 
 
 languages 127 
 
 2. The master-organ of language 127 
 
 3. The lesson of the teacher and the work of the pupil- 
 
 Assimilation — The part of the ear, the eye, and the 
 hand in the study of a language . . . .129 
 
 4. The pronunciation 13^ 
 
 5. One teacher for three classes 142 
 
 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 Its Organisation. 
 
 X. Classification of the Relative Phrases 144 
 
 1. Definition of the Relative Phrases— Their object and 
 
 their number in eacb tongue 144 
 
 2. Two kinds of Relative Phrases— Those perfect or 
 
 absolute, and the Enclitics 14S 
 
 3. Classification of Enclitics — General insight 
 
 4. Classification of the absolute Relative Phrases 
 
 General insight 
 
 147 
 
 149 
 
CONTENTS. xix 
 
 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 Art of Teaching it. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 XI. An ordered conversation carried on by means of the Rela- 
 tive Phrases 159 
 
 First Lesson in eight Languages : Latin, Greek, Italian, 
 French, Spanish, German, English, Norwegian . . 168 
 XII. Critical observations upon the practice of the Relative 
 
 Phrases 176 
 
 1. Remark upon our Appendices — Double function of the 
 
 Relative Phrase — Its practical value . . .176 
 
 2. Correspondence of the system with the maternal pro- 
 
 cess — The triumph of art — Correction of exercises — 
 The teacher's power doubled — The question of 
 accent — Free students 177 
 
 3. A declaration by a Minister of Education — The key- 
 
 stone of the edifice 180 
 
 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE*. 
 Its Organisation. 
 
 XIII. Object of this study — Two problems to be solved . . 182 
 
 XIV. Metaphorical themes 183 
 
 1. Origin of the metaphor — Its constituent elements — 
 
 Its definition 1 83 
 
 2. Ordinary symbolism— Construction of the metaphorical 
 
 themes . ' - . . . 186 
 
 The Art of Teaching Metaphors. 
 
 XV. Two kinds of processes 189 
 
 1. Intrinsic rank of the figurative language — How assimi- 
 
 lated in ordinary life — The part remaining to be 
 done by Art 189 
 
 2. Search for a connecting link between the metaphorical 
 
 theme and that of the Series — Idea of Dominants — 
 Crossing and harmonious progress of the two 
 
 languages . . 192 
 
 XVI. Still another question 195 
 
XX CONTENTS. 
 
 PART THIRD. 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 PAGH 
 
 I. Two opinions upon the practical value of grammar . .196 
 II. Definition and division 197 
 
 STUDY OF THE VERB. 
 Exercises in the Conjugations (First Week). 
 
 III. Indicative (present acts) 198 
 
 1. First exercise 198 
 
 2. Second exercise - . . -199 
 
 3. Third exercise 2cx) 
 
 IV. Critical examination of the process 201 
 
 1. Properties of our exercise in verbs .... 201 
 
 2. Upon the unity of the conjugation .... 203 
 
 3. Our process and that of nature — Awakening of the 
 
 grammatical sense — The indicative mood, the form 
 of the present tense, and the third person — The 
 Series of the Verb 207 
 
 4. Summary and conclusion — Grammatical teaching must 
 
 be reformed, not abolished 209 
 
 Exercises in Conjugation (Second Week). 
 
 V. Indicative mood — Acts past, present, and future . .211 
 
 1. Six times or six periods — Definite times and indefinite 
 
 times — Moments of precision 211 
 
 2. Natural association of the forms of the verbs with the 
 
 times — The tense intuition 215 
 
 3. The ordinary period of time (yesterday, to-day, to- 
 
 morrow, &c.) — The false period of time of the gram- 
 mars (the past, the present, the future) . . . 220 
 
 4. Erroneous notions of the tenses in the grammars — 
 
 Various causes of these errors : disdain of observa- 
 tion, traditional logomachy, confusion of the tense 
 and the act, vain symmetry 222 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 XXI 
 
 VI. Our practice in the forms of the Indicative 
 
 1. First exercise — Simple and momentary acts 
 
 2. Second exercise— Continuous and habitual acts . 
 
 3. Third exercise — Two acts occurring within the same 
 
 period of time — Simultaneous acts — Imperfect, 
 anterior, and posterior acts — The pluperfect acts 
 
 PAGE 
 
 227 
 227 
 232 
 
 235 
 
 Exercises in Conjugation (Third Week.) 
 
 VII. The Conditional and the Subjunctives .... 244 
 
 1. First exercise — The Conditional 244 
 
 2. Second exercise — The Subjunctives .... 246 
 
 STUDY OF THE SENTENCE. 
 Elements of the Sentence, their Functions. 
 
 VIII. Spoken Analysis of the Sentence ..... 
 
 1. Various functions of the terms of a sentence — The 
 
 pupil's initiation into this knowledge 
 
 2. A starting-point and a direction . . . , 
 IX. The complements — Cases or inflections — Declensions 
 
 1. The art of declining out of school 
 
 2. The art of declininf? at school 
 
 3. Practice of the declensions in our 
 
 4. Parallel of the two processes 
 X. The Preposition .... 
 
 XI. The Prefix 
 
 system 
 
 250 
 
 250 
 252 
 253 
 253 
 259 
 261 
 266 
 268 
 271 
 
 Construction. 
 
 XII. Two sorts of construction— Natural order and logical order 276 
 XIII. Practical study of the construction in an ancient or modern 
 
 foreign language . . 279 
 
 1. Construction by the ordinary process .... 279 
 
 2. Construction by our method 281 
 
xxii CONTENTS. 
 
 THE MODAL PHRASES. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 XIV. Classification and practice 284 
 
 1. Definition of the modal phrase — Its constituent ele- 
 
 ments — Their relations 284 
 
 2. Establishment of the moods — Vicious circle of the 
 
 Classical school — Our process 285 
 
 3. Ordinary practice of the modal phrases and the moods 
 
 — Our process 286 
 
 ANNEXES AND COROLLARIES OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 I. The Orthography— Spelling 288 
 
 IT. Reading 289 
 
 III. Drawing — Its relation to language — The illustrated Series . 292 
 
 IV. The time necessary to learn a language .... 294 
 V. The teaching of languages brought within the reach of all 
 
 — Linguistic aptitudes of women 299 
 
 VI. Can a language be learnt without a teacher ? . . .301 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 Literary Series. 
 
 Outline of a new process for translating, reading, and assimilating 
 the classical authors. 
 
 I. Putting a literary work into Series 3^5 
 
 1. Principle and point of departure 305 
 
 2. Transcription of a classical work into literature lessons 306 
 5. Specimens of transcriptions 308 
 
 ••The Lion and the Gnat" 3^9 
 
 •« Canis et Lupus " 311 
 
 •• Die Drei Spinnerinnen " 313 
 
 •• Romeo and Juliet " 320 
 
 II. Elaboration of a Literary Series— Our method of teaching . 325 
 
 1. One of La Fontaine's Fables 325 
 
 2. A page of Virgil 333 
 
CONTENTS. xxiii 
 
 THE LANGUAGES BY THE SCIENCES AND THE SCIENCES 
 BY THE LANGUAGES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. The solidarity of the sciences and the languages . " . .341 
 II. The languages by history and history by the languages 
 
 1. Necessity for a reform in the teaching of history 
 
 2. History put into Series .... 
 " The battle of Rossbach " . 
 
 3. The teaching of the history lessons 
 
 4. Geographical Series 
 
 III. The languages by the natural sciences and vice versa 
 
 IV. The languages and the exact sciences . 
 
 343 
 343 
 345 
 348 
 350 
 355 
 356 
 359 
 
 PART FIFTH. 
 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 I. The value of Greek and Latin 362 
 
 1. The interest of the race 362 
 
 2. The interest of the individual . . . . . 364 
 II. Condemnation of the processes applied to the study of 
 
 ancient languages 367 
 
 1. Ten years and ten masters 367 
 
 2. The dictionary, or the discipline of the vicious circle . 369 
 
 III. The fear of improvement — Sceptical disdain of the official 
 
 schools and their secret aversion to reform . . . 376 
 
 1. A last contest 376 
 
 2. Solution of the conflict 380 
 
 IV. The dying dialects — An ark of safety 383 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I. Three French Series lessons ...,,. 386 
 
 II. Co-ordinated acts — Author's text 389 
 
 III. " Le Lion et le Moucheron " 392 
 
 IV. Certificate of the French Minister of Public Instruction . 395 
 
 Index 397 
 
THE AET OF 
 
 TEACHING AND STUDYING LANGUAGES, 
 
 PART FIRST. ^^' ' ^- 
 
 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM 
 
 NEED OF A "mental RAILWAY" BETWEEN NATIONS — CHAR- 
 ACTER, CONDITIONS, AND FINAL AIM OF A GOOD LINGUISTIC 
 METHOD POSSIBILITY OF ITS CONSTRUCTION — ITS PROTO- 
 TYPE IN NATURE. 
 
 The feeling which leads nations to become acquainted with 
 each other and to penetrate farther and farther into each 
 other's territories is one which it is useless to resist. It is in 
 vain that despotism constructs frontiers bristling with for- 
 tresses and cannon ; in vain that the spirit of absolutism strives 
 to multiply the germs of discord between nation and nation, 
 and to imprison the races each within the barren confines of 
 its own unhealthy egotism. 
 
 Steam and electricity have drawn nations nearer together 
 than were neighbouring villages in the olden times. By their 
 means every movement, every aspiration is made known and 
 reported from one to the other, is revealed and published hour 
 by hour. A proximity, an interpenetration of the nations such 
 as this, renders more imperative day by day the need for 
 mankind to be able to speak to and understand each other, 
 to exchange their ideas and the fruits of their activities. 
 
 Unfortunately, however moral and legitimate the demand 
 may be for the complete satisfaction of this need, a barrier 
 
 A 
 
2 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSIEM. 
 
 is opposed wnich until now has been almost insurmountaLlo, 
 namely, the difference of language. To what, then, should 
 fall the task of throwing down, or at least of levelling up, this 
 obstacle of Nature? Evidently to science, to teaching, to 
 the school. 
 
 Alongside the material railway needed to enable our bodies 
 to communicate, it is absolutely necessary to construct a 
 *' mental railway " for the intercourse of minds. This mentnl 
 railway must take the form of a linguistic method that shall 
 enable a person, by means of the language, to enter into and 
 assimilate the intelligence, and the spirit of a foreign nation, 
 not as now, in a period of ten or of twenty years, and in so 
 doing to expend the third part of a lifetime, but in the space 
 between two equinoxes, or, for those of trained will, in the 
 space of a single season. On the day when this new species 
 of locomotive is definitely organised and put at the service of 
 men of thought and will, the brotherhood of nations will cease 
 to be a vain and empty word — a word which Governments 
 laugh to scorn, and peace as well as liberty will perhaps have 
 found their most solid foundation. 
 
 Nations would never strive to cut each other's throats if 
 they understood each other thoroughly, and if a healthy and 
 moral hospitality drew them together. However great the 
 perverse ambition of those who excite the races to make war 
 upon each other, their efforts must inevitably fall to the ground 
 if opposed to a universal league waging a continual crusade in 
 the cause of the most sacred interests of humanity. 
 
 Nothing, therefore, could be better than this "mental rail- 
 way " to prepare and hasten the development of that Areo- 
 pagus which sooner or later — vowed inwardly by all men of 
 heart — will effectually close the temple of war by curtailing 
 and disarming for ever the sanguinary fury of political 
 ambition. From this point of view a good linguistic method 
 is not merely a scientific and a literary work, but a humani- 
 tarian and a moral one. As such, it is worthy of the greatest 
 efforts of the profession of teaching, and perhaps takes the 
 lead of all other scholastic undertakings. 
 
 *' But the world is old," say the numerous friends of routine 
 • — those who have lived in it, those who live for it, and those 
 who live by it — " the world is old, and that which the master- 
 minds who have preceded us must have sought and could not 
 
THE MENTAL RAILWAY. . 3 
 
 discover — the solution of this grand problem — can we flatter 
 ourselves that we can discover ? " 
 
 If the world is old to-day, it was already old sixty years ago ; 
 and if, sixty yeai-s ago, every one had taken this reason, so 
 dear to all quietists, to comfort themselves in idleness, we 
 should never have had to this very hour the knowledge of 
 either steam, or electricity, or the thousand other forces which 
 science and industry have already begun to subdue or to trans- 
 form as into new organs of our race. 
 
 Nations do not grow old ; they change, and in so doing they 
 remain eternally young. If the men of the last century were 
 to awake to-day, they would have some difficulty in recognising 
 the present generation as their children. They would at first, 
 perhaps, believe in the accession of a new race. Pascal him- 
 self, at the sight of natural forces so magnificently conquered, 
 so cunningly adapted to the needs of modern life, might well 
 feel inclined to take us for magicians. Would he not be 
 wonderstruck at the marvels executed by engineering and 
 the omnipotence of calculation ? Would he recognise in our 
 sciences, in our industries, in our arts, the corollaries of his 
 own discoveries and his own profound intuitions ? Before the 
 marvels of chemistry even Lavoisier, the father of this science, 
 might well stand speechless. 
 
 " Nil mortalibus arduum est ! " This statement, which in 
 the ode of Horace sounds like a hyperbole, has become a 
 living reality. Lightning itself and all the indomitable ener- 
 gies which the giants, sons of the earth, drew from the contact 
 with mother earth, are now practically at the beck and call of 
 man — "Sub ditione hominis." 
 
 In spite of this, or rather because of this, the earth is still 
 young, extremely young ; for the power of mankind is, above 
 all, a growth. It is, as yet, hardly at the beginning. His 
 success has, it is true, given to man a consciousness of his 
 power; this is much, no doubt, but it is a commencement 
 and not an end. 
 
 Considered from the moral point of view, can it be said that 
 the world has attained to years of discretion ? Which of us is 
 in possession of the true knowledge of good and evil ? Look 
 around towards the four points of the compass and say whether 
 the nations most resemble men actually and incontestably free, 
 or children under tutelage. No, the world is not old, and the 
 
4 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM 
 
 era of discovery, so far from being closed, has but just opened. 
 Great inventions are the daughters of Necessity, and when 
 Necessity has spoken, man seeks and always finds. 
 
 Before the advent of the railway, it may be said that nations 
 lived so far apart that the need of speaking to and of under- 
 standing each other did not really exist. It made itself felt 
 slightly at the frontiers, and for this Nature herself has pro- 
 vided.i But to-day, thanks to the locomotive, nations are 
 next door to each other. Necessity wills that they shall bo 
 able to talk together with intimacy, that they shall have no 
 more secrets one from the other, that they shall not betray one 
 another, that at last they shall know and understand one 
 another mutually and to the utmost depths of their natures. 
 
 The material railway has long been built, and it calls inevit- 
 ably for the mental railway of which we have spoken. In 
 reality this, if we but knew it, is the end of which the other 
 is simply the means. Each cause must have its effect, and 
 tends thereto until this has been realised. In the historical 
 development of the human race that which was an " end " 
 during one generation becomes a "means" to the next; that 
 which to-day seems to us an "effect," to-morrow will be a 
 "cause," and will have the virtues of a cause together with 
 its character. 
 
 Material railway, mental railway : have we here a vain 
 antithesis ? Can the latter be constructed, and will it ever be 
 constructed ? Why not, we may ask, if for it there is, as we 
 have seen, a historical necessity — a necessity of civilisation ? 
 Why not, if Nature possesses already the marvellous machi- 
 nery which, in the child, weaves in so short a time the wondrous 
 fabric of the human individuality out of the raw material of 
 language 1 Why not, if the method sought for is working 
 every day under our very eyes ; if the child practises it con- 
 tinually with so much success as to assimilate the idiom of his 
 native soil ; and if all that is needful to transform it definitely 
 into a general instrument of the mind is to submit the mater- 
 nal process to the work of exegesis commanded by the pro- 
 found saying of Bacon, " Interpretanda est natura " ? 
 
 Our individual efforts to conquer the language of the coun- 
 tries which surround us, the love of children, the constant 
 and assiduous search for the laws which must preside over the 
 
 ^ Frontier races speaking both languages (Trans,). 
 
NATURE'S SOLUTION OF THE PEOBLEM. 5 
 
 curious and rapid development of language in early years, the 
 long philological studies, these have perhaps enabled us to 
 discover some of the principles of this method, which, when 
 perfected both by time and by practice, might well be called 
 by the name of the "Natural Method." 
 
 To those who a ■priori tell us, "Your system, whatever it 
 may be, and however ingenious it may be, can only represent 
 a chimerical idea, or else it is simply a trick and a delu- 
 sion, you are seeking to square the circle" — to those we 
 answer as did the Greek sage to the sophist who denied that 
 movement existed — the philosopher simply walked. We on 
 our part point to the child — the little child who knows how 
 to speak a language at three years of age, who has learnt it 
 whilst playing round his mother, who speaks it in a way in 
 which most of us would be proud of being able to speak 
 the language of any of our neighbours. Yes, Nature has 
 already solved the problem that we are investigating, and 
 she holds a permanent school for early infancy, in which we 
 can, if we wish, at any time take part, and where we may be 
 able to study her never-failing processes. 
 
 Unhappily the child has remained up to the present a 
 hackneyed riddle which we have never taken sufficient trouble 
 to decipher or even to examine. In the feverish and change- 
 ful rush of its life we have not kept sight of the regular and 
 mathematical development which has been effected in its mind 
 by (or through) language. In the turmoil of its acts, sensa- 
 tions and feelings so diverse and multifold, we have hitherto 
 been able to perceive only a pure game of chance. AVe have 
 never been able to conceive that possibly there might be, or 
 that we might find in this something resembling a method ; 
 that we might find somewhat of order, that is to say, a 
 " principle of order." Yet the little child, which at the age of 
 two years utters nothing but meaningless exclamations, at the 
 age of three finds itself in possession of a complete language. 
 IIow does it accomplish this ? Does this miracle admit of 
 explanation or not ? Is it a problem of which there is a possi- 
 bility of finding the unknown quantity ? 
 
 It is instinct, says one. It is a gift of Nature, reply others. 
 Yery convenient answers, no doubt, having the remarkable 
 property of equally well solving all questions of an intellectual 
 and moral nature. 
 
6 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 When Henri Mondeux,i in his appearances before the 
 colleges, and even before the Acad^mie des Sciences at Paris, 
 stood up on the platform, and, without pens or paper, solved 
 intuitively and in a few seconds problems which it had taken 
 Arago eight days to calculate, the professors wagged their 
 heads, and they also said, '' It is a gift ! " And thanks to this 
 superb word, thanks to this impious disdain, the university 
 has left buried with Henri Mondeux a method of calculation 
 which, applied to steam, to electricity, to modern industry, 
 might to-day have increased tenfold the power of mankind.^ 
 
 No, the marvellous aptitude of children for assimilating a 
 language is not a "gift;" it is the result of a process admir- 
 ably carried out, resting upon principles as yet imperfectly 
 apprehended, and often in entire contradiction to those which 
 the usual systems now proclaim. Given a child of four or 
 five years with a Greek or a Chinese nurse : is it true, 
 or is it not true, that this child will speak Greek or will 
 speak Chinese at the end of six months in a manner that will 
 confound the greatest philologists in the world ? And is it 
 true, on the other hand, that if this same child had as masters 
 these same philologists, at the end of six months it would 
 know practically nothing of either of these languages ? There- 
 fore the child by the side of his nurse would have a gift or 
 faculty which it would lose by the side of the savants ! 
 
 Gift and instinct — these are two words, two sayings void 
 of sense, to which man still turns to excuse his idleness or 
 conceal his ignorance. 
 
 To conclude our preamble : the child learns in six months, 
 in a year at the outside, to talk and also to think. The youth 
 or the adult having to do but a portion of this work, since he 
 already knows how to think, should therefore be able without 
 trouble to learn in six months, or in a year at the outside, 
 to speak any given language, be it Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, 
 Sanscrit, German, English, or French. And he certainly can 
 do this on condition that he follow the special process known 
 
 ^ A famous French calculating boy (Trans.). 
 
 ^ It may not be uninteresting to state here that one of the disciples of the 
 author has worked out the theory and the method of this wonderful mental 
 calculation, as the result of the hint given above, with extremely interesting 
 and successful results, which will be embodied in a work on intuitive 
 calculation (Trans.). 
 
MEANS OF DEMONSTRATION. 7 
 
 find so well applied by our own mothers. Nature has set 
 lierself the problem in equations : it is for us to clear the 
 fractions and determine the unknown. 
 
 II. 
 
 MEANS OF LEMOXSTRATING A TRUTH AND OF SETTING FORTH 
 A SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 
 
 When a teacher puts a question before the little public of 
 his class, we may suppose that he knows the solution of it. 
 In the same way when a writer upon pedagogy or the science 
 of teaching undertakes to bring forward a new method to the 
 larger public, he should be, or believe himself to be, in posses- 
 sion of a certain number of practical truths until that timo 
 more or less unknown. It is not, therefore, a discovery so 
 much as a demonstration which he proposes to make. 
 
 Now there are, as is well known, two means of demonstrating 
 a scientific theorem, or, in fact, a thesis of any kind whatsoever. 
 We may either combine or turn about the data in order to 
 discover the necessary constant relations which these facts 
 bear one towards the other ; or else, knowing these relations 
 beforehand, we may bring them about or establish them in 
 the first place, and then by a series of logical deductions arrive 
 at the particular truth which results from these relations. 
 
 In reality these two processes are two portions of the same 
 whole. The first, usually termed *' analysis," is the rational 
 part of the demonstration, since it establishes the necessary 
 relations of things. The second, usually termed "synthesis," 
 is the practical part, since it develops and brings to light the 
 truths which lie in the germ within these relations. We may 
 add that the one is the necessary complement of the other. 
 Without the first the second leaves something arbitrary and 
 unexplained. On the other hand, without synthesis and 
 deduction, analysis remains but a barren effort, like a word 
 half articulated or a circle abruptly and awkwardly broken 
 through. 
 
 Therefore, to explain our present method as clearly as 
 possible, that is, to demonstrate the practical truths embodied 
 in the system, we must have recourse to the double process of 
 analysis and synthesis. But in what can the analysis consist 
 
8 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 in a case such as this ? It should be the same, for example, as 
 the explanation of the process which has given us porcelain, or 
 the web from the Jacquard loom, which would be an account 
 of the successive experiments by which the two inventors have 
 attained the realisation of their conception. It is, therefore, 
 by the history of what we may term our " discovery " that we 
 are invited by logic to begin the explanation of the system. 
 
 The reader is asked to pardon the intrusion of the author's 
 personality in a work of this kind; but for an author the 
 interest of the idea and his success take precedence over every 
 other consideration, and in the name of logic, and for the sake 
 of clearness of exposition, we may perhaps be permitted to 
 begin the treatise by an account of the author's personal 
 experiences. 
 
 We should like to point out before commencing that this 
 linguistic method is, so far as we know, the first yet brought 
 forward which begins by the advancement of a theory ; it is 
 indeed the first which even admits of a theory, or which it 
 has been possible to form into a distinct system. Jacotot, 
 Robertson, Ollendorf, &c., have in reality nothing to do with 
 theory ; their works, as we shall show, do not rest upon any 
 real principle of psychology ; they either consider themselves 
 superior to all principles, or more probably the possibility of 
 a theory never occurred to them. 
 
 III. 
 
 THE AUTHOR ATTEMPTS TO LEARN THE GERMAN LANGUAGE — 
 CLASSICAL ANTECEDENTS — THE COMMENCEMENT — HAMBURG 
 UNIVERSITY. 
 
 On leaving what are termed by our masters " solid studies," 
 I embraced, both by taste and by vocation, the career of teach- 
 ing. I was at first in charge of a fifth (lower middle) class, 
 and in the intervals of the lessons I had to prepare students 
 for the Baccalaureat.^ Besides this, I followed assiduously 
 the Academy courses in literature and science, most of these 
 being given at hours when I was at liberty. This first stage, 
 and these university studies, in our lovely town of Caen, were 
 
 ^ The French matriculation, considered equal to a degree (Trans.). 
 
THE CLASSICAL PROCESS. 9 
 
 to last four years. I threw myself into the methods and the 
 classical proceedings with all the ardour of which one is capable 
 in the early days of youth. 
 
 For the purpose of argument I will grant that this zeal 
 occasionally did develop sundry small prodigies. For instance, 
 at my first attempt, a student who had never before learnt 
 any Latin was taken in hand by me one October, and in the 
 October following he passed his examination at the head of 
 the section. All which is to indicate that I must have known, 
 to have practised it, both the strength and the weakness of 
 the classical method of teaching, which I shall attack and 
 combat lat«r on. 
 
 My professors at the university (of whom T may be allowed 
 to mention the revered names of MM. A, Charma and Ch. 
 Ilippeau), believing they had distinguished certain philoso- 
 phical aptitudes in their pupil, engaged me to cross the Bhine 
 and go to listen, if not to the great masters of the German 
 school, Hegel and Schelling, at least to the last echoes of 
 their voices and the doctrines of their successors. I departed 
 with joy, furnished with precious letters of introduction to 
 many of the celebrities of the day. 
 
 To cross the North Sea, to leave Havre and alight at Ham- 
 burg, did not require a great effort. The first and greatest 
 obstacle to conquer was not the distance, but the language, for 
 J. hardly knew the German characters ; but at the age at which 
 I was then, nothing is deemed impossible, and I thoroughly 
 expected at the end of a few weeks to be able to speak 
 German, at any rate, as well as the children of the place. It 
 seemed to me that a living language might be somehow assi- 
 milated in the very air of the country. 
 
 Hamburg was thus my first stage. My idea was there to 
 conquer the foundation of the language, then to proceed to 
 Berlin to enter the university. Hamburg had, moreover, an 
 academy with many able professors and largely frequented 
 by students. Every class was crowded with earnest students 
 of both sexes, a striking and humiliating contrast to the unfor- 
 tunate French universities, usually neglected by the people, 
 and practically unknown to the district ever since the time 
 when the State constituted them its exclusive property. I 
 had thus ready to my hand an excellent means both of con- 
 trolling my progress and of habituating my ears to the accent 
 
lo HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 and to the language of German science. I promised myself to 
 profit well by such a good opportunity, and to make consider- 
 able use of this pleasure. 
 
 The carrier pigeon, before taking its flight, mounts straight 
 upwards into the air, and, seeking its way, measures the space 
 it has to traverse. To estimate approximately and to fix in 
 my own mind the distance between the point of departure and 
 the point of arrival, I resolved to listen at the very first at 
 least once to each of the professors, and see how much of his 
 thought I should be able to grasp by the attentive observation 
 of his gesture and accent. Alas ! I can only state my absolute 
 incapability of penetrating a solitary one of the ideas so eagerly 
 and so religiously gathered up by a crowd of students whose 
 happiness I envied. I was therefore compelled to set to work, 
 commencing " at the very beginning." 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE FIRST EFFORT — THE GRAMMAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS 
 
 UNSUCCESSFUL RESULT. 
 
 For the study of languages I knew but one process — a pro- 
 cess without any particular name — the classical process. My 
 faith in the grammar, the dictionary, the translation from and 
 into the foreign language, was entire and above suspicion. To 
 my mind the value and the efficacy of this " universal " pro- 
 cess were indisputable. Was it not the final outcome of the 
 experience and the science of mankind ? To learn first words, 
 then the rules for grouping these words, and of these to make 
 up sentences, this seemed to me to include the whole art, the 
 ■whole secret, the whole philosophy of the teaching of languages. 
 Was it not thus that I had learnt Latin myself, and had after- 
 wards taught it to others ? Was it not to this process that -I 
 owed what knowledge I possessed of Greek ? 
 
 When I thought about it seriously, my knowledge of Greek 
 and Latin appeared to me, it is true, insufficient for a living 
 language, and the thought of the length of time I had devoted 
 to their study would sometimes come to trouble the serenity of 
 my confidence and to disquiet the hope that I had of master- 
 ing German in a few weeks ; but a word, a snying, an inward 
 
GRAMMAH AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 1 1 
 
 voice, had the virtue of chasing away all these troublesome 
 thoughts. " Those are dead languages," I said to myself, 
 "and German is a spoken language." And this simple anti- 
 thesis sufficed to put to flight every objection, every impor- 
 tunate suggestion. 
 
 I had armed myself after leaving Havre with a grammar 
 and a dictionaiy. I applied myself resolutely to the study of 
 the grammar. I divided it into seven or eight portions, and 
 I devoured it, I assimilated it in a week. Declensions, 
 strong, weak, and mixed ; conjugations, regular and irregular ; 
 adverbs, prefixes, and propositions, syntax and method, all 
 passed under my eye, upon my tongue, and into my memory — 
 all with the exception of the table of irregular verbs. This 
 was divided into two parts and imposed as a task for the two 
 following days. 
 
 In my previous studies I had given more than a year to 
 learn the Latin grammar; in ten days I had mastered the 
 grammar of the German language. This victory swelled my 
 courage, and I hastened forthwith to the Academy in order to 
 measure the extent of this first step and to realise the powder 
 acquired. 
 
 But alas ! in vain did I strain my ears ; in vain my eye 
 strove to interpret the slightest movements of the lips of the 
 professor; in vain I passed from the first class room to a second; 
 not a w^ord, not a single word would penetrate to my under- 
 standing. Nay, more than this, I did not even distinguish a 
 single one of the grammatical forms so newly studied ; I did 
 not recognise even a single one of the irregular verbs just 
 freshly learnt, though they must certainly have fallen in 
 crowds from the lips of the speaker. 
 
 For a moment I was prostrated. Then musing over the 
 extent of my first effort, I consoled myself for this deception 
 or for this failure by reflecting that I had familiarised myself 
 as yet with rules and terminations only, and that with respect 
 to the foundation of the language itself, I knew only its 248 
 irregular verbs. All that was needful again to give me courage 
 was the explanation or reason of my failure ; and I thought 
 I had found it in nothing more serious than the foregoing 
 consideration. What now had to be done, therefore, was to 
 attack the foundations of the German language. But where 
 was I to find these foundations and how detach them from their 
 surroundings 1 
 
12 mSTOEY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 THE STUDY OF THE ROOTS SECOND DECEPTION. 
 
 ^Yhen, in my school-clays, I had been learning Greek, I had 
 studied Lancelot's book of roots. Full of faith in the pro- 
 mise of the professors, who, without being certain of it them- 
 selves, yet assured us that it sufficed to thoroughly know the 
 two thousand root words to know Greek thoroughly, I had 
 perhaps ten times learnt, ten times forgotten, and ten times 
 more reconquered the " Garden of Greek Roots," which finally 
 became for me a kind of breviary which I repeated over every 
 morning. 
 
 The promise of my masters, it is true, was not fulfilled, and 
 although I was perhaps a better Hellenist than any other of 
 my co-disciples at the university, I could not altogether deceive 
 myself. I was very far from being able to read and enjoy 
 Thucydides and Plato as I could read and enjoy the authors 
 of my native land. But Greek was a "dead language," and 
 no doubt there was, for a knowledge of dead languages, a point 
 which one could never expect to pass. Tliis reflection tran- 
 quillised me by deluding me as to the real value of my classical 
 knowledge. 
 
 So that if by the " Garden of Greek Roots " I had not alto- 
 gether arrived at the promised land, I did not feel that I had 
 the right to draw from this an argument against the efficacy of 
 the German roots. German being a living language, the pro- 
 cess which was defective for Greek might yet be excellent for 
 German. One should be careful not to prejudge. A remedy 
 which might be impotent upon a dead body may very easily 
 produce an effect upon a living being. 
 
 Far from confirming this objection, reason reminded me 
 that there should be, and in fact there was, for each language 
 a foundation, a substance, as for every other thing; and that 
 this foundation, this substance, is nothing else than the collec- 
 tion of the roots, namely, that part, that unalterable element 
 of the language which supports and nourishes the varied and 
 variable assemblage of cases and of conjugations as a plant 
 supports and maintains the phenomena of efflorescence. 
 
 I made up my mind, therefore, to treat German exactly by 
 the same process as Greek, and I visited all the booksellers of 
 
STUDY OF THE ROOTS. 13 
 
 Hamburg to procure a book of this description, which, vastly 
 to my astonishment, was not to be found. Nevertheless, 
 German was, I reflected, a language constructed after the 
 manner of Greek. Ought not the study of the roots to be made 
 the subject of the first lesson of all the courses in philology ? 
 Could it be possible for this science to have any other point of 
 departure ? 
 
 I deemed it impossible that a collection of German roots 
 should not exist ; and, in spite of the denials of the book- 
 sellers, I set myself to work to find this book, and to look 
 through all their shops (they spoke French), and I ended at 
 last by discovering in the corner of a shelf the treasure I 
 sought. 
 
 It was quite a small book, bearing the name of a Jesuit 
 father ; a very complete collection, and with the roots arranged 
 in alphabetical order. If my memory serves me, this booklet 
 contained eight or nine hundred roots. The smallness of this 
 number, I must confess, somewhat disenchanted me ; it dis- 
 concerted and almost discouraged me. If, indeed, with the 
 two thousand Greek roots I had arrived at no very practical 
 result, how could I hope to achieve anything practical by a 
 study which only required half so great an effort 1 
 
 A thousand roots, I said to myself at last, after having 
 counted and recounted the columns of the book ; it is, at any 
 rate, so much gained. Let us begin, afterwards we will see if 
 anything more complete can be discovered. 
 
 Four days afterwards the Jesuit father's work had passed 
 into my memory. I gave myself four days more to look 
 through and digest my grammar, my 248 irregular verbs, and 
 my 800 roots. This time I thought I really possessed the 
 foundation of the language, as well as the laws and the secret 
 of its forms, regular and irregular. 
 
 If the method was good — and how could I doubt it ? — was it 
 not the grammatical and classical method 1 If the masters of 
 my alma mater were not deceived — and how should they be ? — 
 themselves the representatives and the ministers of the wisdom 
 of the university ? If, in a word, I had not completely mis- 
 taken the reality of my efforts and the amount of work accom- 
 plished, I ought now to possess the German language, doubt- 
 less not in all the amplitude of its riches, but sufficiently at 
 any rate to listen, to read, to penetrate whatever was within 
 the reach of a person of ordinary intelligence. 
 
14 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 I I hastened to the academy, content within myself, and 
 
 filled with confidence, tasting in advance the double pleasure 
 
 ' /of hearing science through a foreign dialect, and of feeling my 
 small personality suddenly increased by half in mastering the 
 
 sS speech of a vast country. 
 
 y / Imagine then, if it be possible, the astonishment at first, 
 then the stupefaction, then the degradation by which I was 
 overtaken after the first quarter of an hour at the lecture I 
 attended, when I had to submit to the evidence, and to confess 
 to myself that I was, so far as regards the spoken language, 
 
 y ) exactly in the same state as upon the first day ; that I did 
 not understand a word, not a syllable, and that all my efforts 
 had been made in pure waste, or at least had produced no 
 appreciable result. 
 * This was no longer a mere deception — it was a failure ; 
 
 jjf nay, more than this, it was a defeat. My amour projire 
 
 ' ^ was deeply touched ; my courage and the confidence I felt in 
 my energy were greatly diminished thereby. I sorrowfully 
 
 < wandered back to my lodgings, seeking the causes of my 
 
 ^ incapability, and unfortunately this time unable to give my- 
 
 ' / self any explanation. 
 
 VI. 
 
 AX ATTEMPT AT CONVERSATION — DISGUST AND FATIGUE — READING 
 AND TRANSLATION, THEIR WORTHLESSNESS DEMONSTRATED. 
 
 I now attempted to converse with my hosts. Up to this time 
 I had neglected, or rather disdained, this means, as being too 
 slow, too uncertain, too casual, too troublesome, especially for 
 those to whom I spoke. However, I had taken rooms at a 
 hairdresser's; I could hardly have been in a better school. 
 So I drew myself together for another effort, and each day 
 found me established for long hours in the hairdresser's 
 saloon, where I attempted to follow the conversation, hazard- 
 ing from time to time a sentence carefully prepared before- 
 hand, awkwardly constructed with the aid of my roots and 
 grammar, and apparently always possessing the property of 
 astonishing and hugely amusing the customers. 
 
 Meanwhile the days passed and the weeks also, and truly 
 I could not see what I had gained from one morning to the 
 other. I considered that the sundry conventional phrases I 
 
CONVERSATION AND TRANSLATION. 15 
 
 could now exchange with the frequenters of the house were 
 really not worth the pains I had given either to gather or 
 to retain them. I felt, besides, that to converse with me was 
 an undertaking hardly less painful than with a deaf-mute. 
 Moreover, I had an intense desire, an ardent thirst for order 
 and logic, to which the scraps of ordinary conversation, more 
 or less vapid and continually interrupted, corresponded but 
 ill. This want of order enervated and fatigued me beyond 
 measure. Studied in this manner, a language appeared to mo 
 under the guise of a Penelope's web , where the work of the 
 nig:ht destroyed that of the day. . 
 
 Seeing no limit to a work thus carried on at haphazard, ^\ ^ 
 suddenly broke off with a process that could lead me to i ^^ 
 nothing, and I returned to reading — translation by the aid( ' 
 of the dictionary. The prodigal son, who had one moment \J,^ 
 wandered from the straight path, entered once more upon y 
 classic ways. The depth of the ideas translated would prove no ) 
 obstacle, nay, rather for a student of philosophy should possess J 
 an attraction ; so I went direct to Goethe and Schiller. 
 
 If I had been able to doubt for one instant the wisdom and 
 the infallibility of the university, "Et si mens non Iseva 
 fuisset," I should have been able, — indeed, I ought to have 
 been forced, from this moment to appreciate at its true value 
 the study of roots and the vocabulary'' in general, that exercise 
 so much extolled by all scholastic bodies. 
 
 Practically, in spite of the perfect knowledge I believed I 
 had acquired of the roots of the German language, although 
 I was able to repeat them by heart from one end to the other, 
 and although I had saturated myself with them every morning 
 before breakfast, yet when I opened the first page of my 
 author, I found I could recognise hardly any of the words 
 I had acquired, though the page must have contained many of 
 them. 
 
 , If perchance one of them seemed to me to be a little better* 
 I known or less strange than the others, its inner sense always 
 Jescaped me ; this I could never find, and above all could never 
 /precisely fix. It was exactly as one recalls having seen a 
 iperson somewhere without being able to call to mind either 
 (his name or what he was. 
 
 When my glance fell upon a word of my native tongue, the 
 idea represented by this word shone or sparkled forth, so to 
 
i6 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 speak, under my eyes. The word became transfigured with a 
 certain mysterious element of life. I beheld no longer mere 
 letters ; I saw the idea itself. 
 
 Strange that this phenomenon would not occur for the 
 German word, even when I had been able to determine its 
 meaning by the aid of the dictionary. The word was always 
 as a dead body stretched upon the paper. Its meaning shone 
 not forth under my gaze ; 1 could draw forth neither the idea 
 nor the life. 
 
 *' Tragen," for instance, was for me but an arbitrary assem- 
 blage of six letters, perfectly incapable of revealing to me the 
 effort or the special movement it had the mission to represent. 
 The hour was yet far distant when I should ask myself the 
 reason of this difference, or should seek the explanation of 
 this curious phenomenon. Other trials were needed to open 
 my eyes. 
 
 /So my work on the roots and the irregular verbs seemed 
 ho have been made in vain. Nevertheless I could not bring 
 myself to believe this seriously. " The fire smoulders under 
 the ashes," I assured myself, "and will brighten up little by 
 little. We must read, read, read, day in and day out ; trans- 
 late, translate continually ; hunt, hunt a hundred times after 
 the same word in the dictionary ; catch it a hundred times, a 
 hundred times release it ; we shall finish by taming it." 
 
 The first day I had much difficulty in deciphering even one 
 page, and I was not sure I had not made a dozen blunders in 
 'this. The second page seemed to be equally difficult with the 
 first. For a week I worried and tossed about my dictionary. 
 In this week I had hardly interpreted the meaning of eight 
 pages, and the ninth did not promise to be less obscure or less 
 laborious than the preceding. 
 
 I felt I was not advancing, that I should never by this 
 means arrive at the knowledge of the language in its totalit}^, 
 * that the words did not grave themselves upon my mfemory, 
 and that my work this time was indeed a Penelope's web. 
 Translation might be a useful and necessary esercise for the 
 study of Greek and Latin ; it appeared to me to be far less 
 fruitful for living languages. <■ 
 
 C> For the first time in my life I dared to question the effi cacy^ 
 o f the classical methods of the university^ I still maintained 
 Them, it is true, for the ancient tongues ; but I boldly 
 
14—.- 
 
 ir- ^ 
 
 TRANSLATION AND READING. 17 
 
 condemned them for modern languages, and these are the 
 considerations upon which I grounded my judgment. 
 
 *' To translate a volume of 300 pages would take some 300 
 days ; this is a whole scholastic year : and, moreover, would 
 this work be profitable except to a person who should set 
 himself to learn the pages of the book by heart as he trans- 
 lated them ? Now no one can ignore the fact that by the 
 time he had mastered the last page he would probably have 
 forgotten at least 290 pages. Moreover, this book is far from 
 containing the whole of the language, with all its terms and 
 all its forms. 
 
 "At school, when we had finished construing a book of 
 Herodotus, we were made to pass to Thucydides. Now, I 
 never found that the interpretation of the first book facilitated 
 very much the interpretation of the second. The same verb, 
 it is true, reappeared often, but nearly always with a different 
 signification. Each sentence was an enigma which must be 
 deciphered with the aid of a dictionary. 
 
 *' Translation is not merely a slow and painful process, but 
 it leads to nothing and can lead to nothing. Suppose that I 
 have translated the entire volume, there is every evidence that 
 I should not be in a state either to speak or understand speech, 
 or even to read readily a second volume." 
 
 The means was therefore judged, and condemned for ever. 
 I closed my Goethe and my Schiller, decided not to reopen 
 these books until the day that I could speak the language of 
 their authors. 
 
 However, I had not arrived at my goal ; I judged it, 
 indeed, farther away than ever, for my faith was beginning 
 to be shaken. What new proceeding should I next essay? 
 To what artifice could I have recourse 1 For it was indeed 
 necessary that I should learn German ; I icould learn German. 
 The thing could not be impossible ; the little children learnt 
 it easily enough ; the hairdresser's babies prattled around me, 
 saying all they wished to say, understanding all that w^as 
 said to them, answering to all that was asked of them, and 
 this without having learnt either grammar or roots or irregular 
 verbs, and without ever having worried a dictionary. 
 
18 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 vir. 
 
 THE OLLENDORF METHOD — ENCHANTMENT THIRTY LESSONS 
 
 IN TEN DAYS^A DOUBT SAD ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF THE 
 
 MASTER — DELUSION. 
 
 I paid another visit to the booksellers of Hamburg, and 
 telling them of my unfortunate experiences, I begged them to 
 let me into the secret of the persons who learn German, or 
 rather of those who had really arrived at learning it. 
 
 They immediately offered me Ollendorf's book, and bade me 
 pay especial attention to these words, '^ fifty-fourth edition." 
 The whole world then studied this book ! There was no 
 doubt of it ; it was certainly here that all the foreigners W'ho 
 spoke German had learnt that language. I bought the cele- 
 brated method ; I read the preface attentively, then I medi- 
 tated and I pondered for some time over this promise, "German 
 in ninety lessons." 
 
 Three months added to the long weeks sacrificed to my 
 unfruitful trials represented a period which exceeded con- 
 siderably the time I had judged necessary for a first initiation 
 into the ordinary language, and from this would result an 
 annoying 'delay which would derange all my plans for study 
 at the Berlin University. I therefore put the question to 
 myself, if I could not, by stubborn efforts, accomplish in six 
 weeks the work which an ordinary student would achieve in 
 three months ? It was a thing that might be tried. I divided 
 my day into three parts, and in each I placed a lesson of 
 Ollendorf. 
 
 It is unnecessary to say more than that success recom- 
 pensed my zeal, and each day saw me at the end of my triple 
 task. I should like to retrace here for the benefit both of 
 teachers and of students the impressions which I felt in pass- 
 ing abruptly from the classic methods to these new methods, 
 which might be aptly termed " extra-scholastic." 
 
 I. Instead of isolated words, as abstract as logarithms, such 
 as the roots and irregular verbs, connected together by the 
 purely fortuitous circumstance of the similarity of their initial 
 letters, Ollendorf produced words ready set in their phrases, 
 the meaning of which was consequently definitely fixed, and 
 which had for connection, if not logical relationship, at any 
 
THE OLLENDOKF SYSTEM. 19 
 
 rate those of the immediate wants of life and of every-day 
 usage. 
 
 " Have you a knife 1 "— " Yes, I have a knife." 
 
 " Have you any shoes ? " — " Yes, I have some shoes." 
 
 2. The grammar, instead of being presented as an undi- 
 gested mass of abstractions, of theories more or less obscure, 
 of rules and exceptions regulating a priori, and from the 
 heights of a special book, matters unknown to the pupil, 
 was hidden beneath the kindly form of counsel given as the 
 necessity for it arose, passing immediately into practice, 
 embodying itself in actual facts and in habitual locutions to 
 which one had recourse a hundred times a day. 
 
 3. It was no longer by the figurative literary language of 
 classical authors that the pupil was forced to begin. It was 
 the expression of the life of every day, the expression of the 
 most ordinary phenomena that Ollendorf presented to us, or 
 pretended to present to us, and this in doses having the 
 appearance of being regulated according tt) the measure of a 
 partial effort of the mind. 
 
 This linguist gave the actual, objective world for the 
 foundation of his edifice ; the world of facts, not of pure 
 idealities and abstractions. With- him we commenced no 
 longer at the topmost summit, as we had done at college when 
 learning Greek and Latin, where metaphorical language was 
 the kind almost exclusively cultivated, and was in reality the 
 only language held in honour. 
 
 4. The same word reappeared indefinitely ; sprung upon 
 one abruptly, incoherently, aproj)Os of nothing, and subduing 
 by its very frequency both the eye and the ear. This want 
 of order, this desultoriness appeared to me to conform perfectly 
 with the ordinary method of life. 
 
 Ollendorf 's method was decidedly based upon Nature : it 
 was certainly a natural method. As such it could not fail to 
 lead to the point at which the child, whose infallible method 
 Ollendorf seemed to have copied, so quickly and easily arrives. 
 
 These numerous advantages amply accounted to me for the 
 favour which the new method enjoyed, and the vogue which 
 had raised it to twenty editions a year. After the arid pro- 
 ceedings of the classical methods, and the intellectual fatigue 
 which results from these, Ollendorf's book spread before those 
 
20 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM!. 
 
 who still had the courage to study languages like a delicious 
 oasis, where real and living beings were once more encountered, 
 instead of the sempiternal and odiously abstract phantasms of 
 the classical solitudes. 
 
 I found one thing only to object to in the book, and this 
 was its smallness. My repeated checks had rendered me 
 distrustful. Its weight seemed to me, at first glance, too 
 light to equal that of a complete idiomatic system ; its volume 
 appeared to me too restricted to contain the whole material 
 of a human language. But the promise of the author was 
 formal, and formally inscribed in the preface to the reader. 
 This promise had been repeated, republished fifty-four times 
 in fifty-four editions. Had I the right to doubt a statement 
 whose truthfulness no one until that time had publicly con- 
 tested ? 
 
 So I boldly entered my new skiff, making regularly my three 
 knots a day. After an uninterrupted effort, a struggle with- 
 out quarter for a whole fortnight, I had conquered, and com- 
 pletely conquered, the half of the book, thoroughly learning 
 off each exercise, repeating it, copying it out, taking each 
 lesson as a subject, elaborating it, treating it in all imaginable 
 ways. 
 
 During this time I severely denied myself all attempts at 
 conversation with the family at whose house I was staying. 
 To be able to construct as well as to understand a sentence, 1 
 considered it was necessary first to be in possession of all its 
 elements. A single unknown term sufiiced to render it either 
 impossible or incomprehensible. I did not desire to expose 
 myself to a failure which might affect or diminish my courage. 
 I did not feel myself yet sufficiently assured to dare to chal- 
 lenge the doubt. 
 
 After the forty-fifth lesson I was seized with a great tempta- 
 tion to attend one of the Academy classes. But the fear of a 
 fresh defeat, which might paralyse all my forces, restrained me. . 
 *'When T have finished," I said to myself, " I will no longer deny 
 myself this pleasure. Yet another week, and then another. 
 Patience till then, and courage." 
 
 The third week passed and the fourth. I had mastered the 
 whole of Ollendorf. Did I know German? Perhaps, — but 
 indeed I was hardly sure of it. 
 
 From the third w^eek doubts had begun to assail me, which 
 
THE OLLENDORF SYSTEM. 21 
 
 I repulsed as suggestions of the Evil One. The nearer I 
 approached to the end of the book, the faster they arose, — 
 numerous, importunate, pointing out thousands of forms, 
 thousands of words, forgotten or wilfully omitted by the author. 
 They became truly terrible when at the foot of one of the last 
 pages I came upon a note where the master, taking each of 
 his disciples, as it were, to one side, acknowledged in confidence 
 that the work was but roughed out, and invited him to invent 
 and construct by himself similar exercises to those given, 
 assuring him that he would shortly be able to compose them. 
 
 Up to this point I had implicitly believed in the words of 
 the master. To believe in him any further was clearly im- 
 possible. I candidly avowed myself incompetent for what lie 
 termed the completion of the undertaking, which was in reality 
 that of teaching myself a language I did not know. Without 
 going to the Academy for the proof or the demonstration of 
 the fact, I understood that I had been once more deceived. 
 
 Talking was, as a matter of fact, equally difiicult, or perhaps 
 I should say equally impossible, as a month ago, and the con- 
 versations in the hairdresser's shop did not seem to be less 
 impenetrable than at the date of my arrival. I was at a loss 
 especially at every point for the verbs, and these the most 
 common and essential. Having represented throughout the 
 book nothing but written words, having never in reality 
 translated any of the perceptions or conceptions proper to 
 myself, — when I wished to express these, all the words learnt 
 by heart immediately took flight, and I found myself exactly 
 in the condition of Tantalus, and this without being able to 
 discover the sins that were costing me this chastisement. 
 
 That which had led astray my inexperience in the Ollendorf 
 method was above all its contrast with the classical method 
 and the deserved criticism it indirectly administered. I was 
 not to discover till much later the prodigious errors of the 
 pedagogic art that had presided over this miserable compila^ 
 tion of words. 
 
 For the present, all my wrath was poured upon the book- 
 seller who had praised and sold me the drug. At first he 
 entrenched himself behind the time-honoured formula, "Well, 
 anyhow that's the book every one buys ; " then changing his 
 tune, he drew forth from his shelves two other books and 
 cast them towards me — Kobertson and Jacotot. I piously 
 carried away these two fresh masters. 
 

 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 VIII. 
 
 JACOTOT AND ROBERTSON — DISORDER AND ARBITRARINESS ESTA- 
 BLISHED AS PRINCIPLES — DISCONNECTED STEPS — THE SYSTE- 
 MATIC VOCABULARY BY PLCETZ. 
 
 " All is in all," said Jacotot. 
 
 This time, instead of yielding myself blindly to the good 
 faith of my guide, I determined to examine, to scrutinise 
 attentively, his ways and means ; to judge beforehand, if pos- 
 sible, the point of arrival by the point of departure ; to read 
 the last lesson of the book by the light of the first. 
 
 Ollendorf proceeded by irregular bounds, by leaps and 
 somersaults. Ilis principle was disorder — intentional and 
 systematic disorder. His logic consisted in mocking at logic. 
 In this he thought himself in accord with Nature. I had 
 thought so too in the first instance, as others besides myself 
 had thought, for the book was in its fifty-fourth edition. 
 
 Jacotot, on the other hand, played as his imagination led 
 him with the diverse sources of the association of ideas, linked 
 word to word, perception to perception, thought to thought, 
 sentence to sentence, everything to everything. From the 
 ''acorn he went to the oak, from the oak to the carpenter's axe, 
 irom the axe to the ship, from the ship to the sea, from the 
 sea to the clouds ; from the clouds he descended again upon 
 the plain to go to the tillers of the soil, to the harvests, to the 
 flourmills, to the rivers, &c. All was in all, and all roads led 
 to Rome. He laid the plan of the teaching which was to 
 return to us later from Germany under the name of " object- 
 lessons." 
 
 Nothing then seemed more contradictory than these two 
 systems. Which was the better? for the choice had to be 
 made. After meditating long over them, I thought I per- 
 ceived that the two systems, apparently so opposed, touched at 
 a point, and that this point was a vice, and a fundamental 
 vice, which took from both the right to arrogate the name of a 
 " Method." Both rested upon " the arbitrary," and a frightful 
 arbitrary it was. If indeed Ollendorf could not state exactly 
 why from the bread-knife he jumped to the Englishman's or 
 the Spaniard's jackboot, rather than to the back of an elephant 
 or the planet Saturn; why he admitted the verb *'to dance," 
 
JACOTOT AND ROBERTSON. 23 
 
 and refused access to the verb " to abstain," — so, on his side, 
 Jacotot would have been greatly embarrassed to explain why, 
 instead of going from the acorn to the ship, he did not go to 
 the roof of the Louvre or the belfry of Notre- Dame. 
 
 Although this latter system seemed to me to be certainly 
 superior to the former, still I felt that to yield myself to 
 Jacotot was to embark in a vessel unprovided with compass 
 or rudder. It was a thousand chances to one that I should 
 ever touch port, but rather should drift about continually on 
 a limitless ocean, only to hear in the end the new pilot cry 
 out to me, as the other had done, "Now try and find your way 
 by yourself.'"' 
 
 The perception of this first vice enabled me to espy a crowd 
 of others. I felt the weight of the book also, and I found 
 it quite as light as that of Ollendorf. I turned over its 120 
 or 160 lessons, and I came to the conclusion that the frame 
 was decidedly much too small to contain the human language, 
 whose imposing mass and infinitude of detail I Avas now begin- 
 ning to realise. I closed the book and I opened Robertson. 
 
 I found him occupied in dissecting, I think, a page of "Gil 
 Bias," pirouetting about in a hundred different ways on each 
 word, turning and twisting each sentence about endlessly, 
 putting questions and giving answers often more than extrava- 
 gant, then finally inviting the reader to set himself to work 
 in the same way, and create from his own inner conscious- 
 ness and from the same material a chapter as long as that of 
 the teacher. A single paragraph of Gil Bias thus ended by 
 developing into a large volume. 
 
 Evidently for Robertson as for Jacotot "all was in all." 
 Their proceedings differed but in this, that Jacotot applied 
 himself more particularly to make substantive spring from 
 substantive, intentionally neglecting the verb as too rebellious 
 for his purpose. Robertson, on the other hand, exerted himself 
 to make sentence spring from sentence, and consequently verb 
 from verb. This he did by proceeding by questions and 
 answers, by having recourse to what he termed the " Socratic 
 method." 
 
 I put to Robertson these two questions : — 
 
 I. How many pages of "Gil Bias" approximately would be 
 required, developed in this manner, for one to be sure of having 
 gathered and assorted the whole of the forms, the whole of the 
 
/ 
 
 24 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 terms of the German language ; meaning of course the language 
 of ordinary life ? 
 
 2. The collection having been made, how much time should 
 I require to read it over and repeat it in order to fully assimi- 
 late the contents ; by which I mean, to be in a condition that, 
 given an idea, not of Lesage or F^n^lon, of Addison or Swift, 
 but of my own, in which I should be able instantaneously and 
 intuitively to find the exact and adequate expression for it? 
 I turned the leaves over and over and backwards and for- 
 j awards, and I found no answer to either of these questions. I 
 Jv therefore condemned Robertson's method on the same indict- 
 ^ ment as that of Jacotot, supporting my judgment on the same 
 ^ /considerations, 
 
 A certain book was, at this epoch, greatly in vogue at the 
 German schools — a book specially prepared for the study of 
 French. This was the "Systematic Vocabulary" by Ploetz. 
 The two languages ran side by side in this book. If it was 
 good for the one, it should be equally good for the other. 
 Ploetz at this time was teaching French with great success 
 in the "Gymnase FranQais" at Berlin. I know not how it 
 was that it occurred to none of the booksellers to offer me 
 this book. It was not until much later, when I no longer 
 had any need for it, that it fell under my notice. I afterwards 
 became acquainted with Ploetz himself, and often discussed 
 with him the merits and defects of his book. 
 
 In my judgment the "Systematic Vocabulary" lacked, in 
 order to be a real method, merely that which was lacking to 
 Pygmalion's statue to make it Galatea, namely, life. Quite 
 sufficient, one may say. It is nevertheless true that Ploetz 
 was upon the right track. If he had allowed himself to study 
 the little child, and then to recast his book upon the model 
 of the as yet unpublished proceedings of Nature, instead of 
 leaving it in the state of dry and abstract category, of in- 
 complete nomenclature, always more or less arbitrary, then the 
 Natural Method would have been constructed twenty-five 
 years sooner. He did not try this; one can only suppose that 
 the idea did not occur to him. 
 
 The book made the fortune of its author without producing 
 the results sought for by him. The best criticism upon this 
 first book is the later work of Ploetz himself. The " Vocabu- 
 lary " being always found incapable of giving the student the 
 
BERLIN UNIVERSITY. 25 
 
 knowledge and usage of the language studied, the author, in 
 order to supply the deficiencies of his work, was obliged to have 
 recourse to the composition of an indefinite series of dialogues, 
 themes, and exercises in the same style as the attempts of 
 Ollendorf and Robertson. 
 
 Even supposing good luck had at the time placed in my 
 hands this new instrument, incontestably more perfect than 
 the preceding ones, should I have been able to make better 
 use of it than the author himself ? Evidently not. I have, 
 therefore, little to regret in not having earlier become ac- 
 quainted with the " Systematic Vocabulary. " 
 
 IX. 
 
 BERLIN UNIVERSITY MIXING WITH THE STUDENTS 
 
 FRUITLESS ATTENDANCE AT THE CLASSES. 
 
 As the sick person, feeling himself at the end of his strength, 
 seeks for change of air and surroundings., so now I felt an 
 irresistible desire for change of place. I left Hamburg — 
 sojourn of misfortune, witness of my many defeats — and I 
 departed for Berlin. My first care was to become acquainted 
 with the persons to whom I had letters of introduction, to 
 make inquiries of them as to the scientific resources afforded 
 by the technical schools of the capital. Almost every one 
 talked, and liked to talk, French ; and I never ceased wondei-- 
 ing how all these people had learnt this language. Every one 
 encouraged me to frequent as much as possible the company 
 of the students, assuring me that this was the shortest means 
 of becoming able to understand and speak German — the first 
 thing, of course, to which I must attain. 
 
 To be well received by the various students' societies was 
 easy enough. The French were much liked at this epoch ; 
 they were feasted and petted by every one. But what was 
 most difficult was to get any of these young people to converse 
 in German with a Frenchman. I soon recognised that the 
 greater part of them sought my society with the interested 
 motive of exercising their French. At first I let them do as 
 they wished — I had talked alone long enough in Hamburg. 
 But I was not long in taking steps to counteract this abuse, 
 and, recalling myself to duty, I forbade myself all further 
 conversation in French. Visits and friends at once began to 
 
26 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 decrease. I already knew how apt my German conversations 
 were to produce this effect. 
 
 T needed something to take the place of the chattings and 
 socialities of the students, which, moreover, appeared to me 
 not particularly profitable. So I resolved, for a next trial, to 
 attend the university courses, and to do this perseveringly 
 from morning until night. I wished to see whether my ear 
 would not in time become accustomed to the sounds of the 
 German words and the accent of the phrases ; and whether, 
 like the child, by sheer force of bending the attention and sense 
 of hearing to them, I could not become able intuitively to pene- 
 trate the meaning of the expressions used by the professor. 
 
 I persevered thus for a whole week, listening without under- 
 standing a word to discourses which seemed to me to form one 
 continuous sound, and which, if they had been written down, 
 would have formed a single word on a single line three-quarters 
 of an hour long. In other words, on the last day of the week, 
 as on the first, I could distinguish neither the words, nor the 
 sentences, nor the periods of the professor. I had sat and 
 watched for seven or eight hours a day, various mouths alter- 
 nately opening and shutting, and this was all. 
 
 Such an entirely negative result demonstrated to me that 
 the new means was no means at all, and that I might attend 
 the German university for a thousand years under these con- 
 ditions without learning German. 
 
 What was I to do next? Had I not tried everything? 
 Was a Frenchman really a being incapable of learning any 
 other language than his own ? No, for I had seen some simple 
 workmen who had come from France some time after myself, 
 who apparently could understand everything and talk about 
 everything with the first-comer. What was it that held in 
 such utter incapability a young professor gifted with a strong 
 memory and a will perhaps even stronger still ? 
 
 X. 
 
 A HEROIC RESOLVE — STUDY OF THE DICTIONARY — STRUGGLE 
 AND VICTORY THIRD DECEPTION — FUTILE TOIL. 
 
 There still remained one last method . . . but one so strange, 
 so extraordinary, so unusual — I might say, so heroic — that I 
 hardly dared propose it to myself. This supreme means was 
 
STUDY OF THE DICTIONARY. 27 
 
 nothing else than to learn off the whole dictionary. ** My 
 ear," I told myself, *' is not sufficiently familiarised, first 
 with the terminations, then with the body of the words — 
 that part from which the idea ought to shine and spring forth 
 instantaneously. 
 
 " Now a resolute and persevering study of the dictionary 
 would evidently produce this double result. In fact, the same 
 termination as well as the same root-word striking thousands 
 and thousands of times upon the eye, the ear, and the mind — 
 the inner sense of this termination and this root, the idea 
 hidden in these two elements of the language — would end by 
 shining forth with the sound itself, and by being substituted, 
 so to speak, for it. 
 
 "Therefore, if I could assimilate the whole dictionary, with 
 the 30,000 words it contains, there was every evidence that, 
 every term being no longer a sound but an idea, I should be 
 able to follow and understand every conversation, read every 
 book, and, by reason of this double exercise, arrive in a very 
 short space of time at being able to speak iiu'ently myself." 
 
 "But to learn off the dictionary," added my thoughts, 
 "what an extravagance ! Was ever such an idea entertained 
 before 1 It was absurd on the face of it, and quite unrealisable. 
 There must be some other means of arriving at the same 
 result. The child learns no dictionaries by heart ; and even 
 supposing such a desperate means should enable me to succeed, 
 it was certainly not a method I could recommend to any one 
 else. If none other existed, no one would, of a surety, 
 ever undertake to learn German." Such were the reflections 
 and objections by which I myself combated this strange 
 idea. 
 
 After a time the human mind becomes familiarised with 
 situations and resolutions which at first appeared impossible 
 and utterly repugnant. Seeking a fresh way and finding 
 none, I fell back naturally on my dictionary, and returned in 
 spite of myself to my latest notion. 
 
 ** It is quite true," I reflected, " that the child learns to speak 
 without opening the dictionary ; but it is also true that it 
 finds itself in conditions far other than those in which I am 
 placed — conditions extremely favourable, in which I cannot 
 hope again to place myself, and which I am powerless arti- 
 ficially to re-establish. Besides, the child has before it an 
 
28 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 indefinite time, such as I have not now at my disposal. The 
 hours glide away slowly for the child, but for me day devours 
 day, month courses after month. Cost what it may, I must 
 go forward. I am forced to turn, like Alexander, to any 
 remedy, however violent, only let the effect be prompt." 
 
 My will began to waver. From day to day the thought of 
 the dictionary gained ground. My reason even allowed itself 
 to be subdued, and gradually passed over to the enemy. The 
 finishing stroke was given by a sudden consideration and an 
 argument which seemed to me final. I thought : " Is not 
 learning the dictionary in reality the work which is imposed 
 when we study the classical tongues 1 Would it not bo simply 
 carrying out at a stroke by a continued — a Herculean — effort 
 what we are supposed to accomplish at college, little by little, 
 in the space of nine years, that is to say, by nine times 360 
 partial efforts ? Is not the pupil obliged to cull the words of 
 a language one by one, during nine or ten years, from the 
 dictionary ? 
 
 " If he has been made to seek diligently for them, instead 
 of having them offered directly to him, so that he could serve 
 himself with them from hand to hand, this is apparently 
 because the research itself is held to be advantageous and pro- 
 fitable for him. Indeed, thus to hold an expression in his 
 memory during the time required by its research, its deter- 
 mination, its organisation, and its application to a given 
 thought, is not all this to submit it to a kind of incubation 
 thoroughly suitable for the purpose of opening out and fixing 
 this expression in the mind ? " 
 
 I took again the path toward the classical teaching, and 
 after having made the amende Iwuorahle, I entered again into 
 grace. I exalted, I glorified its principles and its fundamental 
 process. Despair had brought about, between routine and my 
 mind, a full and complete reconciliation, and without asking 
 myself the question whether the nine times 360 efforts were 
 always crowned with success, I exclaimed — 
 
 " There is but one wisdom in the world, that in which I 
 have been brought up ; the wisdom of the university ! I will 
 study the dictionary as they do at college, as the university 
 requires. But I will study it with a vigour which will cer- 
 tainly gain me the plaudits of the masters who have sung me 
 the praises of the Greek roots. The frequency of repetition, 
 
STUDY OF THE DICTIONARY. 29 
 
 R repetition occasioned by daily needs, will supply, and more 
 than supply, the * incubation ' occasioned by the constant use 
 of the vocabulary." 
 
 Thereupon I took up my dictionary. I weighed it again 
 and again in my hands ; I counted its pages, and the number 
 of words in a page, then I did a sum in multiplication. " Three 
 hundred pages," I said to myself, "and thirty thousand 
 words !" 
 
 *' If this can be learnt off, if the task be feasible, it must be 
 accomplished within a month. For no one need flatter him- 
 self that he could retain for very long without practice a mass 
 like this learnt under these conditions. The new matter will 
 soon have covered up and obliterated what had gone before. 
 Besides, there is the question of fatigue. Thirty days of super- 
 human work is a task which a man of my age and constitution 
 can undertake at a pinch, but there is no use in abusing one's 
 strength for nothing, and an effort such as this could not be 
 indefinitely prolonged. 
 
 *' So, three hundred pages in thirty days ; -this is ten pages 
 a day. Can I do it ? And if I manage it to-day, could I do 
 it to-morrow, and the next day, ten days following, twenty 
 days following ? Let us try." 
 
 The next day, at six o'clock in the morning, I opened my 
 dictionary, and at noon I had accomplished my first task. It 
 was a good augury, but I did not yet dare to judge of the final 
 result. To prevent every cause of discouragement, to avoid 
 every annoying interruption from without, I thought it prudent 
 to resort to measures under whose protection I had been able 
 to study first my roots and then the lessons of Ollendorf. I put 
 myself, and declared myself, in quarantine, and prohibited 
 every walk and every dialogue which was not an absolute 
 necessity. I placed my recompense at the end of the month, 
 the most lovely of all recompenses ; a lesson in philosophy at 
 last understood at the university ! 
 
 The second day a fresh fight, and at noon, victory 1 And 
 in the afternoon I had time to look over yesterday's field of 
 battle. The eighth day I achieved my eighth triumph. Three 
 more such efforts and the German language will be tamed. 
 
 The second week's struggle placed the second quarter of 
 the dictionary in my power. Fifteen thousand words were in 
 my memory. To turn back was impossible. My courage waa 
 
30 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 exalted, ray confidence in the coining success was absolute ; 
 my happiness was complete. 
 
 Should I for a moment break my quarantine and go to 
 hear a lesson, just one lesson at the university ? I bravely 
 resisted the temptation, and persevered in my first resolve, 
 desiring absolutely to keep whole and entire the surprise which 
 was to come at the end of the month. 
 
 The third week gave me the third quarter of the dictionary ; 
 the thirtieth day I turned page 314, the last; and, more 
 triumphant than Caesar, I exclaimed, " Vici ! " That same 
 evening I went to seek my crown at the university — a crown 
 surely well merited. 
 
 To comprehend what now happened to me it is necessary to 
 have studied profoundly, as I have since been able to do, tho 
 question of language ; to have determined accurately the con- 
 ditions in which mankind, infant or adult, must be placed that 
 they may be able to learn any language, no matter which. 
 
 I understood not a word — not a single word ! 
 
 I shall be refused credence by him who, keeping his faith 
 in the classical methods, has studied only Greek and Latin (I 
 will not say learnt), and in whom faith in the dictionary is 
 anchored by a practice of ten, twenty, or thirty years. 
 
 He will never believe that, knowing thoroughly the elements 
 of a language from the first to the last, I should not know 
 thoroughly the language itself, at any rate sufficiently to under- 
 stand it spoken or written. He will rather prefer to deny 
 that I was really in possession of the grammar and the voca- 
 bulary. 
 
 He also will not less refuse me belief who, having studied 
 a living language, did not, through force of circumstances or by 
 his own determination, confine himself exclusively to the classical 
 process, and who making nought of the inflexible logic which 
 caused me to push the precepts of the college to their last 
 extremities, had the good sense to yield himself idly to the 
 free and easy course of things, and learnt like the little child 
 learns, " laughing and playing." 
 
 He will not believe that a book written expressly to be an 
 aid to the study of languages might prove an obstacle to the 
 study of these languages. I certainly would not have believed 
 it myself if I had not gone through the whole experience. 
 
DOUBLE FAILURE. 31 
 
 And nevertheless I repeat, " I did not understand a word — 
 not a single word." And I permit no one to doubt the 
 sincerity of this statement. "Not a word — not one single 
 word." 
 
 Feeling unable to bring my mind to acknowledge such a 
 result as this, I returned the next day, the day after that, 
 every day, to listen to the professors whom I judged to be the 
 most clear and interesting, those who seemed to be most popular 
 with the scholars. But their lectures remained for me just as 
 impenetrable, as strange, as they had been when first I had 
 listened at Hamburg. 
 
 If I could not hear, perhaps at least I could read. I looked 
 up my Goethe and Schiller again ; but the trial was not very 
 much more successful than it had been at Hamburg after the 
 study of the roots. It took me half a day to decipher two or 
 three pages, and then I. was not absolutely sure of having 
 found the real meaning of all the sentences. 
 
 No one need be surprised at this double failure. I shall 
 demonstrate further on that it is exactly What should have 
 happened, and I hope to lay bare the true causes of this 
 obstinate incapability. I may be allowed to say at once, how- 
 ever, that this incapability was due, not to any native or 
 national incapacity of the writer, but solely to the process 
 which was applied by him, and which he now intends to 
 arraign. 
 
 Since that time I have sometimes been " reproached " with 
 having what is termed the *' gift for languages." If I had it 
 not then, perhaps I have "acquired" it. Six months after 
 this struggle, the outlines of which with its first wanderings 
 I have attempted to sketch, I required no more than four 
 months to learn any language ; and I actually did learn 
 several, one after the other, of those I thought would be most 
 useful to me ; but by following out an entirely different pro- 
 cess, and, as one may well imagine, "without learning off 
 any more dictionaries by heart." 
 
 One of my university professors wrote one day this judg- 
 ment on the margin of a dissertation which I had submitted 
 to him : "Faculty of following long and far the same idea." 
 I.'he preceding history proves that this faculty — which excludes 
 more or less a certain mobility of mind sometimes extremely 
 
32 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 necessary — is not always a good quality — above all, a practical 
 quality. What came next goes to demonstrate that I was still 
 the same in the year in which I undertook to learn German. 
 
 The process I followed was defective. The proof of this 
 was visible and palpable. Any other person than myself 
 would have been convinced of his error, and, uttering maledic- 
 tions upon his dictionary, would have flung it away together 
 with the roots of the Reverend Father. But I was too obstinate 
 to believe that I was not on the right path, or that there 
 could be another, shorter and better. Hence the next reason- 
 ing and the next resolution was this : — 
 
 " I have learnt the dictionary, but I do not know it 
 thoroughly. I have been able to know it thoroughly, for a 
 time and partially, ten pages by ten pages, but not in any 
 constant manner in its entirety. This alone explains my 
 failure, and indicates at the same time the means to remedy 
 the matter. 
 
 " I must go through my dictionary again, and in such a 
 way that what is learnt yesterday and to-day will be repeated 
 to-morrow, and so on until the thirtieth day's task, which 
 will carry me through the whole vocabulary. In this manner 
 the vocabulary will become a part of myself, and this time I 
 shall be able to affirm unhesitatingly that I really do know 
 the German language." 
 
 So I recommenced my work upon this plan, and I indeed 
 perceived that I had forgotten much. This discovery almost 
 gave me pleasure; it confirmed my judgment and justified 
 my latest measures. 
 
 T will spare the reader my further struggles. I will say 
 simply that my will triumphed over all obstacles, and that at 
 the end of a fortnight I had again traversed the greater part 
 of the dictionary. I knew it so thoroughly that I could go 
 through the whole of it in two hours, and so saturate myself 
 with it every morning. Almost at a glance I could take in 
 the eighty words of a column, translating them mentally as 
 rapidly as the eye could see them. I should add that I went 
 every day to pass several hours at the university, but that my 
 hope of arriving at a comprehension of the words of the pro- 
 fessors was deceived, always deceived, deceived to the very end. 
 
 Alas ! I can say it now ; it all depended upon a very small 
 error. I had simply mistaken the organ. The organ of 
 
i^-pC^^L^. FUNDAMENTAL ERROR. 33 
 
 Innguage — ask the little child — is not the eve : it is the ear. 
 The eye is made for colours, and not for sounds and words. 
 Now all I had hitherto learnt, I had learnt by the eye. The 
 word was in my eye and not in my ear. The fact expressed 
 by it had not penetrated to, was not graven upon, my intel- 
 lectual substance, had never been received by my faculty of 
 representation. This was why I was deaf though yet I heard, 
 and both deaf and dumb though I was able to speak. Fool 
 that I had been ! I had studied by the eye, and I wis hed to 
 understand by my ears. I had set myself to represent printed 
 characters instead of representing real facts and living ideas. 
 I had wearied my arms to strengthen my leg s. 
 
 In a future chapter I shall show the consequences of this 
 unfortunate misunderstanding, or rather this fundamental vice 
 of the classical teaching. 
 
 This tension, continuous and contrary to Nature, of the 
 organ of sight, this forced precipitancy of the visual act, pro- \^ 
 duced what it was bound to produce, a disease of the eyesight. ^ 
 My left eye was first attacked and refused • service, then my jjr 
 right eye also became affected, and the doctor condemned me 
 to remain blind for a month. This was quite time enough -^ 
 
 for me to forget my vocabulary, which resided, as I have said, ^ 
 essentially in my eye ; and for words, this organ is without. ^ ^ 
 true memory , not having the wherewithal to "retain" them. }\ 
 
 As soon as I had recovered sight, I opened my dictionary, 
 and for the third time I passed the contents under my eye. 
 After which my ardour moderated. What other means was 
 tliere indeed of "following longer and farther" — I will not 
 say my idea, but the process I had adopted ? 
 
 As I ought not, however, to allow the seed thus sown at 
 the expense of so many efforts to perish, I made the resolution 
 to recite the seventh part only of the dictionary every day, 
 so as to look it through at least once a week. And because 
 matters would not take place differently, I simply waited 
 patiently for time to fructify my labours. 
 
 I had been introduced by my professors to some of the 
 most eminent as well as the most distinguished minds of the 
 time. I now gave to visiting them all the moments I could 
 tear from my roots, my grammar, my vocabulary, my authors, 
 and my always " incomprehensible " lessons at the university. 
 
 Spring came, and after spring the holidays. The fine 
 
 c 
 
34 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 weather and the summer sun once more called up pictures of 
 the country within me. I resolved to go back to my native 
 soil, and I departed with the fixed intention of returning to 
 Berlin, and of again joining the classes, to pursue the work 
 I had commenced. 
 
 XI. 
 
 A CHILD OP THKEE YEARS OLD DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE 
 
 IN nature's SCHOOL NEW POINT OF DEPARTURE — OB- 
 SERVATION OF THE CHILD A CLUE — LOOKING AT THE 
 
 MILL — THE INTELLECTUAL DIGESTION SAYING AND DOING 
 
 ■ — THE GAME — A LIGHT IN THE DARKNESS. 
 
 In taking leave of home ten months before, I had kissed 
 good-bj^e to one of my little nephews, a child of two and a half 
 years, who was beginning to run about, but could not yet talk. 
 
 When I entered the house on my return, he began chatting 
 with me about all sort of things quite like a little man. 
 Although I had but just returned to France, the question of 
 language, as one can well imagine, was my constant pre- 
 occupation, and would remain so until I had triumphed over 
 this obstacle. To this point everything I saw, everything I 
 heard, now had reference. 
 
 This language, so living and so thoroughly real, within the 
 power of such a tiny mortal, handled with so much ease, 
 applied to everything with so much surety, so much precision, 
 so much relevancy — this phenomenon could not but strike 
 me forcibly. It was impossible not to make a comparison at 
 once between the child and myself, his process and my own. 
 " What ! " I thought, '' this child and I have been working for 
 the same time, each at a language. He playing round his 
 mother, running after flowers, butterflies, and birds, without 
 weariness, without apparent effort, without even being con- 
 scious of his work, is able to say all he thinks, express all ho 
 sees, understand all he hears ; and when he began his work his 
 intelligence was yet a * futurity,' a glimmer, a hope. And I, 
 versed in the sciences, versed in literature, versed in philo- 
 sophy, armed with a powerful will, gifted with a trained 
 memory, guided by an enlightened reason, furnished besides 
 with books and all the aids of science, have arrived at nothing, 
 or at practically nothing 1 " 
 
THE CHILD IN NATURE'S SCHOOL. 35 
 
 " How happy slionld I be if I could talk German as this 
 little child can talk French; if I could express in German 
 the simple facts which come to his tongue so instantaneously 
 and so spontaneously, and this without seeking either words 
 or rules to construct his sentences." 
 
 A doubt accompanied with a heavy anger rose in my mind. 
 " The linguistic science of the college," I exclaimed, ^' has 
 deceived me, has misguided me, has led me completely astray. 
 The classical method, with its grammar, its dictionary, and its 
 translations, is a delusion — nothing but a delusion. 
 
 " Nature knows and applies another method. Her method 
 is infallible ; this is an undeniable, indisputable fact. And 
 with this method all children are equally apt in learning 
 languages. Do they not all learn their mother-tongue, and 
 this within a time sensibly the same 1 Was Jacotot really so 
 wrong when he proclaimed the equality of intellects? For 
 languages at least his - assertion had a foundation. In the 
 school of Nature this equality was real enough. Where is the 
 child born under normal conditions of whom Nature despairs, 
 whom she declares incapable of learning its mother-tongue, 
 and of speaking it, at the latest, at four years of age 1 " 
 
 But to criticise is always easier than to do. I now knew 
 my process to be essentially defective. But how ? In what ? 
 I had judged the tree by its fruit only, not as yet from its 
 inner nature — from itself. 
 
 To perceive anything, we must first have light upon it. 
 Falsehood cannot be well distinguished but in the light of 
 truth. To judge the value of my previous process, as one 
 might say, with a full knowledge of the brief, some definite 
 point of support was necessary ; in other words, I required a 
 term of comparison. This term of comparison was a better 
 method — in the present case, the method of Nature. 
 
 Leaving the classic system, therefore, entirely on one side, 
 I said to myself, " To surprise Nature's secret I must watch >•- 
 this child." 
 
 To tell the truth, I had been deceived so many times during 
 the last year, and the work of Nature seemed to me so con- 
 fused, so complex, so tangled, so disordered, so desultory, and 
 so arbitrary, that I despaired of discovering anything at all. 
 Was there really anything to discover ? Why had it not been 
 discovered already 'i 
 
36 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 I did not, therefore, delude myself. Nevertheless I held in 
 my hand at any rate a slight clue, and however frail, loose, 
 lightly attached, and insecure it might be, yet I took the 
 utmost pains never to release my hold of it. This was the guiding 
 thread which was to lead me through this dark labyrinth of 
 ends and means, of causes and effects, that I had entered with 
 such temerity, and finally was to aid me in emerging therefrom 
 with honour, after having found and slain the monster. 
 
 This guiding clue was the following simple reflection : — 
 " The child has not yet seen everything, has not yet perceived 
 everything. I should like to surprise him in the presence of 
 some phenomenon entirely fresh to him, and see what he 
 would do — on the one hand to express this phenomenon to 
 himself in the aggregate and in all its details, and then to 
 assimilate the expressions gathered, attempted, or invented 
 by him on the occasion of this phenomenon." 
 
 One day the mother said to the child, " Would you like to 
 come along with me 1 I am going to the mill ; you have never 
 seen a mill; it will amuse you." I was present; I heard the 
 proposition; and the words, "you have never seen a mill," 
 recalled my watchword to me. 
 
 The little lad went along with his mother. He went over 
 the mill from top to bottom. He wanted to see everything, 
 to hear the name of everything, to understand about every- 
 thing. Everything had to be explained to him. He went up 
 everywhere, went into every corner, stopped before the tick- 
 tack, listening long in mute astonishment. He curiously 
 examined the bolters, the millstones, the hoppers. He made 
 the men open the flour-store ; he pulled back the curtain of the 
 bran-room, admired the turning of the pans and belts, gazed 
 with a sort of dread at the rotation of the shafting and the 
 gearing of the cog-wheels, watched the action of the levers, 
 the pulleys, the cranes lifting through space the sacks stuffed 
 full of wheat. All the time his eyes eagerly followed the 
 millers, whitened with flour, moving about here and there, 
 loading and unloading sacks, emptying some, filling others, 
 stopping the motion of the wheels, silencing one clattering 
 wheel and then starting another. 
 
 Finally the child was led to the great water-wheels outside. 
 He lingered long in ecstasy before these indefatigable workers, 
 and before the mighty, splashing column of water, which, 
 
THE DISCOVERY OF NATURE'S METHOD. 2>7 
 
 issuing from the mill-pond, already full to overflowing, rushed 
 white with foam along the mill-race, fell in roaring torrents 
 into the floats of the water-wheel, setting and keeping in 
 motion with thunderous roar the giant wheels, with all this 
 immense and marvellous mechanism turning at full speed 
 beneath their impulsion, driving, devouring the work with a 
 bewildering rapidity. 
 
 He came away deafened, stunned, astounded, and went 
 back home absorbed in thought. He pondered continually 
 over what he had seen, striving to digest this vast and pro- 
 longed perception. I kept my eyes upon him, wondering 
 what could be passing within him, what use he was going to 
 make of this newly acquired knowledge, and, above all, how 
 he was going to express it. 
 
 In the child the intellectual digestion, like the physical 
 digestion, operates rapidly. This is doubtless owing to the 
 fact that it never overloads its imagination any more than its 
 digestive organs. 
 
 At the end of an hour he had shaken off his burden. 
 Speech returned. He manifested an immense desire to recount 
 to everybody what he had seen. So he told his story, and 
 told it again and again ten times over, always with valiants, 
 forgetting some of the details, returning on his track to repair 
 liis forgetfulness, and passing from fact to fact, from phrase 
 to phrase, by the same familiar transition, "and then . . . and 
 then . . ." He was still digesting, but now it was on his 
 own account; I mean, he did not stay to think any further 
 over his perception ; he was conceiving it, putting it in order, 
 moulding it into a conception of his own. 
 
 After the discourse came the action; after Saying came 
 Doing. He tormented his mother till she had made him half 
 a dozen little sacks ; he tormented his uncle till he had built 
 him a mill. He led the way to a tiny streamlet of water near 
 by ; and here, whether I would or no, I had to dig a mill-race, 
 make a waterfall, drive in two supports, smooth two flat 
 pieces of wood, find a branch of willow, cut two clefts in it, 
 stick the two pallets in these clefts ; in short, manufacture a 
 F-imulacrum of a large wheel, and then, lastly, place this wheel 
 beneath the waterfall and arrange it so that it would turn 
 and the mill would work. 
 
 The uncle lent himself with great willingness to all these 
 
38 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTE:M. 
 
 fantasies, and acquitted himself in tlie enterprise as well as 
 lie could. During all this time I watched each movement of 
 the importunate little fellow attentively. I noted each of his 
 words, each of his reflections, striving to read the interior 
 thought through the work or the external pre-occupation. 
 
 When the mill was definitely mounted and. set agoing, the 
 little miller filled his sacks with sand, loaded them on his 
 shoulder with a simulated effort accompanied with a grimace ; 
 then, bent and grunting beneath the weight, carried his grain 
 to the mill, shot it out and ground it, so reproducing the scene 
 of the real mill — not as he had seen it, but as he had after- 
 wards *' conceived " it to himself, as he had '' generalised " it. 
 
 Whilst doing all this, he expressed all his acts aloud, dwell- 
 ing most particularly upon one word — and this word was the 
 " verb," always the verb. The other terms came and tumbled 
 about as they might. Ten times the same sack was emptied, 
 refilled, carried to the mill, and its contents ground in ima- 
 gination. 
 
 It was during the course of this operation, carried out again 
 and again without ceasing, "repeated aloud," that a flash of 
 light suddenly shot across my mind, and I exclaimed softly to 
 myself, ** I have found it ! Now T understand ! " And follow- 
 ing with a fresh interest this precious operation by means of 
 
 I which I had caught a glimpse of the secret so long sought after. 
 
 I I caught sight of a fresh art, that of learning a language. 
 I Testing at leisure the truth of my first intuition, and finding 
 jit conform more and more to the reality, I wandered about 
 (repeating to myself the words of the poet, " Je vois, j'entends, 
 ' je sais " — " I see, I hear, I know ! " 
 
 What had I seen in this short and fugitive instant"? What 
 was it that had been made clear to me ? This I will now 
 attempt to explain. 
 
 The foregoing recital will serve as preface or introduction 
 to the general system I am wishing to set forth ; it will serve 
 as a beacon-light to the reader who has decided to follow me 
 across the labyrinth of theses and of facts, of principles and 
 of consequences, of precepts and criticisms contained in this 
 treatise. For what had appeared to me in this short moment 
 of time — for me ever memorable — was a whole system, a system 
 
THE MIND OF THE CHILD. 39 
 
 of Nature weaving and building up the individuality of man 
 upon and by language. It was the system of which, in this 
 book, I propose to retrace the principal lines and the general 
 construction. 
 
 XII. 
 
 FIRST INSIGHT TRANSFORMATION OF A PERCEPTION INTO A 
 
 CONCEPTION THE SCHOLASTIC PROCESS COMPARED WITH 
 
 THAT OF THE CHILD — SECRET LOGIC AND MARVELLOUS 
 ORDER OF NATURE. 
 
 While before the mill, the child's mind had taken a passiv^e 
 and entirely receptive attitude ; but after the hour of " intel- 
 lectual digestion " he had changed the part he played, and 
 reacting upon the impressions thus received and experienced, 
 he had worked upon them as upon raw material, and had 
 transformed them into realities, or, if the term be preferred, 
 into " subjective images," that is to say, i;ito ideas. To this 
 phase — the passive attitude of perception — had succeeded the 
 active phase — the reactionary attitude, first of the reflection, 
 then of the conception. In other terms, he no longer saw in 
 reality ; he " saw in the mind's eye; " he represented. 
 
 " To see in the mind's eye " — let us not forget this fact, this 
 psychological moment. It is the point of departure of Nature's 
 method; it will be the first basis of our linguistic method. 
 We shall not commence either by declining or conjugating 
 verbs, nor by the recitation of abstract rules, nor by mumbling 
 over scores of roots or columns of a vocabulary. We shall com- 
 mence by representing to ourselves — " seeing in the mind's 
 eye " — real and tangible facts — facts already perceived by us 
 and already transformed by the reflection and conception into 
 constituent parts of our own individuality. 
 
 It was because I had represented to myself nothing but 
 *' abstract words," and not real facts, grafted in reality upon 
 my individuality, so becoming an integral part of my being, 
 that I had foundered so often in my laborious voyage across 
 the grammar, the roots, the lessons of Ollendorf, and the 
 dictionary. 
 
 This was the first truth or first principle I now caught sight 
 of, one which thoroughly explained to me the incapability, the 
 sterility, the utter uselessness of all my previous efforts. Was 
 
40 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 this the whole of what I saw 1 No, indeed ! In this humble 
 scene of the mill, reproduced or rather acted before me, I had 
 read and heard many other truths, many other principles, 
 many other lessons. 
 
 The child had represented to himself the complex pheno- 
 menon of the mill ; but under what form had he represented 
 this phenomenon ] What form had he given to the original 
 perception ? Had the double work of reflection and conception 
 altered, modified in any way the immediate perception ? Was 
 this representation at first ordered or disordered 1 Was it a 
 picture, a confused incoherent mass of facts and ideas, a chance 
 throwing together of remembrances, recalling one of Ollendorf 's 
 lessons, arranged in a similar way, and justifying the point of 
 departure and the intentionally "illogical" process gloried in 
 and brought into fashion by this linguist ? Ko, no ! most 
 certainly no. 
 
 It is not disorder which presides over the secret and curious 
 work of reflection and conception. It is a principle, or rather 
 it is a need diametrically opposed to this ; it is that indeed 
 which makes the mind what it is. To reflect, to_conceive^s( 
 to set in order " — to set the details of a perception m order. 
 
 The linguistic work of a child does not take place by chance, 
 day by day, the sport of the fleeting impressions of the moment, 
 as the greater number of linguists proclaim, and as I myself 
 had at one time imagined. The child follows, on the contrary, 
 a marvellously straight line — an order, a logic absolutely irre- 
 proachable, which we will presently reveal ; one which is the 
 secret of this prodigious memory that allows a little child of 
 four years old to assimilate in a year the several thousand 
 terms of the language of ordinary life, with all the phrases and 
 turns of expression derived therefrom, without including the 
 forms termed grammatical. 
 
 Thus the child had reflected, had conceived, had cast in the 
 mould of a certain "concept" the complex perception of the 
 phenomena of the mill. Consequently he must have set his 
 perception in order — I repeat " set in order," — this perception 
 being the sum total of the phenomena perceived by him in the 
 presence of the mill. 
 
 Was it upon this plan that I had myself worked when I 
 had forced my eye, never my inner sense, to course at full 
 speed over the thirty thousand terms, the thirty thousand 
 
PERCEPTION AND CONCEPTION. 41 
 
 abstractions of the vulgar tongue, classed, moreover, in alpha- 
 betical order, that is, by the accident of their initial letter ? 
 Could I expect anything else than to sustain check after check, 
 mortification after mortification ? 
 
 The child sets in order each of his perceptions intellectually, 
 gliding upon those that have gone before, upon the knowledge 
 already " acquired," stopping abruptly before new ones, rearing, 
 so to speak, at them, loitering curiously around them, working 
 upon them, until he has set these also in order in their turn and 
 transformed them, like his previous perceptions, into knowledge 
 henceforth "acquired." 
 
 It is the irregular course of a botanist through wood and 
 field ; neglecting the common plants, he stays only before thoso 
 species to him unknown and new. It is the fi.ight of the bee 
 in the meadows, which hovers over one blossom, passes by 
 another already visited and harvested, dips into a third, sucks 
 a fourth, and on another freshly opened stays and plunders long. 
 
 By this play, this action, this toil, apparently so arbitrary, 
 so fantastic, so desultory, but yet in reality so logical and so 
 easily understood, the child deceives the most attentive observer. 
 The observer indeed watches for the child always in the wrong 
 place, seeks always where his mind cannot be, requiring order 
 where the child cannot possibly place it, and neglecting or 
 disdaining precisely those facts where he always does place it. 
 
 What the child is incapable of establishing is the order of 
 the succession of its perceptions. It cannot make, for in- 
 stance, the presentation of the mill come immediately after 
 that of the harvest or of the threshing. But what it can and 
 does mould, what it can and does set in order, is the detail of 
 each separate perception. At whatever hour of its life a fresh 
 phenomenon occurs, the child looks at this phenomenon, studies 
 it, puts the details into their order, and transforms it at last 
 into "knowledge." 
 
 The ordinary philosopher, not being able to perceive in the 
 succession of the child's perceptions an order which does not 
 exist, concludes therefrom that in the mind of man all linguis- 
 tic work is done in disorder, is brought about by chance. Tiie 
 secret work accomplished by the mind upon each particular 
 perception escapes his notice. 
 
 / Thus, not hour by hour and day by day, but from perceptioti\ 
 
/ 
 
 42 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 to perception, progresses and develops the illimitable fabric 
 of a human individuality, which fabric constitutes the psycho- 
 logical or mental ground-work of the individual himself. 
 
 XIII. 
 
 SECOND INSIGHT — PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION EMPLOYED BY 
 
 THE CHILD ORDER OF SUCCESSION IN TIME RELATION 
 
 OF END TO MEANS THE INCUBATION — SECRET OF THE 
 
 child's memory EXPLANATION OF MY FAILURES. 
 
 The child conceives, that is, sets each of its perceptions 
 in order. Who can dispute this 1 But to set in order is to 
 classify ; and to classify, a rule, a constant principle of classi- 
 fication is necessary. Without this, order becomes disorder. 
 Therefore a further question is presented. What is the rule 
 followed by a child when it organises and mentally sets one of 
 its complex perceptions in order 1 
 
 Psychology acknowledges six or seven various relationships 
 by which the mind of man associates ideas one with another. 
 Among these relationships is that of " succession or contiguity 
 in time." It was this that the child observed by me had 
 adopted. He classed in his imagination all the facts relative 
 to the mill, according to their order in succession of time, 
 attaining by this means the most profound, the most logical 
 of all relationships — we may say the sole scientific one of the 
 seven ; that of cause and effect. 
 
 First of all, he filled his little sacks with grain, 
 
 then — he hoisted them on his shoulder, 
 
 then — he carried them to the mill, 
 
 then — he emptied the contents before the. mill, 
 
 then — he gave them to be ground in an imaginary mill. 
 Meanwhile, the water ran out of the mill-pond, 
 
 then — it Howed along the mill-race, 
 
 then — fell upon the wheel, 
 
 then — this wheel turned round, 
 
 then — the mill worked, 
 
 then — the mill ground the corn, 
 
 then — the flour was sifted, 
 
 then — the flour was put into the sacks, &c., &c 
 
THE ORDER OF SUCCESSION IN TIME. 43 
 
 The child represented, and repeated always in the same 
 order, the totality of the facts which constituted his general 
 perception of the mill ; and when he recounted what he had 
 seen, he joined, as we have said, all the sentences together 
 invariably by the conjunction " and then." 
 
 The order of succession in time was not, however, the only 
 relationship which presided over his conception and regulated 
 it. To work as he worked, to group the facts as he grouped 
 tliem, the child must evidently have grasped the second rela- 
 tionship, that of ''means to an end." 
 
 To grind the corn was the final or supreme aim, and this 
 aim or end was attained by the diverse means we have just 
 enumerated, which formed the material of the child's game.i 
 
 The first relationship, that of succession in time, serves to 
 aggregate the various elements of the conception. The second, 
 that of means to an end, binds them together, enframes them, 
 gives them that unity without which there is and can be no 
 " conception." 
 
 Perception of the relation of succession in time, perception 
 of the relation of means to an end, these are the instruments 
 of logic with which Nature has provided childhood ; these are 
 the loom and shuttle which elaborate the marvellous web of 
 language, and by it the individuality of each one of us. 
 
 To this primitive logic join an incubation of five or sjx days/ 3 
 the repetition of the same game by the indefatigable andinA 
 satiable player, until the moment when a new perception arrivea 
 to distract him from the previous one, and you have the secret! 
 of the prodigious memory of the child, which, without having 
 learned by heart either grammar, or authors, or roots, or 
 vocabulary, but after having played some sixty games similar 
 to that of the mill, finds itself shortly in possession of itsj 
 mother-tongue. 
 
 Let us keep well before us these three articles of the natural \ 
 method — r elations hip of succession in time, relationship of 
 means to an end^ a nd the incubationT Let us place these 
 carefully on one side ; they should form also the basis of our 
 artificial system. 
 
 I had therefore at last discovered the logic of Nature, the 
 
 ^ This desire for the perception of the relationship of means to an end 
 is so universal, that a child's first question when placed in front of au 
 object is always, " What is that for ? What does it do ? " (Trans.). 
 
44 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 logic of the little child. What a light it threw upon all my 
 learned proceedings ! Comparing from this new point of view 
 my own work with that of the child, I could explain more and 
 more to myself both the triumphs of the ignorant baby and 
 the defeats of the professor. 
 
 The child had proceeded from one " complex " perception to 
 another " complex " perception, and I, from one abstract word 
 to another abstract word, from one abstract phrase to another 
 abstract phrase. 
 
 The child had transformed its perceptions into conceptions, 
 and I had travestied the living word in characters purely 
 typographic. 
 
 The child had submitted each of his conceptions to the innate 
 logic of the mind; and I, although I had studied the roots, 
 the grammar, the dictionary — although I had learnt the lessons 
 of Ollendorf and of Robertson — I had begun to work at hazard, 
 to learn everything in the greatest disorder possible, under 
 the pretext of better exercising myself and of hardening my 
 memory. 
 
 The child sets its conceptions in order in its mind, and I 
 disposed the letters of words in my eye. 
 
 I had therefore taken exactly the opposite course to that 
 of Nature. I had worked on a system exactly contrary to 
 Nature's ; and thus I had arrived at a point which Nature 
 never approaches. 
 
 XIY. 
 
 THIRD INSIGHT THE CHILD ASSIMILATES THE MOTHER- TONGUE 
 
 SENTENCE BY SENTENCE, AND NOT WORD BY WORD — RE- 
 VELATION OF THE HIGH VALUE OF THE VERB — THE TRUE 
 PIVOT OF THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 
 
 My intuition could not rest simply here. I could not but 
 remark that the child, in going from one fact to another fact, 
 proceeded not from one word to another word, but from one 
 sentence to another sentence. This was a revelation of the 
 highest importance, which condemned the ancient system, 
 together with the course of declensions and dictionary, and 
 opened out to pedagogic science a new path with a new 
 horizon. 
 
 In the school of Nature the child does not spell ; never 
 
IMPORTANCE OF THE VERB. 45 
 
 does it spell isolated words. It knows, understands, enounces 
 nothing but complete sentences. Each isolated word is an 
 abstraction ; the child does not comprehend abstractions. It 
 is by synthesis that the human mind commences its growth. 
 The faculty of analysis is the fruit of age, of experience, of 
 reflection. 
 
 The child's first word, even if monosyllabic, is not a simple 
 word, but a phrase, a complete sentence : the enunciation 
 imperfect, but formed from a judgment fully complete. The 
 child of three conquers, assimilates the mother-tongue not 
 word by word, but phrase by phrase, sentence by sentence. 
 We will also put on one side this precious article of the 
 natural system, with it to endow, later on, our artificial 
 system. 
 
 Finally, the child, going from act to act, articulated either 
 aloud or softly to himself the expression of this act ; and this 
 expression was necessarily the verb. This was the last revela- 
 tion (or the last but one), and perhaps the most important. 
 
 How shall I trace what this revelation was to me ? The 
 verb ! Why, it was the soul of the sentence. The verb was 
 the foundation upon which the child, little by little, built up 
 his sentence. The verb was the germ from which, piece by 
 piece, sprang and blossomed forth the sentence itself. The 
 verb ! Why, when we have this element of the sentence, we 
 have all ; when this is lacking, we have nothing. The verb ! 
 This, then, was the link by which the child attached sentence to 
 sentence, perception to perception, conception to conception. 
 
 In the classical process, as in the methods of Ollendorf and 
 his co-workers, it w as the substanti ve that played the principal 
 part ; and in the process ot JNature it wa s the "ve rb." 
 
 The verb ! The method which rested upon the substantive, 
 in reality rested upon space which contained the substances. 
 Now space having neither height nor depth, beginning nor 
 end, the method which took it for a basis was condemned to 
 be and to remain eternally illogical, arbitrary, disordered. 
 
 When is it, in reality, that you name the sky ? When and 
 in relation to what do you name the earth 1 When this knife ? 
 When the floor? And in the name of what principle, by 
 what association of ideas, do you pass from one to the other : 
 from the spoon to the horse, from the fish to the spoke of a 
 wheel. The arbitrary, and nothing but the arbitrary, will 
 govern your system. 
 
46 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 " Have you a hat 1 " 
 
 "No, but I am eating a beet-root," writes, or migbt write, 
 Ollendorf. 
 
 Considered by itself and divorced from time, space is the 
 region of chaos and disorder. Therefore every method based 
 npon the substantive cannot represent, and does not represent 
 in reality, anything but a vain jugglery. 
 
 " Have you a hat ? "— " Yes, I have a hat." 
 
 " Have you a broom?" — "Yes, I have a broom." 
 
 The verb ! The method which is based upon the verb is 
 based in reality upon time. The German term " Zeit-icort " 
 (time-word) is a whole chapter of psychology. In time and 
 by time everything is in order, because everything in it is 
 successive, everything springs from something else. The 
 method which rests upon the verb is therefore based upon a 
 principle of order. 
 <C. We will take up this theme again in another place. We 
 will establish, when the proper moment arrives, the immense 
 value of the verb, and assign to it the part and place belonging 
 to it in a linguistic method which desires to rival the method 
 of Nature. For the moment, it suffices to say that the verb 
 appeared to us as the pivot or axis of the linguistic method 
 practised by Nature. This sole insight contained in germ a 
 whole revelation in the art of teaching languages. 
 
 XY. 
 
 THE WEB OF LANGUAGE LAW OF ITS FORJIATION — WHAT IS 
 
 THE RECEPTIVE ORGAN OF LANGUAGE ? INCOMPREHENSIBLE 
 
 ERROR OF THE COLLEGE. 
 
 Nature and the child had now both in great part given 
 up their secrets ; there remained only to draw the conclusion. 
 The conclusion was as instantaneous as vision — " Ab uno 
 didiceram omnia" — from one I learnt all. 
 
 Whence had the child drawn the terms which he had used 
 to express such a complex scene as that of the mill ? As- 
 suredly it was not from a dictionary, nor from a grammar, 
 nor from any book whatever ; for he did not know how to read. 
 He obtained them from his mother or from the persons who 
 had answered his questions at the time of his visit to the mill. 
 

 THE WEB OF LANGUAGE. 47 
 
 Among these expressions some were " special," and there- 
 fore new to him. These he had gathered immediately, 
 directly, upon the fact itself together with the perception. 
 The others — and these formed the greater number — were the 
 terms already acquired by him, having served to translate 
 his anterior perceptions. 
 
 The purely linguistic effort of the child had been therefo^ 
 in_reality very slight,_liaxdiy,perceptible to himself. /"The vFork 
 by wh ich~Tieassim ilat ed a new element, a new knowledge 
 with new locutions, had been a game which had given him a 
 very similar pleasure to that of trying on a new jacket ; and, 
 in fact, the new perception of the mill with its expression 
 constituted for his mind a veritable " new " adornment. 
 
 On the one hand, this alliance, this forced mixture of the 
 old with the new ; on the other hand, this grafting of the new 
 upon the old, enabled me to catch sight for the first time in 
 its true light of the web of language. I saw that to express 
 each new perception, it was necessary, so lo speak, to employ 
 the whole of the vocabulary already acquired. Here thc'J? 
 formula of Jacotot, " All is in all," found a just application^ 
 Language appeared to me under the form of an embroidery, 
 where the same thread ran from end to end, always identical 
 in itself, yet nevertheless creating constantly varying designs 
 by combining with its neighbours. 
 
 I drew from this fact, hitherto unobserved or neglected, 
 tlie important practical consequences which are contained 
 within it, and I formulated at last for myself the law which 
 presides over the formation of a language. This I shall 
 attempt to formulate anew and more explicitly with regard 
 to the construction of the system over which this same law 
 must equally preside. 
 
 Which, now, was the receptive organ of language? In 
 the scene of the mill, certain " special " locutions had arisen. 
 Was it to the sight, or to the touch, or rather to the hearing, 
 that they had been confided ? Happily for him, the child not 
 yet knowing either how to read or to write, it was his ear 
 that had received and transmitted them to his inner sense. 
 
 The process of Nature was therefore again in utter contra- 
 diction to that of the school. At school languages are taught 
 by books ; consequently it is the eye, and not the ear, which is 
 required to transmit the locutions to the mind. At school 
 
48 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 the eye is the receptive organ of language. It was thus to 
 my eye that T had given my roots and my vocabulary. This 
 is why the spoken words would never enter my understanding. 
 And which was right — the School or Nature ? 
 
 To ask the question is to answer it ; and a little child had 
 given me the answer. The eye is made to perceive colours 
 and forms ; the ear is made to perceive sounds and words. 
 How is it that philology has never seen and prescribed this ? 
 How is it that linguists have never applied this ? How is it 
 that they have hitherto obstinately confided to the eye a part 
 which appertains only to the ear ? 
 
 XYI. 
 
 FORMATION OF THE IXDIYIDUALITY BY LANGUAGE — PRECISE 
 DEFINITION OF THE WORK TO BE ACCOMPLISHED FOR THE 
 
 ACQUISITION OF THE BASIS OF ANY GIVEN LANGUAGE THE 
 
 IDEA OF SERIES — A GENERALISATION — THE MYSTIC LADDER 
 OF HUMAN INDIVIDUALITY. 
 
 I had now in my hands all the elements and all the principles 
 of a system ; but I had not yet the system itself. What was 
 needed ? A simple generalisation, and this generalisation was 
 made at once. I said : — 
 
 "The same process which the child had used to express and 
 translate his perception and then his conception of the mill 
 must have already been employed by him to express, for 
 instance, all that he knew of the mower and of haymaking — 
 all that he knew of the reaper and of the harvest — all that 
 he knew of the woodcutter, the weaver, the blacksmith — all 
 that he knew of the dog, the sheep, the horse, the cow — all 
 that he knew of the birds — all that he knew of the insect-^ 
 all that he knew of the plant— all that he knew of the power 
 and the play of the elements — all that he knew of man himself 
 from the baby in the cradle to the old man tottering to the 
 gi-ave." 
 
 It was at this moment that I began to perceive in its vast 
 extent, and also in its marvellous genesis, that which is called 
 an " individuality," and for the first time I understood what 
 is meant by the words " to learn a language." 
 
THE IDEA OF "SERIES." 49 
 
 To learn a language was to translate into this language not 
 Ollendorf, not Goethe, not Virgil, not Homer, but the vast 
 book of our own individuality. Now this book is composed of 
 a multitude of chapters analogous to the episode of the mill. 
 To learn German, then, what I had to do was to reconstitute 
 the whole of my individuality, to form it anew piece by piece, 
 to take again one by one all my perceptions, and treat them 
 exactly as does the little child. 
 
 This work appeared to me at first stupendous. Then it 
 became simplified all at once in view of this consideration : each 
 perception, such as that of the mill, represented not a solitary 
 fact, but a totalit}^ a group of facts more or less extensive. 
 I counted approximately these groups, and I saw that there 
 might be some fifty of them . 
 
 ' It was therefore a book of fifty chapters that I had to 
 compose as the child had composed that of the mill. His 
 work had been as rapid as it was easy ; mine should be the 
 same. Moreover, the child's individuality is formed within 
 the revolution of a year and under the influences of the various 
 scenes which unrolled before him in the four seasons. The 
 linguistic work had therefore very precise limits, and the book 
 which had to translate a perfectly definite development could 
 not itself be without end. 
 
 The work was still further simplified when, my reflection 
 dwelling upon a special chapter of my own individuality, I 
 perceived that the material of this chapter represented in 
 reality a " series " of ends, realised one after the other by a 
 series of means, such as I had already gained a glimpse of in 
 the scene of the mill. Each chapter — that is, each general 
 perception — was a complete book, or might be made to furnish 
 one. To treat this conveniently and easily, it was important to 
 divide it into parts, and now I had found a division as simple 
 as it was natural — the division into " ends " sought. 
 
 I will ask the reader to permit me here to reproduce the two 
 examples which I myself employed to fix my thought, and 
 which became the point of departure of a vast and definitive 
 generalisation. vT 
 
 " If I follow the growth of an oak," I said to myself, ** from/ \yy 
 the time the acorn falls to the ground to the moment when, ( / 
 now an oak itself, it produces an acorn in its turn, I shall have / 
 named all the phenomena of which this tree is the occasion \ 
 
50 HISTOEY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 or the cause. In the history of a single tree I shall have the 
 history of all trees, and in the expression of the development 
 of a single plant I shall have the expression of the develop 
 ment of all plants, I shall have nothing more to ask of the 
 dictionary than certain substantives, the names of certain 
 species. In this way I shall have translated an important 
 chapter of my individuality, and this while thinking imme- 
 diately and directly in German. 
 
 " But every end is expressed by a verb, and every means is 
 equally expressed by a verb. Now, to write the history of a 
 plant is to determine and then to express, on the one hand, 
 the diverse ends which Nature seems to propose in view of the 
 development of this plant ; on the other, the means by which 
 she realises each of these ends. 
 
 " The whole of this work must therefore be carried out 
 upon and by the verb, and not by means of the substantives, 
 which will never be able to yield me anything but the names 
 of the parts of the tree. 
 
 '^ Moreover, each verb expressing an end, a means, or a 
 state of being, will it not forcibly drag along with it as subject 
 or complement the name of the organ in which occurs the 
 action translated by the verb 1 
 
 " Whilst conquering the verbs, therefore, I shall obtain as 
 well all the substantives and other terms specially appertain- 
 ing to vegetable life. ' Ends and means,' two facts, or rather 
 two ideas, I had already caught sight of in the child's work 
 around his mill. 'Series of verbs,' expressing a series of 
 means, was not this the litany which the child ceaselessly recited 
 when he loaded, unloaded, and carried his corn to the mill ? 
 
 The acorn sprouts. 
 
 The oak plant takes root. 
 
 The shoot sprouts out of the earth. 
 
 The sap rises. 
 
 The sapling throws out leaves. 
 
 The stalk buds. 
 
 The stalk blossoms. 
 
 The flower blooms. 
 
 The fruit forms. 
 
 The fruit ripens. 
 
 The fruit falls, &c., &c. 
 
 *' These are some of the general aims of Nature. Tliey will 
 
THE MYSTIC LADDER. 51 
 
 form the divisions of the chapter entitled 'The Plant.' Tlie 
 total of the means by which each of these ends is realised will 
 form the subject-matter of each division. I shall thus have a 
 series of themes corresponding to a series of ends or aims. I 
 shall call the whole of this chapter ' The Series of the Plant.' 
 
 "Here again is a farmyard," I continued to myself, '"'and 
 here is a hen. This bird has before itself, the whole day long, 
 a series of ends which it realises one after the other by a series 
 of means. If I follow this fowl attentively from the moment 
 it awakes till the evening when it goes back to roost ; if I ex- 
 press in German all these ends and all these means, I shall 
 have translated a new chapter of my individuality, a chapter 
 which will be the expression not only of the existence of this 
 bird, but of all its species ; not only so, but of every kind of 
 bird. I shall find arising from this material, as from that of 
 the oak, a series of themes corresponding to the series of ends, 
 and I should call, or I might call, this new chapter 'The 
 Series of the Fowl or the Bird.' " 
 
 " Series ! " For some time now I had had the thing. The 
 name was still missing which was needed definitely to fix 
 my conception. This name I had now found, or rather 
 "captured;" and a final effort was to consecrate it as one 
 to be definitely adopted. I had calculated that the human 
 individuality — my own, at all events — could be written in fifty 
 chapters. I soon substituted for this expression that of " fifty 
 series." 
 
 I had sketched out rapidly the series of a growing plant 
 and the series of a living being. My conception could there- 
 
 efore be applied to the whole of Nature. I actually so applied 
 it, and in the light of this idea I first perceived the law of the 
 "progressive work which had presided over the development of 
 my own personality. Then leaving myself, I sought to realise 
 the development by language of every thinking and speaking 
 being. Then arose before my eyes that which might be called 
 "the mystic ladder" of the human individuality, a ladder 
 whose innumerable steps stretched from earth to heaven. 
 Marvelling inwardly, I sketched out its form. From it re- 
 sulted the system I shall now attempt to construct. 
 
52 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 XYII. 
 
 FOURTH INSIGHT — TWO LANGUAGES IN ONE LANGUAGE — OBJEC- 
 TIVE LANGUAGE AND SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE THE RELA- 
 TIVE PHRASE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE — INTUITION OF THE 
 
 SYSTEM IN ITS TOTALITY. 
 
 But had I really yet seen everything ? Was the whole language 
 really comprised within the fifty or sixty chapters, however 
 large they might be, that I had now enumerated to myself ? 
 
 It was as the ocean in the great waters of the earth. But 
 in the ocean there are two oceans : an ocean of water and an 
 ocean of living beings. The first contains, nourishes, main- 
 tains the second, yet without being identical with it. 
 
 In a language were there not also two languages, one 
 language for external facts and another language for internal 
 facts ? And what connection was there between the two 1 
 Was not that which I had already perceived merely the first 
 of these 1 Where, then, was the second ? Without doubt it 
 should be found in the first, as the effect is found in the 
 cause. But the effect never is the cause. What was neces- 
 sary, therefore, was to separate these two languages in order 
 to consider and study them apart, and so to learn to know 
 them better, at first by themselves, and afterwards in their 
 reciprocal play upon each other. 
 
 In the spoken scene of the mill I had, as a matter of fact, 
 noticed two languages, parallel, and profoundly, essentially 
 different, which, like two currents, spread out and developed 
 themselves side by side without ever being confounded together. 
 
 At every moment the child interposed in his story or his 
 action expressions or reflections such as the following : " That's 
 all right ! — now, then ! — there you are ! — that's it ! — that's fine ! . 
 — I think that . . . — I should like to . . . — I think I'd better 
 . . . — I'm going to try to . . . &c., &c. 
 
 These locutions appeared to me to have nothing, absolutely 
 nothing, in common with those that translated the facts rela- 
 tive to the mill : filling a sack — carrying a sack — emptying a 
 sack — grinding the corn — the water falling from the mill-race 
 —the wheel turning — the mill going, &c., &c. I saw here 
 two categories, two species of expression which it was impos- 
 sible to resolve one into the other. From the differences of 
 
OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 53 
 
 consequence I naturally concluded difference of principle. 
 From the effect I ascended to the cause, and I discovered a 
 second source of language in the depths and in the secret 
 energies of the human mind itself. 
 
 *' Man," I said to myself, " does not merely perceive the 
 phenomena of the external world. He judges them, he appre- 
 ciates them, that is, he reacts upon them. By the contact 
 with exterior facts the mind is awakened and the struggle is 
 begun. The mind is a force gifted with diverse faculties, each 
 of which operates in its own way. It enjoys this and is pained 
 by that ; it approves this and blames that ; it wishes for this 
 and repels that ; it believes this and doubts that, and so forth. 
 
 " These movements, these internal facts, are as capable of 
 receiving names as are the external facts. Hence, a new lan- 
 guage, that which translates the facts and activities of the soul. 
 These facts and activities are so varied, their slight differences 
 are so fine, so delicate, and, moreover, so .numerous, that this 
 second language might well be as rich as the first," 
 
 We shall see hereafter how well founded was this suspicion 
 when the attempt is made to arrange the categories of the 
 innumerable abstract forms of any given language. 
 
 As before, I had the idea together with the thing, but as 
 yet I had no name with which to fix it. The language which 
 translated the complex play of the faculties of the soul never 
 having been separated or distinguished from the other by 
 any philologist, was a language as yet " nameless." In order 
 better to understand these myself, I gave them distinct names. 
 That which translated the facts of the external world I termed 
 "objective language." That which translated the facts and ope- 
 rations of the soul I termed " subjective language." Thus : — 
 
 The wheel turns, 
 
 The mill goes, 
 
 The grindstones crush the wheat, &c., 
 
 belong to the objective language. 
 
 That's right, 
 
 It is true, 
 
 It is false, 
 
 I wish to . . . 
 
 You think that . . • 
 
 form part of the subjective language. 
 
54 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTE.M. 
 
 " Subjective," however, was a generic designation. I re- 
 quired and I sought a " specific '"' designation. I soon per- 
 ceived that a subjective locution only expressed a fraction of a 
 thought, was only the part of a whole. It resembled the form 
 abstracted or separated from its basis — of a line abstracted 
 from the surface, of the surface abstracted from the solid. 
 
 " That's right ; 
 He wishes to . . ." 
 
 But what is right 1 What is it that he wishes to do ? 
 Every subjective locution was applied to, was connected with, 
 an objective fact, and had some relation to this fact. I 
 thought, therefore, to define it by terming it " Relative 
 Phrase." And since then, however imperfect this denomina- 
 tion may be, no other has presented itself to me which has 
 seemed to be more appropriate to the idea. 
 
 Contemplating from the heights of their resources this 
 objective language and this subjective language, I saw how, 
 in Nature, they perpetually crossed each other, how they ran 
 concurrently to form the marvellous warp and woof of which 
 I have so often spoken. A double problem now remained to 
 be solved, an arduous problem withal : first, to systematise tho 
 subjective language, to gather and classify it in such a way 
 that it might be easily assimilated ; then to find the secret of 
 attaching the exercise of it to that of the objective language 
 or of the Series properly so called. 
 
 In Nature the two languages progressed side by side, 
 developing themselves harmoniously, one gearing or working 
 into the other. No sooner does a fact of the external world 
 present itself than immediately the mind takes possession of 
 it and judges it. A linguistic system cut according to the 
 pattern of Nature must be required to reproduce this beautiful 
 harmony. What had to be done, therefore, was to invent 
 some connection, some gearing at least equally practical with 
 that of Nature. 
 
 A more and more profound study of the '• relative phrase," 
 joined to an inspiration as happy as it was unexpected, 
 suddenly revealed to me the secret sought after. I will not 
 dwell here upon this important discovery : it should form the 
 ^ subject of a special chapter. I will confine myself to saying 
 that Art triumphed over Nature, by permitting the young 
 learner as well as the adult to learn in a few months that part 
 
THE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 55 
 
 of the subjective language which the child assimilates but 
 imperfectly in the space of a year. 
 
 The child observed by me had not arrived at the age when 
 abstract ideas are produced or sought to be embodied in sym- 
 bolic language and metaphor. But the subjective language 
 was already in his mouth ; and this language, which rested 
 upon abstraction, led me forcibly and by foresight to study 
 the problem of the figurative language. It was not difficult 
 for me to establish the true relationship between this third 
 language and the former two, and to postulate that the figura- 
 tive language was grafted upon the objective language and 
 implied the previous development of this. 
 
 I again ask the reader's permission to leave the study of 
 this question to an ulterior chapter, in which, developing at 
 leisure my insight, I shall attempt to organise the figurative 
 language itself and to harmonise it with the two others in 1 
 imitation of Nature, and, if possible, better than Nature. 
 
 I had started from the system of the objective language. I 
 had returned thereto by way of the symbolical language. The 
 voyage round the linguistic world was achieved ; the circle was 
 perfect ; the vision seemed complete. One thing remained to 
 be done, and this imposed itself upon me with the authority 
 of a duty — to prolong indefinitely this intuition, and finally to 
 convert it into reality, that is to say, into a well-thought-out 
 system. 
 
 If sometimes, and for certain minds, I have been obscure or 
 apocalyptic in the setting forth of this linguistic revelation ; 
 if, above all, I have not been complete, I beg the reader to 
 have patience. The same facts, the same principles, the same 
 problems will be taken up again, discussed separately one after 
 the other, sounded at leisure, and, I hope, the whole brought 
 into the full light of day. 
 
56 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 XVIII. 
 
 RETURN TO BERLIN — THE TEST — A PHILOSOPniCAL BOUT AT THE 
 UNIVERSITY THE TRIUMPH — EXCUSE TO THE READER. 
 
 The best- constructed mechanism requires to be tested at 
 least once. In the same way the most ingenious and the most 
 logical of systems requires to be put to the trial, must be seen, 
 at least once, at work. 
 
 I started again for Berlin, for it had been sufficiently demon- 
 strated to me that it was by the living voice that a language 
 was transmitted, and never by books or by solitary studies. A 
 little child, more clever in this than all the doctors of the 
 university, had proved to me that the veritable receptive 
 organ of language was the ear, and not the eye. The fifty 
 series which translated or expressed the sum total of my indi- 
 viduality — the whole book of my existence— these I must live 
 over again in German, must conceive over again in German, 
 and for this I must first hear them in German. This time it 
 was the ear that should, as in Nature, play the principal part. 
 
 I boarded and lodged with an excellent family of Saxon 
 origin, and at my particular request the children were given 
 over to my charge. Their greatest desire had always been to 
 learn French ; there was therefore an exchange of services 
 between us. We established ourselves around a table, and we 
 began the study of the series such as I had conceived after the 
 episode of the mill. 
 
 This is not the place to recount how I directed the lessons, 
 or rather the conversations, and how, in the manner of Socrates, 
 and of the little child itself, I managed to draw out from my 
 little interlocutors successively all the German expressions 
 corresponding to the details of my French series. This be 
 longs to a future chapter (" Practice of the Method, or the| 
 Art of Teaching "). I have only to declare that the grammar, 
 the roots, the dictionary, together with Ollendorf and Robert- 
 son, were pitilessly banished from our table. 
 
 From the second day I felt I was on the right road. Not 
 only was the work deliciously easy — easy, in fact, as a game — 
 but that which we assimilated in an hour was prodigious ; and 
 once entered by way of the ear, it was imprinted upon the 
 
 3 
 
TKIUMPH AT THE UNIVERSITY. 57 
 
 memory, and never after became effaced. My sense of hearing 
 ^vas not long in recovering its pristine vigour, and this vigour 
 often surprised even myself. After an hour of conversation I 
 was able to repeat, without making a mistake in a single word, 
 a series of ten or fifteen pages — 300 or 400 sentences — and 
 my young hosts could do as much in French. 
 
 At the end of a week I began to comprehend ordinary con- 
 versations. My tongue spontaneously became loosened, and 
 like the child, spontaneously I began to speak. Like the child, 
 I found words, and the correct words, to say all that I wished. 
 Like the child, too, and intuitively, I applied the grammar, 
 and my speeches all at once lost the sad property of making 
 everybody laugh. In short, at the end of two months " I 
 dreamt in German." 
 
 A fortnight after, in a philosophical bout at the university 
 — "in disputatione philosophica " — I made a speech in German. 
 The subject proposed (I can never forget it) was the compari- 
 son of the formula of Descartes, "Je pe*nse, done je suis," 
 with the formula of Hegel, '' Das reine Nichts und das reine 
 Sein sind identisch." After a long and lively debate (in 
 German, be it understood), the French student was proclaimed 
 victor. I knew German I 
 
 I have had it said to me, and others doubtless will say it 
 again, " But your long work previously must have been of 
 considerable assistance to you, possibly even without your 
 being aware of it yourself." Reader, be not deceived in this 
 respect. 
 
 This anterior work had, on the contrary, hindered me — 
 hindered me to the utmost extent, and this for two reasons : 
 the first, because it had completely falsified my pronuncia- 
 tion ; the second, because there was not a single verb in the 
 whole language to which I did not attribute a meaning quite 
 other than its true one. So that I had a double task to exe- 
 cute : first to forget, afterwards to re- learn ; and the latter was 
 by no means the most difiicult and troublesome of the two. 
 But beyond this, my little friends, who had not suffered the 
 penance either of grammar or of dictionary, at the end of 
 three months dreamt in French as easily as did their tutor in 
 German. 
 
 I should, however, be unjust towards the dictionary if I did 
 not acknowledge that the study of it has rendered me a great, 
 
58 HISTORY AND CONCEPTION OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 a really great, service. It lias cured me of, or preserved me 
 from, all fear of dictionaries. Henceforth I could read or 
 study a dictionary, be it as thick as that of Littr^ as I could 
 any other book. Were it not for this benefit, I should hardly 
 have dared to undertake a task of which I shall speak here- 
 after, which constitutes an essential part of my system. 
 
 Reader, my story has been long, possibly wearisome. I pray 
 you excuse it. This hour of struggle, fierce as it may have 
 been, counts amongst the most delightful of my life. It is 
 for this I love to return to it ; it is for this I love to recount 
 it, as the veteran does the battles in which he has fought ; 
 and when I begin, I know not when to fiinish. 
 
 This introduction to " The Art of Teaching and Studying Lan- 
 giinges" was the subject of a lecture given at the Palace of the Paris 
 Exhibition in October 1878, under the auspices of the Gongrh Libre de 
 VEnseignement. 
 
THE BOOK OF NATURE. 59 
 
 XIX. 
 
 EriLOGUE AND PROLOGUE. 
 
 In this first part analysis has bodied forth the general 
 features of the linguistic system of Nature. Gathering together 
 with care the definitions, the axioms, the principles developed 
 by this analysis, and combining them as logically as possible, 
 we will endeavour to reconstruct synthetically this same system, 
 and, by simplifying it, to raise it to the dignity of an art. 
 The synthesis being the analysis reversed, many repetitions 
 will be inevitable — indeed, indispensable. We trust the reader, 
 in view of the importance of this object, will not find them 
 too tedious. 
 
 Before commencing, let us put a question to ourselves which 
 without doubt every reader will ask of us. We have just 
 spelt out the first page of a hitherto unpublished book of 
 Nature. When we shall have finished it, shall we have re- 
 vealed the whole child 1 Shall we have revealed the whole 
 art of Nature herself? Shall wo have penetrated all her 
 secrets ? Will she have hidden from our eyes none of her 
 artifices? To this we must reply in the words of Pascal, 
 " We shall never know the whole of anything." 
 
 Nevertheless the book will have been opened, and if we 
 know not how to read all therein, others after us will be more 
 fortunate, and the practical science of language will be at 
 last constituted, like all other sciences, upon the immediate 
 observation of Nature, the only true rational basis of human 
 knowledge, and the only fruitful one. 
 
6o CONSTKUCTION AND APPLICATION OF SYSTEM. 
 
 PART SECOND. 6.o~ /f^. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION AND APPLICATION OF THE 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT — ORDER TO BE FOLLOWED. 
 
 The method, properly so called, will divide itself essentially 
 and naturally into three chapters, corresponding to the three 
 constituent parts of the whole human language. It should 
 treat of the objective language, of the subjective language, 
 and of the figurative language. Let us repeat the definitions 
 already given. 
 
 The objective language is the expression of the phenomena 
 perceived by us in the exterior world. 
 
 The subjective language is the expression of the play of the 
 faculties of the soul. 
 
 The figurative language is the expression of the purely 
 ideal, that is, of the abstract idea by means of symbols borrowed 
 from the exterior world. 
 
 Where shall we begin ? Where shall we finish ? The 
 objective language is the occasion of the subjective language. 
 It precedes it as the cause precedes the effect, as action precedes 
 reaction. It is, moreover, the substratum upon which it rests. 
 Without the external phenomena, the exercise of a mental 
 faculty has no reason for existence. Lastly, it is by the 
 objective language that the child begins. The child seems, 
 even for some considerable time, to know and exercise this 
 language to the exclusion of the two others. 
 
 The figurative language itself rests upon the objective lan- 
 guage, which feeds it and furnishes it with images. Further, 
 abstraction being a product of the play of the intellectual 
 faculties, the language which translates this abstraction 
 
ORGANISATION IN SERIES. 
 
 6i 
 
 presupposes the awakening of these faculties. Therefore 
 the subjective language takes its birth before the figurative 
 language, and consequently must always precede it. 
 
 Both Nature and reason show us clearly the order to follow. 
 "We shall commence by the objective language, we shall con- 
 tinue by the subjective language, and we shall finish by the 
 figurative language. 
 
 These chapters admit in their turn, and require, a sub- 
 division : firstly, the theoretical organisation of each of these 
 languages ; secondly, the practical art of teaching them. 
 
 ^ cxAj^ai^OL O^ • K 
 
 G^v 
 
 ^^^?Kja_^r'»^ 
 
 t/ 
 
 ^i«— CI-«,-t_j,..Aj^ • 
 
 i 
 
 ccA^lJ 
 
 5^.' 
 
 t 
 
 V 
 
 ^3^><JL^<r-r-< 
 
 /¥ 
 
 ^J-* — 0~fe,HS 4wA,*^<? 
 
 /r 
 
 'oJM-tf^r^ 
 
 a<-^«~c^l-*^>^-^ o 
 
 The reptile. 
 The insect. 
 The plant. 
 The elements. 
 
 The species which enter into each of these great divisions 
 form the material of the series. Thus the Elements give the 
 Series of the River, the Series of the Sea, the Series of the 
 Storm, the Series of the Sun, &c., &c. It is a treatise on 
 cosmography and of elementary natural science. 
 
 The plant gives the Series of the Yine, the Series of the 
 
62 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Apple-Tree, the Series of the Corn, that of the Grasses, that 
 of the Walnut, &c., &c. It is a treatise on botany and 
 agriculture. 
 
 The insect gives the Series of the Bee, of the Ant, of the 
 Butterfly, of the Spider, of the Beetle, &c., &c. It is a vast 
 chapter of natural history. 
 
 The bird gives the numerous set of Series of the Domestic 
 Fowls, the Singing- Birds, the Birds of Prey, &c., &c. Another 
 large chapter of natural history. 
 
 The quadruped gives the Series of the Domestic Animals 
 (sheep, cow, horse, &c.), the Series of the Rodents, the Series 
 of the Carnivora, &c. A further and vast chapter of natural 
 history. 
 
 Man gives for Series : — the Child, the Student, the Young 
 Man, Mature Age, the Trades, the Arts, &c., &c. 
 
 III. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE SERIES — OUTLINE OF THE GENERAL 
 PROCESS TO BE FOLLOWED IN ORGANISING THEM. 
 
 A Series follows the being it is dealing with, first in the 
 life of one day, then in its life during the four seasons of the 
 year. It thus embraces the totality of its existence, and 
 consequently reproduces the totality of the terms which the 
 language possesses for the expression of all that we know 
 about this being. 
 
 Each " end " proposed by the being in question forms tl.e 
 " motive," the title of one theme, and the successive "means" 
 by which the being attains this end form the material or the 
 development of the theme. Suppose we have to construct 
 the Series of the Bird. The following are some of the ends 
 which will be proposed by this being, and to which it will- 
 tend : — 
 
 1. A couple will pair. 
 
 2. The pair will make a nest. 
 
 3. The hen-bird will lay. 
 
 4. The hen -bird will sit. 
 
 5. The young will be hatched. 
 
 6. The father and mother will feed them. 
 
 7. The nestlings will grow, will be fledged. 
 
 8. The brood will leave the nest. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF THE SERIES. 63 
 
 This is a sequence or series of ends, but this is not a series 
 of themes or elaborated descriptions. 
 
 What is it that has to be done to draw from this series a 
 series of themes 1 We must consider, and say : — 
 
 1. How the birds pair. 
 
 2. How they build their nest. 
 
 3. How and under what conditions the eggs are laid. 
 
 4. How the incubation takes place. 
 
 5. How the hatching is accomplished. 
 
 6. How and with what tlie father and mother feed the 
 
 brood. 
 
 7. How the nestlings quit the nest. 
 
 8. How the little birds learn to fly, Sec, 
 
 and the numerous accidents which arise from the bird's 
 relation with the elements and with the other species of 
 animals which make war upon it, or upon which it makes 
 war itself. 
 
 Here is a second example. Suppose we have to construct 
 the Series of any species of " Plant." Determine first of all 
 the series of ends that the plant itself, or that Nature, seems 
 to desire : — 
 
 1. The seed is planted in the ground. 
 
 2. The seed sprouts. 
 
 3. The plant takes root. 
 
 4. Thie plant grows. 
 
 5. The stalk develops. 
 
 6. The plant puts forth leaves. 
 
 7. The plant buds. 
 
 8. The plant blossoms. 
 
 9. The flower is fertilised. 
 
 10. The fruit hardens. 
 
 11. The fruit increases in size. 
 
 1 2. The fruit ripens. 
 
 13. The seed falls and propagates the plant, d'C, 
 
 and the numerous diverse facts which arise from the relation 
 of the plant either with the elements or with animated beings. 
 Develop each of these ends, and you will obtain as many 
 themes. More than this, each of these ends will be in itself 
 a mine of secondary ends ; each species of plant will give you 
 a small treatise full of interest, in which, one by one, all the 
 
64 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 problems of botanical science will be thoroughly traversed. 
 This is what I term a Series. 
 
 I will cite a third example. Suppose the Series of the Bee 
 is to be constructed. This is the series of facts or general 
 aims : — 
 
 First, the swarm builds the honey-combs, 
 
 then — the workers provide a store of wax, 
 
 then — they gather the honey from the flowers, 
 
 then — they store this honey, 
 
 then — they defend their treasure against enemies who 
 
 wish to steal it, 
 then— the queen-bee takes her marriage-flight, 
 then — the queen breeds, 
 then — the workers wall up the royal cells, 
 then — the eggs are hatched, 
 then — the grubs change form, 
 then — the nurses take care of the new-born, 
 then — a new swarm is formed, 
 then — the new queens fight the old queen, 
 then — the hive swarms, 
 then — the exiled swarm flies off to establish a new 
 
 colony, &c., &c. 
 
 Add to this the various possible accidents (inclement 
 weather, enemies, disease), both for the life of one day and 
 for the various seasons, and you will have a monograph of 
 the insect as interesting as any romance, and from which, if 
 required, the material for a couple of hundred chapters or 
 more might be drawn. 
 
 Develop properly each of these chapters and you will 
 obtain a series of themes wherein can be placed practically 
 the whole of the terms that the language possesses to express 
 all that we know about the insect world in general. 
 
 The Series of the Ant may follow that of the Bee. It will 
 give many valuable terms, whose meanings it is difficult to 
 fix, both for architecture and for the art of warfare ; for the 
 ant is by nature both warrior and architect. Any other 
 insect observed by Beaumur, and described in his immortal 
 memoirs, would furnish material for still other series equally 
 interesting with the foregoing, and not less rich in terms of 
 all kinds. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF THE SERIES. 65 
 
 In the same way the Series of the quadrupeds may be con- 
 structed; in the same way that of the reptiles, that of the 
 fishes, that of the elements ; and thus also, and before all 
 the others, those which represent the development of the life 
 of man through one day, through the seasons, through the 
 historic eras, through the arts and the manifold labours of 
 industry. 
 
 Suppose now that a student has conquered the Series of the 
 Elements, the Plant, the Insect, the Fish, the Amphibious 
 Animals, the Bird, the Quadruped, and the Man, will he know 
 the whole language ? the whole language translating exterior 
 facts, the expression of the " non-ego " — in a word, the whole 
 objective language 1 Yes ! 
 
 Indeed, what remains to be expressed beyond these facts ? 
 Language can only express that which we know of the world 
 wherein we exist. Now our Series claim to exhaust the general 
 phenomena of the objective world. The severe order which 
 presides over their construction does not allow a single detail 
 of these phenomena to remain unexpressed. The whole of our 
 Series includes, or ought to include, the objective language in 
 its totality. The whole vocabulary should be found therein, 
 and is, in point of fact, found therein. When arranging our 
 system, as soon as we constructed a series, wo went through 
 the whole of the thirty thousand words of the ordinary lan- 
 guage. We inserted in this series the terms which we might 
 have overlooked, but which belong naturally thereto. Then 
 we crossed out in the dictionary all the words contained in 
 the series. At the end of about the fifteenth complete series, 
 the whole of the dictionary was found to be crossed through. 
 
 This number " fifteen " is an answer, admitting of no reply, 
 to a grave objection which has often been addressed to us, and 
 certainly will be so again. " Granted," we are told, " that the 
 whole language is to be found in your Series ; that may very 
 Avell be ; it is even evident it must be so. But would not the 
 study of such Series as these be * infinite ' ? " 
 
 We reply : The number of Series is, or might become, im- 
 mense, because it might be made equal to the number of the 
 different species. But the human language happily has not 
 the same dimensions. Language only expresses or represents 
 general facts, and, moreover, has very precise — I should even 
 say, very restricted — limits. 
 
 E 
 
66 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Write the Libtory of any single quadruped — of the quadruped 
 which presents the most varied existence or which is best 
 known to us — that is, develop its Series (of the sheep, horse, 
 or cow, for example), and you will find therein all the terms 
 the language possesses for the genus " quadruped " as a 
 whole. 
 
 Write or develop the Series of a single bird — the one best 
 known to you (that of the hen, for example) — and you will 
 have all that part of the language which expresses the whole 
 of the general phenomena special to the genus "bird." 
 
 The single Series of the bee will give that part of the 
 language appertaining to the phenomena of the "insect" in 
 general. 
 
 The " wheat " or any other plant chosen will give the whole 
 of the terms appertaining to the phenomena of vegetation in 
 general, &c., &c. 
 
 From whence it results that to know any language it 
 suffices to know thoroughly fifteen or twenty general series, 
 subdivided, as we have previously set forth, in fifty or sixty 
 special series.^ The remainder would be no more than exercises 
 in reading, and scientific treatises, in which will be reproduced, 
 with the infinite variety of Nature, facts analogous to these, 
 and expressed in the same general terms. 
 
 When I state that a Series will give all the terms the 
 language possesses for any similar order of facts, I should 
 explain further. These terms are not substantives or iso- 
 lated words, as the reader might imagine if I were not to 
 apprise him of it. This method knows "sentences" only. 
 It is therefore, and with good reason, the enemy of the 
 vocabulary. 
 
 It is not the substantives naming, in any order whatsoever, 
 all the parts of the tree, all the parts of the insect, all the 
 parts of the bird, all the parts of the quadruped, which con- 
 stitute this method, but the expression of phenomena and the 
 detail of the existence of each kind of being. It is not the 
 cold and hackneyed enumeration of the constituent parts of 
 this being that our method proposes ; it is rather the repre- 
 sentation of the life itself in its movement and in its natural 
 
 ^ For instance, the Series of the Bread would be a General Series, of 
 which those of the Ploughman, the Reaper, the Miller, the Baker, &c , 
 would be Special Series. Each separate scene in any of these will form u 
 *' thcir.e " or exercise (Trans.). 
 
OUTLINE OF THE METHOD. 67 
 
 development. It is not the name of the organs which it 
 aspires to give, but it is the pl;iy ot' these organs which it 
 first reveals in order to express. 
 
 In a word, in the classical process and in the pretended 
 methods of Robertson, Ollendorf, Jacotot, and others, it is the 
 substantive, wittingly or unwittingly, that plays the principal 
 part. In ours it is the verb that plays the principal part; 
 the verb — we have already said it, and cannot repeat it too 
 often — the verb, soul of the sentence; tJie verb, that which 
 translates the movement and the action, and which manifests 
 the life ; the verb, principal organism of speech, the living 
 centre around which, in the phrasej gravitate all the nouns, 
 whether subject or complement, with all their train of preposi- 
 tions and adjectives. This sole difference, we think, opens a-u 
 abyss between the ordinary processes and our method. 
 
 Before we proceed to draw the numerous theoretical nnd 
 practical consequences which unfold themselves from the sub- 
 stitution of the verb for the substantive as the first principle 
 of language, let us say, or rather repeat, that our method is 
 a method solely by this adoption of the verb as base. In 
 reality, he who says " Method " says " Order." But from the 
 substantive we can neither pass logically to the verb, nor to 
 the adjective, nor to the adverb, nor to the sentence; much 
 less still from one sentence to another sentence. 
 
 From the verb, on the other hand, we go straight to the 
 substantive and adjective which are called up around it, as 
 we have just said, either as subject or as complement. And 
 from one verb, that is, from one action, we pass quite natu- 
 rally to another verb — that is, to another action — consequent 
 upon or complementary to the first. A linguistic system, 
 therefore, which takes the verb as base is founded upon a 
 principle of order. This system consequently may become a 
 *' Method " in the true sense of the word. 
 
 lY. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF ONE TUEME OF A SEEIES. 
 
 We have just seen what it is that constitutes a linguistic 
 series, considered in its general development and its principal 
 
68 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 divisions. It now remains to explain how a simple element, 
 a simple exercise,^ any particular theme of a given series, is 
 elaborated. For this purpose we will choose one of the series 
 which translates that which we term the common life, that is, 
 the ordinary everyday life of mankind ; say the " Series of the 
 Fire." And in this series we will take an exercise or theme 
 capable of giving rise to the enunciation of the greater part 
 of our principles — that, for example, which has as its title 
 " The Maid Chops a Log of Wood." 
 
 To chop a log of wood, — this is the end. What are the 
 means employed 1 
 
 To chop wood, we require a hatchet. 
 
 Therefore, first of all : — she goes to seek this hatchet ; 
 
 then what does she do ? — she takes a log of wood ; 
 
 then what does she do ? — she goes up to the chopping-block ; 
 
 then what does she do ?— she kneels down near this block ; 
 
 then what does she do ? — she places the wood on the block ; 
 
 then what does she do ? — she raises the hatchet ; 
 
 then what does she do ] — she brings down the hatchet ; 
 
 what follows ? . . . — the hatchet cleaves the air ; 
 
 then what happens 1 . — the hatchet strikes the wood ; 
 
 then what happens ? . — the blade buries itself in the wood ; 
 
 and then ? . . . . — the blade cleaves the wood ; 
 
 and then ? . . . . — the two pieces fall to the ground ; 
 
 and then ? . . . . — the woman picks up the two pieces ; 
 
 and then ? . . . . — she chops them again and again to 
 
 the size desired ; 
 and then ? . . . . — she stands up again ; 
 and then ? . . . . — she carries the hatchet back to its 
 
 place. 
 
 The end is attained. The exercise is therefore finished : 
 the theme is complete. 
 
 Before examining the contents of this exercise and taking 
 stock of the process which creates it, let us transcribe it under 
 the form which experience has definitely shown us to be the 
 most practical. 
 
 ^ The word " exercise " is used here, and throughout the book, in a definite 
 sense, as a lesson which includes a certain poitiou of the language, and 
 not a merely fugitive lesson of words or tenses (Trans.^. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF AN EXERCISE. 
 
 69 
 
 The maid chops a log* of wood. 
 
 — The maid goes and seeks her hatchet, seeks 
 
 the maid takes a log of wood, takes 
 
 the maid draws near to the chopping-block, draws near 
 
 the maid kneels down near this block, kneels down 
 
 the maid places the log of wood upright upon places 
 this block. 
 
 — The maid raises her hatchet, raises 
 
 the maid brings down her hatchet, brings down 
 
 the hatchet cleaves the air, cleaves 
 
 the blade strikes the wood, strikes 
 
 the blade buries itself in the wood, buries itself 
 the blade cleaves the wood, ' cleaves 
 
 the two pieces fall to the ground. fall 
 
 — The maid picks up these pieces, picks up 
 the maid chops them again and again to the chops again 
 
 size desired, 
 the maid stands up again, stands up 
 
 the maid carries back the hatchet to its carries back 
 
 place. 
 
 * * * * 
 
 . . Maid (housewife, cook, servant, domestic, girl, woman, 
 person, hewer of -wood, she, &c.) 
 
 2. Chopping-block (block, log, billet, article, thing, object, it, 
 
 &c.) 
 
 3. Place (right place, proper place, spot, corner, post, posi- 
 
 tion, location, &c.) 
 
 4. Blade (edge, cutting edge, sharp edge, keen edge, iron, 
 
 steel, metal, it, &c.) 
 
 5. Hatchet (axe, wood axe, chopper, chopping-knife, cleaver, 
 
 cutter, bill, billhook, instrument, tool, edge tool, imple- 
 ment, it, this, that, &c.) 
 
70 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 AVe have many times met with persons who, after having 
 heard a single exercise such as the above set forth, have not 
 only understood our method in its general idea, but who have 
 instantaneously grasped the whole mechanism of it almost to 
 the point of themselves being able to develop the system there- 
 from out of hand as clearly and directly as we should 
 have been able to do it ourselves. Amongst others, of those 
 linguists who have a name, we may be permitted to mention 
 M. Eichhoff, who, at the end of a class inspection at the 
 College of Caen, conjured us, so to speak, to complete a method 
 which could and must, according to his opinion, render the 
 grandest service to the teaching of languages. 
 
 This facility of comprehension results from the fact that 
 each exercise contains the whole method — is the method in 
 miniature. And it was by an intuition of the same nature, 
 relative to the linguistic development provoked by the spec- 
 tacle of a mill and observed upon a very young child, that we 
 ourselves discovered, or believe we have discovered, the true 
 process of Nature in the formation of language, and that, in 
 one and the same glance, we gained both an insight into the 
 details and a survey of the whole general development of the 
 present system. 
 
 We may now proceed to consider the reflections called up 
 both by the basis and by the form of the preceding theme. 
 
 V. 
 
 CnARACTER AND PROPERTIES OF THE EXERCISES ON THE 
 NEW METHOD. 
 
 I. Logical cohesion and original arrangement of the sentences in 
 the exercises. 
 
 In the table of the exercise given, we see first of all the 
 enunciation of a general action — that of chopping wood — then 
 the development of this action in and by a species of definition. 
 It is therefore a general act defined by a series of particular 
 acts. Considered from another point of view, that of logic, 
 this exercise presents : — 
 
 1. A general end, unique and simple — to chop wood. 
 
 2. A group, a series of means conducive to this end. 
 
mOrERTIES OF THE EXERCISE. 71 
 
 The relation of end to means is therefore the *' logical con- 
 nection" which binds together the title of this exercise with 
 its development. But the diverse pieces that serve for this 
 development, are they also bound together amongst themselves, 
 and upon what relationship is their association founded ? 
 
 The logic which in onr method links sentence to sentence is 
 not the more or less artificial, and more or less arbitrary logic 
 of the printed book in general ; it is that wdiich may be called 
 *' the logic of nature," a logic accessible, or rather familiar, to 
 everybody — one which the little child understands and practises 
 equally with the man of genius. 
 
 The relationship of succession in time — this is the natural 
 cement which in our exercises unites phrase to phrase and 
 sentence to sentence. This relationship, let it be borne in 
 mind, constitutes in itself alone the elementary logic of the 
 human mind. It is by it that thought begins. The mind 
 perceives it while perceiving movement, and it is by it that 
 we are led to the perception of more profound relationships, 
 those of cause to effect, of principle to consequence, of end to 
 means. 
 
 A simple, a very simple expression presides over and suffices 
 for the genesis of our themes; the words "and then." This 
 is an expression or a relationship understood all the world 
 over ; it is an expression or relationship pre-eminently that of 
 the child when it attempts to tell others its little tales : — 
 " and then . . ." 
 
 Hence the peculiar form under which our exercises are pre- 
 sented to the listener ; hence the disposition of our phrases 
 upon the paper itself. Each has its own line, each occupies a 
 special line. In this manner the book itself aids us in dis- 
 tinguishing, in anal^'sing the thoughts, brings out the unity 
 of the sentences, isolates them in order better to manifest 
 them, instead of holding them confounded together, as do the 
 ordinary printed books. 
 
 A true linguistic method is certainly subject to conditions 
 other than those of an ordinary book. It cannot aim at too 
 great clearness, at too much precision. It should, to the 
 highest point attainable, put in evidence each element of the 
 language, which for us means every sentence. This is why, 
 in our exercises, the sentences progress in single file ; being 
 elaborated separately, being born, so to speak, beneath our 
 
72 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 very eyes, one after the other in a regulated succession, each 
 presenting a complete whole, on which are concentrated all 
 the rays of the eye as well as all the energies of the intelli- 
 gence, upon which the mind, which aspires to assimilate the 
 idea together with its expression, lingers and rests at leisure. 
 
 So therefore, in our exercises, all is bound together, strictly 
 and logically ; the title is strictly connected with its develop- 
 ment; the pieces of this development are strictly connected 
 among themselves. And yet in all this everything is distinct ; 
 the title is perfectly distinct from its development ; the end 
 is distinct from the means ; the means are distinct from each 
 other. If perfection consist in the union of these two extremes, 
 our system should attain this point to the nearest possible 
 limit. 
 
 In the exercise already cited it will be noticed that certain 
 guiding-points are marked by the sign ( — ). These signs 
 are iutended, on the one hand, to determine rigorously the 
 diverse moments of the action, on the other, to indicate to the 
 teacher, when he is giving the lesson, the precise points at 
 which he should stop, both to repeat it himself and to ask 
 the pupil to recite it. These signs mark, so to speak, the 
 number and extent of the steps that the pupil must take to 
 conquer a given theme. 
 
 It is better, in fact, to banish the arbitrary as far as it can 
 be found possible, not only from the method itself, but also 
 from its application. In itself the general disposition of our 
 exercises, considered as linguistic reading lessons, already, we 
 think, incontestably offer considerable advantages. In the 
 chapter on the employment of the method or the art of 
 teaching, we shall see this same disposition acquire a prime 
 importance. 
 
 If we sum up what we have just said, we shall find therein 
 the five following facts to be noted : — 
 
 1. Each exercise is composed of two parts, to wit, of a title, 
 and of a certain number of phrases which develop and define 
 this title by analysing it. 
 
 2. The title expresses an end, a simple end ; and the body of 
 the exercise expresses the means, the equally simple means, by 
 which the end is attained. 
 
 3. One sole relationship, always the same from one end of 
 the exercise to the other, that of succession in time, enjoys, 
 
PROPERTIES OF THE EXERCISE. 75 
 
 to the exclusion of all others, the privilege of connecting the 
 end with the means. 
 
 4. The means are enounced in the same order in which they 
 succeed each other, or should succeed each other, in view of an 
 end to be attained ; and the sentences which translate these 
 means are written line by line. 
 
 5. The various moments of the action are distinguished with 
 care, and separated one from another by a sign or guiding 
 mark, in order to assure a logical exposition and an easy 
 assimilation. 
 
 Such is the art, or, more modestly, such are the principles 
 which preside at the genesis of all our exercises. We shall see 
 farther on how much these dispositions have in common with 
 the processes of Nature. 
 
 2. Tlie number of words contained in a lesson. 
 
 Let us now take stock of the gross vaTue of our exercise. 
 We will count first of all the number of words which it con- 
 tains, and then estimate their intrinsic value. The main body 
 of the exercise gives sixteen different verbs (twenty-two words), 
 (go, seek, take, draw near, kneel down, place, raise, bring down, 
 strike, bury, cleave, fall, pick up, chop, stand up, carry back) ; 
 twelve nouns (maid, log, wood, axe, hatchet, block, air, blade, 
 piece, ground, size, place) ; three adjectives (upright, two, 
 desired) ; five prepositions (of, to, upon, in, near) ; six pro- 
 nouns (her, she, this, these, itself, its) ; in all, forty-eight 
 separate words. So much for the body of the exercise itself. 
 
 Now look at the appendix placed at the foot of our small 
 table. It contains about forty words entirely different from 
 the others. These new terms are intended to be substituted 
 for their equivalents in the exercise, according to a process 
 which we shall set forth in the chapter '' On the Art of Teach- 
 ing a Language." We give them for this reason the name of 
 '• equivalents or substitutes," that of " synonyms " not being 
 sufiiciently general, or only applying accidentally. 
 
 Therefore, in sum total, the preceding exercise would contain 
 over eighty different words. We do not count therein the 
 adjectives and adverbs that each phrase of the exercise might 
 include and calls for naturally, such as : maid (industrious, 
 quick, active, strong, &c.); blade (hard, shining, cutting, sharp, 
 &c.); verbs (rapidly, quickly, firmly, then, afterwards, Sec). 
 
74 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 If we reflect tliat the ordinary langunge, that which sufiiceg 
 for the wants of everyday life, hardly amounts at most to more 
 than ten thousand words, it will be easy to calculate what is 
 the number of exercises analogous to this which will be neces- 
 sary to yield what may be called the first basis of the language. 
 This interesting calculation we shall make in detail a little 
 farther on. 
 
 3. Intrinsic value of the terms contained in an ordinarij 
 exercise. 
 
 Let us now estimate the intrinsic value of the terms con- 
 tained in our exercise. And first of all, some may possibly 
 be astonished at the comparative commonness of the fact 
 chosen by us. We shall reply provisionally that the method 
 does not contain only these series translating common life, 
 but that it can be raised, and as a matter of fact is raised, to 
 the extreme heights of science as well as of poetry — the poetry 
 of nature and the poetry of truth. Here indeed is whei'ein it 
 triumphs. Consequently, if we do not disdain these every-day 
 facts, if we deem it well to express them, and to accord them 
 a place in our work, it is because they are imposed upon us by 
 a certain character of utility and of practical necessity. 
 
 We will reply further once again, that to learn a given 
 language is to translate into this language the whole of our 
 individuality. Now " fire," and all that appertains thereto, 
 certainly occupies a page in the book of our perceptions and 
 our remembrances. Therefore the Series of the Fire has the 
 riofht to fi2rure in our method. 
 
 Lot us add that fire is the symbol of love, and therefore the 
 source of those elevated metaphors by means of which the life 
 of the heart is expressed and manifested. The heart is set on 
 fire, glows, burns, is consumed, &c., like the wood which the 
 housewife arranges upon the hearth. Thus, again, the passions 
 take fire, grow cold, smoulder, die away, are stirred, spring 
 from their ashes, revive, &c. 
 
 Our humble scene of the fireside is therefore found to con- 
 ceal the precious terms of the language of the heart. Conse- 
 quently the Series of the Fire has a double value; it serves 
 for the practical and material life ; it serves also for the 
 moral life. 
 
 Thus it is with the greater part of the series which translate 
 
VALUE OF THE EXERCISE. 75 
 
 common life. The life of every day, the life of every one of us, 
 the terms by which each series expresses a certain order of 
 tangible facts, serve at the same time to render a certain order 
 of psychological facts; in other words, to interpret a phase of 
 the soul. For this reason our set of everyday series takes a 
 very high position. Humble as they are, who can dare to 
 despise them ? 
 
 So much having been said, let us return to our exercise of 
 chopping wood, and from the standpoint of utility let us 
 weigh attentively in the balance all the terms which it offers 
 to us. 
 
 Take the exercise piece by piece, and examine each piece by 
 itself, and pick out, if you can, one single expression ; quote 
 one word, any single word, to which you are not obliged to 
 have recourse a hundred times a day ! AYe know that in order 
 to act we must think, and that thinking is talking to one's self 
 by means of this interior speech, which always stands ready 
 within us, which is the first minister of the reason and the 
 will, and which analyses, secretes ceaselessly our thoughts and 
 our volitions; distributes them, classifies them as regards an 
 action, in the double category of ends and of means. 
 
 Dialogue or monologue, our speech is continual. Language 
 is a constant need of the mind. This granted, let us see first 
 of all if the verbs of our exercise are often to be found upon 
 the pathway of thought, if they serve this thought, and how 
 they serve it. 
 
 Seek. — What is there that we do not seek, from the gar- 
 ments with which we clothe our bodies to the glory which 
 adorns our life ? 
 
 Draw near. — We draw near both to the table which bears 
 our meals, and to the truth or perfection for which our nature 
 longs. 
 
 Take. — We take both the bread which nourishes our body 
 and the courage which sustains us morally. 
 
 Place. — We place our foot on the ground, and we also place 
 faith in our cherished beliefs. 
 
 Eaise. — We raise a glass of water to our lips, or a difllculty 
 to mental progress. 
 
 Fall. — The fruit in the orchard falls, and so also does the 
 man whose will is abandoned to evil or whose intelligence 
 strays in the paths of error. 
 
76 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Fick up. — We pick up not only the tool that has dropped 
 from our hands, but the moral force which begins to fail under 
 misfortune. 
 
 Carry. — Do we not see carried, not only the basket on the 
 arm or the burden on the shoulder, but dismay to the ranks 
 of an enemy, complaints to the officers of law, or a new hope 
 of life to a condemned prisoner 1 
 
 Open any good dictionary at these verbs, and from the 
 length of the columns devoted to them, judge whether these 
 are the idle words in a language. We can then appreciate at 
 their true value the expressions which form so large a part 
 of the web of the ordinary language ; and appreciating this 
 common language itself, we shall appreciate the series which 
 translate it. 
 
 Let us next consider the substantives and the terms of re- 
 lationship contained in this same exercise. These words are 
 not idle in themselves : — Axe, log, wood, maid, air, blade, 
 piece, earth, size, place. Nor these : — Servant, domestic, girl, 
 woman, article, thing, place, spot, position, post, sharp, steel, 
 metal, chopper, billhook, instrument, tool, &c. Nor these : — 
 Of, near, on, in, to, &c. 
 
 Have these terms, all of which enter into our exercise, the 
 appearance of being idle and low simply because they are 
 grouped and organised ; or is it rather that they serve to ex- 
 press a scene which is too humble, too familiar? To most persons 
 there will be no necessity for maintaining the importance of 
 simplicity in the early lessons, and we shall presently demon- 
 strate the importance of order, that is, a regular grouping — 
 a logical organisation relative to the normal action of the 
 memory — and we shall state besides the extreme value, from 
 the linguistic point of view, of the ordinary every-day facts of 
 life and of their expression. 
 
 4. Two lands of substantives— Common and general nouns — • 
 Siiecijic nouns — 21ieir relation. 
 
 Compared one with another, the substantives in our lesson 
 present two characters profoundly diverse : some are specific, 
 others are general. Axe is a specific noun ; it designates the 
 species. Instrument is a noun relatively general ; it marks a 
 kind. Of these two species of nouns, one is more necessary 
 than the other. The specific substantives are more important 
 
ENDS AND MEANS. ^j-j 
 
 than the general substantives. The general terms are, so to 
 speak, terms of luxury, which the language can upon necessity 
 do without. A kind of pronoun, or substitute, as we have 
 named them, they are there for the convenience, sometimes 
 for the elegance, more often for the rapidity of language. 
 
 The specific substantives, on the other hand, are indispensable. 
 Therefore tlie word "axe "will always have its correspondent, 
 its translation relatively exact in a foreign language, while the 
 general term, such as instrument or tool, will seldom find an 
 equivalent which affords exactly the same extension, or which 
 presents an adequate signification. 
 
 Our exercise, therefore, which yields us in its first part a 
 series of purely specific nouns, and which, in its second part, 
 bears a list of general terms corresponding to the specific nouns, 
 cannot possibly be made to proceed with more strictness of 
 method, nor to be more practical or more complete. 
 
 Further than this, the specific nouns are found repeated 
 almost at every line ; so that it may be said that the frequency 
 of repetition of each term is proportional to the relative value 
 of this term. This is also noticeable in the practice of ordi- 
 nary language. For ten times that a child will say axe or 
 chopper when speaking of the instrument that bears this name, 
 he will hardly once make use of its general name of " tool. " 
 
 5. Tico lands of verhs — Verhs of ends and lerls of means — 
 Their relation. 
 
 Like the nouns, the verbs also, when compared amongst 
 themselves, present two distinct species which all serious philo- 
 logy should recognise. Verbs of one species designate the 
 ends; verbs of the other species express the means employed 
 to attain these ends. Thus, to draw water, this is an end. 
 To take the pitcher — to carry it to the spring — to dip it in tl.e 
 water — to fill it with water — to draw it out of the water — to 
 carry it to the house : these are the means. This distinction 
 established, let us ask ourselves a question similar to that 
 which we asked ourselves relative to the substantives. Which 
 are the most important, the verbs expressing " ends " or the 
 verbs expressing " means " ? Or are they rather of equal value ? 
 
 Between these two species of verbs there exists the same 
 relation as between the larger and the smaller pieces of 
 
7^ OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 coinage. The large pieces have a greater value in themselves, 
 the small pieces are most indispensable for every-day trans- 
 actions, and at need can serve instead of the former. The 
 smaller pieces circulate largely in commerce. What should 
 we do without them ? The larger pieces, on the other hand, 
 could be reduced to the least possible number, or even totally 
 disappear, as indeed has happened at a period not greatly 
 distant from the present, as, in fact, is still the case in certain 
 countries. Such exactly is the relation which exists between 
 the verbs which express ends and those which express means. 
 
 The verbs of means form a current coinage absolutely 
 necessary for commerce. The verbs of ends are useful with- 
 out being indispensable. Their utility is analogous to that 
 of the larger pieces of money. They abbreviate and simplify 
 the language, and consequently accelerate and facilitate the 
 exchange of ideas between man and man. But they can be 
 perfectly well replaced by verbs of means, and this substitu- 
 tion does, in fact, take place at every instant in practice. 
 Instead of saying, " Close the door," we often say, " Pull the 
 door to;" instead of saying, " Iling the bell," we often say, 
 " Pull the bell." Pull, in these cases, is not the end ; it is the 
 means. It is this fundamental distinction which has rendered 
 possible both the organisation of our series and the construc- 
 tion of our exercises. 
 
 Considered separately and outside the action, outside the 
 mind which conceives this action or the will which desires it, 
 all verbs have the same character — a character to which no 
 name is given, because every name is the result of a distinc- 
 tion, and every name presupposes a distinction. Verbs, there- 
 fore, only express ends and means relatively and not absolutely. 
 
 It can now be understood how and why philology, ex- 
 clusively preoccupied with the meanings and the absolute 
 value of words, without any regard for the intrinsic mental 
 value of the acts which these words may translate, has never 
 notified, has never caught sight of, the double character with 
 which the verb can be clothed in the practice of language. 
 
 We repeat, these two characters, which seem to have escaped 
 the sagacity of the philologists, have nothing in them of the 
 absolute. They are essentially relative ; the same verb which 
 here expresses an end, elsewhere will express a means. An 
 example will throw a little light upon our thought. 
 
ENDS AND MEANS. 79 
 
 To open the door of the woodshed is an end in relation to 
 the act of turning the key in the lock, which is the means of 
 attaining this end. But opening the door of the woodshed is 
 only a means by relation to the end of going to fetch some 
 wood. Going to fetch wood in its turn is a means by relation 
 to the superior end of lighting the fire. Lighting the tire 
 itself is a means by relation to the more general end of heat- 
 ing the room or of cooking the meal. The value of the verbs 
 is, therefore, like that of the actions, one which we might call 
 a "shifting" value. 
 
 In this series of ends and means, in this ascending hier- 
 archy, as in the machinery of human industry, the most 
 important and the most essential wheels are just those which 
 are the most elementary, the very smallest, and apparently 
 the least precious. Take, lift up, lay down, carry, leave, 
 turn, push, open, shut, stretch, &c., these are the elementary 
 essential wheels of the language; these are the true "roots" 
 of tongues. You will find them at the base of all actions ; 
 you will come across them at every line from the pen of the 
 author, at every phrase in the mouth of the orator. Nay, 
 more, the grand, the metaphoric style hardly admits, as verbs, 
 others than these "vulgar" verbs, and this because, in their 
 quality as expressions of the current tongue, they surpass all 
 other verbs in clearness and precision ; and because, all the 
 world making constant use of them, they are " understanded 
 of the people." 
 
 6. Epitome and general view. 
 
 The natural development of the man, of the animal, of the 
 plant, of the elements, can be conceived as a series of diverse 
 ends, realised or attained by a certain number of means. 
 There are, therefore, two species of verbs in the language, 
 and this language is not and cannot be other than the ex- 
 pression of this development. Some verbs there are which 
 express "ends," other verbs express "means." 
 
 The verbs of ends are not absolutely necessary ; the verbs 
 of means are indispensable. The greater part of the ends 
 require for their attainment the action of a certain number 
 of means. Therefore for one single verb which expresses an 
 end there are several verbs which express means. 
 
 Our existence is one "continued conversation," either with 
 
8o OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 ourselves or with our fellows — one continual entertainment or 
 talk, in which we express aloud or to ourselves our ideas, our 
 sensations, our beliefs, our perceptions, our sentiments, our 
 volitions, our actions. An end perceived or pursued by us 
 involves always the perception, and therefore the expression — 
 articulated or mental — of the means necessary to the realisa- 
 tion of this end ; and the same end involves always the 
 employment, and consequently the 'expression of the same 
 means. 
 
 Therefore, already the verbs of means, in reality and in the 
 ordinary practice of language, repeat themselves with as great 
 frequency as the verbs of ends. But we should further point 
 out that even this equality is not the true relation between 
 these two sorts of verbs from the point of view of frequency. 
 In reality there is not a single means which does not serve as 
 such to a whole crowd of diverse ends. Therefore, in practice, 
 the verbs of means are repeated with far greater frequency 
 than are the verbs of ends. 
 
 Each of our exercises faithfully reflects all of these distinc- 
 tions, reproduces and manifests all of these relationships. 
 
 1. The ends are found therein perfectly distinct the one 
 from the other. 
 
 2. Each end is distinct from its means. 
 
 3. The verbs of means are repeated ceaselessly from one 
 end to another end, from one series to another series. 
 
 To all these observations upon the inner constitution of our 
 exercises we need to add one other relative to these observa- 
 tions themselves. The method ought not to be judged solely 
 from the manner in which we here present it. Language 
 being the most direct and immediate product of the human 
 mind, the theory of its development is, and cannot but be, at 
 bottom a chapter of psychology; and whatever efforts are 
 made to render its principles intelligible to the whole world, 
 these principles will always present themselves with that 
 character inherent to all principle — I mean, of abstraction. 
 
 7. Mnemonic propeiiies of the method. 
 
 Let us examine our theme from a new, that is, the purely 
 practical point of view. This theme that we have given, is it 
 within the reach of every intelligence, within the grasp of every 
 memory ; in other words, is it possible of easy assimilation ? 
 
MNEMONIC PROPERTIES. 8i 
 
 The exercise itself is a sufiicient answer. Read it over 
 once more, and say if you know of one child so deprived of 
 intelligence as, first, not to be able to understand this theme, 
 then not to be able to imagine in all its details the fact 
 which this theme expresses, and further, to repeat it to you, 
 however weak his memory may be, as soon as you have pro- 
 perly and methodically given it to him, that is, placed it 
 before him in the true order in which the facts take place, 
 carefully detaching the sentences one from the other. 
 
 Make the experiment upon the least gifted of your scliolars, 
 and if you are in the least expert, you will inevitably arrive 
 at this joyful conclusion, that before the study of language, 
 with a method conformable to that of Nature, all intelligences 
 are sensibly equal — a conclusion, T am well aware, contrary to 
 the prejudices of scholastic teaching, and unfortunately anti- 
 pathetic alike to the instinct and to the interest of the pro- 
 fessors, who too often avoid placing the burden upon their own 
 shoulders, preferring to shield themselves behind allegations 
 of stupidity upon the part of the pupil rather than admit 
 the possibility of error in the more convenient methods of 
 routine. 
 
 Therefore w^e may claim, at least, that our lessons are acces- 
 sible to all intelligences, are within the reach of all memories. 
 Their conception is as instantaneous as perception, their assimi- 
 lation as rapid as speech. Two things specially contribute to 
 this result : — 
 
 1. The perfect simplicity of the sentences, which are re* 
 duced almost throughout to three terms, — a subject, a verb, 
 and a complement, without making use of incidentals. 
 
 2. The logical connection which links together all the 
 sentences of each exercise. 
 
 And if our themes are easy of assimilation, easy in the 
 mother- tongue, they are also relatively easy of assimilation 
 in a foreign tongue, provided always that the process of giving 
 the lesson is a rational one, like that which we shall shortly 
 attempt to describe. 
 
 Our exercises afford one other fact that deserves notice, and 
 on the practical values of which it is well to insist. NTot only 
 do the verbs of the sentences call forth around them a crowd 
 of words ; not only do the substantives, as we have said, gather 
 of themselves towards these verbs, either as subjects or as 
 
 F 
 
82 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 complements, but these nouns are repeated, or may be re- 
 peated, quite naturally almost at every phrase. 
 
 Count how many times in our exercise recur the words 
 maid, axe, block, wood, &c., and from this how many times 
 what we have termed their " substitutes " might themselves 
 be repeated. 
 
 This special form of our exercises offers very considerable 
 advantages in practice. 
 
 1. Each phrase expressing a detail, a new fact, the repeti- 
 tion of the same subjects and the same complements has not 
 the character of an ordinary repetition, of a repetition pure and 
 simple. Owing to this new detail, this step made in advance in 
 each phrase, neither tediousness nor fatigue is to be feared. 
 
 2. This natural repetition of the same nouns, this constant 
 and periodic return of the thought towards the same object, 
 this reiterated effort of the representative or visualising faculty 
 upon the same idea, is not all this the graver's tool which 
 engraves the ideas and their expressions upon the memory ? 
 
 3. This same repetition, this perpetual recurrence of the 
 same sounds, is not this the essential condition, is not this the 
 most sure and solid guarantee of a good pronunciation 1 
 
 4. The listener, feeling himself safe in this repetition of 
 subjects and complements, turns the principal effort of his 
 attention quite naturally upon the verb. But the verb, which 
 is the soul of the phrase, the most important and precious 
 element of the sentence, is at the same time the most difficult 
 to conquer and to keep. It is important, therefore, that the 
 attention should be fixed entirely upon this term. Now, by 
 means of the before-mentioned evolution, all the visual rays 
 of the intelligence are verily concentrated upon a solitary 
 fact, the action — upon a solitary word, the verb. 
 
 Is it possible to place the memory under more advantageous 
 conditions? Would it be possible for any one to propose 
 better conditions ? 
 
 VI. 
 
 CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS UrON THE ART OF COMPOSING SERIES. 
 
 I. The perpetual speech — Written series — Hidden 
 difficulties. 
 
 Each one of us in reality, from the first dawn of intelligence, 
 forms series, constructs exercises, works out themes. Was it 
 
THE MOTHER'S SERIES. 83 
 
 not in seeing a child of three so doing that we ourselves gained 
 an insight into this system — the formidable work of the human 
 mind creating for itself, spinning for itself a language condi- 
 tioned to its life ? 
 
 The humble nursemaid forms a series, or at least a theme 
 analogous to our own, when, leading the baby towards the 
 door, she says to it — 
 
 Walk, baby ; that's the way I 
 
 now, go towards the door ; that's it ! 
 
 now, you've got there ; bravo ! 
 
 lift up your little arm ; capital ! 
 
 take hold of the handle ; that's quite right ! 
 
 turn the handle ; how strong you are ! 
 
 open the door ; what a clever little baby ! 
 
 now, pull the door open ; you little darling ! &c., &c. 
 
 It has already been stated that in any language there are 
 two languages. It is therefore by design that we have here 
 disposed in two columns the text which the ordinary books 
 present confounded together in spite of their diversity. We 
 shall return at the proper time to this distinction ; for the 
 moment let us pass on. 
 
 The mother or the nurse makes a series also when she 
 dresses the little child, a series which she repeats every morn- 
 ing, always the same in substance ; and she makes a lesson of 
 this series when she says — 
 
 Come along ! 
 
 let me put on your frock ; 
 
 put your little head through ; 
 
 give me your little arm ; 
 
 pass your little arm into the little sleeve ; 
 
 now let us button the sleeve, &c., &c. 
 
 I omit the reflections and terms of endearment with which 
 she knows so well how to season each of her phrases, and 
 which form part of what we have called " the subjective lan- 
 guage or relative phrases." 
 
 Our life is a perpetual talk. You cannot open a door with- 
 out mentally expressing each movement necessary to arrive at 
 this end, without commanding yourself to do it, as the nurse 
 commanded it aloud to her baby. It is this constant and per- 
 manent exercise which alone can explain this prodigious facility, 
 
H OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 this miraculous mobility of language which flashes forth with 
 an idea like the thunder with the lightning, which walks with 
 the thought and runs with it like the shadow with its sub- 
 stance, lingering when it lingers, hurrying when it hurries, 
 going up hill and down dale without ever asking for respite. 
 
 Has it never happened to j^ou in the railway train to find 
 yourself listening to two foreigners conversing together in an 
 unknown tongue 1 Which is it that has most astonished you, 
 the intellectual power which, in the interval between two 
 stations, can thus reel off, by linking them together, the 
 myriads of ideas ; or this language which strikes them off as 
 quickly as they are produced, without fatigue and without 
 cessation ? 
 
 I repeat, life from one end to the other, even in sleep, is 
 a perpetual talk. In the light of this fact one can already 
 judge of those methods and those masters, and those astonishing 
 Government regulations, innocently proposing to teach or to 
 have taught any language in giving or voting for it one hour, two 
 hours, three hours a week, that is, five to ten full days a year. 
 
 If, therefore, each of us constructs these series ceaselessly 
 and almost unawares even to himself, and if it is true that by 
 dint of striking one may become a smith, one might be led to 
 believe that nothing is more easy than to build up the system 
 of which we have thus laid the foundations. And this indeed 
 is the conviction which at first is forced upon whoever is 
 desirous of listening to the explanation of the system ; and 
 possibly this very fact is a presumption in favour of the system, 
 if the words of Pascal are true, " Seeing a good book, you 
 expected to find an author ; you are quite astonished to find 
 nothing but a man." 
 
 But any one on setting to work will soon find himself stum- 
 bling against unforeseen obstacles ; and this method, so natural 
 when listened to, so natural when an experienced teacher 
 applies it before you, immediately appears bristling with 
 difficulties to the most skilful person who undertakes to con- 
 struct — I will not say the system entire, I will not say even 
 one series — but the most lowly of the exercises. This results 
 from the first conditions that the system must fulfil in order 
 to be what it ought to be — a system conformable to the nature 
 of the human mind, a sj^stem truly "psychologic." We will 
 endeavour to establish the most important of these conditions. 
 
ARTIFICIAL METHODS. 
 
 2. A method is a system necessarily artificial. 
 
 A method can never, and must never, repeat Nature, or it is 
 no longer a method. Tliis would be simply a plagiarism — less 
 than a plagiarism — a bald caricature. To reproduce Nature 
 without tracing, without copying her, is the sphere of art. A 
 linguistic method is essentially an art. Now an art cannot in 
 itself be "natural." It is indeed inspired by, and ought to be 
 inspired by, Nature ; but it exists in order to vanquish Nature, 
 to do better than Nature. Art is the rival of Nature, it is 
 not Nature herself. To become art, Nature must be recast in 
 the mould of a human concept. Let us therefore confess it 
 from the first, and declare it aloud : our method does not 
 admit, it refuses, this qualification of " natural ; " and if it is 
 not yet an art, it is the roughed-out model of an art — it is an 
 "attempt at an art," as we have named it, as we ought to 
 name it. 
 
 Let no one therefore bring against us the absurd reproach 
 of having found only an "artificial" method. A method 
 cannot be other than artificial, and it is so much the better 
 the more it is artificial, that is, the more it resembles an art, 
 the more it is endowed with the means proper to vanquish 
 Nature itself. In the sense in which we understand the word 
 artificial, let us remark that it certainly does not exclude sim- 
 plicity. On the contrary, it requires it ; for is not simplicity 
 a first condition, an essential virtue of all that bears the name 
 of art? If the expression "natural method" has any signi- 
 fication, it is that which is contained in the profound saying 
 of Bacon, " Interpretanda est natura" — nature must be inter- 
 preted. 
 
 Steam is a natural force, an agent every day producing 
 numerous phenomena which may be called " natural ; " but 
 put to the service of man, it becomes an "artificial" force. 
 The railway train set in motion by steam is not a natural 
 fact. The natural force condensed, so to speak, by the will 
 and by the industry of man, provided by him with a special 
 organism, produces that which we all know : a thing which is 
 not in Nature, a thing consequently artificial, and, let us add, 
 a thing far superior to that which would be realised by Nature 
 if left to herself. The telegraph, again, is not a product of 
 Nature, but the true offspring of man, who has endowed 
 
86 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 electricity with an organism appropriate to his social wants. 
 In these creations art has magnificently and gloriously van- 
 quished Nature. 
 
 So it should also be with a good linguistic method. Psycho- 
 logy will interrogate Nature, and will ask of her a primitive, 
 an original force, a principle ; then it will adapt a special 
 organism to this principle, and the system will be of good 
 repute if it can produce, for instance, within the duration of a 
 single season, that which Nature can only achieve in the space 
 of one or of several years. The system will be defective if it 
 cannot compete with Nature either in the quantity or in the 
 quality of the products. By its fruit the tree shall be judged. 
 
 A linguistic method is an art, or should tend to become 
 one; such is the idea which has been kept in view in the 
 construction of our own method, and which has guided us in 
 our work. 
 
 3. Requisite capacities — Pedagogic measure of the series — Tlieir 
 division into exercises — Construction of these exercises — 
 Rules to he observed. 
 
 The first condition requisite for composing a series is to 
 have lived it. To write the Series of the Fisherman, one must 
 have fished or seen some one fishing. To write the Series of 
 the Hunter, one must have hunted or have followed the 
 hunters. To write that of the Shepherd, one must have 
 tended sheep or lived with shepherds. To write the Series 
 of the Harvest, one must have reaped corn. To be able to 
 speak of the sea, one must have voyaged. To write the Series 
 of the Oak or the Fir, it is necessary to have studied the tree, 
 not in a book, or according to a cold and dry nomenclature, 
 but in itself, in its living reality, and to have followed it, if 
 possible, from its first germ and its first cell unto the most 
 complete of its fruits. And so for the rest. The construction 
 of the fabric desired demands, therefore, an observing mind 
 which has long been in immediate contact with Nature, and 
 which, after having widely lived the life of the fields and the 
 life of the people, has embraced with passion and devotion the 
 study of the sciences and of literature. 
 
 This is what might be called the subjective condition of the 
 enterprise. Let us pass to the objective conditions. 
 
MEASURE OF THE SERIES. 87 
 
 A series being given to develop, it is necessary before aught 
 else to trace its limits and to settle upon its contents. Tiiis 
 first operation already offers considerable difficulties. Too 
 long, the series will fatigue the child ; too short, it will not 
 occupy its imagination for a sufficiently long duration of time. 
 The intellectual incubation not having the desired length, the 
 hatching will not take place. Neither the phenomena itself 
 nor its expression will be able to take root in the moral sub- 
 stance. They will leave in the memory, like the shooting-star 
 in the heavens, nothing but an ephemeral trace. 
 
 Upon what, therefore, must we base our measure? Can 
 Nature here also serve us as guide 1 Has she some wise indi- 
 cation, some model to offer us ? 
 
 We have seen, in the first place, that the child begins by 
 playing at games of the facts and occupations of serious life ; 
 we have seen also that he lingers a determinate time upon 
 each of his games. This time is the measure sought. It is by 
 the ordinary duration of a child's game that the duration of a 
 series, and so the extent of its development, should be regulated. 
 Cut according to this pattern the series will interest the scholar 
 without risk of fatiguing him. 
 
 If necessary, we can divide and subdivide the material ; and 
 by making several series, to some extent concentric, spring 
 from the same subject, we can treat them each at its proper 
 time, at determined intervals ; so leading the pupil's imagina- 
 tion back periodically, as is done in Nature, towards facts in 
 appearance identical, in reality always diverse, we might even 
 say, always new. 
 
 The distribution of the general matter in chapters, that is, 
 in different and special themes or exercises, and the construc- 
 tion of these exercises themselves, have also their difficulties. 
 Each exercise, indeed, should form a complete whole in itself, 
 an independent whole, without ceasing to be a natural and 
 necessary link of the series. Moreover, each exercise should 
 be conceived under a form which strikes the imagination, 
 should be developed with a certain movement which interests 
 and captivates the mind, while remaining accurately faithful 
 to the reality. A word, a simple detail sometimes, suffices to 
 produce this effect ; one must know how to find it. All this 
 necessitates very careful work, which cannot be accomplished 
 without long experience and a clear idea of the end to bo 
 attained. 
 
BS OLJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Upon the testimony of several sufficiently able persons who 
 have attempted to write some of the series on the model of our 
 own, this work, in appearance so simple, would seem to be of 
 considerable difficulty. It is usually not easy to say where to 
 begin or where to end any particular theme. It is still more 
 difficult to say precisely to what depth the analysis of the 
 phenomenon described should be pushed. The temptation 
 arises, indeed, at every instance of forcing matters, and of 
 doing violence to Nature in order to attain such or such an 
 expression. The ploughshare too readily buries itself in the 
 soil, or, to speak more directly, one becomes lost amongst 
 details. An exercise composed under these conditions is defec- 
 tive in itself and indigestible by the student. The pupil's 
 mind cannot assimilate it. He feels a miserable hesitation, a 
 repugnance that paralyses part of his forces. 
 
 It can soon be recognised if an exercise has attained the 
 wished-for perfection, when, in the first place, its contents 
 attract the attention of the class and impress it, and, in the 
 next, when several of the more moderately gifted pupils dis- 
 pute, at the first reading, the honour of repeating it. The 
 tailor who is jealous of his good repute will not deliver a suit 
 until after he has carefully fitted it to his customer. The 
 pedagogue who has a love and respect for his art, before pub- 
 lishing his work will submit it to the natural test he has always 
 to his hand, and will prove it long and conscientiously upon 
 his class. The pleasure and the ardour of his scholars are the 
 true touchstones of the school-book. 
 
 It is in the highest degree necessary that the lesson given 
 by the master should do nothing but awaken in the mind of 
 the pupil a conception, a representation, which already exists 
 in his imagination. The method must not propose, at any rate 
 at first and in the elementary series, to endow the pupil's 
 mind with fresh ideas, but to translate those which are already 
 there; to express his individuality, such as it is, without 
 changing anything thereof, in a new tongue ; to re-make, to 
 reconstruct this individuality in French, in German, in Greek, 
 in Latin, &c. 
 
 Nay, more than this : the method proposes, and proposes 
 essentially, to place the pupil in those conditions under which 
 he will be enabled to re-thmk his own being, to take up again 
 and re-read the book of his existence, to re-live his Ego in 
 German, in Greek, in French, &c. For example, if the pupil 
 
RULES TO BE OBSERVED. 89 
 
 has never seen a mill, you will not give him the series of the 
 miller to study, but you will first take him to a mill, or wait 
 till he has the opportunity of visiting one. Your series will 
 then reawaken his perceptions, will set them in order and 
 organise them perhaps, but will not create them. The expres- 
 sion will not precede the idea or the perception, but will 
 follow it : it will not shape it, it will clothe it. So much for 
 the general direction. 
 
 The same precepts apply not less rigorously to the details. 
 Your Series of the Miller — we are supposed to be still speaking 
 of the mill — will not contain more facts than those which are 
 to be found in the imagination and in the recollection of every 
 ordinary person who has seen a mill. 
 
 Experience has proved to us that too direct or too imme- 
 diate an observation of Nature is unfavourable to the pedagogic 
 description of a phenomenon. Like the artist, designer, or 
 painter, the pedagogic artist should be placed at such a dis- 
 tance that the secondary or too individual details are effaced 
 or disappear, and that the general features only remain. 
 
 The most propitious position in which to write the pedagogic 
 or linguistic description of a mill is not that in which the eye, 
 fully regarding this mill and actually contemplating it, em- 
 braces the mechanism and the action in the smallest details, but 
 rather that where this mill appears to us through the prism of 
 a recollection still strong, after having passed into an intel- 
 lectual concept, and having there bpen lopped, pruned, ridded 
 of all that is too individual, that is, of all that is not essential 
 and truly general. 
 
 We here touch upon one of the greatest difficulties of the 
 system, not only as to its teaching, but as to its construction. 
 It is this hidden difficulty which prevents the teachers, other- 
 wise able, of whom we have spoken, from creating an accept- 
 able exercise. Either they lost themselves among the details, 
 individualising too much, copying Nature too olosely, or else 
 did not follow Nature closely enough, wandering astray in 
 the vagueness of a generality without character, and without 
 attraction for the child, and therefore without profit. 
 
90 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 4. Logical Unldng together of the sentences in an exercise — Order 
 and disorder — 21ie human breath — Measure of the phrase 
 — Placing line hy lirie — The intellectual e^ort, its extent — 
 Pedagogic measure of a linguistic exercise. 
 
 We have already established the high value of the relationship 
 of succession in time. We have said that it forms in itself 
 alone the elementary logic of the human mind, and that it is 
 before all the logic of the child, the only one it understands 
 well, and the only one it knows how to apply. The pedagogue, 
 therefore, in constructing an exercise, will practically employ 
 only this relationship. He may, however, from time to time 
 use the relationship of cause and effect, the most familiar to 
 the child after the former. He will use very rarely, and only 
 by exception, the relationship of '^ the whole to the part," 
 which is a relationship neither logical nor constant, but alto- 
 gether accidental, fortuitous, and generally arbitrary. 
 
 The most ordinary judgment knows how to discern that 
 which goes before from that which comes after, knows how to 
 distinguish the cause from the effect, the end from the means, 
 the whole from the part. There is here, therefore, no really 
 serious difficulty. If any arises with reference to the arrange- 
 ment or order of the sentences, it does not belong to this 
 arrangement itself. It comes from something more abstruse ; 
 it belongs to the nature of the conception, to the separation of 
 the exercises, or to the progression of the series, and conse- 
 quently the problem enters into that of the previous one. 
 
 With reference to this arrangement or order, let us say that 
 the logic, severe, inflexible, constant, which links exercise to exer- 
 cise, sentence to sentence, makes of our labour an essentially 
 original work, without precedent as without model, and places 
 an abyss between our method and all others bearing this name. 
 It is necessary to repeat it : the attempts of OUendorf, of 
 Robertson, of 'Jacotot, and of others, are not methods at all. 
 Who says '' method " says " order." Now, all these books offer, 
 in reality, nothing but a hideous confusion, a frightful muddle, 
 worse even than the fortuitous sequence of the dictionary. 
 *' Have you a hat 1 "— " Yes, I have a hat." 
 " Have you a table ? "— " Yes, I have a table." 
 " What knife have you, that of the Englishmen or that of 
 the Spaniards?" — " No, I have the basket of the Jew." 
 There you have the logic of OUendorf ! 
 
ORDER AND DISORDER. 91 
 
 What, tliiuk you, is the natural relationship which connects 
 these four words : hat, table, knife, basket ? And how could 
 it be hoped that I should dispose within my memory, by means 
 of this astounding jugglery, the thirty thousand words of the 
 vocabulary and the sixty thousand turns of expression of the 
 ordinary language ? Can we, then, be astonished that routine 
 still continues to rule supreme in the school, and that the 
 universities still always prefer the ancient way of Charlemagne 
 or King Edward to the impossible paths traced by the modern 
 linguists ? 
 
 Instead of studying words upon the facts and by the facts 
 they express, and in the eternal order in which these facts are 
 developed — as does the little child, and with such good re- 
 sults — the scholar studies the words for themselves as absolute 
 sounds, or rather as "abstract numbers," The unforeseen, 
 the unconnected — disorder, in a word — these are the ordinary 
 and universally received springs that are set in action in the 
 handbooks written for the study of languages. There " dis- 
 order " is raised to the height of a principle ; the unforeseen 
 and the strange are converted into a mnemotechnic means. 
 A singular proceeding this, which proscribes order and anni- 
 hilates logic and reason, to strengthen the memory, as if the 
 true memory was not the faculty wliich classes facts and sets 
 them logically in order within the mind. 
 
 This error — I should say this aberration — evidently proceeds 
 from a defect of observation already notified by us. The 
 authors of these methods have not reflected that Nature had 
 solved the problem of language long before them ; " that she 
 holds," as we have said, " for early childhood a permanent and 
 open school, at which we could assist, and where we could study 
 her always infallible processes. In the turmoil of the child's 
 life, so feverish and fitful, they have not caught sight of the 
 regular development which takes place in the child's mind by 
 language and for language. In the hurried and confused suc- 
 cession of its acts, sensations, and fantasies, so diverse and 
 manifold, they could see nothing but a ' pure game of chance ; ' 
 and have never imagined that there could be therein anything 
 which resembled order — a principle of order." 
 
 This is why, imitating Nature, as they call it, they have 
 erected disorder into a principle, and have inscribed in letters 
 of gold upon their books : " Natural Method 1" 
 
92 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 " Have you a hat 1 " — " Yes, I have a hat, but my brother 
 has the Frenchman's fork." 
 
 '' Have you been to sea ? " — *' No, but I have been skat- 
 ing," . . . &e. 
 
 Robertson, Jacotot, and their followers mark time, as it 
 were, upon the same substantive to the point of vertigo ; or 
 again, without regard to common-sense, without pity for the 
 reason, they will turn over and over and over again [like 
 Prendergast], one and the same sentence, and work it about — 
 unhappy collection of words ! — until it is thoroughly worn to 
 
 Everything that is developed in Nature, animal or vegetable, 
 is subject to fixed immutable laws. The life of the child does 
 not escape therefrom any more than the rest of Nature. We 
 have defined it thus : " A series of general ends which it pro- 
 poses either aloud or to itself, and which it attains one after 
 the other by successive and perfectly determinate means." 
 Here there is sequence ; here there is order. Who can deny 
 it ? By its inward speech the child talks, explaining all that 
 it feels, all that it wishes, all that it desires. Language, the 
 faithful and constant acolyte of all its internal developments, 
 participates thus itself, and from the beginning, in this order. 
 Therefore chance does not preside over the development of 
 language any more than it does over anything else. 
 
 This, philological linguists, is what you will learn first of 
 all in the school for little children kept by Nature, if you are 
 neither blind nor deaf, if you are not distraught, and if you 
 can become teachable. Only be observant and you will learn 
 many other things. But above all be logical ; then have the 
 courage to burn, if it is necessary, what until now you have 
 held in respect or even reverence. 
 
 Our method, therefore, is light, a thousand times right, 
 when it links series to series, exercise to exercise, sentence to 
 sentence. It is right again, when, among the various relation- 
 ships by which the human mind can associate two ideas, it 
 has chosen the most simple of all, that which is famiUar -to 
 the child, " the relationship of succession in time." It is by 
 reason of this solely, by this double character of logic and of 
 simplicity, that it is a " method ; " and if a method could 
 arrogate to itself the title of "natural," it should be that one 
 which, appropriating the secret processes of Nature, simplifies 
 
MEASURE OF THE PHRASE. 95 
 
 them, sets them in order, or combines them until it has made 
 of them a veritable " organ." 
 
 We have stated the principal conditions which each exercise 
 should satisfy as to its contents and as to its fc«"m ; a second 
 problem remains to be solved, not less important than the 
 preceding ones, and beset with equal difficulties — " Where 
 shall an exercise begin, and where finish 1 " In other terms, 
 can we assign a limit to its length ? What shall be this limit ? 
 And upon what data or upon what principle shall we take our 
 stand in order to establish it 1 
 
 As animal life is developed by a series of pulsations which 
 are resolved into a series of " breaths." so intelligence is 
 developed by a series of ''conceptions" which are resolved 
 into a series of " ends ; " and the will of man is developed by 
 a series of ''efforts" which are resolved into a series of 
 "acts." If the human breathing is regulated, if it is subject 
 to a certain measure which it does not exceed, the human con- 
 ception and the human effort should also have their measure. 
 It is easy to demonstrate that these measures do actually 
 exist. 
 
 Must not the sentence, or, if you will, the phrase, be 
 trimmed according to the length of the human breath ? Why 
 does rhetoric repel and condemn all phrases that are inordi- 
 nately long^ Why does a sentence whose verb is loaded with 
 four or five complements appear to us heavy, detestable? 
 Is it not precisely because it exceeds the effort of the lungs, 
 because it cannot be held within the duration of a breath, 
 because it overflows and exhausts it 1 
 
 And why also, in certain German books, do the sentences, 
 dragging in their train incidents of every kind, so often appear 
 obscure ? Why must they be read over and over several times 
 before we can penetrate to the sense ? It is because each 
 partial efltort of the intelligence, as each effort of the lungs, 
 has a precise limit, and when the expression of an idea exceeds 
 the dimensions of a conception, the mind is obliged to retrace 
 its steps, and, in order to take possession of the idea, to decom- 
 pose the expression of it, that is, to reduce each part to the 
 normal length of an ordinary conception, exactly as we break 
 up a piece of bread in mouthfuls before putting it into the 
 mouth. 
 
 The ear is subject to the same conditions. From continuous 
 
94 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGK 
 
 sounds, without intervals, a melody will never be made. The 
 reading of the most beautiful book in the world, given in one 
 breath — if the thing were possible — without stop, without 
 repose, would fatigue, confuse, deafen the ear, without trans- 
 mitting a single idea to the seat of intelligence. 
 
 So also is it with the eye and its glance, and so also with 
 all the senses. Each has its proper movement, each has its 
 period, each has a constant arc of oscillation or vibration. We 
 may draw from this two consequences of the greatest import- 
 ance for a linguistic method : — 
 
 1. In the first place, the phrase will always be a simple sen- 
 tence, and this sentence will be as short as possible, that is, 
 the verb will always appear therein with one complement or 
 with two complements, rarely with three. Consequently we 
 shall usually be able to write the sentence in one line. 
 
 Hence the original method of arrangement of our exercises, 
 where each phrase is on one line, and where each phrase has 
 its line to itself. Our phrases never, therefore, exceed the 
 dimensions of an ordinary conception, even of a little child, 
 whose phrases are eminently and necessarily brief. The 
 shortest breath can compass each of them. By this relation- 
 ship, therefore, the method is put into perfect accordance with 
 the lessons, prescriptions, and dictates of Nature. 
 
 2. The second consequence is of still greater importance. 
 The theme, the exercise, each link of a series will have a 
 precise measure which it should never exceed. We have 
 studied, from this point of view, some of the principal literary 
 masterpieces, and this is what we have discovered : 
 
 The ideas or general conceptions found therein succeed each 
 other at intervals of an almost mathematical regularity. The 
 complete development of each idea is found to occupy from 
 twenty-two to twenty-seven sentences or complete phrases. 
 To cite an example, the most beautiful scenes of Virgil, his 
 most beautiful pictures, are all presented under these condi- 
 tions, all without exception (see, for example, the transcrip- 
 tion of the -55neid on our system). It is interesting to read 
 them through again and to count them. Homer observes the 
 same rule perhaps more strictly still, even when he nods ; and 
 the great prose writers are not less faithful to it in all the 
 languages known to us. 
 
 This discovery, if it be one, is worthy of being taken into 
 
LENGTH OF AN EXERCISE. 95 
 
 serious consideration. It will yield precious and fruitful 
 precepts for the science of teaching. Let us attempt to raise 
 this fact to the height of a rule or a law, by submitting it to 
 the double test of reasoning and of experience. Let us first 
 hear the verdict of experience. 
 
 When, before a well-disciplined class, I develop a linguistic 
 exercise, be it in Greek, in Latin, in German, or in English, 
 each pupil remains seriously attentive up to the twentieth, the 
 twenty-second, or the twenty-fourth sentence. Of this atten- 
 tion of the pupil I have as guarantee, first of all, his looks, 
 which will be fixed upon me, and then his good behaviour. 
 After the twenty-fifth sentence involuntary nervous move- 
 ments begin to show themselves. Legs begin to shift, feet 
 scrape on the floor, papers rustle, and faces lengthen. Evi- 
 dently the wits are wandering in quest of 9ther things. The 
 human patience is at an end ; the intellectual force is over- 
 loaded ; the limit of voluntary effort is overstepped. The bow 
 bent to excess is relaxed. In fine, the souls have flown else- 
 where. The menace and fear of a punishment is now necessary, 
 or rather, the interval necessitated by this diversion (!), to recall 
 them momentarily to the tree of knowledge. 
 
 I say momentarily, for you will never succeed, whatever your 
 talents and the charm of your language, whatever the ability, 
 the resources, the artifices of your discipline, you will never 
 succeed for a longer time — with profit, be it understood — in 
 holding your class prisoner. And your severity will be, in 
 reality, a want of tact, if not a cruelty, betraying an entire 
 ignorance of the elementary laws of the intelligence which 
 you have in charge to direct and to form. 
 
 At this moment, what is absolutely necessary is a rest, a 
 release, an interval, or rather a diversion ; for the mind does 
 not rest, and never remains absolutely idle. But what diver- 
 sion shall we choose that may be of profit to the intellectual 
 effort that our lesson has just provoked, that may sustain it, 
 complete it, render it fruitful '? This we will give farther on, 
 in the chapter upon " The Use of the Method." The extreme 
 limit of a linguistic theme is therefore settled. Where shall 
 we place its lower limit 1 
 
 In order that an intellectual effort may become fruitful, 
 the mind must take this effort seriously ; it must work upon 
 itself, must become heated, must bestow pains to produce a 
 result; in a word, this intellectual effort must be submitted, 
 
96 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 in order to be hatched, to an incubation of a determined 
 period of time. Experience has proved to us, and continues 
 to prove every day, that an exercise which contains less than 
 eighteen sentences fulfils but ill the conditions which result 
 from the preceding principle. The pupil disdains and de- 
 spises it as being too far beneath his power. He does 
 not stay thereat the time desired ; he is not sufficiently in- 
 terested ; he does not ponder over or " incubate" it, and there- 
 fore he does not assimilate it. 
 
 The length of an exercise will vary, therefore, from twenty- 
 two to twenty-seven sentences, from twenty to thirty at the 
 outside. This is the verdict of our personal experience. It 
 fully agrees with the result of our study of the great writers. 
 Each one may, if he pleases, experiment in his turn, and 
 pronounce thereupon. 
 
 But if we submit the verdict of experience to the verdict of 
 reason, the second will only confirm the' first. In fact, have 
 we not established in principle that every effort of the in- 
 telligence has a determinate measure ? that every conception 
 has a definite amplitude, both when it is developed solitarily 
 in the mind of its author, and when it clothes a form in order 
 to penetrate to the minds of others ? in fine, that all intellect 
 tual development, to become durable, must be submitted to a 
 kind of incubation ? Reason, therefore, lays down the fact in 
 principle ; experience settles the question with exactitude. 
 
 VII. 
 
 SPECIMENS OF THE ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 To precepts we judge it useful to add examples. Instead 
 of referring the reader to the book of the Series or to the 
 method itself, we will attempt to build up before him one or 
 two of these series. We will choose them amongst the shortest 
 and the most rudimentary — say the Series of the Pump or of 
 "Water, and the Series of the Fire. 
 
 I. TJie Series of the Pump. 
 
 Let us remark first of all that this series, elementary though 
 it may be, is not that by which the method should, or in prac- 
 
METHOD OV CONSTRUCTING A SERIES. 97 
 
 tice does, begin. The development and the expression of 
 facts more rudimentary still, such as to walk, to dress one's- 
 self, to open a door, to shut a door, to go downstairs, to go 
 upstairs, &c., should precede it, and, so to speak, prepare the 
 way for it. It will rest upon these facts, as a theorem in 
 geometry rests upon those which precede it. It may recall 
 them in mentioning them, but will not go to the length of 
 describing them in detail afresh. So much said, let us analyse 
 the common act of " drawing water from the pump." 
 
 Let us commence by decomposing it into its separate 
 moments. For myself, I involuntarily picture in my mind 
 the first pump I ever saw, that which stood in front of my 
 childhood's home. There I picture to myself the kitchen 
 where my mother busied herself, and I always see the utensil 
 which she used when she went to draw water, to wit, an 
 iron-bound wooden bucket with a handle. 
 
 Will the reader be good enough to picture to himself, as I 
 have done, a "real" pump and a "real" kitchen, actually 
 known to him, those which he now knows, or used to know 
 best of all ? The earliest impressions are so profound and so 
 living, that in aU probability his mind will be transplanted, 
 like my own, spontaneously to the home of his childhood. If 
 this takes place involuntarily, so much the better ; if not, it 
 should be done voluntarily. For what is required to be trans- 
 lated is not a sequence of hackneyed phrases written down 
 upon paper, but a page of our own individuality — a page 
 which is to be found written in the depths of the memory 
 of every one of us upon the bed-rock of our intellectual 
 substance. 
 
 The personality of the reader is other than my own. Con- 
 sequently, neither the pump, nor the kitchen, nor the bucket, 
 which each of us pictures to himself, is identical. We shall 
 therefore avoid with care every detail which might be purely 
 individual, every means which would not be decidedly general. 
 Facts which are too special, instead of facilitating the work 
 of representation, would interfere with it. Our pen-and-ink 
 picture must confine itself to awakening the mind, to calling 
 it to the work, without ever hindering either the liberty or 
 the spontaneity of its movements. 
 
 This limitation has in view, it must be understood, only the 
 written series. It does not apply at all to the series as taught. 
 
 Q 
 
98 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Confronted with the reality, it will always be allowable to the 
 teacher to modify our exercise, and to push matters to more 
 minute particulars. 
 
 To go and fetch water from the pump is a complex act, in 
 which three distinct divisions may be counted : — 
 
 1. Going to the pump. 
 
 2. Pumping the water. 
 
 3. Carrying the water back to the kitchen. 
 
 The Series of the Pump will furnish us, therefore, with three 
 exercises. If it is considered better to leave to the maid this 
 domestic work, we should develop this short series in the 
 following manner : — 
 
SPECIMEN ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 99 
 
 THE PUMP. 
 L 
 
 The maid goes to the pump. 
 
 — The maid takes hold of the pail by the handle, takes hold 
 the maid lifts up the pail, lifts up 
 the maid goes across the kitchen, goes across 
 the maid opens the door, opens 
 
 the maid crosses the threshold, . crosses 
 
 the maid goes out of the kitchen, goes out 
 
 the maid turns round, turns round 
 
 the maid shuts the door. shuts 
 
 — The maid leaves the kitchen, leaves 
 
 the maid moves away from the kitchen, moves away 
 
 the maid turns towards the pump, turns towards 
 
 the maid draws near to the pump, draws near 
 
 the maid comes to the pump, comes 
 
 the maid stops at the pump, stops 
 
 the maid Lifts the pail, lifts 
 
 the maid puts out her arm, puts out 
 
 the maid sets down the pail under the spout of sets down 
 
 the maid lets go the pail handle, [the pump, lets go 
 
 1. Maid (woman, girl, servant girl, housemaid, servant, man, 
 
 lad, boy, domestic, servitor . . . ). 
 
 2. Pail (bucket, water-can, pitcher, jug, ewer, bowl, tub, pot, 
 
 vessel, utensil . , . ). 
 
 3. Kitchen (house, homestead, dwelling, domicile . . . ), 
 
lOO 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE PUMP. 
 
 n. 
 
 The maid pumps some water. 
 
 — She puts out her hand, puts out 
 she grasps the pump handle, grasps 
 she raises the pump handle, raises 
 she lowers the pump handle, lowers 
 she raises the pump handle, raises 
 she lowers the pump handle, lowers 
 the pump handle creaks, creaks 
 the pump shakes. shakes 
 
 — The water rises in the pump, rises 
 the water flows along the spout, flows 
 the water falls into the pail, falls 
 the water strikes the bottom of the pail, strikes 
 the water splashes at the bottom of the pail, splashes 
 the water swirls round in the pail, swirls 
 the water foams in the pail, foams 
 the water rises in the pail, rises 
 the water rises and rises higher and higher, rises 
 
 it fills the pail, fills 
 
 the maid lets go the pump handle. lets go 
 
 1. Pump handle (the handle, arm, lever, machine, thing . . . ). 
 
 2. Pump (the body of the pump, the cylinder, the interior, the 
 
 inside . . . ). 
 
 3. Spout (the conduit, the channel . . . ). 
 
SPECIMEN ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 TO! 
 
 THE PUMP. 
 
 III. 
 
 The maid carries the water to the kitchen. 
 
 — The maid bends down towards the pail, bends down 
 takes the pail by the handle, takes 
 
 and draws it out from under the spout, draws out 
 
 she closes her left hand, closes 
 
 she presses her fist against her hip, presses 
 
 she leans to the left-hand side, leans 
 
 and thus balances the weight of the water. balances 
 
 — She turns her back to the pump, turns 
 she leaves the pump, leaves 
 
 she moves away from the pump, moves away 
 
 she turns towards the kitchen, turns towards 
 
 she comes to the door, comes 
 
 she opens the door, opens 
 
 she crosses the threshold, crosses 
 
 she goes into the kitchen. goes in 
 
 — She shuts the door, shuts 
 
 she goes across the kitchen, goes across 
 
 she carries the pail of water to its place, carries 
 
 she bends down, bends down 
 
 and sets down the pail of water gently on the sets down 
 
 she lets go the handle, [ground, lets go 
 
 straightens herself, straightens 
 
 and takes breath ; takes breath 
 
 she then uses the water for the ordinary pur- uses 
 poses of her housework. 
 
 * H< H" ♦ 4e 
 
 Place (spot, position, corner, sink . . . ). 
 
lo- OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 The reader shall decide for himself if these three exercises 
 are properly constructed according to the rules previously laid 
 down. We should, however, like to draw his attention to 
 sundry facts which could not be raised in the general explana- 
 tion of the method : — 
 
 1. Not only do the same substantives and the same verbs 
 reappear indefinitely, but whole groups of phrases are repeated 
 from one exercise to the other. Such, for example, is the case 
 with the whole of the phrases which translate the fact of loco- 
 motion (to leave, to move farther away, to turn towards, to 
 draw near to, to come to, to stop at). These complex elements 
 are at the same time a cement which bind together and fix 
 the whole, a valuable bndge upon which the imagination passes 
 without effort from the known to the unknown. After these 
 elements have been conquered analytically, they would be in- 
 cluded in one single verb. For example, the six phrases which 
 correspond to the six verbs mentioned are contained in the 
 phrase "The maid goes to the pump." In one step, therefore, 
 we have now taken six, and it is thus that the forward march 
 is continually accelerating, and the scholar ends by really pull- 
 ing on the seven-leagued boots. 
 
 2. I am not at all sure that it is possible to define any one 
 substantive exactly, but I defy the greatest philologist in the 
 world ever to define even one of the best known, the simplest, 
 and the most common of the verbs — and, indeed, especially one 
 of this kind. Now, observe : the knowledge which science is 
 incapable of yielding up to us, our exercises give to the child 
 intuitively, as is the case in Nature. What we mean is that in 
 our method each verb is defined by the particular place it occu- 
 pies, either in the recital or upon the paper. For example, to 
 leave is not to move farther away. To leave represents one 
 moment of the locomotion, and to move farther away repre- 
 sents that which follows and is complementary to it. The 
 second verb limits the first, that is to say, defines it, and vice 
 versa. This delimitation of one act by another act, of one verb 
 by another verb, is the only definition possible with these 
 kinds of expression, a definition purely intuitive. Let us 
 further recall to the reader that each exercise is the definition 
 of its title. 
 
 3. Exercise II. shows us the working of the pump. There 
 is here a pitfall to be avoided. We might be tempted to go 
 
CONCENTRIC SERIES. 103 
 
 into scientific details of the interior working of the machine 
 and to explain, in passing, an interesting chapter of physics. 
 Our series would thereupon cease to be elementary. It would 
 no longer reproduce a perception, a personal conception of the 
 scholar. Moreover, the matter of it could only be assimilated 
 by a person to some extent scientific. Let us, however, at 
 once say that this part is only deferred, and that later on, in 
 a series concentric to the one just given, the complete working 
 of the pump would be scientifically set forth and explained. 
 
 4. The Series of the Pump has, as its natural complement, 
 the parallel Series of the Well and the Spring. We think it 
 useful to sketch out the principal exercises of these latter ; in 
 the first place, in order to afford a glimpse of what develop- 
 ments and expressions, of what resources and linguistic riches, 
 are contained in the most elementary acts of ordinary exist- 
 ence ; and in the next place, in order to establish and obtain 
 acceptance of this truth, that the expression of every-day life, 
 the domestic life, is the fundamental basis and bed-rock of the 
 human language — a truth hardly more than suspected in spite 
 of its evidence — and one which no linguist up to the pre- 
 sent day has thought of thoroughly applying and exploiting. 
 
 Moreover, without this insight, we should have some difi&- 
 culty in treating the chapter which should round off and make 
 complete the theory of the construction of the system, to wit, 
 the co-ordination of the Series. 
 
 5. At the foot of each of our exercises is seen a collection of 
 terms destined to be substituted orally for their equivalents 
 in the exercise proper. These appendices only occupy this 
 place for the present occasion, and solely for the purpose of 
 facilitating our explanation. The definitive method relegates 
 them to the end of the Series. Their presence at the foot of 
 the pages, indeed, impedes and hinders the regular progress 
 of the exercises, conceals and weakens their logical sequence, 
 unnecessarily overloads the Series, and disturbs the general 
 economy, taking away from it its character of simplicity. 
 
 Besides this, these terms themselves are susceptible of a 
 certain organisation. They can and ought to be arranged 
 according to their degree of generality, so that they may be 
 defined, as are the verbs, one by another, and by the intrinsic 
 mental value they occupy in each table. Let us add also that 
 their number being sometimes fairly large, there would often 
 
I04 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 be a risk of their encumbering the pages and of preventing the 
 development of the ordinary exercises. Consequently, it is 
 better to assign them a separate place. We shall therefore 
 suppress them in the exercises vi^hich follow, believing that 
 the few examples already given will suffice to show how these 
 species of terms are treated by our method. 
 
 This grouping and the establishment of their intrinsic value 
 itself necessitates considerable work. After a series is con- 
 structed what we do is to read through the entire dictionary, 
 and carefully gather every term which can relate closely, or 
 more distantly, to the development of this series. This done, 
 we organise the material so found. 
 
 The Series of the Well comprises four exercises as follows : — 
 
 1. The housewife goes to the well. 
 
 2. The housewife lets down the bucket into the well. 
 
 3. The housewife draws up the bucket. 
 
 4. The housewife carries the bucket of water to the 
 
 kitchen. 
 
 In order not to load our text with too many examples, we 
 leave on one side all such exercises as would arise from the 
 possible and ordinary accidents which are connected with this 
 series and complete it. We will simply point out that, as an 
 aim can be attained, it can also be missed. An aim missed is 
 what we term an accident. The maid who upsets the water 
 in carrying it to the kitchen would miss her aim. This fact 
 constitutes an accident. The development of the indirect and 
 complementary series of the accidents is hardly less rich in terms 
 and sentences than the development of the direct series itself. 
 
 The well which I picture to myself is that of our village, the 
 first, I suppose, that I ever observed. As with the pump, the 
 pupil and the reader are invited to do likewise, that is to say, 
 to call to memory a real well and one known to themselves. 
 
 There exist several kinds of wells, or at least of mechanical 
 arrangements for drawing water. We have thought it best 
 to start with the most ordinary, if not the most simple — that 
 system having the windlass as its basis. In the vast develop- 
 ment which the whole set of the series presents, the occasion 
 will not be lacking for the description of the working of other 
 systems, and from thence to glean the special locutions to 
 which they give rise. This observation applies to all the 
 series, each one having what may be called its " variants." 
 
A SEKIES IN A SINGLE SENTENCE. 105 
 
 Exercise I. presents a crowd of verbs, of sentences even, 
 already employed in the Series of the Pump. We have else- 
 where touched upon the advantages of this natural repetition, 
 so exactly in accordance with that of the " perpetual talk." 
 
 Exercise IV., "The housewife carries the water to the 
 kitchen," being identical with Exercise III. of the Series of 
 the Pump, we have summed this up in the line which forms 
 the title to this latter exercise ; and in the new exercise the 
 sign (■*), which is placed at this line, notifies the teacher or 
 the pupil to return to the analytical development of the fact 
 expressed, in case it is found not properly fixed in the memory. 
 But the analysis of this fact having been, so to speak, exhausted, 
 it would be equally idle and ridiculous to reproduce it on the 
 paper. It is by the living voice, and not by the written or 
 printed exercise^ that the repetition mentioned should be 
 carried out. It will be seen from this that he who has been 
 able to assimilate the three exercises of the pump, here clears, 
 in a single line, the space of twenty-four lines. 
 
 The Series of the " Spring " of water would be developed, 
 similarly to that of the pump, in three exercises : — 
 
 1. Going to the spring. 
 
 2. Drawing the water. 
 
 3. Carrying the water to the kitchen. 
 
 For the reasons we have just given, these three exercises 
 will be reduced naturally to one only. In this single exercise, 
 so formed, the first and third will be represented simply by 
 the enunciation of their titles, which will be indicated, if it be 
 desired, by the sign (*). 
 
 In the same way that an exercise can be thus reduced to a 
 single sentence, so also an entire series might be brought into 
 a single exercise, and again to a single sentence. For example, 
 in the Series of the Baker, when the dough has to be prepared, 
 water will be required. The single sentence, " The baker goes 
 and draws some water," will thus sum up an entire series. 
 It is in this linguistic synthesis that the seven-leagued 
 boots of which we spoke a few pages back are to be found ; 
 and we do not fear to affirm that here the hyperbole is, if 
 anything, below the reality. 
 
 Our series, as they are thus constructed, furnish, therefore, 
 constant occasion to turn back both to those already studied, 
 as well as to the separate exercises. And it is this, we should 
 
io6 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 add, that provides a permanent test, as convenient as it is 
 easy, for the teacher to examine and report upon the degree 
 of assimilation of the series previously elaborated. This pro- 
 perty of our themes and our series does away with a drudgery 
 more barren even than it is wearisome, that of the correc- 
 tion of the pupils' exercise-books, which always costs so many 
 hours, and is usually productive of little, save the disgust of 
 the pupil, and the discouragement, the lukewarmness, and the 
 indifference of the teacher. 
 
 Instead of correcting, we do over again. This is simpler, 
 more profitable, and infinitely more expeditious. Is it not 
 by circulating that the sap purifies and corrects its acerbities ? 
 We wish our processes of instruction to be " organic " and not 
 "mechanical." 
 
 Our abridged Series of the Fire will be represented by two 
 parallel or concentric series, — that of the fire on the ordinary 
 hearth, and that of the fire in the stove. The Series of the 
 Spring was based upon that of the Pump ; the Series of the 
 Fire in the Stove will be based upon that of the Fire on the 
 Hearth. To light a fire is an act that can have the most 
 diverse final aims. It is needful, therefore, to state that to 
 heat the room is the sole motive of the action developed by 
 the present series. Furthermore, all the observations which 
 the Series of the Water occasioned equally apply to the 
 development of these two new facts of domestic life. 
 
 We will decompose the first into eight exercises : — 
 
 1. The housewife goes to the woodshed. 
 
 2. The housewife gets some wood. 
 
 3. The housewife lays the fire. 
 
 4. The housewife lights the fire. 
 
 5. The wood burns. 
 
 6. The wood consumes. 
 
 7. The housewife mends the fire. 
 
 8. The housewife puts out the fire. 
 
 We shall defer, as with the Series of the Water, the possible 
 and ordinary accidents which might give material for an 
 indirect and complementary series. 
 
 The theatre in which my imagination places and sees this 
 new scene is still the house in which I was born. The in- 
 struments of fire for us are reduced to their indispensable 
 
SUBSIDIARY SERIES. T07 
 
 elements : a woodshed, some wood, a fireplace, a grate, some 
 firedogs, and a chimney. Fires are lighted in many other 
 places : under the baker's oven, in the limekiln, in the fields, 
 in the forest, in the forge, in the workshop, &c., &c. These 
 various fires will be the objects of as many series, similar and 
 at the same time complementary, which will rest upon the 
 first without repeating it, and will give rise to a host of special 
 expressions and new sentences. A detail, and consequently 
 an expression, relative to fire which would not be comprised in 
 the first series wiU certainly find its place in one of the 
 others. 
 
 As there are subsidiary and completing series, so there are 
 subsidiary and completing exercises. The exercise of the fire 
 affords us an example. 
 
 The act " to unlock the door " being given for development, 
 we must not descend at first into the extreme limits of 
 analysis. We must guard ourselves, for instance, from speak- 
 ing in the early lessons of the working of the bolt and of the 
 hasp, and of the movements of the spring in the lock. How- 
 ever, these facts requiring to be placed and named somewhere, 
 they are reserved for other and later series, where there will 
 be further doors to be opened. The primitive theme will 
 reappear, but more or less modified, charged with fresh details 
 yielded to us by a closer and closer analysis. We shall thus 
 penetrate gradually to the very heart of the phenomenon, 
 until we have definitely exhausted it, and possess the totality 
 of its expression. It is necessary also to remember, in con- 
 sidering the early lessons, that the fundamental literary ex- 
 pressions have taken their rise from habitual acts of simple 
 and primitive life. 
 
 The Series of the Stove is reduced to two exercises : — 
 
 1. Chopping the wood. 
 
 2. Lighting the stove. 
 
 The other acts having been written out in the previous 
 series, need not figure herein. The Exercise I. (chopping 
 wood) has already been given as a model : we will, however, 
 reproduce it in its place, so as to present the complete series, 
 and to ensure its continuity. 
 
ro8 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE WELL. 
 L 
 
 The maid g'oes to draw water at the well* 
 
 — The maid takes her bucket, 
 the maid goes out of the house, 
 
 the maid bends her steps towards the well, 
 the maid draws near to the well, 
 the maid gets to the well, 
 the maid stops at the well, 
 and sets down the bucket on the brink of the 
 well 
 
 — The maid leans over the well, 
 she stretches out her arm, 
 
 she catches hold of the chain, 
 
 she draws this chain towards her, 
 
 she opens the hook, 
 
 places the handle of the bucket in the hook, 
 
 and closes this hook. 
 
 goes out 
 bends her steps 
 draws near 
 gets to 
 stops at 
 sets down 
 
 leans 
 
 stretches out 
 
 catches hold 
 
 draws 
 
 opens 
 
 places 
 
 closes 
 
 — She puts one hand to the crank, puts 
 
 and with the other pushes the bucket into pushes 
 
 the mouth of the well, 
 
 the bucket swings to and fro over the depths, swings 
 
 the chain rattles, rattles 
 
 and makes the depths resound. makes resound 
 
SPECIMEN ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 log 
 
 THE WELL. 
 
 IL 
 
 The maid lets down the bucket into the well. 
 
 — She turns the crank, 
 the windlass turns round, 
 
 the windlass creaks in its bearings, 
 
 the rope uncoils, 
 
 the windlass is stripped rapidly, 
 
 the bucket goes down into the well, 
 
 swings from side to side, 
 
 catches against the sides, 
 
 and the depths boom hoarsely. 
 
 — The bucket goes down, down, down, 
 the bucket is lost to sight in the gloom, 
 the bucket gets near to the water, 
 
 the bucket reaches the water, 
 
 the bottom of the bucket strikes the surface 
 
 of the water, 
 the bucket turns over on the water, 
 the water rushes into the bucket, 
 the bucket turns up straight again in the 
 the bucket sinks to the bottom, [water, 
 and is filled with water. 
 
 turns 
 
 turns round 
 creaks 
 uncoils 
 is stripped 
 goes down 
 swings 
 catches 
 boom 
 
 goes down 
 is lost 
 gets near 
 reaches 
 strikes 
 
 turns over 
 
 rushes 
 
 turns up straight 
 
 sinks 
 
 is filled 
 
 — A dull sound comes up from below, conies up 
 
 the drawer of water hears this sound, hears 
 
 the drawer of water stops turning, stops 
 
 and seats herself for a moment on the crank seats herself 
 handle. 
 
no 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE WELL. 
 
 III. 
 
 The maid winds up the bucket. 
 
 — The maid rises from her seat, 
 grasps the crank handle with both hands, 
 winds up the rope one turn, 
 
 and so draws the bucket out of the water ; 
 
 she lets the rope go again, 
 
 plunges the bucket into the water again, 
 
 draws up the bucket once more, 
 
 tests to see if it is full, 
 
 and then turns the handle vigorously. 
 
 — The windlass turns round, 
 the windlass creaks and creaks, 
 
 the rope coils up round the windlass, 
 
 covers up the windlass little by little, 
 
 the bucket rises towards the mouth of the well, 
 
 the water drips off the bucket, 
 
 the bucket gets near to the well-mouth, 
 
 and comes to the level of the brink. 
 
 — The maid stops turning, 
 
 seizes the handle of the bucket with her left hand, 
 brings the bucket over to the edge of the well, 
 lets go the crank handle, 
 opens the hook, 
 unhooks the bucket, 
 flings back the chain into the well, 
 and carries away the bucket of water to the 
 kitchen. (*) 
 
 nses 
 grasps 
 winds up 
 draws out 
 lets go 
 plunges 
 draws up 
 tests 
 turns 
 
 turns round 
 creaks 
 coils up 
 covers up 
 rises 
 drips 
 gets near 
 comes to 
 
 stops 
 
 seizes 
 
 brings 
 
 lets go 
 
 opens 
 
 unhooks 
 
 flings 
 
 carries 
 
SPECIMEN ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 (11 
 
 THE SPRING. 
 L 
 
 The girl draws water at the spring:. 
 
 — She takes the bucket, 
 
 and goes away to the spring, (*) 
 
 she stops at the brink of the spring, 
 
 she bends over the brink, 
 
 and dips the bucket in the water, 
 
 the bucket displaces the water, 
 
 the water rushes into the bucket, 
 
 making a gurgling sound; 
 
 the water fills the bucket. 
 
 takes 
 goes away 
 
 bends 
 
 dips 
 
 displaces 
 
 rushes 
 
 making 
 
 fills 
 
 — The girl draws the bucket out of the spring, draws out 
 
 the overflow runs over the edge of the bucket, runs over 
 
 streams down the sides of the bucket, streams down 
 
 and falls back into the spring ; falls back 
 
 the girl sets down the bucket on the brink, sets down 
 
 and takes a breath. takes 
 
 — Finally, she catches hold of the handle of catches hold 
 
 the bucket with one hand, 
 
 takes up the bucket, takes up 
 
 puts the other hand to her hip, puts 
 
 leans her body over to the left, leans 
 
 balances the weight of the water, balances 
 
 leaves the spring, leaves 
 
 and carries the water to the kitchen. (*) carries 
 
112 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE FIRE. 
 
 I. 
 The housewife^ goes to the woodshed. 
 
 — The key of the woodshed is hanging on a nail, 
 the cook takes down this key, 
 
 the cook goes out of the kitchen, 
 
 the cook leaves the kitchen, 
 
 the cook goes away from the kitchen, 
 
 the cook goes towards the woodshed, 
 
 the cook draws near to the woodshed, 
 
 the cook gets to the door, 
 
 the cook stops at the door. 
 
 — She puts out her hand, 
 inserts the key into the keyhole, 
 turns the key in the lock, 
 
 the bolt shoots back from the hasp ; 
 
 the cook opens the door, 
 
 she lets go of the key, 
 
 she pulls the door, 
 
 the door yields, 
 
 the door turns on its hinges, 
 
 the door creaks on its hinges. 
 
 — The cook crosses the doorstep, 
 enters the woodshed, 
 
 and goes across the woodshed. 
 
 ***** 
 ^ The cook, housemaid, servant . . . 
 
 is hanging 
 takes down 
 goes out 
 leaves 
 goes away 
 goes towards 
 draws near 
 gets to 
 stops 
 
 puts out 
 
 inserts 
 
 turns 
 
 shoots back 
 
 opens 
 
 lets go 
 
 pulls 
 
 yields 
 
 turns 
 
 creaks 
 
 crosses 
 enters 
 goes across 
 
SPECIMEN ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 IJ3 
 
 THE FIRE. 
 
 n. 
 The cook fetches wood. 
 
 — The cook goes up to the heap of wood, goes up to 
 she stops near the heap of wood, stops near 
 she puts out her right hand, puts out 
 she catches hold of a piece of wood, . catclies hold 
 she lifts up this piece of wood, lifts up 
 
 she places it upon her left arm, places 
 
 she takes a second piece, takes 
 
 and places it beside the first, places 
 
 she takes a third piece, takes 
 
 she takes a fourth piece, takes 
 
 she takes a whole armful of wood. takes 
 
 — She goes up to a bundle of twigs, a faggot, goes up to 
 she takes a handful of twigs, takes 
 puts the twigs upon the larger pieces, puts 
 
 and clasps the whole in her arms ; clasps 
 
 she goes out of the woodshed, goes out 
 
 crosses the doorstep again, crosses 
 
 pushes the door to, pushes to 
 
 turns the key in the lock, turns 
 
 locks the door, locks 
 
 draws the key out of the lock, draws out 
 
 returns to the kitchen, returns 
 
 throws the wood into the woodbox, throws 
 
 and hangs up the key on its nail hangs up 
 
114 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE FIRE. 
 
 III. 
 
 The housemaid lays the fire. 
 
 — The housemaid takes some twigs, 
 bends her knee, 
 
 places the twigs against her knee, 
 
 and bends the wood, 
 
 the wood gives way, 
 
 the wood bends more and more, 
 
 the wood cracks, 
 
 the wood breaks, 
 
 the splinters fly over the kitchen ; 
 
 the housemaid doubles up the twigs, 
 
 stoops down to the hearth, 
 
 and lays the twigs on the firedogs. 
 
 — She stands up again, 
 goes back to the woodbox, 
 takes some bigger pieces of wood, 
 carries them to the fireplace, 
 bends down to the hearth, 
 places the logs on the twigs, 
 fetches a handful of shavings, 
 
 and stuffs them in beneath the twiofs. 
 
 takes 
 
 "bends 
 
 places 
 
 doubles back 
 
 gives way 
 
 bends 
 
 cracks 
 
 breaks 
 
 fly 
 
 doubles up 
 stoops down 
 lays 
 
 stands up again 
 goes back 
 takes 
 carries 
 bends down 
 places 
 fetches 
 stuffs in 
 
SPECIMEN ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 "5 
 
 THE FIRE. 
 
 IV. 
 
 The servant lights the fire. 
 
 — The servant takes a box of matches, 
 
 takes 
 
 she opens the matchbox, 
 
 opens 
 
 she takes out a match. 
 
 takes out 
 
 she shuts up the matchbox, 
 
 shuts up 
 
 she strikes the match on the cover, 
 
 strikes 
 
 the match takes fire, 
 
 takes fire 
 
 the match smokes. 
 
 smokes 
 
 the match flames, 
 
 flames 
 
 the match burns. 
 
 burns 
 
 and spreads a smell of burning over the kitchen. 
 
 spreads 
 
 — The servant bends down to the hearth, 
 
 bends down 
 
 puts out her hand, 
 
 puts out 
 
 puts the match under the shavings, 
 
 puts 
 
 holds the match under the shavings, 
 
 holds 
 
 the shavings take fire. 
 
 take fire 
 
 the servant leaves go of the match. 
 
 leaves go 
 
 stands up again. 
 
 stands up 
 
 looks at her fire burning, 
 
 looks 
 
 and puts back the box of matches in its place. 
 
 puts baclj 
 
ii6 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE FIRE. 
 
 
 V. 
 
 
 The wood burns. 
 
 
 — The match sets fire to the shavings, 
 
 sets firo 
 
 the shavings catch light, 
 
 catch light 
 
 the shavings smoke, 
 
 smoke 
 
 the shavings burst into flames, 
 
 hurst into flames 
 
 the shavings blaze, 
 
 blaze 
 
 the shavings burn. 
 
 bum 
 
 the shavings set fire to the twigs, 
 
 set fire 
 
 and the twigs catch fire. 
 
 catch fire 
 
 — The twigs smoke. 
 
 smoke 
 
 the twigs burst into flames, 
 
 burst into flames 
 
 the twigs blaze, 
 
 blaze 
 
 the twigs bum. 
 
 burn 
 
 the twigs crackle. 
 
 crackle 
 
 and throw out sparks all around ; 
 
 throw out 
 
 the twigs set fire to the logs of wood. 
 
 set fire 
 
 the logs take fire. 
 
 take fire 
 
 — The logs smoke. 
 
 smoke 
 
 the logs burst into flames, 
 
 burst into flames 
 
 the logs blaze, 
 
 blaze 
 
 the logs bum. 
 
 burn 
 
 the logs crackle. 
 
 crackle 
 
SPECIMEN ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 "7 
 
 THE FIRE. 
 
 YI. 
 The wood burns away. 
 
 — Smoke is given off by the wood, 
 the smoke rises up the chimney, 
 
 and deposits soot all the way up the chimn,ey- 
 the smoke issues from the chimney-pot, [shaft, 
 rises up in the air like a blue column, 
 curves over under the wind, 
 floats away into space, 
 melts away into space, 
 becomes gradually lost, 
 and finally disappears. 
 
 — Meanwhile, 
 
 the flames lick and lick the logs, 
 
 the flames devour these logs, 
 
 the flames consume these logs, 
 
 transform the logs into charcoal, 
 
 reduce the charcoal to ashes, 
 
 both the ashes and the charcoal fall to the hearth, 
 
 gradually heap up on the hearth, 
 
 and form a glowing mass of red-hot embers, 
 
 a great heat is given out by the hot embers, 
 
 spreads all around, 
 
 and heats the surrounding air. 
 
 is given off 
 
 rises 
 
 deposits 
 
 issues 
 
 rises 
 
 curves 
 
 floats 
 
 melts 
 
 becomes lost 
 
 disappears 
 
 lick 
 
 devour 
 
 consume 
 
 transform 
 
 reduce 
 
 fall 
 
 heap up 
 
 form 
 
 is given off 
 
 spreads 
 
 heats 
 
ii8 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE FIRE. 
 
 vn. 
 The housewife mends the fire. 
 
 — The fire burns and burns away, bums 
 
 the embers are consumed little by little, are consumed 
 
 the fire gets low for want of fuel ; gets low 
 
 the housewife notices this, notices 
 
 she takes up the tongs, takes up 
 
 stirs the firebrands together, stirs 
 
 rakes out the ashes from underneath, rakes out 
 
 puts the tongs back in their place, puts back 
 
 and then puts on some more wood. puts on 
 
 — A pair of bellows are hanging near the are hanging 
 
 chimney-piece ; 
 
 the woman takes down these bellows, takes down 
 
 places the nozzle to the fire, places 
 
 then she blows and blows, blows 
 
 the air rushes hissing out of the nozzle, rushes 
 
 comes against the red-hot embers, comes against 
 
 and brightens up the fire. brightens up 
 
 — The flames spring up from the charcoal, spring up 
 the flames lick and lick the wood, lick 
 heat the wood, heat 
 the wood blazes, blazes 
 the woman blows, blows, and keeps on blowing ; blows 
 presently she stops blowing, stops 
 and hangs up the bellows on their nail hangs up 
 
SPECIMEN ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 IIQ 
 
 THE FIRE. 
 
 vin. 
 The housewife puts out the fire. 
 
 — The fire bums for one hour, 
 the fire burns for two hours, 
 the fire burns all day long, 
 
 the fire burns until the evening, 
 the fire burns until bedtime. 
 
 — When bedtime comes, 
 
 the housewife takes the fire-shovel, 
 
 rakes the hot embers together on the hearth, 
 
 takes a shovelful of the ashes, 
 
 empties the ashes upon the burning brands, 
 
 covers them up with ashes, 
 
 puts back the shovel in its place, 
 
 and the fire smoulders under the ashes. 
 
 — The woman takes up the tongs, 
 removes the firebrands from the grate, 
 
 and stands them on end against the chimney, 
 
 a thick smoke is given off by them, 
 
 and escapes up the chimney ; 
 
 the burnt part crickles ; 
 
 combustion ceases, 
 
 the ends of the burnt logs become covered 
 
 the fire dies away little by little, [with ash, 
 
 and at last goes right out. 
 
 bums 
 burns 
 burns 
 burns 
 burns 
 
 conies 
 
 takes 
 
 rakes together 
 
 takes 
 
 empties 
 
 covers up 
 
 puts back 
 
 smoulders 
 
 takes up 
 
 removes 
 
 stands 
 
 is given off 
 
 escapes 
 
 crickles 
 
 ceases 
 
 become covered 
 
 dies away 
 
 goes out 
 
I20 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 THE STOVE. 
 
 L 
 
 The girl chops some wood. 
 
 — The girl goes and seeks a piece of wood, 
 she takes a hatchet, 
 
 she draws near to the block, 
 
 she places the wood on this block, 
 
 she raises the hatcbet, 
 
 she brings down the hatcbet, 
 
 the blade strikes against the wood, 
 
 the blade penetrates the wood, 
 
 the blade cleaves the wood, 
 
 the pieces fall right and left. 
 
 — The girl picks up one of the pieces, 
 places it upon the block, 
 
 raises her hatchet, 
 
 brings down her hatchet, 
 
 and chops the piece of wood, 
 
 she chops another piece, and then another, 
 
 she chops up all the wood. ^ 
 
 — She puts down her hatchet, 
 gathers up the pieces into her apron, 
 takes one or two logs and some shavings, 
 and carries them to the stova 
 
 goes and seeks 
 
 takes 
 
 draws near 
 
 places 
 
 raises 
 
 brings down 
 
 strikes against 
 
 penetrates 
 
 cleaves 
 
 fall 
 
 picks up 
 
 places 
 
 raises 
 
 brings down 
 
 chops 
 
 chops 
 
 chops 
 
 puts down 
 gathers up 
 takes 
 carries 
 
SPECIMEN ELEMENTARY SERIES. 
 
 21 
 
 THE STOVE. 
 
 II. 
 The girl lights the stove. 
 
 — She puts the wood down in front of the 
 
 stove, 
 she crouches down in front of the stove, 
 she opens the door of the stove, 
 she removes the ashes, 
 she cleans out the stove, 
 she puts in the shavings first, 
 then she puts in the chopped firewood on 
 
 top of these, 
 and she places the logs upon the firewood. 
 
 — This done, 
 
 she takes a match, 
 
 strikes the match, 
 
 lights the match, 
 
 puts the light to the shavings, 
 
 and closes the stove-door. 
 
 puts down 
 
 crouches down 
 opens 
 removes 
 cleans out 
 puts in 
 puts in 
 
 places 
 
 done 
 
 takes 
 
 strikes 
 
 lights 
 
 puts 
 
 closes 
 
 The fire is communicated to the firewood, is communicated 
 
 the firewood blazes ; 
 
 the fire is communicated to the logs, 
 
 the logs bum, 
 
 the flames rush up the stove-pipe, 
 
 the stove roars. 
 
 — The smoke escapes up the stove-pipe, 
 
 the stove-pipe gets hot, 
 
 the stove gets hot, 
 
 and radiates heat all over the room. 
 
 blazes 
 
 is communicated 
 
 burn 
 
 rush up 
 
 roars 
 
 escapes 
 gets hot 
 gets hot 
 radiates 
 
122 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 YIII. 
 
 CO-ORDINATION OF THE SERIES IMPORTANCE OF THE 
 
 DOMESTIC SERIES. 
 
 For every fabric made there is a begiuning and an end. 
 The life of a tree commences at the germ and ends with the 
 fruit. At what point shall our method take its birth ? By 
 what series shall it begin ? Upon what series shall it come 
 to an end 1 What order shall be assigned to its development ? 
 
 We have said that the speech of mankind is perpetual, and 
 that its linguistic development takes place by a continual 
 creation of series which our method has taken, or claims to 
 have taken, as models. We will now go further : we will say 
 that to think is to speak. Speech and thought are identical. 
 In other words, man does not think ; he speaks. Thought and 
 word are certainly two distinct names. So are hatchet and 
 implement, yet no one would pretend that they represent two 
 different facts. One is the specific name, the other is the 
 general name of one and the same thing. 
 
 So it is with the two names "thought" and "word." 
 " Word " is the specific name, the true name, the proper name 
 or noun; "thought" is a "common" name or noun. 
 
 The word is a principle : it is the mind itself in process of 
 development, and the mind only develops, in point of fact, by 
 the word. But what has provoked its development, and what 
 continues to provoke it? It is action, that is to say, move- 
 ment. The word starts under the impression and the percep- 
 tion of movement, as does the waterwheel under the impact 
 of the water. Here we have the true origin of language. 
 
 The development of this theme would take a thick volume ; 
 prudence bids us stop. We will content ourselves by saying 
 that if this grave problem has remained unsolved up to the 
 present day, it is because the data were false. It has been 
 stated, in fact, as an axiom, not only that thought was essen- 
 tially different from speech, but that it actually gave rise to 
 speech, that speech was subordinate to it. Now the reverse is 
 the truth. Man does not speak his thought ; he thinks his 
 speech ; and this thought itself is still speech. 
 
IMPORTANCE OF DOMESTIC SERIES. 123 
 
 The child speaks from its birth, that is to say, as soon as its 
 organism is finished and complete. Its first word is the cry 
 it utters on entering the world. And this speech is deter- 
 mined, set free by what? By the shock produced on its 
 organism by the double action of air and light. It is move- 
 ment which endowed and still endows our species with lan- 
 guage ; and it is by the word, and not by thought, that the 
 mind of man has its beginning. 
 
 It is without doubt the duty of an author of a linguistic 
 method to give his opinion, at least incidentally, upon the 
 origin of facts produced by a ** force" which he undertakes 
 to discipline. 
 
 The inarticulate language corresponds to the syncretic phase 
 of human life. The world, in fact, appearing before the primi- 
 tive perception as an undivided whole, calls for a single name 
 only, a monosyllabic noun. This will be the " article " under 
 one of its forms — a, e, i, 0, k, om, um, el, le, das, the, . . . 
 
 We will pass over this preparatory period, its creations not 
 being those that we are seeking to set in order and reproduce. 
 We will pass at once to the analytic phase, that in which the 
 mind begins to unravel, to batter down, by the aid of speech, 
 the primeval chaos. At this moment the linguistic develop- 
 ment of man takes place perceptibly, I repeat, by a continuous 
 creation of series. Henceforward we may be allowed to rest 
 upon this fact as axiomatic. 
 
 This stipulated, in what sphere and under what influence 
 does the child elaborate its first series ? To ask this question 
 is to answer it. Evidently it is under the influence of its 
 mother and inside its father's house. We designate this work 
 by the name of the *' Domestic Series." 
 
 The varied and manifold actions of the mother of the 
 family around the hearthstone, this is the material of the 
 child's first linguistic exercises. And let there be no mistake 
 here. This material is prodigiously rich ; so rich, indeed, that 
 the day the child is strong enough to cross the paternal thres- 
 hold, and venture out under the vault of heaven, he is already 
 able to analyse and to put into words the great unknown 
 world that lies spread before him. 
 
 Consequently our thanks once again are due to our mothers, 
 whose blessed words for us have added the life of the mind to 
 the life of the body. Consequently, also, our respect is due 
 
124 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 to the most common, the most elementary of the series. 
 They constitute the marvellous organ of nutrition by which 
 speech is fed and strengthened the whole life long. Do you 
 know why it is that the adult arrives so seldom at assimilating 
 another language than his own ? It is because he usually never 
 thinks of translating these rudimentary series which form 
 what might be called his jfirst words, that is to say, the first 
 basis of his individuality. Every one knows how worthless 
 and unenduring must be a building of which the foundation 
 has either been forgotten or neglected. 
 
 The method will commence, therefore, by the "Domestic 
 Series." But what limits shall we assign to their develop- 
 ment ? 
 
 The child does not wait until he has finished the whole of 
 the series of indoors before he tackles those of outdoors. 
 From the first days of his life, in the arms of grandmamma 
 or of one of his sisters, he will go out into the open air, will 
 drink in the light, and will take into his eye the vast heaven, 
 with the sun, the moon, and the stars. The Series of the 
 Fire that burns on the hearthstone does not commence at the 
 woodbox, but at the woodshed. The Series of the Water does 
 not begin at the basin where the sponge is soaked to wash 
 baby's limbs, but rather at the pump or at the wayside 
 spring. 
 
 If, therefore, the Series of the Water and the Fire have one 
 end in the room where the child lives, they have their other 
 end out of doors; and thus with almost all of these earlier 
 series. But so soon as the child knows one end, he wishes 
 ,to know the other; from effects he goes back continually 
 towards the causes, and will neither rest himself nor leave 
 you to rest until he has completed the series already partly 
 executed in the house. Hence his insatiable curiosity ; hence 
 his passion for the open air and the surroundings of the 
 dwelling. It is here, indeed, that he completes his first know- 
 ledge and lays the beginnings of further progress. 
 
 The final aim of the acts translated by the Domestic Series 
 is the "immediate" satisfaction of the every-day wants of 
 human nature. This, indeed, is the characteristic by which 
 a Domestic Series is known. Its starting-point will be the 
 first act which prepares for this immediate satisfaction. The 
 Domestic Series of the fire, for instance, will not go right 
 back to the action of the woodman who fells the tree. This 
 
CO-ORDINATION OF THE SERIES. 125 
 
 « 
 action, preceding by more than one day the moment at which 
 the fire is lighted, can no longer be said to prepare for the 
 ** immediate " satisfaction of an every-day want. 
 
 The Domestic Series themselves require to be classified, 
 co-ordinated among themselves. Upon what rule will this co- 
 ordination take place 1 What order are we to adopt ? 
 
 They will be regulated upon the order itself in which the 
 general wants of every-day life require and receive their 
 satisfaction. Thus will be obtained a natural co-ordination, 
 perfectly in accordance with the child's hidden series. To get 
 the breakfast ready, we need the fire ; the Series of the Fire 
 will, therefore, precede that of the breakfast. So far the 
 Domestic Series ; now for the others. 
 
 In searching, outside the house, for the first threads of the 
 Domestic Series, the child, finding himself confronted by fresh 
 facts, immediately sketches out, almost without knowing it, 
 series of a new kind ; those of the animals, those of the 
 insects, those of the reptiles, those of the plants, those of the 
 elements. . . . These series constitute the "Rural Series," 
 which come directly and immediately after the Domestic Series. 
 It therefore remains to classify these amongst themselves. 
 
 What the child knows best is always mankind. Those 
 Rural Series in which mankind takes part are at the same 
 time the most interesting, the easiest, and the richest in 
 developments. They are besides the most useful and the 
 most instructive, inasmuch as they relate directly to the first 
 needs of life. The Rural Series should, therefore, be classified 
 according to the importance of the part played in them by 
 mankind. 
 
 The being that the child understands best after man is the 
 animal, and before all others the domestic animals. The 
 Series of the Shepherd presents the life of mankind reduced 
 to its greatest simplicity, alongside the life of the two domestic 
 animals, the dog and the sheep, which always have the sym- 
 pathies of childhood, and it is the Series of the Shepherd, 
 therefore, which appears to us the best qualified to open the 
 grand chapter of the Rural Series. After the shepherd will 
 come the tiller of the soil, then the harvester, &c. The rule 
 followed by us may be formulated thus : to proceed from the 
 best known to the least known, from the most living to the 
 least living. 
 
126 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 The Kural Series will lead us straight to the ordinary 
 country trades, those which prepare or crown the action of 
 mankind out of doors. We shall then open a third chapter, 
 that of the *' Technical Series." We shall classify them, as 
 we did the previous ones, according to the degree of utility of 
 the fact which they translate, according to the relation, more 
 or less immediate, of this fact to the needs of mankind. 
 
 After the child has contemplated for some time the acts and 
 scenes of serious life, the idea comes to him to play at them. 
 This mimic play is the natural transition from the conception 
 to the action, that is, to contest. It leads very shortly to the 
 game properly so called, the game of emulation, to the struggle 
 of man against man, in which are seen force arrayed against 
 force, skill against skill, trick against trick. 
 
 The mimic games, which do nothing but reproduce the series 
 — domestic, rural, or technical — can give rise to no new kind 
 of series. It is far otherwise with the games of emulation. 
 These occupy a considerable place not only in the life of man, 
 but in the domain of language. For them the method will 
 open a fourth chapter, to which it will give the title, " Series 
 of the Games." 
 
 The succession of the games is usually regulated by the suc- 
 cession of the seasons. " Festivals," says the poet, "open and 
 close the great labours of life." We shall put the Series of the 
 Games in the same order that Nature or tradition have already 
 done. 
 
 The games and festivals, with the trades, will lead us to the 
 door of art and of science. At the end of its fourth chapter 
 the method will, therefore, have both exhausted and placed in 
 order the whole of the ordinary objective language. 
 
 We should not think of spreading before the reader here 
 the whole network of our series, and of enumerating all our 
 marches and counter-marches. But we are satisfied in being 
 able to show that their co-ordination is not, and ought not to 
 be, founded upon the arbitrary, and that before establishing 
 this co-ordination we have taken pains to unravel the more or 
 less tangled skein of the linguistic developments of mankind. 
 It is, therefore, Nature once more, attentively observed and 
 interpreted, that has furnished us, for this new labour, with 
 both a rule and a direction. 
 
NEED OF A REFORM. 127 
 
 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. . 
 
 Mode op Teaching the Series, /fy^ ^ ^ ~ 
 IX. 
 
 A LANGUAGE LESSON. 
 
 I. Urgent need of a reform in the art of teaching languages. 
 
 We will suppose the method constructed, C9nstructed accord- 
 ing to the rules which we have just laid down — constructed 
 with the most consummate art : in short, in accordance at all 
 points with our ideal. Would the reform projected by us be 
 accomplished? We do not hesitate to declare that nothing 
 will be done if the art of teaching is not itself reformed. The 
 best constituted plant will be struck barren, or will yield but 
 abortive fruit, if, during the time of fructification, it is taken 
 from the vivifying action of the light and the heat of the sun, 
 to be placed in a cellar and submitted to the influence of a 
 lamp or stove. 
 
 The spoken method must, therefore, be reformed equally 
 with the written method. But how are we to reach an art so 
 personal as that of teaching? The quality of the voice, the 
 accentuation, the rise and fall of the speech, the gesture, the 
 look, these are things that defy all regulation. We grant it : 
 like eloquence, the art of teaching comes from the heart. 
 But the art of speaking well has its rules. Then why should 
 not the art of teaching well ? 
 
 The truth is, that a large part of the present teaching not 
 only cannot be authorised upon any real pedagogic principle, 
 but violates at pleasure the least controvertible prescriptions, 
 not only of science, but of ordinary common-sense. The 
 art of teaching languages, therefore, calls imperatively for a 
 reform. We may, perhaps, be permitted to point out a few 
 of its essential features. 
 
 2. Tlie waster-organ of langtmge. 
 
 First of all, what is the natural organ of language, the 
 receptive organ ? Is it the eye ? is it the hand ? or is it the 
 
128 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 ear ? A puerile question, you will say, and one which bears 
 its own answer. A question of the first importance, we reply, 
 and so little settled, that in all the methods for teaching lan- 
 guages, almost without exception, and in all the schools, the 
 problem is solved exactly the wrong way. 
 
 For it is writing — that is to say, the touch ; that is to say, 
 the hand — that is there taken as the "master- organ." It is 
 reading — that is to say, the sight ; that is to say, the eye- 
 that occupies the second place, often even disputing the first 
 with the before- mentioned organ. The ear comes last of all. 
 No one, we think, will contradict us upon this point. 
 
 Has this proceeding anything in common with Nature 1 Is 
 this programme due to any inspiration, any indication what- 
 ever gathered from Nature 1 33oes Nature allow the child to 
 read and write, does she even allow him to speak, before he 
 has already in his ear a large part of the language 1 
 
 What motive can it have been that has led the school to 
 adopt exactly the reverse order, and to direct the development 
 of a fully gifted child, a child who has the use of all his senses, 
 as if it had to work upon a " deaf mute " ? Yes ; the school has 
 certainly forgotten to consult Natui'e upon the part the ear 
 should play in the teaching of languages. Upon this point, as 
 upon so many others, the school has taken as guiding compass 
 chance and thoughtlessness. 
 
 The ear is the natural organ, the first organ, the most 
 immediate organ of language. To substitute for it the eye or 
 the hand, as is done in all the schools at the present time, is 
 to commit a capital blunder, which in itself alone condemns 
 the greatest philologist in the world to be unable to accomplish 
 in twenty years what the humblest nursemaid can achieve in 
 six months. It is this proceeding, so absolutely contrary to 
 Nature, which explains both the disgust inspired in childhood 
 by the study of foreign languages and the certificates of 
 incapacity which routine delivers to so many children. The 
 child who, with his mother and in playing, has been able to 
 learn a first language, surely this same child is not utterly 
 incapable of learning a second one. 
 
 Let us state it as impressively as we can : the incapacity of 
 the child is the incapacity of the teacher and the defectiveness 
 of the method. To learn to speak no matter what language is 
 a thing as natural and easy to a child as learning to fly is to a 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING THE SERIES. 129 
 
 bird. For ourselves, however serious may seem the engage- 
 ment, we would undertake to make ourselves responsible and 
 to guarantee the development and real progress in a foreign 
 language of any child, however backward, who " loves a game 
 and knows how to play." 
 
 The child who shows himself eager and intelligent in playing 
 cannot but be eager and intelHgent in studying. It is the 
 part of teaching to know how to assume the character which 
 it must and can always have; that it should be as easy, 
 interesting, and attractive as a game, and that it should know 
 how to carry out each day, or rather each hour, a real and 
 perceptible development in the mental and moral nature of 
 the child. Playing itself, perhaps, only owes its own irresis- 
 tible attraction to the development it provokes. 
 
 To conclude : If we desire to obtain surely and rapidly a 
 development of the intellectual force, we must choose and put 
 to work the organ capable of producing this development. 
 Obedient, therefore, to the prescriptions of Nature, we will 
 begin, like her, by intrusting the language-lesson to the ear. 
 
 3. The lesson of the teacher and the work of the pupil — 
 Assimilatioti — The part of the ear, the eye, and the hand 
 in the study of a language. 
 
 We will suppose the occasion to be a lesson in French, 
 beginning with the exercise by which we generally initiate 
 pupils into our method : "I open the door of the class-room." 
 First of all, I briefly enounce this aim, and present it as such. 
 Then I set forth in the native tongue of the children the 
 successive means by which this end can be attained, to wit : — 
 
 — I walk towards the door, I walk 
 
 I draw near to the door, I draw near 
 
 I draw nearer and nearer, I draw nearer 
 
 I get to the door, I get to 
 
 I stop at the door. I stop 
 
 — I stretch out my arm, I stretch out 
 I take hold of the handle, I take hold 
 I turn the handle, I turn 
 
 I open the door, I open 
 
 I pull the door. I pull 
 
 I 
 
I30 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 — The door moves, moves 
 
 the door turns on its hinges, turns 
 
 the door turns and turns, turns 
 
 I open the door wide, I open 
 
 I let go the handle. I let go 
 
 The end proposed is attained, my volition is realised ; I stop. 
 My exercise is dictated and written not upon the paper, but 
 in the ears ; and by way of the ears it has penetrated into the 
 minds. 
 
 One of the pupils, the weakest or the most distracted, should 
 now go through this analysis again in English, and the whole 
 class should be invited to imagine clearly to themselves not 
 only the end, but the successive means by which it can be 
 Attained. 
 
 This done, and when the whole class have " thought " the 
 exercise, the teacher once more takes the first phrase in Eng- 
 lish, detaches the verb — I walk, and thereupon throws the 
 French ^ verb — marche, upon which he emphasises by repeat- 
 ing it several times over slowly — marche, marche, marche. 
 
 He then calls for the second sentence, " I draw near to the 
 door," separates the verb "draw near," then pronounces the 
 French verb — approcJie, leans upon it, accentuates it forcibly, 
 as he did with the first. 
 
 He calls for the third sentence, and treats it in the same 
 manner. He attacks the fourth, then the fifth, and arrives 
 at the end of the paragraph. He has now given what I term 
 the first step. 
 
 The sign ( — ) at the beginning of the paragraph indicates 
 at the same time both a rest and a repetition. The teacher, 
 therefore, begins once more this first " step," that is to say, the 
 verbs which represent the sentences. He repeats them, if 
 necessary, a third time. 
 
 Now let us see what has taken place, or ought to have 
 taken place. In the first place, it is certainly the ear which 
 has played the chief part ; it is the ear, first, which has received 
 the lesson in English and transmitted it, not to the eye, but to 
 the imagination. The exercise has been, not read, but thought 
 — an entirely different matter. It is the ear again which has 
 received the first-fruits of the French ; and the sounds marche, 
 approche, arrive, arrete are identified, not with the words walk, 
 
 ^ Or the German, if it is a German lesson. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING THE SERIES. 131 
 
 draw near, get to, stop, &c., but with the ideas, the percep- 
 tions, the representations revealed by these words. There has 
 been no *' translation " of English words, but a direct and 
 immediate translation of ideas or perceptions. The English 
 verb has simply served as a bridge for passing from one bank 
 to the other, but a bridge that has been drawn up as soon as 
 the passage was effected. 
 
 In other words, we have made the class " think in French." 
 The third repetition could be done, and ought to be done, 
 without tho aid of the English. The first effort has suc- 
 ceeded; our first end is attained. What proves this to us 
 is that hand which is raised over there ; one of the scholars 
 wishes to repeat what he has heard. All eyes are turned 
 towards him, and each mouth attempts to articulate in a low 
 voice what he articulates aloud. 
 
 The effort of the hearer has not been divided between all 
 the portions of the sentence — article, pronoun, adverb, prepo- 
 sition, case, subjects, attributes, complements. It has been 
 concentrated with care upon one and the same point, upon a 
 single element, the essential element, the generating element 
 of the sentence, " the verb." Therefore be not astonished if 
 all the class are found to know thoroughly the " step " given, 
 and if that pupil, reputed to be the least gifted of his com- 
 panions, knows it equally well with the cleverest. Both have 
 learnt their mother-tongue within sensibly the same time and 
 with the same ease. It appears that our process has re-estab- 
 lished, at any rate with regard to languages, the native equality 
 of intellects ! Here is a result worthy of the most serious 
 consideration. We leave the reader the pleasure of drawing 
 the inferences of this fact. 
 
 The second step is elaborated in the same manner as the 
 first; and the third, if there is one, like the two others. 
 
 The conquest of the exercise is accomplished so far as regards 
 the verbs. How about the other terms 1 
 
 I take up the theme once more, and giving beforehand each 
 French verb, henceforward well known, I build up upon this 
 the sentence which corresponds thereto. I seek the subject 
 first, and place it in front of the verb. I next seek the com- 
 plement, and, determining grammatically the case desired, I 
 place it after the verb. I thus arrive at the end of the first 
 step. Each subject has reappeared so many times ; the same 
 
132 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 complement has returned so often under the same form, that 
 this once going through really suffices to set down and en- 
 grave upon each memory the exercise in its totality. 
 
 The work here is reduced, therefore, to the task of thinking 
 the exercise by the verb and in the verb ; and when the verb is 
 conquered, the learner finds himself suddenly, and without 
 need of any fresh effort, in possession of all the rest. From 
 this results a considerable simplification, worthy of the best 
 attention of linguists. We earnestly beg that our experience 
 may be repeated and our assertion verified. 
 
 The work we have just described is so simple, so elementary, 
 so easy both for teacher and pupil, that we are almost ashamed, 
 every time we are obliged to have recourse to all these words 
 and circumlocutions, to explain a process that any child of 
 six years old thoroughly comprehends at the end of five 
 minutes' practice. We are tempted, at every time, to sub- 
 stitute, as did the Grecian philosopher, action for explanation, 
 of throwing down our pen and of appealing to a demonstration 
 before the class. A single lesson, indeed, shows the whole 
 system, and never fails to convert the attentive listener to 
 our side. The most obstinate prejudice always gives way before 
 this living demonstration. 
 
 The exercise is conquered — conquered in its totality. All 
 the class has repeated, or is capable of repeating it. To what 
 task shall we next pass 1 
 
 Here is the moment to treat a question previously reserved. 
 We have said that after the oral elaboration of each exercise 
 should come a release, a rest, a diversion useful to the work 
 already accomplished. What shall this diversion be ? 
 
 All intellectual development, to be durable, must be sub- 
 mitted — we repeat it once more — to a species of " incubation." 
 The mind must brood for a certain time over each one of 
 its morsels of knowledge. This is a law of Nature which 
 pedagogic science will have to inscribe at the head of its 
 code. This mental incubation is an essential condition of all 
 real progress. It is not enough, in fact, to acquire knowledge ; 
 it must be " taken possession of." Our work, to be entirely 
 in accordance with reason and with Nature, must count two 
 distinct moments : — 
 
 First, conquest — and that by active force ; 
 Then, thinking over and taking possession- 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING THE SERIES. 
 
 133 
 
 The first act has been accomplished. The mind is, so to 
 speak, exhausted by it. It is right to grant it a rest before 
 demanding a fresh effort. 
 
 To take possession of knowledge is to make it pass succes- 
 sively by way of all the senses. Now, our exercise has been 
 confided to the ear by the lesson given by the teacher, and 
 is graven upon the imagination. It should now be confided 
 to the eye by reading, then to the touch by writing. Each 
 pupil should now open his book and read, then open his 
 exercise-book and write : — 
 
 J'ouvre la porte. 
 
 — Je marche vers la porte, je marche 
 
 je m'approche de la porte, je m'apprcche 
 
 je m'approche et m'approche encore, je m'approche 
 
 j'arrive a la porte, j'arrive 
 
 je m'arrete a la porte. je m'an^te 
 
 — J'allonge le bras, j'allonge 
 je prends la poign^e, je prends 
 je tourne la poign^e, je toume 
 j'ouvre la porte, j'ouvre 
 je tire la porte. je tire 
 
 — La porte c6de, cbde 
 la porte tourne sur ses gonds, toume 
 la porte tourne et tourne encore, toume 
 j'ouvre la porte toute grande, j'ouvre 
 je lache la poign^e. je lache 
 
 The exercise will thus have passed by way of the scholar's 
 three principal senses ; the lesson will have penetrated into 
 his inner nature, and it will be equally indestructible. This 
 is the rest promised ; this is the diversion useful to the work 
 already accomplished. While the class is writing, let us dis- 
 cuss sundry considerations relative to the present proceeding. 
 
 Before everything else, it must be understood that the eye 
 and the hand only take possession of the exercise after the 
 ear has entirely conquered it for itself and transmitted it to 
 the mind. Indeed, change the order, and begin by the writ- 
 ing, or even by the reading lesson, as is now everywhere done, 
 
134 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 and the lesson ceases to be fruitful. The pupil no longer 
 thinks — he translates ; he no longer assimilates — he dwells 
 upon the written word, the written line. The visualising 
 faculty is no- longer brought into play to look at the fact 
 itself taking place before it, but is content to notice the place 
 of the expressions of this fact in the book, to remark if this 
 expression is to be seen on one page or over-leaf, at the top of 
 the page, or at the bottom, or in the middle. 
 
 What is the consequence ? The consequence is that the 
 lesson now only yields the fruits we know of old. The child 
 leaves the morsel of intellectual food which he has been able 
 for one brief instant to separate by the reading, carelessly to 
 fall back into the book ; giving it back faithfully to the book, 
 instead of seeking to wrest it therefrom. Truly there is little 
 profit in such morsels. 
 
 On the other hand, transmitted as we have set forth, the 
 lesson passes (one cannot repeat it too often), really passes 
 into the nature of the pupil, and never more becomes rubbed 
 out, whether he have or have not what routine calls a 
 " memory." It must also be well understood that the exercise 
 taught is not any exercise, no matter what, but a page of our 
 method ; that is to say, a picture whose details are logically 
 linked together, linked together by the most natural of all 
 relationships, tliat of causation, or rather that of succession 
 in time, a relationship that the feeblest mind can grasp, and 
 which becomes the all-powerful auxiliary of the memory, which 
 it creates even if this does not already exist. 
 
 The class upon which ^ve Lave operated is supposed to be 
 composed of pupils new to the system or of beginners. These 
 will write out the exercise by simply copying it. But at the 
 end of one month's practice the programme will be modified ; 
 they will no longer copy — they will write it out of their heads. 
 Will they be able to do it ? you ask. How can they possibly 
 carry out this task ? 
 
 The pupil who has gone through a single series, a general 
 series, has assimilated (like the little child who has arrived at 
 being able to express his daily life) all that is most essential 
 of the language. After our Series of the Shepherd, for 
 instance, the pupil finds himSelf in possession of nearly all 
 the elementary verbs of the language he is studying, that is 
 to say, of those by means of which all ordinary matters can be 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING THE SERIES. 135 
 
 expressed. An exercise which, at the beginning, would have 
 taken a quarter of an hour or more, may henceforth be given 
 in five minutes at the outside. 
 
 The teacher's labour is, therefore, simplified and consider- 
 ably abridged. At the end of five minutes the pupil is 
 sufficiently familiarised with the exercise to open his book. 
 Then, covering with one hand the text of the sentences, he 
 goes down the column of verbs step by step, and upon each 
 verb he attempts to reconstruct, as did the teacher, the cor- 
 responding sentence of which the verb recalls to him the 
 idea. As is seen, at this moment the effort of the pupil is 
 partially substituted for the effort of the teacher. After a 
 simple and short period of listening, the pupil elaborates and 
 conquers by himself the proposed exercise. We have arrived 
 at the " personal " work. 
 
 In two or three minutes the pupil will have reconstructed 
 the exercise, sentence by sentence. He then writes down in 
 his exercise-book the column of verbs, closes his book, and to 
 the left, opposite each verb, he composes and writes out his 
 sentence. This phrase is his own work; he has drawn the 
 whole phrase out of his own conception. The process followed 
 has permitted (and this is not one of the least of its merits) 
 the thought of the master or the expression of the book to 
 become the personal work of the pupil. This is the second 
 stage established by our method, and it is not the last. 
 
 His strength increasing quickly under such a system, the 
 pupil will be very shortly able to reproduce the whole exercise, 
 verbs and sentences. That day he will have put on the garb 
 of manhood. Henceforward, it will no longer be an isolated 
 exercise that he will be given to digest at a time, but an entire 
 series, all that can issue from the teacher's mouth in the space 
 of a quarter of an hour at first, then of half an hour, then of 
 a whole hour. But at this rate the fifty or sixty partial 
 series which translate the entire life, which exhaust the whole 
 generality of our conceptions, will soon themselves be ex- 
 hausted. What shall we do then ? Will the book be closed 
 and the work declared finished 1 
 
 Before replying to this question, we wish to develop two 
 points which have an immediate connection with the process 
 of teaching, of which we have just sketched out the general 
 features. 
 
136 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 4. The pronunciation. 
 
 Submitted to the discipline which we have explained, will 
 our pupils acquire what is termed a good accent, a good pro- 
 nunciation ? The child speaks with a good accent, pronounces 
 correctly, when his nurse or his mother speaks with a good 
 accent and pronounces correctly. Where, indeed, can he 
 acquire a bad accent if he never hears any other than a good 
 accent ? How should he be likely to pronounce badly when he 
 has never heard anything pronounced other than well ? How 
 is it, then, that so many people pronounce so badly the foreign 
 languages that they have begun to learn at school ? 
 
 We believe we have found the true answer to the enigma. 
 The first great cause of a bad accent is reading — reading 
 undertaken at the wrong time, too soon. The second cause is 
 reading degenerating into a bad habit; and the third cause 
 still seems to us to be reading. Let us explain. 
 
 Is it more difficult to pronounce " boosh " than " bowch " ? 
 Evidently not. In French, the word written boucJie (mouth) 
 is pronounced hoosh, and not hoicch. If, therefore, you pro- 
 nounce the French word louche to me before I have seen how 
 this sound is represented in writing ; if the sound hoosh strikes 
 my ears before the letters bouche strike my eyes, I should 
 have no reason for finding the French pronunciation at all odd, 
 though I might, perhaps, its spelling. As is seen, the thing is 
 turned the other way round ; and if one learns French without 
 being able to read it, as the little child does, there will be no 
 longer much greater difficulty in pronouncing it than in pro- 
 nouncing words in English. This is perfectly evident. 
 
 " How about the spelling?" you will ask. The spelling ! You 
 would learn it like the young French children learn it, as you 
 yourselves have learnt the English spelling, ten times more 
 difficult than the French ; and this without letting the study 
 of the spelling spoil your already acquired pronunciation. 
 Besides, the spelling is a thing that can be reformed — the pro- 
 nunciation hardly at all. We must choose between the two 
 evils. 
 
 The modern Greek child of four or five years old, who has 
 hardly yet left his nurse, does he or does he not know how to 
 pronounce this beautiful language better than the most learned 
 of our philologists ? Every one will answer yes, and our philo- 
 
THE PRONUNCIATION. 137 
 
 logist before the others. We vviU allow this child to grow up. 
 "We will send him to school, and suppose that he is made to 
 begin the study of, say, English. The first thing they will 
 do at the school, as we all know, is to put into his hands 
 either a grammar or a dictionary, or probably both. 
 
 How will our scholar read the first English word that 
 comes before his eyes ? He will undoubtedly read it in the 
 way he knows how to read — as if it were Greek ; he will pro- 
 nounce it as if it were Greek ; he will accentuate it as 
 if it were Greek. How should he do otherwise^ And this 
 false sound, this false accent, issuing from his mouth, ascends 
 to his ears, and is graven, is bitten thereon.. And the teacher 
 must be clever who will efface this first impression. It is, 
 then, the reading which does the harm, and the more the child 
 reads and repeats his word, that is, the more diligently he 
 works, the more the evil is aggravated, until the time may 
 arrive when he becomes absolutely incapable of reform. Our 
 young Greek is then condemned for life to pronounce English 
 badly, whatever effort he may make, whatever discipline he 
 may submit to. Even with our own method it would be ex- 
 tremely difficult, if not impossible, to alter. The fruit has 
 been vitiated at the germ. 
 
 If our young Greek, on the other hand, had been, on prin- 
 ciple, deprived of all books ; if his eye had been guarded from 
 the sight of the English spelling, if he had had the compan- 
 ionship of an Englishman who would never write a word 
 for him, he would then have acquired the exact English accent, 
 as he had already acquired the exact Greek accent with his 
 nurse. 
 
 The foreigner who comes to our colleges with a first tinge 
 of the language often leaves without having greatly corrected 
 his first accent. On the other hand, those who have never 
 studied, speak and pronounce almost as well as their teacher 
 at the end of six months. Any of us could do the same if we 
 would submit ourselves to a rational process of learning. 
 
 The first cause, therefore, of a false accent and pronuncia- 
 tion is the study of languages by means of reading. Neither 
 the temperament, nor the throat, nor the larynx are to blame. 
 With a Greek nurse, the child will talk Greek like a Greek ; 
 with a German nurse he will talk German like a German ; 
 with a French nurse he will talk French like a Frenchman, 
 and so for other languages. 
 
138 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 In other terms, and to close the subject, we have mistaken 
 "the organ." Nature has funished us with ears for the 
 study of languages ; we have thought it possible to substitute 
 the eye in their place. Here is the primal fall, here the 
 original sin in the present teaching. Our method returns to 
 the order of Nature; it should arrive, and it does in fact 
 arrive, at the same result as Nature. 
 
 What must we say of those books where the author, amus- 
 ing himself by figuring the pronunciation of each word, super- 
 poses an artificial and abstract language upon the real language, 
 abusing the human patience and force to the point of desiring 
 to paint upon the student's eye the thirty thousand words of 
 the dictionary along with the thirty thousand shadows of these 
 words ? If such a labour were possible, this would mean the 
 learning of two languages in order to know one. These, never- 
 theless, are the aberrations which govern schools, and maintain 
 whole legions of printers and compositors. 
 
 We never allow any child to read or to write any exercise 
 that he has not heard, that he has not repeated, that he has 
 not assimilated ; any lesson which is not in his ears, which is 
 not at the end of his tongue, as a pianist has a tune in his 
 ears and at the end of his fingers. The pronunciation of our 
 pupils, therefore, will not be wrong, unless that of the teacher 
 himself is wrong. 
 
 Like the little child, our school mocks and laughs at all 
 these pretended difficulties of pronunciation — English, French, 
 German, Greek, &c. ; or rather, it never encounters these kinds 
 of obstacles upon its path. It gives the pronunciation of each 
 word as each word is met with in our series, and it does not 
 preoccupy itself with building up theories or formulating rules* 
 to settle — months or years in advance — the pronunciation 
 of them. 
 
 When a word occurs in an exercise taught by us, it occurs 
 under the form of a " spoken word," that is to say, together 
 with its pronunciation, and not as a vain assemblage of printed 
 characters. When once the word " mouth " has been translated 
 by the spoken French word " louche" it is impossible to hear, 
 without laughing, any one translate it by any other sound. 
 
 " Without laughing ! " This expression, or rather this fact, 
 is one of the bitterest criticisms of the ordinary teaching. Can 
 you cite a class where the most monstrous pronunciation 
 
THE PRONUNCIATION. 139 
 
 excites the least hilarity ? Is it the same outside the class- 
 room? Pronounce once before a young Greek the superb 
 " Poluphloisboio ! " and in the burst of laughter that your 
 learned pronunciation will provoke, you will be able to judge 
 if your teaching is on the right path. 
 
 The pedagogic error which we point out is decried by every 
 one ; yet such is the fixity of tenure enjoyed in the schools by 
 the opposite process to that which we are prescribing, so much 
 has it passed into a habit, and, in appearance, so convenient is 
 it for the ease of the teacher, that we almost tremble for fear 
 of being neither understood nor even accorded a hearing. I 
 say "tremble," for if this prescription of the manner of teach- 
 ing is neglected, our method will remain as sterile as all the 
 others. 
 
 Address the ear, then, first of all and principally. After- 
 wards take as auxiliaries the eye and the hand in reading and 
 writing. The ear is the prime minister of the intelligence. 
 It is the sense which watches with the greatest constancy and 
 fidelity at its gateway ; it is the one that the intelligence 
 listens to most willingly, the one that speaks with the greatest 
 authority and the greatest intimacy, the one that guards 
 longest its depositions. Let the eye, then, reign over the 
 dominion of colours and forms, and restore to the ear a func- 
 tion which the schoolmen and pedantry have forced the eye 
 to usurp. The memory will thereupon gain a vigour hitherto 
 unknown, and will recover that power which so astonishes and 
 confounds us in the little child. 
 
 "But I cannot remember these verbs; I must see them 
 written down," exclaims the adult who, trained in the ordinary 
 schools, is subjected for the first time to our discipline. What ? 
 Do you hear the little child make this remark to his mother ? 
 Can lie not go direct from the fact to the word without pass- 
 ing by the intermediary of the written representation ? Our 
 nature, upon this point, has been so deformed by our scholastic 
 habits, that to arrive at the reality we have first to pass by 
 way of the shadow. Is not the written word the shadow of 
 the spoken word, and so the shadow of the idea ? 
 
 A man who, from some accident, has been obliged to 
 renounce the use of his arms, and who has learnt to use his 
 feet in their place — this is the image of our adult learners. 
 He has been " atrophied " by pedagogic science. When the 
 
I40 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 ear is called, it is the eye that answers, leaving the sense of 
 hearing slumbering peacefully at the door, and communicat- 
 ing — ill or well, as the case may be — with the intelligence in 
 its place. Hence this cry of distress : — " If only I might see 
 the words written down ! " 
 
 It is precisely these "written words" that have paralysed 
 your linguistic sense. Renounce them, I pray you, coura- 
 geously, as the cause of all evil. Strike against this perni- 
 cious habit. Accustom yourself to learn only by listening, 
 that is, by going directly from the fact to the articulated, the 
 spoken word. Your sense of hearing will promptly awake 
 from its torpor, and, after a few days' practice, will completely 
 recover its native activity and energy. 
 
 The little child stammers and lisps long over each word 
 newly pronounced in his presence. This is because the ear is 
 far more docile than the tongue. The word is in the ear long 
 before being on the tongue. But do not fear. The ear has 
 received the correct imprint of the sound : it will act as 
 tuning-fork, correcting and regulating the attempts and efforts 
 of the tongue. The same fact is reproduced in our teaching. 
 The pupil has in his ear the accent of a phrase before the 
 tongue is able to reproduce it exactly. Be careful, therefore, 
 not to get impatient if the pronunciation of your pupil be not 
 perfect at the first lesson. The essential thing is that the 
 spoken word shall be deposited within the ear, that it vibrate 
 and resound therein, before the tongue has attempted to repro- 
 duce it. It is the ear that must give the law to the tongue, 
 not the tongue to the ear. The spoken sound must reside in 
 the ear as a type or ideal to which afterwards the tongue will 
 conform to fashion its products. 
 
 Do not, therefore, attempt to obtain a perfect pronuncia- 
 tion at the first lesson. Talk yourself, talk continually. At 
 the commencement let the pupil speak as little as possible ; it 
 is in his ear and not on his tongue that it is important to 
 fix the word or the phrase. When the spring is abundant it 
 will flow of itself, and the liquid supplied by it will have the 
 advantage of being pure. 
 
 Let us not forget that the little child listens for two years 
 before constructing a phrase, and that he has possession of 
 both the sound and its idea, that is, the spoken word, long 
 before attempting to produce it himself. For languages Nature 
 
THE PKONUNCIATION. 141 
 
 appears to us to be the best of teachers ; let us strive to follow 
 out all her prescriptions. 
 
 In concluding this chapter, we think it will be useful to 
 formulate a grave corollary which results therefrom, and which 
 we will develop farther on. *'The spoken word must precede 
 in everything and everywhere the word as read or as written. 
 Therefore, the only really fruitful exercise is that of the trans- 
 lation of facts into the foreign language by the intermediary 
 of the professor," 
 
 It results from this that our system condemns, a priori, the 
 exercise of translation from the foreign language, as under- 
 stood and practised until now. In this it is again found in 
 perfect accord with the process of Nature. Is it by making 
 translations from other languages, think you, that the little 
 baby learns its mother-tongue? The reading of a foreign 
 author cannot of itself be fruitful, except upon the condition 
 of its being transformed by pedagogic art into a series of state- 
 ments to be reconstructed in the language of the author by 
 the intermediary of the professor. To prohibit translation 
 into the language studied, and to replace it by translation from 
 this language, is to render the study of languages " absolutely 
 impossible." We shall farther on demonstrate this, and, 
 while pointing out the evil, we shall indicate the remedy, 
 which will be a " New Method " of reading, translating, and 
 assimilating the works of classical authors. 
 
 And let no one imagine that these principles apply only to 
 the study of living languages. There are not, and it is im- 
 possible that there should be, two right ways of learning a 
 language, be this language ancient or modern. The governing 
 body of a university which should be so ill-advised, under 
 whatsoever pretext, as to prohibit (as is done in certain coun- 
 tries) all translation into the language studied, would only 
 prove that it possesses no correct information upon the art of 
 teaching languages. 
 
 Be certain of this, that it is only by thinking directly in 
 the language studied that you will arrive at reading fluently 
 a page of Yirgil or a page of Homer. From the height of a 
 long experience, I venture to denounce translation as the true 
 cause of our ignorance in which we are of those two unfortu- 
 nate ancient languages, which we study all our lives and know 
 never. 
 
 It is too true : the ordinary collections of exercises seem to 
 
142 OBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 become more and more absurd, and consequently perfectly im- 
 potent. But who is responsible for this result ? Is it the 
 exercises themselves or those who fabricate them 1 The child 
 in the family only does and only hears exercises in the lan- 
 guage he is studying. Does he succeed or no in learning the 
 language there spoken ? If yes, it is because the process is a 
 good one : we must preserve it. 
 
 It is not the abolition of this exercise which the head-masters 
 must decree; it is its reform which they must strive to 
 provoke. 
 
 5. One teacher f 07' three classes. 
 
 While the class is taking possession of the lesson by writing 
 it out, the teacher is idle. How could he best occupy his 
 time ? Should he give it to rest or to supervision 1 We believe 
 we employ ours more profitably by passing into an adjoin- 
 ing class-room and giving a second lesson. We have spoken 
 of pupils of three kinds, more or less advanced, treating and 
 elaborating the series in three different manners. These three 
 classes may be very easily taken in charge by a single teacher. 
 If each lesson is properly carried out, the moment at which 
 the teacher reappears in the first class will coincide exactly 
 with the moment at which this class finishes the work pro- 
 posed. One teacher, therefore, with our method of teaching, 
 is worth three. 
 
 And if the teaching of science were susceptible also of refor- 
 mation — of reformation in the sense which a future chapter 
 will indicate — our system would carry into the pedagogic 
 machinery a simplification of very considerable extent.^ 
 
 We trust we may be permitted, in the interest of the cause 
 pleaded, once more to bring our own personality to the front. 
 By the aid of our linguistic, historic, and scientific methods, 
 we have carried on three classes simultaneously with more 
 ease, and infinitely greater success, than before we had carried 
 on, at college, a single class by means of the ordinary methods. 
 
 At the risk of sinning against modesty, we will state another 
 result. If one teacher is worth three, one year of our method 
 is worth two, or even more, of those passed under the ordinary 
 curriculum. There is not one of our boys who cannot subdue 
 in one year, and this without pain and fatigue, the work of 
 two, and often of three years of college. And this should not 
 be otherwise, because by teaching the sciences by the Ian- 
 
ADDED POWER OF THE TEACHER 143 
 
 guages, and the languages by the sciences, we necessarily gain 
 a considerable amount of time, without counting the numerous 
 advantages assured to us by a plan of progress logically and 
 severely drawn up. 
 
 This is not all. No one thoroughly knows a science or an 
 art until he has taught it himself to others. This is specially 
 true of languages. Now, the simplicity of our linguistic exer- 
 cises, added to the simplicity of our process of teaching, allows 
 any of our pupils to give the lesson of any of the series learnt 
 by them almost as well as the teacher could do it himself. 
 And not only is this exercise possible, but we recommend it, 
 we impose it upon our students. It represents, in our eyes, 
 the last phase of assimilation. 
 
 Our method amply provides, therefore, for the multiplica- 
 tion of teachers. If anything hinders the progress of our 
 school, it will not be the scarcity, but rather the superabun- 
 dance of embryo teachers. " And the discipline, imposi- 
 tions 1 " we shall doubtless be asked. Discipline ? We speak 
 after a long experience. Discipline, such as you understand 
 by the word, is only necessary in classes where the studies are 
 a torture instead of being a pleasure. 
 
144 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. LL f^V ~ ^"^ 
 Its Organisation. (/ ' 
 
 X. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF THE RELATIVE PHRASES. 
 
 I. Definition of the relative phrases — Their object and 
 their number in each tongue. 
 In every language there are two languages. The one 
 translates the facts of the external world, the other translates 
 the facts and gestures of the soul or the mind. The first con- 
 stitutes the "objective" language, the second constitutes the 
 " subjective " language. These two languages are irreducible 
 in terms of each other. The first forms the material of our 
 series ; the second is the source of what we term " Relative 
 Phrases." The relative phrases are destined to translate the 
 complex play of the soul's faculties, that is, to express our 
 ideas, our judgments, our sentiments, &c. 
 
 "Man," we have said, "does not only perceive the pheno- 
 mena of the external world ; he appreciates them, judges 
 them, that is, he reacts upon them. He enjoys this and 
 dislikes that, he approves this and blames that, he believes 
 this and doubts that." The expression of each of th^se move- 
 ments, of each of these operations, is a " relative phrase " : — 
 
 I am glad ... I want you to . . . 
 
 I am sorry . . . Attempt to . . . 
 
 I think that . . . That is good. 
 
 I hope that . . . That is bad. 
 
 I wish that ... It is true. 
 
 I believe that ... It is false. 
 
 I am certain that ... It is easy. 
 
 Do what you can to . . . It is difficult. 
 
 Try to . . . You must . . . 
 
 I wish you would ... It is important to . . . 
 
 Have the kindness to . . . I regret that . . . &c., &c. 
 These are "relative phrases." 
 
 These expressions do not stand alone. They rest upon the 
 expression of another fact ; they have a " relation " to another 
 fact. Hence the name "relative phrase," by which we think 
 we can venture provisionally to designate them. This lin- 
 
THE RELATIVE PHRASE. 145 
 
 guistic distinction, as far as we are aware, has never before 
 been made by any one, although a prodigious number of these 
 formulae enter into the web of each distinct language or 
 dialect. It has, therefore, been necessary for us to invent, 
 or at least employ, a special name to represent this species of 
 locution. 
 
 The relative phrases are to the language what mortar is to 
 stones. It is they which bind the parts together. Without 
 them the knowledge of the series or the possession of the 
 "objective language " would be almost barren. The real or 
 apparent dualism presented by the human personality is re- 
 produced in the language itself. Its two .constituent parts 
 cannot subsist separately. 
 
 We have made a most careful collection of these expressions 
 from the most finished works in the languages studied by us — 
 dictionaries and classical masterpieces. Our manuscripts con- 
 tain, for each tongue, about sixty thousand of these phrases. 
 But let the reader be reassured. This number, like that of 
 the series, can be very greatly reduced. By organising the 
 material of the subjective language in a certain manner, our 
 method will enable every one to conquer in playing, and without 
 wearisome and exhaustive application, this formidable mass 
 which represents for each language the spirit and the genius 
 of the people who speak it. Nature solves this problem every 
 day ; then why should not pedagogic science also solve it 1 
 
 2. Two kinds of relative phrases — Those perfect or absolute, 
 and the enclitics. 
 
 The relative phrases are susceptible of division and sub- 
 division. In the first place, they divide themselves naturally 
 into two vast species. Phrases of one species express complete 
 judgments, as . — 
 
 It is true. 
 
 It is false. 
 
 I am satisfied. 
 
 You have spoken well. 
 
 You have done ill, &c. 
 
 Phrases of the other species express judgments ; incom- 
 plete, imperfect, and unfinished phrases, they express volitions, 
 beliefs, efforts, feelings, &c., of which the object is expressed 
 by a second phrase : — 
 
146 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 It is necessary to -^ work hard 
 
 I want you to -?- attend well. 
 
 I think "^ you can manage it. 
 
 I hope that -^ you will succeed. 
 
 Try to -7- conquer the difficulty. 
 
 I should like you to —p- succeed, &c., &c. 
 
 The first are relative phrases, properly so called, which 
 might be named "perfect." We term the second species 
 "enclitic" ("hung upon"), because they are as it were sus- 
 pended from or inclined against the expression of a second 
 fact which serves them as complement. "I want you to" 
 leans or is inclined upon "attend well." 
 
 Every language has about seven hundred words giving 
 birth to these enclitic phrases. This uniformity has nothing 
 very surprising in it. As a matter of fact, the number of 
 faculties is the same with all men. Therefore the enclitics 
 which express in precise terms the play of these faculties 
 ought to be equal in number in all tongues. To him who 
 seeks properly, each phrase has its equivalent in the language 
 of his neighbours. We can affirm that it is the sajne with the 
 simple or perfect relative phrases, and that the richness or the 
 poverty of a language in these expressions is, in fact, nothing 
 but the richness or poverty of mind of him who makes this 
 judgment. We have followed, step by step, five or six modem 
 besides the classic languages, and must declare that, in this 
 respect, none of them has proved weaker than the others. 
 
 This remark is of great importance. It is sufficient, in point 
 of fact, to draw up in a first language — in French or English, 
 for example — the complete system of relative phrases, and this 
 system will hold valid for all other languages. Is not the 
 mother's process the same in all latitudes ? A good method, 
 one truly inspired by Nature, should itself admit of but one 
 manner of proceeding, whatever might be the language to be 
 studied. In this our method offers the closest analogy with 
 the natural process. 
 
 For the relative phrases as for the series, our system, when 
 once constructed in one language, will really be done for all 
 languages. We shall no longer hear of a "special method" 
 for learning German, of a " special method " for learning 
 French, of a " special method " for learning Arabic or Sans- 
 krit, &c. There will be " T'/^e method of studying languages." 
 
 We shall see shortly how the grammar itself becomes One, 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENCLITICS. 147 
 
 as the human mind is One. Let us return to our work of 
 classification ; and, in the first place, we will attempt to clas- 
 sify the "enclitics." 
 
 3. Classifi^cation of Enclitics — General insight. 
 
 The enclitics, as we have said, express and translate the 
 complete play of the faculties of the soul. If psychology were 
 a thoroughly developed science, we could borrow from it the 
 list of these faculties, and we should then only have to group 
 around each of these the expressions which relate thereto. 
 Thus the expressions : I believe that — I think that — I fancy 
 that — I doubt whether — It seems to me that, &c., relate evi- 
 dently to faith, or the faculty of believing. The expressions : 
 try to — attempt to, evidently belong to the will, or to the 
 faculty of willing. XJnfortunately psychologists are not agreed 
 either as to the number or the essence of the faculties of the 
 mind. The linguist is therefore obliged to work here to some 
 extent at his risk and peril j but at least his way is clearly traced. 
 
 First of all, he will consider the relative phrases one by one ; 
 he will determine with the closest possible accuracy to which 
 faculty of the mind they are related, and will again divide 
 them into a certain number of natural groups psychologically 
 distinct, so producing from this linguistic labour a work in 
 itself fundamentally philosophical. 
 
 The numerous expressions ranged around any one faculty 
 might also, in their turn, be distributed in secondary groups 
 corresponding to the various moments of this faculty. Each 
 faculty, in fact, has distinct moments, passes through various 
 phases and various states. For example : belief, certainty, 
 uncertainty, doubt, hope, &c., are all diverse states of the 
 faculty of believing ; as love, hate, desire, resolution, &c., are 
 distinct states or movements of the faculty of willing. 
 
 The linguist will determine these moments, and will deter- 
 mine his classification accordingly. The relative phrases which 
 compose these secondary groups can only be, and in fact only 
 are, synonymous locutions, expressing the various shades of 
 meaning of the same idea, the same conception, the same voli- 
 tion, or the same judgment — synonyms which can be them- 
 selves classified by basing them upon the relationship of the 
 most general to the least general, or vice versa. If this work 
 were properly carried out, the pupil who should practise the 
 
I4S SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 relative phrases would Lave studied, at the same time, an 
 important chapter of ps^^chology. 
 
 Let us take the number of these faculties of the mind or 
 soul as twelve, and let us grant to each of them twenty diffe- 
 rent moments or states, a supposition which is evidently exag- 
 gerated. Twelve times 20 are 240. Each language would 
 thus comprise at most 240 simple enclitic phrases, elementary 
 and irreducible, types of all the others, of which all the others 
 are varieties. This number is found to be entirely in accord- 
 ance with the verdict of experience or of direct observation. 
 The child of five years old has not two hundred enclitic phrases 
 at his disposition ; but those he does employ form part of the 
 240 types of which we have just spoken. The child does not 
 say— 
 
 " Have the kindness to -^ pass me the bread." 
 " I invite you to -^ come and play with me." 
 
 He will say, far more simply, for example : — 
 " Please -^ pass me the bread." 
 " I want you to --^ come and play with me ! " 
 
 Provided with this light mental outfit, the child cannot, 
 indeed, understand everything, but he can say everything. 
 Ourselves, when we wish to undertake the study, of a foreign 
 language, the first thing we do is carefully to collect and 
 assimilate the 150 or 200 enclitic phrases chosen according 
 to the before-mentioned process. At that moment we are 
 not yet able to understand all we hear, but, like the little 
 child, we can say all we wish, if besides this we possess the 
 whole of the ordinary series. Finally, who would believe it ? 
 The jiEneid itself does not contain 300 different enclitic 
 phrases. If this number sufficed for Virgil, assuredly it can 
 suffice for others. 
 
 The three or four thousand enclitic locutions or formulae can 
 therefore be reduced to 200 primary enclitics. This reduction 
 appears to us to deserve the attention of linguists. To study 
 these 200 formulae abstractly or separately would be the work 
 of two or three days. To study them afterwards in their 
 various shades of meaning would be a longer task, but rela- 
 tively easy if these formulae were properly classified and logi- 
 cally set in order. 
 
 As a matter of fact, to learn them in the way we have 
 set forth is not even a task ; it is a gamk Yes, a game 1 
 "Why should it not be a game ? Ask yourselves if the little 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF EELATIVE PHRASES. 149 
 
 child, when he was learning his own set of phrases, saw 
 therein anything else than a mere game. Let us once learn to 
 set about it as he set about it, and it might be, nay, it neces- 
 sarily will be, for us as for him, a game — nothing but a game. 
 
 4. Glassification of the absolute Relative Phrases — 
 General insight. 
 
 The absolute or perfect Helative Phrases translate, like the 
 Enclitics, but under another form, the diverse states or 
 movements of the inner nature. To classify them, it w^as 
 necessary to compare them among themselves, and to deter- 
 mine their common characteristics. We have devoted many 
 long evenings to this work; the following are some of the 
 heads under which we have found that the locutions con- 
 tained in our voluminous collection might be placed : Praise — 
 Blame — Advice — Wish — Reprimand — Admonition — Encour- 
 agement — Menace. 
 
 It must be understood that these categories are thrown 
 together at hazard, and not by any process of reasoning. 
 They appear here only in the light of examples or of indica- 
 tions. We give them to show simply that the definite classi- 
 fication is to be made, like that of the enclitics, upon an 
 essentially psychological basis. This important work must 
 form the object of a special treatise. 
 
 The classification arrived at could not remain at this first 
 generalisation. Indeed, several of the orders of phrases estab- 
 lished were found to be represented by columns of ten to 
 twenty thousand expressions. I had distributed the material 
 in orders ; it was now necessary to seek to divide these orders 
 into species. For long this problem appeared to me insoluble ; 
 and what caused me most to despair was that alongside this 
 problem I perceived a third, equally important and not less 
 difficult of solution. 
 
 In Nature the two languages gear together, as we have 
 said, one into the other, developing harmoniously side by 
 side, the one aiding and pushing forward the other. Even 
 supposing it were possible to discover a principle for subdivid- 
 ing the above orders into species how was I to be able to 
 cross the yawning chasm which separated the Ego from the 
 Non-Ego ? how was I to ally in the same exercise or in the 
 same oral lesson the subjective language with the objective 
 language? how, in point of fact, was I to wed the relative 
 phrase to the phrnse of the series ? 
 
I50 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 After long meditations and trials of every kind, I eventually 
 caught a glimpse, by a sudden intuition, of the true and 
 unique relation by which the two languages could be linked 
 together. And this relation was so simple — so simple — was 
 so natural and so close to me all the time, that I actually felt 
 sorry for myself. So much labour for so small a thing ! 
 Such long researches to find what was under my very hand ! 
 The disproportion between my efforts and their result was 
 enough to make a child laugh. 
 
 The third problem was, therefore, seen to be solved before 
 the second. But while examining more closely the solution 
 found, I perceived that it contained within it that of the 
 second, and presented a means as simple as it was practical of 
 subdividing the orders in question into species. 
 
 At the same time, the secret process by which Nature trans- 
 formed, for the child, the study of the subjective element of 
 language into a game, was explained and laid bare ; and this 
 process, by its perfect conformity with the solution already found, 
 justified our conception. But let us hasten to descend from 
 these generalities and approach directly the problem itself. 
 
 In order to prepare the reader for the full understanding 
 of the solution announced, we will conduct himt for a moment 
 to the school of Nature, and we will interpret before him the 
 object-lesson and the language-lesson which the nursemaid 
 gives, unconsciously, to the little baby in her charge, when 
 she amuses it, for instance, in making it open the door. For 
 this purpose, we may be allowed to give once more a well- 
 known exercise : — 
 
 Walk, my pretty ; That's it ! 
 
 Go towards the door ; That's very good ! 
 
 Now you've got there ; Bravo ! 
 
 Lift up your little arm ; Capital ! 
 
 Take hold of the handle ; That's the way ! 
 
 Turn the handle ; How strong yon are ! 
 
 Open the door ; What a clever little man ! 
 
 Pull the door open ; There's a little darling ! &c. &c. 
 
 This exercise, which every one of us has done, or rather 
 played, under a mother's direction, is in miniature the system 
 which we believe we have wrested from Nature. It contains 
 it, as the acorn contains the oak. Never can the saying, " All 
 is in all," be invoked more truly or to better purpose. 
 
 The left-hand column represents the series or the objective 
 
THE ACCENT. 151 
 
 language ; the right-hand column represents the relative 
 phrase or the subjective language ; and these two languages, 
 so diverse and so opposite as they seem, are here united to 
 form one and the self-same exercise. Let us here add, that 
 each phrase of the right-hand column expressing a judgment 
 "relative" to the corresponding objective fact, the name 
 " relative phrase " is seen to be sufficiently justified. 
 
 Philologists, linguists, and grammarians ! To weigh these 
 expressions, so widely different one from the other, you have 
 only known up to the present moment of the use of balances 
 in which substantive is weighed against substantive, pronoun 
 against pronoun, adjective against adjective. These scales are 
 good, perhaps, for the weighing of syllables, but they are not 
 made for the weighing of ideas. Your logical and grammatical 
 analyses have found nothing which essentially distinguishes 
 the sentence 
 
 " How strong you are," 
 from the sentence 
 
 " Lift up your little arm," 
 
 while the most ignorant of mothers has the knowledge of their 
 difference, and knows exceedingly well how to translate it and 
 make it understood by the child. 
 
 " What is her secret ? " you ask me. It is a secret which you 
 know full well yourselves ; it is a process with which you are 
 just as familiar as she is, and which you practise continually. 
 
 Living speech is not solely composed of syllables — of words 
 and sounds. You may, perhaps, have heard a talking-machine. 
 What difference do you find between the phrase articulated by 
 these ingenious pieces of mechanism and that which is uttered 
 by the mouth of man ? The speech of an automatic speaking- 
 machine affects you disagreeably. It is wierd, hollow, un- 
 earthly — the speech of a corpse. What is lacking for it to 
 sound like the speech of a living man *? A thing that art can 
 never give. This thing is called "the accent." 
 
 Now we have it ! It is by the accent — the stress- accent of 
 the voice — that the mother initiates her child into the subjec- 
 tive language ; it is by the accent that she teaches it to dis- 
 tinguish the words which express an external fact from the 
 words which translate a movement or a state of the soul. 
 
 And the baby — a better analyst here than Noel et Chapsal 
 [or Lindley Murray]— interprets admirably its mother's accent, 
 and according to the note of this accent classes such and such 
 
152 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 an expression in the objective language, and such another 
 expression in the subjective language. Without this virtue 
 of the natural accent confusion would be inevitable. Where, 
 otherwise, is the reason that should hinder the baby from trans- 
 lating the sound " How strong you are " by " Lift up your arm," 
 and the sound " Lift up your arm " by " How strong you are 1 " 
 
 A child assists in a conversation between grown-up persons. 
 He assists in his own style, that is, by playing about and by 
 attending, in appearance at least, to anything else than the 
 conversation. An hour after, the next day perhaps, one is 
 astonished to hear issue from his mouth, suddenly and apropos 
 of nothing, a form of expression which he had never articulated 
 before, and of which the sense, more or less abstract, seems 
 altogether beyond his age. Whence has the child taken this 
 expression ? Assuredly he has not evolved it from his inner 
 consciousness? Go back in your mind to the conversation 
 which took place this morning or yesterday, and there is the 
 place where you will indubitably find it. 
 
 Quite a young child remarked to us a little while ago, *' The 
 weather is dark ; I really should not be surprised if it rained 
 hard. It has been snowing up on the mountain. The deuce ! 
 the winter has begun early ! '* Now, " I really should not be 
 surprised " and " The deuce ! " are expressions which certainly 
 do not belong to the vocabulary of the little child. He must, 
 therefore, have taken them from some remark or other made 
 in his presence. 
 
 This explanation is generally held to be quite sufficient. 
 We declare, however, that it does not entirely satisfy us, and 
 we put this question : Why and how is it that he has retained 
 out of a long conversation this phrase and not another ? Why 
 has he fastened by preference upon an abstract expression 
 that he does not understand, or that he interprets as often as 
 not the wrong way round ? 
 
 He retains it, we may perhaps be told, simply because it 
 seems strange to him. This reason would be a good one if it 
 were a question of an isolated term — of a proper name, for 
 instance. But we are speaking here of a complex form of 
 expression, of an expression composed of words ordinarily 
 well known to him, and consequently not having even the 
 attraction of novelty. 
 
 We put the problem, therefore, once more : Why this phrase 
 and not another? And why is this expression, instead of 
 
THE ACCENT. 153 
 
 belonging to the objective language, always found to belong 
 to the subjective language 1 " It is instinct," replies one. " It 
 is a gift of Nature," adds another. We have already said what 
 we think of this solution, and of the persons -who propose it. 
 The following is our own : — 
 
 The child has taken from a certain conversation this expres- 
 sion, and not another, simply because the expression in question 
 was accentuated in a different manner from all the others. 
 Yes, accentuated ! Everything is in this. The accent ! Is 
 not this the speech employed by the lower species ? Is not 
 this the language of the animals, a universal language ? Is not 
 the accent the signature of the soul in the phrase ? Attempt 
 to speak, to read; attempt even to think without accentuating 
 your words either aloud or to yourself. It. cannot be done. 
 
 In the monologue of its mother or its nurse, how is it that 
 the child can distinguish the absolute phrase from the relative 
 phrase, the objective language from the subjective language, 
 the expression of the tangible fact from the expression of the 
 pure idea, the translation of the act from the translation of 
 the judgment made upon this act ? Between the mother and 
 her child I do not see any other interpreter, nor is there any 
 other interpreter, than "the accent." 
 
 " Mamma," asked a little French child once in our hearing, 
 " Mamma, what does ' sacristie ' mean 1 " 
 
 " My child, it is the little room where the priest puts on his 
 robes," answered the mother. 
 
 " Oh, no ! It is not that sort of sacristy at all. When any 
 one lets fall something, and picks it up again, and then it falls 
 again, they say * sacr-r-risti ! ' " 
 
 This definition is an entire revelation. It demonstrates 
 that the accent, and nothing but the accent, had given to this 
 child the consciousness of the inner signification of a doubly 
 figurative locution. In conversation, the author of a relative 
 phrase, without knowing or without wishing it, isolates it by 
 accentuating it ; raises it, so to speak, above the level of the 
 rest of the conversation by a special intonation. The child 
 then catches it as it flies; or, if you will, it vibrates more 
 strongly than the rest in his ear, and is imprinted thereon in 
 less ephemeral characters. This is why and this is how his 
 tongue attempts to reproduce this expression an hour after, a 
 day after he has heard it. 
 
 Let us now see what use the child makes of a relative 
 
154 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 expression recently acquired. Follow him attentively, and you 
 will notice that the new phrase will be found at the tip of his 
 tongue quite as often as the newest of his toys is seen in his 
 hands. He serves this formula, as one might say, with every 
 kind of sauce. He applies it, wrongly or rightly, to all his con- 
 ceptions. He uses it for talking to his rocking-horse, to his 
 carriages or their coachmen ; he uses it to apostrophise his 
 wooden Punch and Judy or his living pets. He thus rapidly 
 appropriates and assimilates this particular expression. Pre- 
 sently he will listen to another conversation ; he will pick out 
 a new relative phrase, and will assimilate this like the first. 
 
 There you have the whole process of Nature. Was I not 
 right when I stated that even the study of the abstract and 
 subjective part of the language is for the child simply a game ? 
 We have here evidently arrived at the end of the phenomenon. 
 We may here halt awhile, in order to meditate upon the pro- 
 cess of Nature, to extract therefrom the precepts it may con- 
 tain, and finally to engraft them upon our own method. 
 
 In the school of Nature the subjective language and the 
 objective language are developed simultaneously and parallel 
 with each other. They advance together and side by side, 
 harmoniously, and without ever becoming confused ; the accent 
 marking them each with a character of its own. What would 
 happen if we were to advise the study of the various groups of 
 the objective expressions separately in a special vocabulary ? 
 We are able to reply to this question, having made at our own 
 expense the experiment of this deplorable proceeding. All 
 your efforts would be, and necessarily, made in pure waste. 
 They will even be prejudicial to you, inasmuch as you will have 
 to pull down before you can rebuild. 
 
 If one reflects for a moment, it will be seen that it cannot pos- 
 sibly be otherwise. The relative phrases are formed to lean or 
 rest upon some other thing. In themselves they present only 
 empty, hollow forms, as vague and fugitive as bubbles of air, 
 applying at one and the same time to everything and to nothing. 
 
 Try to . . . 
 Would you please . . . 
 ^ I want you to . . . 
 
 I exhort you to . . . 
 It is important to . . . 
 Reflect that . . . &c., &c. 
 
 You might read these fqrms of expression over and over 
 
MOTIVES OF RELATIVE PHRASES. 155 
 
 again till they became thoroughly imprinted upon your eye ; 
 you might train your tongue as much as you pleased to 
 articulate this indefinite sequence of sounds; when you have 
 reached, as you supposed, the end of this wearisome exercise, 
 you will find yourself just at the point where the author of 
 these lines found himself after having thought he had passed 
 the entire dictionary into his memory. 
 
 A man is not a joiner, and cannot pass himself for one 
 simply because he has just made the purchase of a complete 
 kit of joiner's tools. Nor will he become one any the sooner 
 by twisting and turning about indefinitely in his hands and 
 contentedly contemplating the tools which he now regards as 
 his stock-in-trade. The mere acquisition has not advanced 
 him one single step in his art. So also is it with him who by 
 sheer force of reading over and over again — that is, of regard- 
 ing the same syllables — has succeeded in heaping together the 
 whole of the forms of the subjective language in what he is 
 pleased to call his memory. He would not be less awkward, 
 less affected, if it were necessary for him to converse for a few 
 moments, than our raw joiner if any one gave him a window 
 to make, or rather, a simple mortice to cut. 
 
 We repeat, no one will ever learn a language by studying 
 isolated words, disconnected expressions, and abstract and 
 equally disconnected rules. Nature absolutely condemns this 
 process. Unhappy is he who works in opposition to Nature ! 
 But how are we to put the indications and the teachings of 
 Nature into practice ? How are we to introduce Nature's pro- 
 cess into the schools 'i 
 
 Perhaps we have discovered this secret. The reader shall 
 judge. 
 
 The general motive, the sole motive which gave rise to the 
 relative expressions employed by the mother or the nurse in 
 the lesson of the door, is the manner in which the child carries 
 out his task, realises his intention, attains the end which he 
 proposed to himself, or which others had proposed for him. 
 Now the whole subjective language flows from a similar source. 
 There is not a single relative expression which cannot be made 
 to have for " motive " the manner in which an end has been 
 attained, is being attained, or will be attained. Was it not 
 this motive which inspired our mother to utter the following 
 expressions ?— " Bravo ! " " Very good ! " ** That's it ! " " That's 
 
156 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 the way ! " " Capital ! " " Splendid ! " " How strong you 
 are ! " &c. 
 
 Well, the manner in which the scholar himself has carried 
 out, is carrying out, or will carry out his task, that is to say, 
 has recited, is reciting, or will recite any given exercise, has 
 been adopted by us in our method as the " general motive " 
 of all the subjective forms of expression imaginable. And 
 amongst those which figure in our immense collection not a 
 single one escapes this generalisation. How indeed should it 
 escape 1 To recite a lesson, to repeat an exercise, is an aim 
 or an end like all other ends. Now a relative expression, from 
 the very fact that it is " relative," can only arise apropos of a 
 determinate fact or aim. 
 
 Besides this, phrases like the following : — 
 
 I think that ... 
 Try to . . . 
 Take care, 
 I congratulate you, 
 
 are absolutely independent of the nature of the aim; they 
 cannot be conceived as special to such or such an aim, but can 
 be applied to all indifferently, and with the same effect. To 
 open a door, to go and draw water, to study a lesson, these are 
 aims perfectl}^ distinct. Yet the expression, " I think that," 
 can be adapted, when required, just as well to one as to the 
 others. 
 
 I think that -^ he has opened the door. 
 
 I think that -^ she has gone to draw some water. 
 
 I think that -.- you have studied this lesson. 
 
 A relative expression is, and can only be, dependent upon 
 the conception of the person employing it. 
 
 This granted, it is evident that the aim of reciting well or 
 reproducing correctly a linguistic lesson, is in itself alone 
 capable of supporting the whole of the relative phrases of 
 any given language, and in whatever number they may be 
 presented. This conclusion is important, extremely important ! 
 However simple, however puerile and innocent the dialectic 
 that has led us to this point may appear, this conclusion 
 victoriously cuts the gordian knot of the practical teaching 
 of the subjective language. 
 
TEACHING THE SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 157 
 
 What, in point of fact, was it that we were in search of 1 
 Was it not the " species " which would allow us to subdivide 
 the orders previously determined upon 1 Well, if we have 
 not yet obtained these species, we have the source from whence 
 they will spring forth in emulation, as it were, of each 
 other. 
 
 The recitation or the reproduction, more or less correct, of a 
 given exercise is a "general motive," that is to say, a motive 
 essentially complex, one including within itself a crowd of 
 other secondary and special motives. We wdll quote a few of 
 these : — 
 
 The pupil knows, or he does not know. 
 
 He pronounces well, or he pronounces ill. 
 He constructs his phrase w^ell, or he constructs it ill. 
 
 He goes too fast, or too slowly. 
 
 He experiences a difficulty, or he does not. 
 
 He is sure of himself, or he is not. 
 
 He has a good memory, or a bad memory. 
 
 He studies with method, or without method. 
 
 He takes pains, or he does not take pains. 
 
 He imagines the facts well, or he imagines them ill. 
 
 He speaks with thinking, or without thinking. 
 
 He recites by heart, or by reflection. 
 
 He analyses the facts w^ell, or analyses them ill. 
 
 He goes into all the details, or he forgets them. 
 
 He applies the grammar, or he does not apply it, 
 
 &c., &c. 
 
 In a word, the whole arsenal of the pedagogic principles 
 and maxims may be utilised. Each precept furnishes the 
 teacher with a natural motive around which he can group at 
 will an illimitable number of relative phrases, while varying, 
 according to the needs of the pupils or of the class, the moods, 
 tenses, persons — exercising to-day the positive form, to-morrow 
 the negative form, another day the interrogative or the ex- 
 clamatory form, Scc.^ 
 
 Let us point out in passing that the use of these expressions 
 makes or may make of the language-lesson an admirable lesson 
 in psychology and in pedagogic science itself, as well as in 
 
 ^ Thus employed, with the foregoing motives, the Relative phrases con- 
 stitute what are here termed " Interlocutory Sentences " (Trans.). 
 
158 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 grammar ; T will also add, in morality — the religion of work 
 being therein recommended, preached, and glorified by every 
 word of the teacher. 
 
 The aggregate of these special motives constitutes the aggre- 
 gate of the species which we were seeking for the purpose of 
 subdividing our " orders," and so completing our classification. 
 When, in a general treatise, the relative phrases are classified 
 and the whole subjective language thoroughly organised, there 
 will then only remain to make therefrom extracts or partial 
 treatises appropriate to every age. One of these will repro- 
 duce, for example, the relative phrases familiar to the child of 
 seven ; another will contain the subjective language practised 
 by a child of ten ; a third will be destined for the youth ; and 
 a fourth will be composed for the use of the adult. (Separate 
 treatises upon the subjective language and graduated collec- 
 tions of relative phrases will form part of the practical part of 
 the system.) 
 
 These new categories will present, besides, many incontest- 
 able advantages. By their aid the work will be graduated, 
 and the steepness of the mountain to be scaled will be pro- 
 portionately lessened. The elementary extracts will naturally 
 present those relative phrases which are the siijaplest, the most 
 usual, and the most indispensable, those which form the types 
 or the roots of all the others. Hence the most necessary 
 phrases will be first learnt. This labour will afford a kind of 
 " practical " classification of the species themselves. 
 
 As we have already stated, the dialectic that has enabled us 
 to discover these species has at the same time afforded the 
 means of allying the subjective language to the objective 
 language, of " wedding" the relative phrase to the phrase of 
 the series. The theoretic question is therefore solved. Let 
 us now pass to the purely practical part. 
 
 "We rely upon this both to enlighten and to confirm our 
 theory itself, as well as dissipate any doubts that the reader 
 may have still preserved upon the didactic virtue of the 
 system. 
 
 It was by meditating long and deeply upon the dualism 
 presented by language, as by all Nature ; it was by following 
 attentively and opposing one against the other the two currents 
 therein manifested; it was by disentangling and severely 
 separating the subjective element from the objective element ; 
 
TEACHING THE SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 159 
 
 it was by isolating the first in order to be able to contemplate 
 it face to face ; it was by following the idea to the extremest 
 limit, as certain philosophers would say; in plain terms, it 
 was by determining with greater and greater precision the 
 general part played, the supreme and exclusive function of the 
 relative phrase in the language, that we have been enabled to 
 conceive the possibility of forming it into the pedagogic organ 
 which we have just explained, and which we shall see presently 
 in action. 
 
 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. // 
 
 Art of Teaching It. 
 
 XI. 
 
 AN ORDERED CONVERSATION CARRIED ON BY MEANS OF 
 THE RELATIVE PHRASES. 
 
 To thoroughly grasp the linguistic operation brought about 
 in our system of teaching by the relative phrase, it would 
 be necessary for the reader to give at least a few moments' 
 attendance at one of our classes. A lesson held in dialogue, 
 as ours is held, is extremely difficult to represent upon paper. 
 It loses its movement, and with this a great part of its clear- 
 ness and of its interest. We will, nevertheless, attempt, as 
 it is the only means within our reach of presenting an exer- 
 cise to the public, to give a lesson by means of writing. 
 The imagination of the reader must do its best to supply 
 what is lacking, amongst other things the accent — so pene- 
 trating and so effective — of the living speech, and the wonder- 
 fully communicative play of the physiognomy. 
 
 As a basis of operations we propose to take the known 
 theme — 
 
 To open the door. 
 
 In order to be understood by every one, we will go through 
 the process first of all in English. Before we begin, let us 
 make quite clear the exact moment at which the teacher 
 
i6o SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 appears before the pupils. The teacher is supposed to have 
 already given the lesson, and the pupil to have elaborated it. 
 Consequently we are at the point where recitation by the pupil 
 commences. - 
 
 Teacher. — Here is a door : to open it, what is it you do? 
 Pupil. — First of all, I walk towards the door. 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And then what do you do? 
 Pupil. — I draw nearer to the door. 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And then what do you do 1 
 Pupil. — I get to the door. 
 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And then what do you do ? 
 Pupil. — I stop at the door. 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And then what do you do? 
 Pupil. — I stretch out my arm. 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And then what do you do ? 
 Pupil. — I take hold of the handle. 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And then what do you do next ? 
 Pupil. — I turn the handle. 
 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And what do you do after that ? 
 Pupil. — I pull the door. 
 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And then what happens? 
 Pupil. — The door moves. v 
 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And after that what happens ? 
 Pupil. — The door turns on its hinges. 
 Teacher. — Capital ! And then what do you do ? 
 Pupil. — I leave go the handle. 
 
 Teacher. — Capital 1 The aim is attained and the lesson 
 finished. 
 
 We will transcribe this dialogue under another form, where 
 the two languages are distinct without ceasing to be united, 
 without ceasing to be geared one into the other, and to com- 
 plete each other mutually. 
 
 The Pupil. 
 
 The Teacher. 
 
 To open the door : 
 
 
 
 I walk towards the door 
 
 Capital 
 
 And then ? . . . 
 
 I draw nearer to the door. 
 
 Capital 
 
 . And then ? . . . 
 
 I get to the door. 
 
 Capital 
 
 ! And then ? . . . 
 
 I stop at the door. 
 
 Capital 
 
 And then? . . . 
 
 I stretch out my arm. 
 
 Capital 
 
 And then ? . . . 
 
 I take hold of the handle. 
 
 Capital 
 
 And then ? . . . 
 
AN ORDERED CONVERSATION". i6i 
 
 The Pupil. The Teacher. 
 
 I turn the handle. Capital ! And then ? . . . 
 
 I pull the door. Capital ! And then 1 . . . 
 
 The door moves. Capital ! And then ? . . . 
 
 The door turns on its hinges. Capital ! And then 1 . . . 
 
 I let go the handle. Capital ! 
 
 The expression " capital ! " may be replaced by the expres- 
 sions — 
 
 Bravo ! You couldn't do better. 
 
 That's right ! That is very well learnt. 
 
 Yery good ! You have worked hard. 
 
 That's it ! I am pleased with you. 
 
 You have it ! I congratulate you. 
 Exactly! &c., &c., 
 
 and the thousand relative phrases by which satisfaction can 
 be expressed. 
 
 The above is a specimen of what we call, and have the right 
 to call, "an ordered conversation carried on by means of the 
 relative phrases." And this conversation is carried on, or can 
 be carried on, according to the language studied by the pupils, 
 in Latin, in Greek, in Arabic, or in Chinese, just as well as 
 in German, in Russian, in French, or in English. 
 
 Now, I would ask, Has this locution, " Capital ! " by the 
 effect of this exercise, entered into the pupil's memory ? Is 
 it assimilated by his understanding ? If you doubt it, try the 
 experiment. This expression is not only in his memory — it is 
 part of his very nature, and is there for ever. And what has 
 been done for one expression can be done and will be done for 
 twenty thousand expressions. 
 
 Another fact is to be noted, from whence springs a new 
 and important consequence. If a class of a hundred had 
 heard and understood this lesson, who is there, even without 
 having taken part personally in the conversation, who would not 
 have in his ear or upon his tongue this expression — " capital ! " 
 — or its equivalent in the foreign language? Our method, 
 therefore, answers admirably to the need so universally felt of 
 a collective method of teaching. A lesson like the preceding, 
 given before a thousand hearers, would be as profitable to 
 
 L 
 
162 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 the last as to the first, provided only that the teacher's voice 
 would carry so far. 
 
 Finally, we have hitherto placed the relative phrase or inter- 
 locutory sentence in the mouth of the teacher : there is nothing 
 to prevent it coming from the mouth of one or of several of 
 the pupils themselves, who, turn and turn about, acting as 
 leader of their class, would guide the conversation, while the 
 teacher would pass to the adjacent classes or divisions. While 
 one harvest is ripening, two others might be sown. 
 
 For three classes one teacher. 
 
 Tliis is a refrain which we shall yet repeat more than once 
 as finale to our chapters. In Nature, one child can and does 
 teach another child to talk. Is it so terribly difficult, think 
 you, for a pupil to direct a conversation like the preceding, 
 in no matter what language? Under these conditions the 
 pedagogic apprenticeship may commence early and has some 
 chance of being successful. 
 
 We shall, of course, have the question of disorderliness 
 again thrown in our teeth. We answer : Disorderliness is the 
 daughter of inaction and of weariness. Kdw our lesson or 
 ordered conversation permits neither the one nor the other. 
 Varied in the subjects of the lessons, varied in the details of 
 these lessons, alive and holding the attention like speech itself, 
 it stimulates the curiosity continually, occupies the visualising 
 faculty continually, and until the very end keeps the attentive 
 force upon the strain. There are schools in which the ill- 
 omened words, " strict and lax discipline," are practically un- 
 known. Apparently these schools are organised upon different 
 methods to others that we know of, as much for the scholars 
 as for the teachers. We may take it, at any rate, for certain 
 that our opinions with reference to schools will change on that 
 day that the methods themselves change. In any case, a man 
 to keep discipline will be less difficult to find and less costly 
 than a professor equipped by science in the way that we 
 desire. 
 
 " Capital ! " is an absolute relative expression. Let us now 
 take an enclitic phrase ; for example, the phrase, as common- 
 place as it is frequent — 
 
 Will you kindly . . . 
 
USE OF ENCLITIC PHRASES. 163 
 
 and let us rest this upon the simple motive of '"to continue." 
 The lesson will be presented as follows : — 
 
 Pupil. Teacher. 
 
 I walk towards the door. Will you kindly continue ? 
 
 I draw near to the door. Will you kindly continue 1 
 
 I get to the door. Will you kindly continue ? 
 
 I stop at the door. Will you kindly continue ? 
 
 I stretch out my arm. Will you kindly continue ? 
 
 I take hold of the handle. Will you kindly continue 1 
 
 I turn the handle. Will you kindly continue ? 
 
 I pull the door. Will you kindly continue ? 
 
 The door moves. Will you kindly continue ? 
 The door turns on its hinges. Will you kindly continue ? 
 
 I let go the handle. The exercise is finished. 
 
 Instead of the enclitic phrase, " Will you kindly," we can 
 substitute — 
 
 Have the kindness to -^ continue. 
 Have the goodness to -t- continue. 
 Be so good as to -^ continue. 
 Please -:=' continue. 
 Try to ; endeavour to -^ continue. 
 Do all you can to —^ continue. 
 Do your best to — ?- continue. 
 Will you please -^ continue ? 
 I beg you to -^ continue. 
 I should like you to -?- continue. 
 You are requested to -?- continue. 
 I think -^ you can continue. 
 I hope -^ you will continue. 
 
 and the thousand expressions by which we can formulate an 
 invitation, a counsel, an order, a recommendation, &c. 
 
 We have in the above a second example of an '' ordered con- 
 versation carried on by means of relative phi-ases," a con- 
 versation which progresses not blindly and at haphazard, but 
 where each step is counted and regularly marked off in the 
 total journey to be accomplished — a conversation where each 
 expression exercised passes definitely from the "debtor" to 
 the " creditor " side. In other terms, having given a good 
 classification of the relative phrases, the master and the pupil 
 
i64 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 know to-day, will know to-morrow, will also know in two 
 months, exactly what they have done and what remains for 
 them to do. But this is a statement of account that can never 
 be rendered by the teacher, however conscientious he may be, 
 who follows the ordinary course of lessons. 
 
 In olden days, at the end of the first week I should have 
 been greatly embarrassed if required to recount the number 
 and the kind of expressions that I had been able to give to my 
 pupils. I imagine that more than one of the teachers now 
 practising would feel the same difficulty. It is, in fact, a 
 zigzag course to which we are condemned by the process 
 termed classical — a course in which we traverse the same road 
 over and over again a himdred times — a course in which each 
 advance is annulled by a retreat, and one consequently which 
 never allows us to arrive at our destination. We are pleased 
 to hope that a thorough classification and a judicious use of 
 relative phrases will furnish the remedy for this vice in lan- 
 guage teaching, and that the professor of languages will find 
 therein the guiding thread of which he stands in so great 
 a need. 
 
 Now that the reader understands — at least we hope he does 
 — our manner of proceeding and the mode* of teaching the 
 subjective language, we will remove the relative phrase from 
 the place we have given to it for the occasion at the right hand 
 of the exercise, and we will write it once only, and as appendix, 
 at the foot of this exercise. We shall thus economise space 
 and labour in the composition, and permit the two languages 
 to develop freely. We ought indeed to point out that neither 
 the sentences which compose the exercises of our series nor 
 the relative expressions VThich our collection contains are 
 always as simple or as short as are the phrases which figure 
 in the preceding example. Instead of one relative phrase we 
 shall be able to write three or four at the foot of each exercise ; 
 and the teacher will deal with them, one after the other, exactly 
 in the manner shown in the example above. Instead of asking 
 a single pupil to repeat the phrase, he -will ask three or four 
 different pupils to do so, having at hand the material for many 
 such dialogues. 
 
 Moreover, this arrangement of the text permits one last 
 detail to be added which our first exercise lacked, to be faith- 
 fully represented upon paper. We have stated in a previous 
 
A COMPLETE EXERCISE. 165 
 
 chapter that the pupil, like the teacher, should find and then 
 enounce "first of all" the verb of each sentence. Now, in the 
 text which we have presented as definitive for the exercises of 
 the series, the verb is found repeated at the right-hand side 
 of the sentence. Perhaps the reader would better follow our 
 course, and would better understand the economy of our lesson 
 if the column of verbs were placed at the left hand of the 
 exercise instead of being placed to the right. Let us, in his 
 favour, make this slight change. It is better here to subordi- 
 nate practical convenience to clearness of exposition. 
 
 Here, then, at least is the form under which it seems to us 
 that our lesson may be fully comprehended by every person of 
 intelligence who cares to do so. The exercise presents its 
 three parts, set out in three columns, and in the following 
 order : — 
 
 T. The verb. 
 
 2. The complete sentence. 
 
 3. The relative phrase or interlocutory sentence. 
 
 The place of the last is indicated by the letters E.ph., and 
 its text relegated to the foot of the exercise. 
 
 Pupil. 
 I wish to open the door. 
 
 To do this : Master. 
 
 walk I walk towards the door. Rph. 
 
 draw near I draw near to the door. R.ph. 
 
 get to I get to the door. K.ph. 
 
 stop I stop at the door. ll.ph. 
 
 stretch out I stretch out my arm. Kpli. 
 
 take hold I take hold of the handle. E.ph. 
 
 turn I turn the handle. R.ph. 
 
 pull I pull the door. R.ph. 
 
 moves The door moves. R.ph. 
 turns The door turns on its hinges. R.ph. 
 
 let go I let go the handle. R.ph. 
 
 Master. — Continue, go on — and : 
 
 1. Try to -^ pronounce well. 
 
 2. Do your best to —^ pronounce well. 
 
 3. Do your utmost to -^ pronounce well. 
 
 4. Keep trying to -^ pronounce well. 
 
i66 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Our too short appendix presents only a few relative phrases, 
 and we have chosen by preference perfectly simple enclitics. 
 The motive upon which they rest is that of the pronunciation, 
 and the hook ( -^^ ) is a sign which we have adopted to repre- 
 sent the relation of these expressions with the fact to which 
 they apply, which they are, so to speak, " hooked upon." How- 
 ever few, for want of space, these expressions may be, and 
 therefore however little variation there may be in them, they 
 certainly suffice, in the first place, to give a correct idea of our 
 process, and, in the next place, to afford a glimpse of the use 
 that linguistic science may make of this element of the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 A language-lesson thus constructed in English is perhaps 
 insufficient for a decisive, peremptory demonstration of the 
 excellence of the new process. Presented in a foreign tongue, 
 this same lesson will be more striking, and certainly more con- 
 vincing. It is the night that makes us appreciate the day. 
 At the risk, therefore, of overloading our text, we will repeat 
 the above lesson in the eight following languages : — English, 
 French, German, Italian, Spanish, Norwegian, Latin, and 
 Greek. We would give it also in Russian and Arabic if this 
 would serve any useful purpose. 
 
 The last two words of our programme (Latin and Greek) 
 will let loose upon us a perfect tempest from the Classicists. 
 '* Your system," the pure Humanists will exclaim, "may be an 
 excellent one for living languages, but do not touch the sacred 
 ark of the dead languages : you can do nothing but profane 
 these grand monuments." In a future chapter, entitled " Greek 
 and Latin," we shall suitably reply to this strange dogma. 
 Provisionally, and to justify to some extent our audacity, let 
 us remark that the linguistic process of the mother of a family 
 at Rome or at Athens — so at least it seems to us — must have 
 been exactly the same as that practised by the mother of a 
 family at this present day in London, in Paris, or in St. 
 Petersburg. And let us also emphasise, to dissipate the pious 
 alarm of our opponents, the statement that no phrase or ex- 
 pression employed by us will ever be risked — that is, fabricated 
 by the sole aid of the dictionary. 
 
 Our veneration and love for the ancient languages is so 
 profound and sincere, that we have imposed upon ourselves, in 
 their honour, a task which perhaps would frighten more than 
 
ORGANISATION OF THE DEAD LANGUAGES. 167 
 
 one of the purists scandalised by our temerity — to wit, we have 
 dissected, sentence by sentence, the works of the principal 
 Greek and Latin authors. This done, in the first place, the 
 expressions belonging to the objective language have been 
 distributed in the vast pigeon-holes of our series and of our 
 exercises; and in the next place, the relative phrases have 
 been arranged in the categories to which they are called by 
 the classification of which we have already established the 
 grand outlines. 
 
 By the aid of this double work, a dead language may be 
 treated exactly in the same way as a living language. But 
 there is something further; we are enabled to present to 
 whoever desires it the language of whichever writer he prefers, 
 In our manuscripts, each sentence bears the name of its author, 
 with the number of the chapter and the number of th3 line. 
 It was, in fact, of first importance to obviate this grave objec- 
 tion : — " Your Latin and your Greek are made-up Latin and 
 made-up Greek." 
 
 We think we may make the following declaration : That 
 the day upon which the student has assimilated our series and 
 our relative phrases, Greek and Latin, he will have assimi- 
 lated Virgil, Cicero, Sallust, Quintillian, &c.. Homer, Hero- 
 dotus, Xenophon, Plato, &c., and he will be able to read and 
 understand these authors exactly as he understands the master- 
 pieces of his native tongue. 
 
 So much said, we will commence by the Latin lesson. 
 
1 68 
 
 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Latin, 
 
 OSTIUM APERIO. 
 
 pergo 
 
 Ad ostium pergo. 
 
 appropincLUO 
 
 ad ostium appropinquo. 
 
 advenio 
 
 ad ostium advenio. 
 
 subsisto 
 
 ad ostium subsisto. 
 
 extendo 
 
 bracbium extendo. 
 
 apprehendo 
 
 ansam apprebendo. 
 
 torqueo 
 
 ansam torqueo. 
 
 recludo 
 
 ostium recludo. 
 
 adduco 
 
 ostium adduco. 
 
 sequitur 
 
 sequitur ostium. 
 
 vertitur 
 
 cardinibus vertitur ostium, 
 
 pando 
 
 ostium pando. 
 
 dimitto 
 
 ostii ansam dimitto. 
 
 1. Optime dictum ! 
 
 Amabo ut -=- persequaris. * 
 
 Pergratum mihi feceris si —^ persequi volueris. 
 Placet-ne tibi -^ progredi % 
 
 2. Perge, te precor, et . . . 
 Conare ut -^ bene dicas. 
 Da operam ut -t- bene dicas. 
 Cave ne -?- perperam pronunties, 
 Te hortor ad -^ bene dicendum. 
 
 Ne parcas operse : 
 
 Tua refert ut ^^ in dies proficias. 
 
 Non te poenitebit -^ laborem insumpsisse. 
 
 4. Macte animo ! 
 Gaudeo quod 
 
 in dies proficis. 
 
 -p- tuum assequi propositum. 
 I^on dubito quin -^ brevi latine locuturus sis. 
 
 Tibi sane continget 
 
FinST LESSON IX EIGHT LANGUAGES. 169 
 
 Greek, 'ANOirn THN QTPAN. 
 
 "^Epxofiai fpxofJLai irpos rrjv dvpav. 
 
 irXrja-id^cii TrXijaid^o) ttj 6vpa. 
 
 irapa-yivopai T7apayivop.aL ttj 6vpa. 
 
 e(f)-lcrTaixai ecfyiarafiai eyyvs ttJs Ovpas. 
 
 €K-T€lV(0 €KT€LVa) Ti]V X^^P^' 
 
 ((p-dTrTOfxai ((pdirrofiai rrjs Kopoavrjs. 
 
 (rrpe(f)(0 crrpecjiQ) ttjv Kopwvrjv. 
 
 dv-oiyoo dvotyo) ttjv dvpav. • 
 
 €7r-epv(o eTTcpvco rrjv Ovpav. 
 
 fi'/cei r; Ovpa e'Ud. 
 
 aTp((f)€Tai 1) 6vpa (rrp€(f)€TaL enl to7s crTpo(f)€v(n, 
 
 dcji-ir^pi d(f)Lr]pi, rrjv Kopd)VT]i/. 
 
 1. KoXXtorra fines 1 
 TrapaKoXS) an —^ koXoos \4yeiv. 
 TvapaicaXS (re —r- SiareXeli/ Xeyovra. 
 diareive —^ npOws Xeyeiv. 
 
 upa ye (j)ikov aoi — ^ diareXelu rbv \6yov ; 
 
 2. Aiare'ivov Xiycov, Kai . . . 
 aTVOTeive top \6yov . . . (Plato) 
 dnoTeive rrjv obov . . . {Luciciu) 
 ireipai — ?- 6p6ws \eyeiv. 
 (Tnovhaa-ov ottcos —^ aKpi^Ss Xeyrjs. 
 eTTtfieXov OTTCOS —^ KdXov Xeyrjs. 
 
 3. Kdpve ws oTt pdXia-Ta . . . 
 
 crol yap avpcfjepei —7- npoKOTrreiv. 
 ov o"oi fieTaixeXrjaei —^ Trenovria-dac. 
 
 4. Qdppei ! pr} aTTOKdpve . . . 
 diaTJ-pd^Tj cocrre —^ 'EXXt^i^io-ti Xakelv. 
 eXTTi^co —^ ae raxv o-kottov rev^ecrdai. 
 
 cf)T]p' iyoi —p- ae raxv 'EXXaSa yXcoa-a-av ^(reiv. 
 (ra<j)S>s oida on — ^ av raxv iXXrjvl^eiv enLaTrio-rj. 
 
170 
 
 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Italian. 
 
 10) APRO LA PORTA. 
 
 vado 
 
 Vado alia porta. 
 
 mi avvicino 
 
 mi avvicino alia porta. 
 
 arrivo 
 
 arrivo alia porta. 
 
 mi fermo 
 
 mi fermo alia porta. 
 
 stendo 
 
 stendo il braccio 
 
 prendo 
 
 prendo la maniglia della porta. 
 
 giro 
 
 giro la maniglia della porta. 
 
 tiro 
 
 . tiro la porta. 
 
 cede 
 
 la porta cede. 
 
 gira 
 
 la porta gira sui suoi cardini. 
 
 lascio 
 
 lascio la maniglia della porta. 
 
 1. Bene! Benissimo ! 
 
 Abbiate la bonta di —p- continuare. 
 Abbiate la compiacenza di -^^ continuave. 
 Volete voi avere la bontk di -?- continuare 1 
 Dimostrate cbe -^ sapete il seguito. 
 Fate vedere che -^ sapete la continuazione. 
 
 2. Continuate, io vi prego, e . . . 
 Cercate di —^ pronunziare bene. 
 
 Fate tutto il possibile per -^ pronunciare bene. 
 
 3. Studiate con zelo : 
 
 Bisogna che -7- voi facciate dei progress!. 
 Non vi pentirete di -^ aver lavorato. 
 
 4. Fatevi corraggio ! 
 
 Arriverete ben presto a -^ sapere la lingua. 
 Spero che -^ voi arriverete al vostro intento. 
 Vi prometto che -^ in sei mesi voi saprete la lingua, 
 Siate sicuro che -^ in sei . . . 
 
FIRST LESSON IN EIGHT LANGUAGES. 171 
 
 French. J'OUVRE LA PORTE. 
 
 marche 
 
 Je marche vers la porte. 
 
 m'approche 
 
 je m'approche de la porte. 
 
 arrive 
 
 j 'arrive a la porte. 
 
 m'arr§te 
 
 je m'arrete h la porte. 
 
 allonge 
 
 j'allonge le bras. 
 
 prends 
 
 je prends la poignee. 
 
 tourne 
 
 je tourne la poignee. 
 
 tire 
 
 je tire la porte'. 
 
 c5de 
 
 la porte cede. 
 
 tourne 
 
 la porte tourne sur ses gonds. 
 
 mche 
 
 je lache la poignee. 
 
 1. Tr^s bien ! 
 
 Ayez la bontd de -^ continuer. 
 Faites-moi le plaisir de -^ continuer. 
 Ayez la complaisance de — ^ continuer. 
 Je vous prie de -^ continuer. 
 Montrez que -?' vous savez le reste. 
 
 2. Continuez, s'il vous plait, et . . . 
 Tachez de -;- bien prononcer. 
 
 Faites tous vos efforts pour -^ bien prononcer. 
 Faites votre possible pour -^ bien prononcer. 
 
 3. Appliquez vous : 
 
 II importe que -^ vous fassiez des progres. 
 Vous ne regretterez pas —^ d'avoir bien travaille. 
 
 4. Courage ! 
 
 Vous parviendrez -^ a apprendre la langue en six mois. 
 J'espere que -^ vous atteindrez bientot le but. 
 Soyez certain que -^ dans six mois vous saurez parler 
 Fran9ais. 
 
172 
 
 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAdE. 
 
 Spajiish. 
 
 YO) ABRO LA PUERTA. 
 
 voy 
 
 r 
 
 Voy hacia la im/erta,. 
 
 me aproximo 
 
 me aproximo /d^ la puerta. 
 
 llego 
 
 llego d la puerta. 
 
 me paro 
 
 me paro cerca de la puerta. 
 
 alargo 
 
 alargo el brazo. 
 
 tomo 
 
 tomo la empunadura. 
 
 volteo 
 
 volteo la empunadura. 
 
 halo 
 
 halo la puerta. 
 
 cede 
 
 la puerta cede. 
 
 gira 
 
 la puerta gira sobre sus gozncs, 
 
 suelto 
 
 suelto la empunadura. 
 
 I. i Muy bien ! 
 
 Tenga la bondad de -^ continuar. 
 Hdgame el favor de -^ continuar. 
 i Quiere Vd. tener la bondad de -^ continuar ? 
 
 2. Continue, si me hace el favor, y . . . 
 Trate de -^ pronunciar bien. 
 
 Haga todo lo posible para -^^ pronunciar bien. 
 
 3. Apliquese : 
 
 Es conveniente que -^ Yd. haga progresos. 
 Vd. no se arrepentird de -7^ haber trabajado. 
 
 i Animo ! 
 
 Vd. llegard d -^ saber pronto el idioma. 
 
 Espero que -p' Vd. sabrd la lengua en seis meses. 
 
 Os prometo que -^ Vd. sabrd la lengua en seis meses. 
 
 Este seguro que -;- Vd. sabrd la lengua en seis meses. 
 
FIRST LESSON IN EIGHT LANGUAGES. 173 
 
 German. ICH OFFNE DIE THUR. 
 
 f^reitc ju 3^ fc^reite auf tie Xijux ju. 
 
 ndf;eve mi^ 3^ ndf)evc mid) ber Xijux. 
 
 fommc an 3c^ fomme Bei bev 2;:^ur an. 
 
 bleibe ftefjcii ^d) Bkibe fcei bee itl^ur jieljcu. 
 
 ilrccfe auiJ 3d^ jivecfe ben 5lrm aus5. 
 
 fafi"c an 3d^ fajfe ben ©viff an. 
 
 brei^e urn 3 4 ii^'^fjc i'^it ®i^iff wm. 
 
 mad^c auf 3^ ^^^^ "^^^ 3:f;i"iv auf. 
 
 giet)e an 3(^ jielje bte S^fjur Tjcran. 
 
 gibt nac^ JDie 2!()iir gibt nac^. 
 
 bre'^t fic^ 5)ie Xijux brefjt jit^ auf ben ^Uuyln. 
 
 laffe to^ 3d^ laffe ben ©rif lo^. 
 
 1. @anj rid^tigl 
 
 (geien <Sie fo gut -^ unb fa'^ren <Sic fort. 
 3^^un ©ic mir ben ©efatfen -^ fcrtjufaT;rcn. 
 2BoUen @ie fo gut fein unb -^ fortfafjven ? 
 
 2. 3^ fcitte, faf^ren @ie fort, unb . . . 
 fu(^en (2ie -^^ ric^tig au^jufpred^en. 
 ntac^en <Sie, ba§ -^ @ie rid^tig au^fprcd^cn. 
 bemuljen @ie ft^ -p- ri^tig au0juf)?re(^en. 
 
 t:^un @ie 3f)v 5K6gU(^j^e^, urn -^ feinen ge()(cr gu mac^en. 
 
 3. <B^a\\t jleipig : 
 
 eg liegt bir »iel baran -^ ^^ortfc^ritte ju madden. 
 JDu irirjl eg nid^t bereuen -^ flfcipig jlubicrt gu I;aBen. 
 
 4. gaifen ©ie SWutt) : 
 
 geirip gelingt eg 3f)ncn -?- bic (Sprad^c in fed^g SWonaten in erfernen. 
 ic^ l^cfff, ba§ -r^ !2ie ju 3r;rem Strecfe gelangen itjerben. 
 
174- SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 English. I OPEN THE DOOR. 
 
 walk I walk towards the door. 
 
 draw near I draw near to the door. 
 
 get to I get to the door. 
 
 stop I stop at the door. 
 
 stretch out I stretch out my arm. 
 
 take hold I take hold of the handle. 
 
 turn I turn the handle. 
 
 pull I pull the door. 
 
 moves The door moves. 
 
 turns The door turns on its hingea 
 
 let go I let go the door handle. 
 
 1. Quite right ! Very good ! 
 
 Have the kindness to —p- continue. » 
 
 Will you have the kindness to —p- continue ? 
 
 Be so good as to -^ continue. 
 
 I beg you to -7^ continue. 
 
 Let us see that -7- you know the rest. 
 
 2. Go on, please, and . . . 
 Try to -^ pronounce w^ell. 
 Endeavour to -^ pronounce well. 
 
 Do your utmost -p- to pronounce well. 
 
 3. Take pains ; work hard : 
 
 It is important that -7- you should make progress. 
 You will not regret -t" having worked hard. 
 
 4. Be of good cheer ! Take courage ! 
 
 You will very soon be able to -^ speak English. 
 I hope -^ we shall soon see a good result. 
 You will soon succeed -^ in learning English. 
 Rest assured that -^ in six months you will speak English 
 well. 
 
FIRST LESSON IN EIGHT LANGUAGES. 175 
 
 Noncegian, JEG AABNER DCEREN. 
 
 gaar Jeg gaar henimod Doeren. 
 
 naermer mig ^eg nsermer mig Doeren. 
 
 kommer Jeg kommer til Doeren. 
 
 standser Jeg standser ved Doeren. 
 
 udstraekker Jeg udstrsekker Armen. 
 
 tager Jeg tager Doergrebet. 
 
 dreier Jeg dreier Doergrebet cm. 
 
 trsBkker 3 eg trsekker Doeren* til mig. 
 
 giver after Doeren giver efter. 
 
 dreier sig Doeren dreier sig paa sine Hsengsler. 
 
 slipper Jeg slipper Doergrebet. 
 
 1. Meget godt ! 
 
 Yser saa god —^ at fortssette. 
 
 Hav den Godhed -^ at fortsaitte. 
 
 Vil De have den Godhed -^ at fortssette. 
 
 Vis at -^ De kjender Resten. 
 
 2. Yser saa god at blive ved, og . . . 
 Bestrseb Dem -^ for at udtale godt. 
 Gjoer Deres Bedste -^ for at udtale godt. 
 
 3. Yser flittig: 
 
 Det er noedvendigt at -^ De gjocr Fremskridt. 
 Det vil ikke angre at -^ De har arbeidet godt. 
 
 4. Tag Mod ! 
 
 Det vil lykkes Dem -^ at Isere Sproget i sex Maaneder. 
 
 Jeg haaber at —^ De vil naa Maalet. 
 
 3eg lover Dem at —^ De vil Isere Sproget paa sex Maa- 
 neder. 
 
 Yser forvisset om at -t^ De vil Isere Sproget paa sex Maa- 
 neder. 
 
 ^ The Norwegian barred is replaced by os. 
 
176 SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE 
 
 XII. 
 
 CRITICAL OBSERVATIONS UPON THE PRACTICE OF THE 
 RELATIVE PHRASES. 
 
 I. Remark upon our appendices — Double function of the 
 Relative Phrase — Its practical value. 
 
 We do not wish our system of the subjective language to 
 be judged alone upon the semblance of organisation presented 
 by the above appendices. In the first place, our limited space 
 does not allow any really methodical and didactic arrangement 
 of the matter. The relative phrase appears therein, further- 
 more, in an unfavourable light, and under a strange and 
 almost bizzare form. AVe shall appeal, therefore, from these 
 mutilated groups to our special treatises. 
 
 In the next place, and more especially, these expressions have 
 been taken, so to speak, at hazard, and solely with the view 
 of awakening certain reminiscences of college life. Lhomond, 
 to whom we several times refer, and for a reason, seems 
 to have had some slight idea of this subjective language. 
 The third part of his Grammar, in fact, — that to which he 
 gives the title " Latin method," — is nothing else than a small 
 treatise upon relative phrases. It contains some sixty of 
 these divided into a dozen groups. It is from these groups, 
 copied and recopied by the modern grammarians, that we 
 have borrowed the expressions which figure in our appendices. 
 Our intention, as every one will at once divine, was to interest 
 the reader by showing him with what facility our process 
 triumphs, in a few moments, over the difficulties which in 
 other days so long hindered us, and which cost us so many 
 efforts and so many written pages. 
 
 Our appendices furnish us with the occasion for a final and 
 important remark upon the inner constitution of the relative 
 phrase, and in particular the enclitic phrase. If examined, 
 the phrase, " Continue, and try to pronounce well," is found 
 to be composed of three distinct parts : — 
 
 1. " Continue," — the motive which is the occasion of the 
 
 relative phrase, and which serves as transition from 
 the words of the pupil to those of the teacher. 
 
 2. "Try to," — pure enclitic expression. 
 
 3. " Pronounce well," — another motive acting as object 
 
 or substratum to the enclitic. 
 
MULTIPLIED FUNCTION OF RELATIVE PHRASE. 177 
 
 The same motive may thus serve two ends : it may be either 
 the occasion of a relative phrase, or it may be the object, the 
 substratum of one : — 
 
 1. Will you kindly -^ continue. 
 
 2. Continue, please — and try to -^ pronounce -well. 
 
 In the phrase (t.) the motive "continue" is the object of 
 the enclitic expression "will you kindly." In the phrase (2.) 
 "continue" is the occasion of the relative phrase "try to 
 pronounce well ; " and " pronounce well " is the object of the 
 enclitic " try to." 
 
 Owing to this double function — this double action of the 
 motive of the relative phrase — there is not^ a single linguistic 
 position that we are not able to turn round and deal with in 
 our own way, — not an expression nor a proverbial or other 
 form of words which we are not able to appropriate in the 
 exact shape in which the wit or popular usage of the country 
 may have moulded it — form, flavour, subtlety, grace, and force 
 all restinsr intact. 
 
 2. Correspondence of the system with the maternal process — Tlie 
 triumph of art — Correction of exercises — The teacher^ s poicer 
 doubled — The question of accent — Free students. 
 
 The objective language comes from the mouth of the pupil, 
 and the subjective language from the mouth of the teacher. 
 It is the dialogue of the mother and the child. The two 
 languages are, therefore, perfectly distinct ; they develop 
 simultaneously side by side, marching abreast without con- 
 fusion, exactly as in the lesson from Nature. The relative 
 phrase arises quite naturally, without effort, with reference 
 simply to the subject of the series or the manner in which it 
 is presented. The two languages advance, one by the other, 
 one in the other, one with the other. This is the faithful 
 reproduction of the maternal process. 
 
 The relative phrase is not an empty form, a vain and foolish 
 string of words ; it is the expression of a real idea, of an actual 
 impression or sentiment, of a real conception bearing upon 
 some concrete fact, like the mother's observation or the child's 
 reply. 
 
 Like the child, we can play with the same relative phrase 
 
 M 
 
17S SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 the whole length of the same exercise without offending 
 reason, until it has penetrated our intellect, until it forms 
 part of our thought, and, as we have said, becomes a veritable 
 organ of thought. The study of the subjective expressions, 
 that is to say, of the most abstract, and certainly the most 
 arduous portion of the language, becomes, in our school, 
 according to our prediction, actual play — a mere game. The 
 grammar itself, that bugbear of childhood, becomes trans- 
 formed into a quasi-attractive science, inasmuch as it reveals 
 and explains to the scholar, day by day, the marvellous action 
 of the human intellect, and of the genius of the people upon the 
 forms of language. The relative phrase, by slipping into the 
 enforced interval between two consecutive sentences of a given 
 exercise, does not require a special period of time consecrated 
 to its study. You develop the series, and obtain the subjec- 
 tive language into the bargain. 
 
 Far from standing in the way of the objective language, the 
 relative phrase renders it firmer by adding to the movement 
 of the facts that of the life of the spirit. Vocabularies and 
 treatises upon pronunciation play no part in our instruction. 
 Here is a still greater correspondence between our system and 
 the maternal process. No intermediary comes between the 
 words and the perception of the thought. These two identify 
 themselves, and arrive simultaneously at the ear, and are 
 thence transmitted to the understanding before being beheld 
 by the eye or being translated by the hand,^ — in other words, 
 before being subjected to the artificial processess of reading 
 and of writing. 
 
 Upon all these points our process is in exact correspondence 
 with that of Nature. But there is an additional feature which 
 makes of our system an art, and consequently endows it with 
 an incontestable superiority. Our series have a precision 
 which is necessarily lacking to the natural series, and our 
 exercises offer a richness of development which cannot be 
 expected of those of the child's nurse. The order of succes- 
 sion and the co-ordination of the series are themselves 
 reasoned out, while the child progresses more or less by 
 chance, and often lingers long of necessity upon the same 
 order of facts. 
 
 With regard to the subjective language, our school delivers 
 it ready organised to the pupil. In Nature it is a slow-growing 
 
THE CORKECTION OF EXERCISES. 179 
 
 •fruit, which regulates its maturity by that of the cliikl. In six 
 months our scholar can learn as much, and more, of the sub- 
 jective language than could be learnt in six years outside the 
 school. 
 
 The child has, however, an advantage which it is right to 
 mention. Its ear is more tender, more sensitive, more impres- 
 sionable. The sounds are engraved upon it with greater force 
 and greater rapidity. But the more tempered will of the 
 adult, a more continuous attention, and a more developed 
 perseverance, these compensate, and more than compensate, 
 for the privilege of early childhood. While conforming, there- 
 fore, to the prescriptions of Nature, we can do better, and 
 teach more rapidlj^, than Nature herself. And is not the 
 " conquest of Nature " the true field of art ? 
 
 There is one duty which at present wastes the strength and 
 the time of teachers of language ; we mean the correction of 
 exercises. Has it been fully realised that the ordinary pro- 
 ceeding condemns the conscientious professor to decipher a 
 manuscript of more than 3000 pages a month, of more than 
 30,000 pages a year? Our method does away entirely w^ith 
 this long and painful labour, by rendering it absolutely useless. 
 Upon w^hat, I would ask, could a correction be made in our 
 system ? Where is the work which is not corrected ten times 
 over before the end of the lesson ? And where is the correc- 
 tion that a bright scholar could not make for himself ? Is his 
 oral lesson, think you, not perfect ? And if he is not sure of 
 the written reproduction, he has before him a faithful mirror, 
 which will point out his mistakes to him more certainly than 
 the -most attentive professor, — his printed exercise. 
 
 A correction can be of no profit except to him who seeks to 
 find out his faults. In our opinion, man should early begin 
 to judge himself. Now this exercise, both moral and pedagogic, 
 is within the reach of whosoever possesses, as in our system, a 
 settled rule and a definite model. To deliver the teacher from 
 the overwhelming drudgery of the correction of exercises is to 
 increase his power tenfold ; to increase tenfold the power of the 
 teacher is tenfold to enlarge the field of study and the know- 
 ledge of the pupil. 
 
 When a native of any country takes upon himself to give a 
 course of lessons in a foreign language, it is not long before he 
 begins to hear behind his back discouraging remarks against 
 his teaching. Were he the first philologist of his time, were 
 
I So SUBJECTIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 be able to speak the language be teacbes with greater eleganco 
 than any person, no matter wbo, in the country where this 
 language is spoken, it would still be said his accent was not 
 pure, and a foreign teacher will always be preferred. 
 
 Is it necessary thus always to recruit the ranks of our 
 schoolmasters from foreign nations ? Of this grave problem 
 the system generally in use well knows it has no solution. 
 Our system appears more happy in this respect. By its 
 means the teaching of languages may become frankly, ex- 
 clusiv^ely national, while yet challenging the severest criticism, 
 and this privilege it owes to the organisation of the lessons 
 upon the basis of the relative phrase. 
 
 In fact, arranged and conducted as we have set forth, the 
 lesson is not only accessible to the willing student, but he 
 finds himself in the position of being able to teach it just so 
 soon as he has elaborated it himself. If desired, we can open 
 our classes to adult foreigners, to which *' hospites,'' as we may 
 term them, we should confide in our " ordered conversations " 
 the exercise and the bandying about of the relative phrase. 
 
 In this manner a teacher of the pupil's own nationality 
 can lead his class without fear and without reproach, having 
 in his class and ready to his hand the foreign accent, and that 
 a selected one. As to the ** hospites" we are quite sure 
 hundreds of applications would be received from foreigners 
 ready enough to learn our own language under such conditions. 
 
 3. A declaration hy a Minister of Education — Tlie keystone 
 of the edifice. 
 
 One of the French Ministers'^ said some time back, speaking 
 of the teaching of languages, that what was necessary was to 
 seek some means, not of making the whole class of children 
 sit still on the school-benches, but, on the other hand, of 
 putting them to work, and of utilising the unconquerable 
 need of movement of childhood upon the side of instruction ; 
 that the means should be found not of imposing silence upon 
 a class, but rather of requiring them all to speak. ^ Possibly 
 
 ^ M. Jules Simon (Trans.). 
 
 2 This principle has long been acknowledged and its practice attempted 
 in the Kindergarten schools with much success in stimulating the intelli- 
 gence and utilising the energies of the pupils. The present system advances 
 a serious argument while indicating the means for the application of such 
 a system to more advanced scholars (Trans,). 
 
THE TWO CURRENTS OF LANGUAGE. i8i 
 
 we have partly solved this problem. If we have had this 
 good fortune, we owe it entirely to the discovery of the relative 
 phrase. 
 
 The system of the relative phrases forms the keystone 
 of our linguistic edifice. Without this, our method would re- 
 main barren of what may be termed " the moral element " of 
 language. All language moves between two poles and upon 
 two distinct currents. The two poles are external nature and 
 the human soul — the non-Ego and the Ego. The two currents 
 are the indefinite succession of tangible phenomena, and the 
 permanent play of the faculties of the mind. 
 
 A language is the complex expression of these two kinds 
 of facts. Our series correspond with one of these, and our 
 relative phrases or interlocutory sentences t6 the other. The 
 swallow builds its nest by mixing its saliva with clay ; man 
 builds up his language by allying the expression of the 
 development of his mind to that of the movement of matter. 
 One is the dough, the other the yeast. 
 
i82 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 XIIT. 
 
 OBJECT OF THIS STUDY TWO PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED. 
 
 Above the objective language, alongside and often at the 
 Heart of the subjective language, appears a third, the "figura- 
 tive language." As its name indicates, it is not at all an 
 original language; it is the language proper — the objective 
 language — put to the service of the abstract ideas or concep- 
 tions of mankind, and lending thereto, if not a body, at least 
 an appearance, a figure. 
 
 *' I fall into the river," — is objective language. 
 
 *' I fall into error," — is figurative language. 
 
 The second is visibly grafted upon the first. 
 
 Unfortunately, pedagogic science hardly separates at all 
 these two languages, and teaches them mingled together 
 pell-mell, just as the book happens to be printed, without 
 rule, without method. Abstraction is a natural product of 
 the human mind ; therefore the metaphor, which is its form 
 or its expression, deserves, as such, to be taken into considera- 
 tion by linguistic science, and made the object of a somewhat 
 serious study. Not only should this science instruct the 
 scholar upon the character, properties, and usage of this im- 
 portant part of language, but it should also deliver humanity 
 from many errors and disastrous myths, which have often no 
 other root and no other nourishment than a vain symbolism. 
 
 The work we are here asking for has nothing in common 
 with the treatises which used to be imposed upon us under 
 the name of " figures of rhetoric." It is not, so to speak, the 
 customary name by which a garment is known which we are 
 in need of, but the secret of its shape and an harmonious 
 adaptation to the conception it is called upon to clothe. The 
 fanciful names of the rhetoricians no more represent the 
 science of figurative language than the common nomencla- 
 ture of the stars and constellations represent the science of 
 astronomy. 
 
TWO PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED. 183 
 
 The treatise which we have in mind should reveal to us the 
 intimate relationships that the symbol bears to the abstract 
 idea or conception which it is desired to translate. Without 
 this previous study, the question of a rational system of teach- 
 ing the figurative language cannot even be distinctly put. 
 One is evidently the corollary of the other. Before storing 
 the harvest in the granary, we must first gather the wheat 
 into sheaves. 
 
 Linguistic science finds itself once more face to face with 
 the two problems it has already had to solve with reference 
 to the objective and the subjective language, namely — 
 
 1. To set in order the material of the figurative language. 
 
 2. To discover a rational process for teaching it. 
 
 These two chapters are neither so long. nor so complicated 
 as the previous chapters. In the first, indeed, we ought to 
 set ourselves, not to distribute the entirety of the figurative 
 language into its various categories, but simply to discover a 
 principle which might preside over the arrangement in order 
 of this last portion of the language ; and the second problem 
 will be solved as soon as we have discovered a logical means 
 of attaching the metaphorical lessons to our series lessons. 
 
 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. / / 
 An Attempt at Organisatiox 
 XIV. 
 
 METAPHORICAL THEMES. 
 
 
 
 I. Origin of the metaphor — Its constituent elements — • 
 Its definition. 
 
 To set the material of the figurative language in order, we 
 need, as we have said, a principle. This principle must be 
 drawn from the very source of the metaphor itself — must be 
 deduced from the function proper to the metaphor. It will 
 most certainly be brought forth fiom a rigorous definition of 
 
i84 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 this form of language. Let us try to trace back the metaplior 
 to its origin. 
 
 The human mind, as we have seen in the episode of the 
 mill, cannot dwell long upon a pure perception. In the mind, 
 every perception tends to become metamorphosed into a con- 
 ception. This is because, in order to assimilate an item of 
 knowledge, it is necessary to transform it, exactly as the 
 stomach transforms the food destined to nourish the body. 
 
 This work, this intellectual operation, is known under the 
 name of generalisation. To generalise, is to. pass fropi a per- 
 ception to a conception ; it is to raise the perception of the 
 individual thing to the conception of the species or the kind ; 
 it is to pass from the actual and ephemeral fact to the concep- 
 tion of a constant and eternal fact ; it is to cross the space which 
 separates the contingent from the necessary, the variable from 
 the absolute. The mind is the sense of the immutable, of the 
 eternal, the crucible in which is elaborated and secreted these 
 supreme forms of thought, the energy which transfigures every 
 perception and makes thereof a " supernatural" product. 
 
 The perception of two or thiee imperfections of character 
 enables us to sketch out, if not to constitute, the idea or the 
 general conception of " vice," as the perception of several good 
 qualities suffices for us to sketch out the idea or the general 
 conception of " virtue." 
 
 There is the possibility, however, of establishing two cate- 
 gories of abstract ideas. The general conception of a " mill," 
 for instance, is essentially distinguished from the general idea 
 of " virtue." If we reflect, it is seen that their difference is 
 derived from the difference of their origin. In fact, the first 
 is born of the perception of an objective fact, while the second 
 arises from the perception of a subjective fact. Although they 
 are both, and from the same reason, direct products of abstrac- 
 tion, it is the last which bears exclusively the name " abstract 
 idea." 
 
 The general idea of a mill being nothing more than the 
 primitive perception in miniature, an extract, a kind of 
 quintessence of this perception, is expressed naturall}^ by the 
 terms which translate the perception itself. From this it is 
 seen that the figurative language is not made for this class of 
 conception. The abstract idea, properly so called, is found 
 under other conditions. A direct product of the perception of 
 
ORIGIN OF THE METAPHOR. 185 
 
 subjective fact, it lias absolutely nothing of reality except as 
 regarded in the mind ; it is, indeed, for the mind that the 
 word " immaterial " has been coined. The abstract idea is 
 essentially immaterial — one might almost say, chimerical. 
 
 The terms which translate perception — that is, the real — 
 are therefore found to be as improper as they are impotent 
 to render these kinds of ideas. 
 
 Nevertheless the abstract idea is a product which deserves, 
 as much as the perception, to figure in the commerce of minds. 
 But a conception is only capable of transmission on the con- 
 dition of being embodied in a tangible form. Where, then, 
 are we to find a tangible form elsewhere than in the objective 
 language ? The mind will, therefore, be reduced to choose in 
 the external world the phenomena which a'ppear to it to have 
 the greatest analogy with its abstract conceptions. Then, 
 transporting the expressions proper to these phenomena into 
 the superior region of abstraction, it will adapt them to its 
 general conceptions. 
 
 If an abyss, for instance, appears to us to have certain 
 resemblances to our general conception of error, we shall 
 adapt to this conception the terms used for the abyss, and 
 if "to fall into an abyss" is said, we shall also say, meta- 
 phorically, "to fall into error." Another time we may per- 
 ceive a resemblance between error and a weed. We shall 
 transfer in the same way to error the terms proper to the 
 weed ; and because we say " to uproot a weed," we shall con- 
 sider ourselves authorised to say "to uproot an error." To 
 thus transfer to some conception a term expressly made for 
 a perception is to talk by metaphor. Note, in passing, that 
 the word metaphor (jULcrd-cfispu) is found to be the precise 
 definition of the intellectual operation which it expresses. 
 
 But, it will be said, how can the immaterial be represented 
 by the material, the subjective by the objective ? And again : 
 wherever there is metaphor there is necessarily comparison. 
 How is it possible to compare facts which are not of the same 
 kind ? These two objections appear well founded, and as such 
 deserve a reply. 
 
 We would remark, in the first place, that the metaphor is 
 a linguistic form which can never be adequate to its object. 
 It reveals it, manifests it, but cannot express it. It is a 
 variable which approaches more or less its limit, but never 
 attains it. 
 
1 86 riGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 "To fall into an abyss" is the direct, immediate, and 
 adequate expression of an objective fact. 
 
 "To fall into error" is the indirect, mediate, and inten- 
 tionally symbolic expression of a subjective fact. 
 
 We would, in the second place, observe that the abstract 
 idea of "error" is a generalised conception of the mind, and 
 that the word " abyss " equally represents a generalised con- 
 ception. Therefore, upon this ground, our two facts are of 
 the same nature. From this it results that they are com- 
 parable together, so that, in a given case, the one may logically 
 serve as symbol for the other. 
 
 By the light of this theory upon abstract ideas it is easy 
 to determine the essential elements of every metaphorical 
 expression. Let us analyse, for instance, the locution, "to 
 uproot an error." 
 
 We find therein — 
 
 1. An abstract idea represented by the word "error." 
 
 2. A symbol unexpressed (that of a "weed"), but clearly 
 indicated by the verb " to uproot." 
 
 3. A secret comparison between the abstract idea and the 
 symbol. 
 
 4. The tacit identification of the idea with the symbol. 
 Such a simple conclusion at the end of an almost laborious 
 
 investigation may perhaps recall to the reader the mons 
 parturiens of the fable. But this disproportion between the 
 end and the means is inherent in the solution of every psycho- 
 logical problem. In the intellectual field the slightest fact 
 cannot be thoroughly established without relatively consider- 
 able developments. 
 
 2. Ordinary symholism — Constrtidion of the metaxihorical 
 themes. 
 
 The principle which we need to set in order the material 
 of the figurative language should, and in fact does, spring 
 from the preceding study or analysis. This principle may be 
 formulated thus : — " The abstract ideas of mankind are not 
 embodied in forms proper to themselves ; they are manifested 
 by the means of symbols taken from the external world, and 
 therefore borrow their expression from the objective language." 
 
 From this piinciple it is easy to deduce the process to be 
 followed for distributing in natural groups the general mate- 
 
ORDINARY SYMBOLISM 187 
 
 rial of the figurative language. First, the list of the abstract 
 ideas of mankind will be drawn up. The most elementary of 
 dictionaries will contain their names ; they will be collected 
 from these. This done, they will be grouped into classes and 
 families. Under the heading of " Virtue," for example, all the 
 good qualities will be united ; under the heading " Vice," the 
 names of all the bad qualities will be placed, and so for the 
 rest. We must warn the reader that the number of general 
 abstract ideas is relatively quite small. It will certainly be 
 impossible to discover more than fifty species. 
 
 When the groups have been constituted, the research will 
 be commenced upon the symbols which relate thereto — those 
 which the custom or the genius of the nation has consecrated. 
 The same species may have several symbols. It is thus that 
 the symbol of the abyss and of the harmful plant equally fit 
 the abstract conception of error, as we can say both " to fall 
 into " error, and " to uproot " error. 
 
 But what wiU yield us the symbolism of a people ? How 
 and where are we to find the various symbols destined for 
 one and the same class of abstract ideas. The solution of 
 this problem is perfectly simple. 
 
 Suppose we have given the general abstract idea of "vice." 
 I open at this word the best dictionary at command, the last 
 published, that, consequently, which includes all the others. 
 If this dictionary is a good one, it will present a special para- 
 graph, in which are gathered together, firstly, all the ordinary 
 metaphors consecrated by usage to the abstract idea of vice, 
 and secondly, those metaphors special to the great writers — • 
 new and original metaphors, as a rule, not very numerous. 
 We shall find, for example, amongst them the following, which 
 are set down at hazard : — 
 
 To leave vice. To repress vice. 
 
 To fall into vice. To hate vice. 
 
 To turn away from vice. To fly from vice. 
 
 To become abandoned to vice. To cast one's self into vice. 
 
 To yield one's self to vice. To be ruled by vice. 
 
 To withdraw from vice. To remain in vice. 
 
 To plunge into vice. To stagnate in vice. 
 
 To wallow in vice. To come out of vice. 
 
 To uproot vice. To extirpate vice. 
 
 To renounce vice. To propagate vica 
 
 To shake off vice. &c., &c. 
 
1 88 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Amongst these expressions we have chosen two which seem 
 to be more particularly suitable for casting light upon the 
 process in question ; these are the expressions already men- 
 tioned : — 
 
 To fall into vice. 
 
 To uproot vice. 
 
 The two verbs, "to fall into" and "to uproot," clearly 
 indicate that the popular imagination sees wickedness some- 
 times under the form of a miry abyss, sometimes under the 
 form of a poisonous weed. 
 
 From the first symbol evidently come the expressions — 
 
 To fall into vice. To remain in vice. 
 
 To plunge into vice. To stagnate in vice. 
 
 To wallow in vice. <fec., &c. 
 
 and those also that translate a movement away from " vice " : — • 
 
 To tear one's self from vice. To escape from vice. 
 To turn away from vice. To fly from vice. 
 
 To withdraw from vice. &c., &c. 
 
 Considered in their totality, these locutions may provide the 
 material for an exercise, or a fragment of an exercise, which 
 we term "metaphorical theme." Moreover, the various parts 
 of this double picture, resting upon a perfectly determinate 
 objective fact, are capable of being set in order, and organised 
 upon the model of the exercises in our series. 
 
 From the second symbol (weed) are derived the expres- 
 sions — 
 
 To uproot vice. Vice germinates. 
 
 To extirpate vice. Vice takes root. 
 
 To propagate vice. &c., &c. 
 
 By setting these latter expressions in order around the 
 symbol from which they arise, we shall obtain a second meta- 
 phorical theme analogous to the first. 
 
 In this way may be determined, one after the other, the 
 various symbols under which the popular imagination repre- 
 sents the abstract idea of vice or wickedness. In the same 
 way, the symbols of all the other abstract ideas of which 
 the human mind is capable will be determined. The same 
 symbol will serve for all the ideas of one group, and each 
 
METAPHORICAL EXEGESIS. 189 
 
 symbol will furnish the occasion and the material of a meta- 
 phorical theme. 
 
 We have attempted to do this with the greatest works in 
 those languages with which we are acquainted ; and here 
 again let us render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's. 
 On two occasions the dictionary has rendered us the greatest 
 service : the first time for gathering together and forming 
 into a system the subjective language — the relative phrases ; 
 and a second time, for an attempt upon the metaphorical 
 language. 
 
 There exists a second means, an indirect means, of reconsti- 
 tuting the symbolism proper to the genius of each language, 
 or rather of each nation. This process — certainly more 
 instructive and more attractive than the cold-blooded study 
 of national dictionaries, but less expeditious — would consist 
 in gleaning, one by one, the metaphors contained in the lite- 
 rary masterpieces of each tongue. 
 
 By the aid of this metaphorical exegesis, the symbolism 
 and the figurative language of each work or of each writer 
 might be gathered together and set in order. In a future 
 chapter (Method of Heading, Translating, and Assimilating 
 Classical Works) we shall indicate the practical means of carry- 
 ing out this important part of our labour. 
 
 FIGURATIVE LAKGUAGE. 
 
 The Art of Teaching Metaphors. 
 XV. 
 
 TWO KINDS OF rROCESSES. 
 
 I. Intrinsic rank of the figurative language — Hoic assimilated 
 in ordinary life — TJie part remaining to he done hy Art. 
 
 The figurative language represents the last linguistic con- 
 quest of man. Abandoned to his own resources, the child 
 achieves it but slowly. Many persons only practise it acci- 
 dentally, we might almost say that some never possess it. 
 
190 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 This fact is the condemnation of a legion of books written for 
 the use of children, and which contain more metaphors than 
 the most misty treatise upon metaphysics. 
 
 The figurative language cannot be taught — and therefore no 
 attempt must be made to teach it — until after the language, 
 proper or objective, has been learned. To follow a different 
 course, as at present practised in most schools where the 
 metaphysics of the sacred books comes before all the rest, is to 
 begin the edifice by the ridge of the roof, to try to force the fruit 
 before the bud. Worse than this, it is to accustom the child 
 to take the effect for the cause, the shadow for the reality, 
 the false for the true. In short, it is to teach him the art 
 of deceiving himself — we might even say, the art of stupefying 
 himself. The question of the order to be followed in the 
 teaching of the three parts of language is therefore not one 
 of pedagogic science alone — it is one of morality. 
 
 The figurative language should be engrafted, as we have 
 said, upon the objective language. Now, before thinking of 
 inserting a graft, we must possess a subject capable of support- 
 ing it. For instance, the child who has never seen a plant 
 either uprooted or propagated will certainly not be able to 
 understand the metaphorical expressions — 
 
 To uproot vice. 
 
 To propagate an error. 
 
 This is perfectly evident. Therefore, before teaching a 
 metaphorical theme, we shall wait until the pupil thoroughly 
 knows that series in which the symbolic fact serving as basis 
 to this theme has been developed. Nothing is so vague as 
 a metaphor ; nothing is so light, vaporous, subtle, unstable, 
 mobile, as this flower of language. We know only one means 
 of fixing it in the memory : this is to link, knowingly and 
 resolutely, the abstract idea to its symbol. 
 
 Between the objective and the figurative language is a per- 
 fectly natural transition stage — the subjective language. It 
 will be observed, indeed, that a very large number of relative 
 phrases include a metaphor, and that many metaphors are at 
 the same time relative phrases. 
 
 To take courage, To woik with redoubled zeal. 
 
 To lose patience, To hit the mark, 
 
 To take pains, &c. &c. 
 
METAPHORICAL THEMES. 191 
 
 these are expressions which assuredly represent metaphors; 
 but under this other form — 
 
 Take courage ! Work with redoubled zeal. 
 
 Do not lose your patience ! You will attain your aim. 
 Take pains ! &c., &c. 
 
 they may play, if desired, the part of relative phrases. 
 
 In reality it is in great measure by the channel of the 
 relative phrase that Nature transmits to each of us what 
 figurative language we have at our disposal for the translation 
 of our abstract ideas. We will even say Nature cannot do 
 otherwise. Coming from such a teacher, the process cannot 
 but be irreproachable, and it would be foolhardy either to 
 disdain it, or to apply it otherwise than does Nature. It is 
 therefore to the relative phrase that we shall, first of all, 
 have recourse to transmit to our pupils the part of the figura- 
 tive language that can be given to them in this way. 
 
 Nevertheless, it must be permitted to Art, here as elsewhere, 
 to do better and more rapidly than Nature. In the first place, 
 in yielding to us, by the process we have just described, the 
 metaphorical expressions. Nature neglected to reveal to us 
 the hidden symbols from whence these expressions arise. In 
 the next place, these expressions strike our ears more or less 
 irregularly and somewhat at hazard; and here assuredly is 
 one of the reasons which cause the figurative language to 
 remain all our life less familiar and more rebellious to the 
 thought than the objective language. Lastly, and above all, 
 whoever receives a metaphor wrapped up within a relative 
 phrase assimilates this metaphor unwittingly. Now a treasure 
 whose existence is not known is no longer a treasure.^ There- 
 fore there still remains something for Art to do. 
 
 If it can make mankind assimilate consciously the figurative 
 language after having assimilated it unconsciously ; if it can 
 make this assimilation take place regularly and methodically ; 
 if, in fine, it can cause this last part of the language to be 
 attached logically and harmoniously to the two others and to 
 form with them a homogeneous whole, then Art will have 
 
 ^ The absence of conscious knowledge of the root of the metaphor, and 
 the employment of figurative expressions as simple "relative phrases," is, of 
 course, the cause of the use of mixed metaphors by unskilled rhetoricians 
 (Trans.) 
 
192 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 done what Nature does not accomplish, and cannot accomplish 
 other than roughly ; that is, Art will have conquered Nature. 
 And Art can do this. 
 
 Our metaphorical themes will first make plain the unnamed 
 symbols from which they borrow their development ; then the 
 diverse pieces of these themes will be set in order and orga- 
 nised in the direction indicated by the nature of the symbolic 
 fact itself. It therefore only remains to discover between the 
 figurative language and the objective language a natural rela- 
 tion which permits the exercises of the one to be harmoniously 
 allied to the exercises of the other. 
 
 To study the figurative language indeed, in itself and for 
 itself, separately and in the abstract, would be a perfectly 
 barren labour, if not an impossible one. It would be simply 
 to repeat our early experience with the dictionary. In the 
 everyday practice of life the metaphorical expressions are 
 mingled and interlaced continually with those of the language 
 proper, coming one after the other, and linked together accord- 
 ing to the secret dialectic of the natural facts upon which these 
 expressions depend. But how are we to discover the relation 
 which we need to carry out the synthesis of the two languages ? 
 How are we to determine the exact point of their junction ? 
 
 The abstract language has no origin within itself. Its 
 occasional cause is in the external world ; therefore its roots 
 reach down into the objective language. The two languages 
 touch, thereforfe, at certain points. If these points exist, ^reflec- 
 tion can discover them. Let us see if we can find them. 
 
 2. Search for a connecting link heticeen the metaphorical theme 
 and that of the series — Idea of dominants — Crossing and 
 hannonious ijrogress of the tico languages. 
 
 Every objective fact perceived by man provokes a judg- 
 ment on the part of his mind. This judgment is the origin of 
 generalised conceptions, and represents the raw material out 
 of which abstract ideas are made. We have already stated 
 and described this elementary operation, by which the under- 
 standing transfigures all that happens to fall within its field 
 of action. 
 
 But if it transfigures isolated facts, it will also transfigure 
 the groups of facts presenting, as in each exercise of our series, 
 the synthesis of an end developed by its means. The groups 
 
METAPHORICAL THEMES. 193 
 
 of facts indeed, because they are more clearly determined, 
 more clearly characterised than the isolated facts, draw the 
 attention more forcibly, and give more strength to its judg- 
 ments. In other words, as the mind treats the simple fact, 
 so it treats the composite fact — that is, it submits the second 
 as it does the first to abstraction and to generalisation. And 
 what does it abstract 1 What product is yielded by this double 
 operation ? Beginning directly with the facts themselves, let 
 us interrogate them ; they will answer for us. 
 
 Read, or ask some one to read to you, any theme of our 
 series. Without your being aware of it, there will spring up 
 in your mind, or rather your mind will disengage therefrom, 
 certain feelings, mental generalisations, Which we call, and 
 rightly, moral conceptions or abstract ideas. For instance, 
 in our Series of the Shepherd, the scene that represents the 
 fight between two rams will certainly awaken within you the 
 abstract ideas or conceptions of ill-temper, of anger, of fury, 
 of jealousy, and of brutality. In the Series of the Bird, the 
 exercise which represents the father and mother feeding their 
 young ones with their beaks will awaken in the same way the 
 abstract ideas of love, tenderness, affection, devotion, &c. 
 
 These are associations of ideas which it is beyond the power 
 of any one to prevent, and although not formulated aloud, the 
 conceptions which are derived from this source are none the 
 less realities. " Abstract " is a qualification which may be 
 properly used in speaking about these products of the thought, 
 for they are abstracted from facts belonging to the objective 
 world. It is not only the above-mentioned themes and those 
 which resemble them that give rise to abstract ideas within 
 the mind; every development of an objective fact evidently 
 enjoys the same property. The abstract ideas flash therefrom 
 as the spark flashes from the flint, as the lightning from the 
 cloud. 
 
 Let us now try to make use of this observation, and of the 
 important fact that it reveals to us. Amongst the diverse 
 abstract ideas that the development of a theme may give rise 
 to in the mind, there is usually one which springs forth more 
 naturally than the others from the general sense of this 
 exercise. We will call this the "Dominant," because it 
 dominates the subject as a whole. It is that which flows 
 from it, which is deduced from it, which is disengaged the 
 
 N 
 
194 FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 most quickly, that into which the whole theme seems most 
 directly to resolve itself. 
 
 In the exercise where the shepherd's dog, at a mere sign 
 from his master, does his utmost to gather the scattered flock 
 together, what is the abstract idea which comes before all 
 others^ To our mind, it is not agility, nor courage, nor 
 promptitude, nor even zeal, but rather obedience. 
 
 The Dominant : here is the intermediary of which we were 
 in search ; here is the true connecting link between the objec- 
 tive language and the figurative language. It is upon this 
 dominant that the passage from one to the other will be 
 effected, and this without embarrassment and without difli- 
 culty. Suppose, for instance, an exercise having as " domi- 
 nant " the abstract idea which is represented by the term 
 "courage." We shall construct the metaphorical theme of 
 taking or losing courage, and we shall make it an appendix to 
 the primordial theme. The one will be the complement and, 
 as it were, the satellite of the other. It will be given as a 
 lesson, and studied after the first. 
 
 It has been established that our series reproduced, or might 
 reproduce, all the situations in which are presented either 
 animate or inanimate objects. It has been established, besides, 
 that every abstract idea proceeding at the same time from the 
 mind which abstracts it and from the objective world whence 
 it is abstracted, must perforce emerge from one or other of 
 the facts developed in our series. Therefore, every abstract 
 conception which the human mind can conceive will find 
 occasion of expression within the limits of our system. 
 
 And if each theme of our series receives, as we have just 
 indicated, a metaphorical theme as appendix, the figurative 
 language will progress in our school as in practical life, side 
 by side with the objective language. The two languages will 
 not overlap sentence by sentence, but they will overlap exercise 
 by exercise. They will none the less from this constitute a 
 homogeneous whole, a firm and harmonious synthesis, analogous 
 and pedagogically superior to that which is elaborated in the 
 school of Nature. 
 
 To sum up and conclude : our method offers two means of 
 transmitting the figurative language to the pupil, to wit, the 
 relative phrase and the metaphorical theme, and it employs 
 them both. The metaphorical theme, the logical complement 
 
STILL ANOTHER QUESTION. 195 
 
 of the series and its crown, leaves intact both the character 
 and the unity of the latter, therefore modifies in nothing what- 
 ever the conditions and the mode of teaching it. It does not 
 complicate the study of the objective language lesson, it illumines 
 it ; it does not increase it, it does not extend the material of 
 work, it raises it, or, as we have said, transfigures it. Conse- 
 quently this appendix does not constitute an overload of work 
 either for the master or for the pupil. It is to the mass of 
 the linguistic work as the salt is to the food of the body, as 
 the yeast to the dough, a solvent — a solvent which, instead of 
 overloading the conception or the memory, aids the intellectual 
 digestion. Hence this deduction, a well-known and obligatory 
 refrain of our chapters. 
 
 "The single master who sufiices for three classes for the 
 study of the objective language will be sufficient also for the 
 teaching of the complete or integral language in its three por- 
 tions — objective, subjective, figurative. And each lesson which 
 had the virtue, after the work of assimilation, of transforming 
 the disciple into teacher, will continue to enjoy this extremely 
 important property." 
 
 XVL 
 
 STILL ANOTHER QUESTION. 
 
 Our programme is fulfilled, the triple material of language 
 is organised, our linguistic instrument is complete. Is there 
 anything lacking to our exposition of the system ? All the 
 secrets of the construction of the said instrument have been 
 revealed, as also the complex play of its mechanism. The 
 raw material itself, which enters into the composition of this 
 instrument, alone has not been studied. In other words, the 
 system has been established directly upon the double base of 
 the verb and of the sentence ; but neither the properties of 
 the verb nor the organism of the sentence have been dealt 
 with thoroughly. 
 
 " Grammar " is the ordinary name for this study. When 
 nnd how, in our system, will the grammar be dealt with and 
 then practised 1 This is the important question we have next 
 to answer. 
 
196 GRAMMAR. 
 
 PART TH I RD^ 
 
 GRAMMAR /rP /" f ^ ^^. 
 
 I. 
 
 TWO OPINIONS UPON THE PRACTICAL VALUE OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 Considered as a means of studying languages, grammar, nt 
 the present time, is the object of two absolutely contradictory 
 judgments. The one says : — The child proves to us every day 
 that a language can be learnt perfectly without knowing 
 grammar; therefore the grammar is useless, if not harmful, 
 for the practical study of languages. The other says : — To 
 learn a language is to learn words and to construct sentences ; 
 now this construction is subject to certain rules : therefore 
 before all else it is necessary to study these rules. Which of 
 these two judgments is wrong? which is right % 
 
 To our mind, both are well founded, and it is by reason of 
 this that they are reconcilable. The reconciliation must take 
 place upon the basis of a grammatical reform — a reform in 
 theory, but above all a reform in practice. 
 
 Long before going to school the child uses grammar, and I 
 assure you good grammar. He declines and conjugates ; he 
 uses the genders and numbers ; he makes the verbs agree with 
 their subjects ; he determines, bends to his use, and adjusts 
 certain direct or indirect complements long before he is 
 assisted by a grammar. There is therefore a natural gram- 
 matical teaching, as there is a natural linguistic teaching. 
 The science of pedagogy must seek to be inspired by the one 
 as it should be inspired by the other, and the artificial process 
 ceasing to be in itself in contradiction to that of Mature, our 
 two contradictory judgments will evidently become reconciled. 
 
 But how are we to formulate the natural grammar, nnd 
 how are we to apply it? If our linguistic system is really 
 constructed upon the model of that of Nature, it ought to lend 
 itself with the greatest ease to this new enterprise. We may 
 attempt the task, and by basing it upon our system. 
 
TWO OPINIONS UPON GRAMMAR. 197 
 
 11. 
 
 DEFINITION AND DIVISION. 
 
 The various terms or elements which constitute "speech " 
 or translate thought are subject amongst themselves to cer- 
 tain relationships, these relationships being determined by the 
 work of the intellectual conception. The study of these rela- 
 tionships is termed " Grammar." They may be studied in 
 two different ways. They may be studied in themselves and 
 without connecting them with their determining cause, the 
 mind ; or they may be studied by starting from the mind to 
 arrive at the form of speech. The first process gives a gram- 
 mar which we might term "experimental;" the second leads 
 to a grammar which is " rational." The first is multiple, that 
 is to say, which varies with every tongue ; the second is uni- 
 versal, that is to say, fits equally well all languages ; it aspires 
 to be one, as the human mind is one. 
 
 We have to choose between these two systems. We make 
 choice, evidently and necessarily, of the second. The first 
 process is suited to those who as yet know not, but seek. It 
 is not suitable to a master who teaches, the first condition for 
 teaching being to know. The second process, the only one 
 truly pedagogic, proposes nothing less than the " unification 
 of grammar." The psychologist-grammarian should determine 
 the whole of the grammatical conceptions of the human mind, 
 and from them draw up a well-thought-out series of questions, 
 to which each language must be made to reply. This would 
 be the ordinary teaching reversed. The latter, indeed, leaves 
 the languages to set us their enigmas entirely at the chance of 
 the teachers' fancy or that of their grammarians. In the 
 system which we seek to establish, it will be ourselves who set 
 the questions to the language. Instead of going uphill, we 
 should thus go downhill, an infinitely less painful labour, and 
 one which would lead us surely and in a short time to the 
 knowledge of no matter what grammar. The prize is indeed 
 worthy the pains. We will attempt to open up the path. 
 
 The practical study of grammar may be included under 
 three heads : — 
 
 1. The study of the verb. 
 
 2. The study of the sentence. 
 
 3. The study of the moods and their expression. 
 
198 GRAMMAR. 
 
 The order to be followed is indicated. The study of the 
 expression of the moods presupposes the knowledge of the 
 simple sentence, and the study of the sentence presupposes 
 the knowledge of the verb. We shall, therefore, begin by the 
 study of the verb ; we shall continue by the study of the sen- 
 tence or syntax, and shall finish by the modal expressions. 
 
 STUDY OF THE YERB. 
 
 Exercises in the Conjugations ( First Wee k). L/^^-2, 
 
 111. ' "/ 
 
 indicative (present acts). 
 
 We will again take our theme, " I open the door," and we 
 will suppose the course of language-lessons to commence by 
 this exercise. When it has been elaborated for the time re- 
 quired before the class and afterwards by the class themselves, 
 we have stated that it is absolutely necessary to afford the 
 class a rest, a relaxation, or rather a diversion, which shall be 
 of profit to the intellectual effort by completing it and rendering 
 it fertile, and this diversion we consider we have found in the 
 act of writing out the exercise studied. 
 
 But this transcription may be done in several ways; it 
 should, indeed, be varied with the varying aptitudes of the 
 pupils. We give it first of all the form of a grammatical 
 exercise. 
 
 I. First Exercise. 
 
 The pupil will write down the verb only, and this upon his 
 slate, conjugating it in what is termed " the present indica- 
 tive," in the present tense only, and according to a table pre- 
 pared by the master in which the root part of the verb or 
 radical is carefully separated from the variable part or the 
 termination. We will present our examples in three living 
 languages and one dead language : — 
 
 I. I walk we walk 
 
 thou walk est you walk 
 
 he walk s they walk 
 
STUDY OF THE VERB. 199 
 
 2. je march e nous march ons 
 tu march es vous march ez 
 il march e ils march ent 
 
 3. ich schreit e wir schreifc en 
 du schreit eist ihr schreit et 
 er schreit et sie schreit en 
 
 4. perg o perg imus 
 perg is perg itis 
 perg it perg unt 
 
 The pupil will conjugate in this way, in the language 
 studied, the whole of the verbs of the first oral exercise, the 
 whole of this work constituting the first grammatical lesson. 
 A second oral exercise will be followed by a second "verbal" 
 exercise, the third by a third, and so on. It is, of course, 
 unnecessary to say that these exercises are only written by 
 the pupil after they have been treated orally by the teacher. 
 The verbal forms must, like all the others, be spoken first of 
 all, and strike the ear before being presented to the eye or the 
 hand. We have too often and too strongly insisted upon this 
 principle and iTpon its consequences, for any further insistance 
 to be necessary. 
 
 2. Second Exercise, 
 
 The verb will not be conjugated alone and in an abstract 
 fashion, but rather with its subjects and its complements ; and 
 above all, the mistake must never be made of enumerating 
 the terminations alone, but the termination must be connected 
 to its radical : — 
 
 1. I walk towards the door, 
 thou walkest towards the door, 
 he walks towards the door. 
 
 we walk towards the door, 
 you walk towards the door, 
 they walk towards the door. 
 
 2. Je marche vers la porte. 
 tu marches vers la porte. 
 il marche vers la porte. 
 nous marchons vers la porte. 
 vous marchez vers la porte. 
 ils marchent vers la porte 
 
2CX) GEAMMAE. 
 
 3. Ich schreite auf die Thlir zu. 
 du schreitest auf die Thiir zu. 
 er schreitet auf die Tliiir zu. 
 wir schreiten auf die Thiir zu. 
 ihr schreitet auf die Thiir zu. 
 sie schreiten auf die Thiir zu. 
 
 4. Ad portam pergo. 
 ad portam pergis. 
 ad portam pergit. 
 ad portam pergimus. 
 ad portam pergitis. 
 ad poitam pergunt. 
 
 This second exercise still presents something abstract and 
 factitious. We have already pointed out how pernicious in 
 the study of languages is abstraction. It is, therefore, most 
 important to hasten as quickly as possible to the concrete, 
 the reaL 
 
 3. Third Exercise. 
 
 The sentences will no longer be conjugated separately and 
 isolated from each other, but the whole exercise will be put, 
 for example, into the second person. 
 
 1. Thou walkest towards the door, 
 thou drawest near to the door, 
 thou arrivest at the door, 
 thou, &c. 
 
 2. Tu marches vers la porte. 
 tu t'approches de la porte. 
 tu arrives a la porte. 
 
 tu, &c. 
 
 3. Du schreitest auf die Thtir zu. 
 du naherest dich der Thiir 
 
 du kommst bei der ThUr an. 
 du, &c. 
 
 4. Ad portam pergis. 
 ad portam accedis. 
 ad portam advenis. 
 ad portam, &c. 
 
PEESENT ACTS. 201 
 
 Here all abstraction will have disappeared if the pupil 
 imagines the action described to be performed by one of his 
 school-fellows, in whom he can see, at will, either a second or 
 a third person. Needless to say, this exercise can be equally 
 well spoken in the plural as in the singular. 
 
 1. We walk towards the door, 
 we draw near to the door, 
 we come to the door. 
 
 we, &c. 
 
 2. Nous marchons vers la porte. 
 nous nous approchons de la porte. 
 jious arrivon^ a la porte. 
 
 nous, &c. 
 
 3. Wir schreiten auf die Thiir zu. 
 wir nahern uns der Thiir. 
 
 wir kommen bei der Thiir an. 
 wir, &c. 
 
 4. Ad portam pergimus. 
 ad portam accedimus. 
 ad portam advenimus. 
 ad portam, &c. 
 
 As we have dealt with the exercise of the door, so we should 
 deal with each exercise of the series developed in the course of 
 the week. This will comprise the grammatical work for the 
 first few days. Simple and elementary as this first operation 
 is or seems to be, it deserves an attentive examination. We 
 will discuss it before proceeding to the second week's exercise. 
 
 IV. 
 
 CRITICAL EXAMINATION OP THE PROCESS. 
 
 I. Properties of our exercise in verbs. 
 
 We begin at once the study of the conjugations from the 
 first series and with the very first lesson ; and it is the method 
 itself which calls for and requires this evolution, while the 
 linguistic theme serves us admirably as grammatical theme 
 
202 GRAMMAR 
 
 also. Furthermore, owing to the nature and the organisation 
 of our exercises, we conjugate one after the other some fifteen 
 or twenty verbs, without allowing any one of them to appear 
 under the form of an abstraction. Few books, assuredly, can 
 offer this advantage : "to force the pupil to think of an actual 
 thing, to represent real facts while conjugating verbs." 
 
 Does this grammatical diversion, it may be asked, trouble 
 or fatigue the pupils ? All that we can say is, that it always 
 has the advantage of amusing ours. But the irregular verbs ! 
 some one will exclaim. The irregular verbs, by our process, 
 far from frightening the child, interest him even more than 
 the other verbs. And this ought to be so ; for in itself the 
 regular verb is monotonous ; now the genius of childhood is 
 the enemy of monotony. 
 
 The result would evidently be quite other if, instead of giving 
 him at any one time two or three irregular verbs to digest, we 
 were to force him, as in most schools, to gorge himself with a 
 parcel of fifty to eighty irregular verbs, and thus in the abstract, 
 completely in the abstract, that is to say, stupidly. In our 
 exercises the irregular verb stands out from the mass of regular 
 verbs as black stands out from white, and for this reason im- 
 presses itself on the memory in characters almost ineffaceable. 
 For us there are no longer irregular verbs in the language, or 
 rather the irregular verbs, reappearing over and over again, 
 continually seem to be the true regular verbs. 
 
 The grammar, at the beginning at any rate, becomes there- 
 fore like the study of the relative phrase, a mere "game." I 
 hasten to add " a fertile game." It creates or awakens in the 
 mind of the pupil, in a few days, a new sense, " the gramma- 
 tical sense." Yes, a grammatical sense; this sense which you 
 and I possess, which everybody possesses, and by reason of 
 which, in the mother- tongue, we recognise intuitively and 
 without recourse to any grammar whether a thing is properly 
 spoken or not ; by which we distinguish one mood from another, 
 the form of one tense from the form of another tense, either 
 when employed by ourselves or coming from the lips of others. 
 
 To be what it should be, the grammar ought thus to pass 
 from the state of being in a book to that of becoming an organ 
 of the mind. The method which can carry out this metamor- 
 phosis will have deserved much from the human mind. 
 
 But is not the grammatical work mentioned premature ? 
 
THE THIKD PERSON SINGULAR. 203 
 
 Does it respond to a real and actual need of the scholar ? In 
 other terms, does he learn the rules of a thing of which he 
 knows nothing, or, to repeat the words of Condillac, does it load 
 the memory of a pupil with an entirely unknown tongue 1 
 Does the abstract precede the concrete? Does the general 
 come before the particular and the individual 1 
 
 The reply to this question has already in part been made. 
 Was not our first consideration to avoid everything that had 
 the appearance of abstraction ? Have we not applied ourselves 
 precisely to transform the abstract into the concrete, to deal 
 with the general by the particular 1 Moreover, the thing which 
 we attempt to submit to rules is already known to the pupil ; 
 it is this column of verbs which we have just used to express a 
 series of real, actual, personal perceptions. 
 
 Lastly, the exercise put into the second or third person is 
 not more premature than it is at the time of the first giving of 
 the lesson in the first person. Language is not formed to be 
 employed in a solitary monologue, but, on the contrary, to bring 
 us into relation with the minds of others. The need of speak- 
 ing in the second, and above all in the third person, is perhaps 
 more imperious than in the first person. The child (like Julius 
 Caesar) speaks at first only in the third person, even when 
 speaking of himself : — 
 
 Bertie fell down. 
 
 Bertie hurt himself. 
 
 2. Upon the unity of the conjugation. 
 
 "We have detached from the general conjugation one of its 
 elements : we have isolated it and studied it separately. Are 
 we right in so doing ? Will not the unity of the conjugation 
 suffer therefrom ^ Is it not important to respect this unity 1 
 And does the " present indicative " form a whole in itself — a 
 definite, real, concrete whole ? The following is our answer : — 
 
 Consider the little child. In what mood does he, when fol- 
 lowing Nature's process, speak his thoughts ? Most assuredly 
 it is not in the venerable supine, nor in the gerundive, nor 
 even in the redoubtable but insecure subjunctive. He speaks 
 in the indicative. And would you know why ? It is because 
 all that he speaks about is real. Now the indicative, as its 
 name implies (that which '* points with the index-finger "), the 
 
204 GKAMMAR. 
 
 indicative is the mood of the real. And in what tense does 
 this same child talk ? Listen to him yourself, and you will soon 
 notice that he hardly uses any other than the present. We 
 have followed the course mapped out by Nature ; therefore, if 
 this road leads the child to success, we need not fear to miss it 
 ourselves. 
 
 As to the unity of the conjugation, such as is commonly 
 taught, such as is found in all the grammars without excep- 
 tion, it is not a "unity " at all ; it is at most a table of con- 
 tents, and still further, a very incomplete and badly arranged 
 table, in spite of the plethora of bars and cross-bars amongst 
 which, right or wrong, the grammarians strove to quarter the 
 various movements of thought. It is a scaffolding which is 
 based upon analogies too often quite untrue. Occasionally it 
 is an enigma absolutely undecipherable. What, indeed, is 
 more difficult to understand than that which has no reason for 
 its existence 'i 
 
 The unity of the conjugation, such as we have all studied 
 at school, only exists upon paper. That which is a unity is 
 the container, but not the contained ; it is the page on which 
 the conjugation is written, but not this conjugation itself. 
 The unity of the latter is purely a question of size of page or 
 of typographic artifice. This is so true that he who studies in 
 one grammar often cannot understand another. 
 
 If the classical conjugation formed a veritable unity, it ought 
 everywhere and always to affect the same form, present the 
 same organism and the same organisation. The artist cannot 
 change according to his fancy the number or the order of the 
 limbs upon the creature he wishes to reproduce. But can you 
 quote two grammarians who completely agree upon this ques- 
 tion, in our opinion the most elementary ? 
 
 Such or such a form or " tense," as it is called, which one 
 admits as necessary, is neglected by another as useless. What 
 one calls ** absolute " the other treats as " relative." One 
 adjudges subjunctive what the other attributes to the con- 
 ditional, and what still another places under the heading 
 "optative." And, in point of fact, why is it that new gram- 
 mars are published continually, if there is .nothing to be 
 changed in the old ones? Meantime, amongst this logomachy, 
 what becomes, I would ask, of your unity of the conjugation ? 
 
 But suppose that a book were to appear in which the con- 
 
THE UNITY OF THE CONJUGATION. 205 
 
 3 ligation presented an irreproachable unity. Would this table 
 be profitable for the study of any given language?^ Our ex- 
 perience authorises us to say that it would be prejudicial to 
 this study, and this paradox we explain in the following way. 
 Every intermediary between the idea and its expression hinders 
 the quick development of the latter. Just so long, for instance, 
 as in order to employ a subjunctive form, it is necessary to 
 remember the rule which commands it, and then to represent to 
 oneself the small square in the table where dwells the form of 
 which you are in need, you may be quite certain that you are 
 not in a state either to speak or to understand any other per- 
 son speaking in the language studied. Is not this exactly what 
 happens to us with Latin or Greek after ten or even twenty 
 years' study ? Has Latin ever been better spoken than at that 
 epoch in which the grammar was reduced to a few pages, or 
 rather to a purely oral teaching ? May we not say that the 
 "practical" knowledge of this tongue has varied in inverse 
 proportion to the thickness of the grammars ? 
 
 It is the same with speaking as it is with reading. We 
 only know how to read upon the day when we no longer have 
 need to name the letters or to preoccupy ourselves about them. 
 In the same way, we only know how to speak a language when 
 we have no further need to consult the rule, that is to say, 
 when, as we have said, the grammar has become an added 
 sense, an organ of our intelligence. 
 
 What would be the effect produced by this ideal table of 
 conjugations *? Evidently this table will play the part of inter- 
 mediary between the idea and its expression : it will hinder 
 the grammatical sense from being born, and will hold the 
 mind captive under its empire. Do not forget, moreover, that 
 this ideal conjugation is an acknowledged abstraction. The 
 mind having to struggle against two enemies at once, will 
 inevitably succumb. 
 
 "But," it will be objected, "you are pleading against the 
 conjugation ; but the verb being the principal object of gram- 
 mar, it is therefore grammar itself that you are attempting to 
 batter down." Not at all, begging your pardon, but merely 
 the manner in which it is taught. It is the process that 
 we are attacking — that process that pretends to lead to the 
 concrete by way of the abstract. 
 
 In the present systems, we are shown the conjugation on 
 
2o6 GEAMMAR. 
 
 paper : the eye is taught by means of lines and bars ; we 
 have to strive to form therefrom a " perception," a stereotyped 
 view. No one seems to think of writing, not upon paper, but 
 upon the thought, of forming of the conjugation a " con- 
 ception." " But how can this be done 1 " you will ask. We 
 will endeavour to show. 
 
 The unity of the conjugation may be assimilated to the 
 unity of each of our series. The moods thereof represent 
 the natural chapters or divisions. The diverse forms of these 
 moods, so improperly called " tenses," are the themes thereof. 
 Each mood forms a veritable and indivisible whole — a perfect 
 unity; for it corresponds to a mode of existence of the mind. 
 But, like the theme of the series, the " tense " forms in its 
 turn an indivisible whole — a " unity " as perfect, but more 
 true and more concrete, than that of the mood itself. 
 
 The conjugation may therefore be taught as a series : theme 
 by theme, that is, tense by tense ; that is, form by form ; and 
 if the distribution of a linguistic series in various themes, far 
 from distraining the unity of the series, strengthens it by recall- 
 ing it continually to the mind, neither will the partial and suc- 
 cessive study of the " tenses," or time forms, prove prejudicial to 
 the unity of the moods ; and, for the same reasons, the unity 
 of the conjugation will remain intact, provided only that the 
 teaching proceeds rationally. The sun does not shine the less 
 brightly because it shines over a wider extent. 
 
 Furthermore, this unity will gain considerably both in 
 force and in precision : in force, as does everything which is 
 developed in its constituent elements ; in precision, as does 
 everything which passes from the general and the abstract to 
 the concrete. 
 
 Therefore, by studying the conjugation piece by piece and 
 as a series, the unity of this conjugation will not be affected. 
 Our proceeding is therefore justified ; we are right in teaching 
 each mood separately and each form separately. From this 
 follow three practical consequences of the very greatest im- 
 portance : — 
 
 I. The memory of the pupil will be relieved of the over- 
 whelming burden of the conjugation learnt in its totality. To 
 express each of his ideas, he will not need to unfold before 
 his imagination the extremely complex pigeon-hole arrange- 
 ment of this conjugation, with its forms, regular and irregular. 
 
THE GRAMMATICAL SENSE. 207 
 
 He will have only one wheel to set in motion ; he will have 
 only one form to regard at any one time. 
 
 2. This form, separated from the essentially abstract system 
 of the conjugation, may be assimilated to the idea which it 
 expresses, may be made to form one body with it, and so 
 become stripped of all feeling of abstraction. 
 
 Thenceforward there is no intermediary between the idea 
 and the form — a result absolutely impossible of achievement 
 if a special form were forced, as in the classical process, to 
 remain adherent to the whole of the conjugation, and if, in 
 order to apply this single form, it were necessary to embrace 
 and set in motion the whole body of the conjugation — that 
 is to say, to imagine it in its totality. Riveted to an 
 abstract whole, this form would inevitably* remain abstract 
 itself. 
 
 3. Lastly, and most important, this operation will prepare 
 the awakening of the new sense of which we have spoken — 
 " the grammatical sense." The form being identified every- 
 where and always with the idea, it will not be long before 
 the pupil will apply the foreign grammar " by instinct." 
 
 3. Our process and that of nature — Awakening of the 
 grammatical sense — The indicative mood, the forvi of 
 the present tense, and the third person — The series of the 
 vei^h. 
 
 Let us now compare our process with that of Nature, and 
 see if they agree the one with the other. In the first place, 
 the two results thereof are identical : the child also applies 
 the conjugations "by instinct." Long before he has heard 
 of conjugations, long even before he has learned to read, the 
 child distinguishes perfectly well the moods and the time 
 forms of the verbs. Whence comes this marvellous intuition ? 
 
 We have already fully stated that, in learning the mother- 
 tongue, the language forms one with the perception : what the 
 child sees, that he speaks about directly and without inter- 
 mediary, and his perception in early childhood being always 
 that of an actual fact, he gives it the form which we know 
 under the name of " the present." As with our method, there- 
 fore, the child commences with the present. Subsequently 
 this form, owing to its frequency, becomes iile-ntilied naturally 
 with all that appears as present, and the child "instinctively" 
 borrows this form whenever it wishes to express anything that 
 
2o8 GBAMMAR 
 
 it perceives as present — that is to say, this operation becomes 
 after a time the effect of a true " feeling " or " sense." Does 
 not our process equally lead to the same point ? 
 
 The child plays about a very long time upon the present ; 
 he expresses therewith, so to speak, the whole of his indi- 
 viduality before passing to another tense. Hence the excep- 
 tional importance of this first form. It is to the entire 
 conjugation what the verb is to the sentence — the soul or the 
 substance. In all languages, the third person of the present 
 tense contains in itself the complete germ of the whole verb. 
 And this should be so, the third person being the first form 
 that the child distinguishes and in which he babbles his 
 infantile language. As we have said already, the child at first 
 employs this third person even when speaking of himself — 
 
 Teddy is hungry. 
 
 The third person includes within itself the entire conjuga- 
 tion, which develops therefrom piece by piece accoiding to the 
 needs of the age or of the thought. It is in the third person 
 that, at the commencement, the unity of the conjugations 
 resides. It is not yet the unity of the oak, but it is the unity 
 of the acorn ; and as fast as a new form issues from it, the 
 mind will easily recognise this form by its appearance as be- 
 longing to the same whole. In this manner the conjugation 
 becomes a kind of " progressive " unity, which at no time 
 hinders or burdens the development of the various parts. 
 
 Guided by this observation, we have adopted for the ordi- 
 nary and constant form of our series the third person singular 
 of the indicative mood, present tense. Like Nature, we make 
 this third person the basis of our operations. We have had 
 the idea of sometimes taking as point of departure, instead of 
 the form of the present tense, that of the future or of the past 
 tenses, hoping by this means to advance the knowledge of 
 the verbs while saving time ; but we soon perceived that the 
 exercise lost in clearness and simplicity by so doing ; that the 
 assimilation took place with far greater trouble ; and lastly, 
 that with these forms it was not easy to ascend or re-descend 
 to any other. We. were forced to re-establish the verb upon 
 its natural basis, " the present." 
 
 The present, or rather the form of the present tense, is a 
 known quantity, and a constant one ; the other forms are 
 unknown quantities which are deduced from the one given. 
 
THE REFORM OF GRAMMAR TEACHING. 209 
 
 Consequently, before conjugating, it is necessary to know and 
 possess the form of the present. Our first step is therefore 
 both in accordance with the prescriptions of reason and with 
 the lessons of Nature, properly interpreted. 
 
 4. Summary and conclusion — Grammatical teaching must he 
 reformed, not abolished. 
 
 To sum up the preceding considerations : the true grammar 
 should begin, not by the study of the substantive and of the 
 declensions, but by the study of the verb. The form of the 
 present tense will be the object of our first attempts. This 
 form will be conjugated not for itself — that is to say, abstractly — 
 but with all the complements of the verb in the senteijce given. 
 This grammatical diversion is a relaxation for the scholar, a 
 fruitful game which endows him with a new sense — the " gram- 
 matical sense." This exercise is not premature ; it responds 
 to a real and actual need. The study of the verb should be 
 progressive; each form should be separated from the whole 
 and treated in its turn. The child begins by the indicative 
 mood, and by the present tense of this mood ; we do likewise. 
 This process changes in nothing the true unity of the conju- 
 gation, but, on the contrary, strengthens it. 
 
 No grammarian has been able as yet to draw up the table 
 of the conjugation under a perfect and definite form. But 
 even if this ideal table could be made, it would only prove 
 pernicious to the study of languages, at any rate in cases 
 where it was applied as are the conjugations of the present 
 grammars. It would stand inevitably as an intermediary 
 between the idea and its expression, paralysing the latter, 
 exiling the mind into the void of abstraction, burdening the 
 memory with the whole weight of its general organism, stifling 
 the grammatical sense as a tyrant stifles liberty. 
 
 In itself everything included in the term conjugation belongs 
 to the abstract. Now all good teaching should strive to bring 
 the abstract to the concrete, the general to the particular. 
 Words are but signs, that is to say, in reality a pure abstrac- 
 tion, which abstraction is intended to lead to the perception 
 or the representation of a real and concrete fact. It is there- 
 fore wrong, radically wrong, in dealing with language, to 
 act upon the principle so often advocated with reference to 
 all and everything — " To proceed from the concrete to the 
 
 o 
 
2IO GRAMMAR. 
 
 abstract," which renders simple things difllicult, and trans- 
 forms what is easily represented in the mind into tliat which 
 is nebulous and indefinite. It is this principle turned the 
 other way round which we should follow in teaching languages. 
 We should take the abstract and render it as concrete as pos- 
 sible. Our formula will thus be to proceed at once from the 
 abstract to the concrete, that is, to transform whatever is 
 abstract and render it concrete. 
 
 To attain this aim in the study of the verb we propose to 
 assimilate the conjugation to a series, of which the various 
 links, that is, the separate themes, would be what are termed 
 " the tenses." Each form or tense would be elaborated sepa- 
 rately, not in the vague form of the abstract, but upon the 
 actual material of our series, and until the pupil applied it 
 instinctively, spontaneously, intuitively. This process appears 
 to us to offer great advantages : — 
 
 1. The mind deals with but one form at a time, and runs 
 no danger of succumbing under the burden of the complete 
 conjugation. 
 
 2. Each form being separated from its abstract whole, be- 
 comes rapidly identified with the idea, the perception — becomes 
 embodied in it, and passes to the concrete. 
 
 3. Lastly, grammatical speech under these conditions may, 
 and does, promptly become an instinct; in other words, is 
 developed by intuition. 
 
 Compared with the process of Nature, our system will be 
 found to have attained the same aims by the same means. 
 Like the child, we begin by the indicative and the form of 
 the present. Like him also, we make this form the basis of 
 all our operations by dwelling, like him, upon the third person. 
 Soon, like him again, from- this third person we shall make all 
 the other parts of the verb which it contains in germ spring 
 successively forth. 
 
 Finally, the grammar of childhood is indeed a grammar of 
 intuition ; but this intuition — let no one be deceived upon this 
 point — is the result of a prodigious labour. It is no more a 
 gift than the ability of Henri Mondeux was a gift ; and our 
 method does not in reality propose any less aim than to dis- 
 cover, or rather to reveal, the mysterious process which creates 
 this intuition, and endows the human mind with its power. 
 Therefore, if we wish to speak a language with the surety and 
 
INTUITION AND GRAMMAR 211 
 
 the quickness of the child, we must pass through the appren- 
 ticeship that he passes through. There is therefore a process 
 to be followed; there is something to learn, something to be 
 studied. We are, therefore, in accord, at least so far as regards 
 the basis, with those who maintain that a language cannot be 
 learnt without learning rules. 
 
 On the other hand, we have clearly demonstrated that there 
 is only one road that leads to intuition, that which goes from 
 the abstract to the concrete, from the general to the particular, 
 from the imaginary to the real. Now, whether we realise it 
 or not, all grammars and methods at present known lead, on 
 the contrary, from the concrete to the abstract, from the real 
 to the imaginary ; and, consistent with themselves, profess a 
 profound disdain for intuition, denying its efficacy, denouncing 
 it, and chasing it away like an evil spirit. But is not this 
 like seeking to make a river flow by damming up its source ? 
 Is not this trying to produce light by eliminating the sun ? 
 We find ourselves, therefore, equally in accord with those who 
 reprove the ordinary teaching of grammar as useless, if not 
 actually harmful, to the " practical " study of languages. 
 
 In itself the grammatical teaching is necessary ; but such 
 as is given in the schools of to-day has proved useless, nay, 
 even harmful, for the acquisition and the practice of languages. 
 Conclusion : we must not abolish the teaching of grammar ; 
 we must reform it. 
 
 STUDY OF THE VERB. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD — ACTS PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE. 
 
 T. Six times or six ^periods — Definite times and indefinite times — 
 Moments of 'precision. 
 
 We have conjugated the verbs of our exercise, or rather 
 the exercise itself, in the present tense. AYe could have 
 
212 GRAM^rAR 
 
 conjugated it, and we can conjugate it, in the same manner, 
 and with the same facility, in the past, in the future, and in 
 other tenses, if they exist. This will be the task of. the 
 second week. Before doing so it will be necessary to give to 
 the pupil a precise notion of the grammatical tenses. 
 
 Our explanation will be short and simple. We shall say to 
 him : — 
 
 The human mind is capable of distinguishing or perceiving, 
 within time in general, various " periods " or durations of 
 time, sharply determined as regards their length, and taken as 
 units, to wit, the period of a day, the period of a week, the 
 period of a month, the period of a year, the period of the life 
 of a man ; lastly, a period which comprises all the others. Time 
 properly so called, or Eternity. These constitute the six periods 
 of time, which we shall take as the basis of our grammar. 
 
 We will repeat them : — • 
 
 The period or duration of a day, this is the first period. 
 
 The period or duration of a week is a second period. 
 
 The period or duration of a month is a third period. 
 
 The period or duration of a year is a fourth period. 
 
 Time in general, or eternity, is a fifth period. 
 
 There is also the period or duration of time, not so definitely 
 fixed, measured by the life of a man — Charlemagne, Napoleon, 
 Shakespeare, yourself, myself, or any other person : this is the 
 sixth period. 
 
 We must be careful not to omit this last ; it is the key to 
 some of the greatest difficulties of the conjugations. Without 
 it a rational explanation of the forms of the verbs is impossible. 
 It is the omission of due consideration of this period or dura- 
 tion which is the cause of the embarrassments and mistransla- 
 tions of the grammarians. Why, indeed, should the duration 
 of the life of the person who is speaking not take its place 
 amongst the epochs in which he mentally places the facts 
 about which he is thinking 1 We must not forget that every 
 living individual involuntarily and inevitably considers him- 
 self as the centre of the world, as the substance of the universe, 
 and connects everything with himself. 
 
 Tliere will be, therefore, at least six periods or durations of 
 time. With reference to the three forms hitherto regarded as 
 the substance itself or the incarnation of time — the past, the 
 present, and the future — we shall presently state their propei 
 signification in grammar. 
 
THE PERIODS OF TIME. 213 
 
 For the moment the three legendary tenses are dethroned. 
 What will pedantry say to this ? And how shall we be able 
 ourselves to justify the number six ? To the child all justifica- 
 tion is needless. He will understand us perfectly and at once ; 
 for the six periods which we have just enumerated are to him 
 real periods of time and not " abstractions " of time. He knows 
 them as well as we do ourselves ; he uses them constantly. 
 They form a set of pigeon-holes, always present, always open 
 before him, into which he is continually distributing his 
 remembrances, his perceptions, his thoughts. The pedagogue 
 will possibly be less docile ; but we will pass on ; we will try 
 conclusions with him later. 
 
 A " day " may be past and gone ; it is then called yesterday, 
 the day before yesterday, last Monday, last Tuesday, the other 
 day. 
 
 A day may be present ; it is then called to-day. 
 
 A day may be future, that is, still to come; it is called 
 to-morrow, the day after to-morrow, next Monday, next Tues- 
 day, &c. 
 
 Past, present, future —these words do not represent " periods 
 of time ; " they represent " states " of the periods of time. 
 
 What we have said of the period of a day we can also say 
 of the period of a week. A week may be past; it is then 
 called last week, the other week, two weeks ago, &c. A week 
 may be present, that is, still going on ; it is then called this 
 week. A week may be future or to come ; it is then called 
 next week, the coming week. 
 
 We have in the same way, last month (the month that is 
 past), this month or the current month, next month or the 
 coming month. 
 
 We have also, last year or the past year, this year or the 
 current year, next year or the coming year. 
 
 Time, properly so called, has only one state; it is always 
 present. 
 
 Here we have a nomenclature which assuredly is within the 
 reach of everybody's comprehension. All that is required to 
 understand it, is to be able to distinguish a week or a month 
 from a day, and to-day from to-morrow. 
 
 A day " past "—yesterday, for example — is a period of time 
 begun and finished, that is to say, in relation to the present 
 moment, limited behind and before. It is therefore *' definite " 
 
214 GRAMMAR 
 
 (or finished), and grammar has rightly consecrated this term 
 thereto. 
 
 A day *' present" (to-day) is a period of time begun but not 
 finished. It is not, in relation to the present moment, limited 
 at its latter point ; consequently it is " indefinite " (unfinished). 
 Grammar has also consecrated this term. 
 
 What we have just said about the day applies to the week, 
 the month, the year. But eternity being by its nature always 
 present, can only be an " indefinite" (or unfinished) period of 
 time. In the same way, the life of any person still living 
 (you, me, this or that man) equally represents an "indefinite " 
 (or unfinished) period of time. 
 
 What difference is there between a past time and a definite 
 time ? In ordinary language, very often none at all. Indeed, 
 all time that is past may be considered as finished, and conse- 
 quently as *' definite." The two terms " past " and " definite " 
 seem therefore perfectly identical. Are they so in reality, and 
 ought they to be so ? No. 
 
 " Definite " is a qualificative of the period of time. " Past " 
 is a qualificative of the action that has taken place in Time 
 in general. It is the confusion of these tw^o terms which has 
 given rise to so many grammatical enormities, and so many 
 mistranslations. 
 
 Each of the before-mentioned periods of time becomes im- 
 posed upon us as an indivisible whole. Nevertheless, each of 
 them has various moments which might be called " moments 
 of precision." The year has its months, the month its weeks, 
 the week its days, the day its hours. 
 
 Last year I killed a snake. 
 
 And if I wish to be precise : 
 
 Last year, in the month of January, 
 I killed a snake. 
 
 Observe that this addition does not here bring with it any 
 change in the form of the verb. The definite (or finished) 
 periods of time, such as yesterday, last month, do not admit 
 of other divisions. 
 
 The indefinite (or unfinished) periods, such as to-day, this 
 week, this year, also contain the natural moments, and these 
 it may be important to indicate precisely, because with these 
 
THE NATURAL GRAMMAR. 
 
 215 
 
 the form of the verb does vary. Thus, the period " to-day " 
 comprises five " moments," which we generally designate by 
 the followinsf terms : — 
 
 'Up to now (this morn- 
 ing, or rather that 
 part of to-day already 
 gone) 
 
 Just now 
 
 Now 
 Presently 
 
 This evening, to-night 
 
 ce matin 
 
 il y a un instant 
 (tout-a-l'heure) 
 
 k present 
 
 dans un instant 
 (tout-a-l'heure) 
 
 ce soir 
 
 heute Morgen. 
 
 so eben. 
 
 jetzt. ■ 
 sogleich. 
 
 heute Abend. 
 
 *'This week" divides naturally into two parts: that which 
 is already fled, and that which has not yet passed. The same 
 division applies to this month, this year, to the individual life, 
 and to Time properly so called. 
 
 2. Natural association of the forms of the verbs with the 
 times — Tlie tense intuition. 
 
 Our pupil now possesses a clear and precise notion — and let 
 us hope an exact and complete one — of the grammatical times, 
 and of their kinds, their different states, and their various 
 appellations. What use will he make of this notion ? Or 
 rather, what use shall we make of it ourselves in order to 
 teach him the conjugations, and especially those of the indi- 
 cative mood ? Nature has solved the question ever since man 
 existed, or at least ever since the time he began to talk ; the 
 most ordinary common-sense should therefore lead us before 
 all else to study her processes. 
 
 And first of all, let us lay it down as a principle that if 
 there is a natural grammar, it must be simple — extremely 
 simple — from the fact that all the world over it is understood 
 and applied without ever having been studied. If, therefore, 
 we encounter in it what may be termed "simplicities," we 
 must not be either astonished or regretful thereat. One fact 
 is certain, that the most unlettered of men — let us say the 
 most ignorant — never makes a mistake in the time significa- 
 tion of his verb, — saying "went" for "has gone," — however 
 
2i6 GRAMMAK. 
 
 quickly he may speak. This proves tliat we have here one of 
 the most simple of operations, one which has not the slightest 
 practical connection with the abstract and metaphysical views 
 and rules of our grammarians. If it were necessary, in order 
 to employ what is commonly termed the "fast indefinite," to 
 have present in the mind the rule laid down by such or such 
 grammarian who happens still to be enthroned in our schools, 
 we should most certainly be in danger, not only of putting a 
 past definite where a past indefinite should be given and vice- 
 vei'sd, but often of not being able to speak at all : the rule 
 being far from applying to all cases. 
 
 The employment of tenses, I repeat, should be, and as a 
 matter of fact is, an extremely simple operation. It is 
 this : — Every time we wish to state, not an abstract idea, 
 but an actual fact which takes or took place within a certain 
 time, ice always begin by mentioning or hy indicating this 
 time : — 
 
 Yesterday . . Arthur visited a friend. 
 
 Last week . . Arthur visited a friend. 
 
 Last month . . Arthur visited a friend. 
 
 Last year . . Arthur visited a friend. 
 
 Socrates . . died in prison. 
 
 When pronouncing the word " yesterday " I infallibly re- 
 present to myself the definite (or finished) period of time 
 which this word recalls, and I choose naturally the verbal 
 form destined and consecrated to all definite periods of time : — 
 
 I visit ed 
 thou visit edst 
 he visit ed. 
 
 I repeat, and the attention of the reader is particularly 
 directed to this point, never do we express a fact without 
 previously designating by one of the preceding terms or by 
 some analogous term, in which of the six "periods" of time 
 the fact took place. Every one can convince himself of this 
 by observing what himself he says. Suppress all indication 
 of time in the phrase above given, and it will run : — 
 
 Arthur visited a friend. 
 
 Something essential is lacking to this sentence : it is not 
 complete under this form; involuntarily you wonder, "When ?" 
 
NECESSITY OF SPECIFYING THE TIME. 217 
 
 Add to it any one of the six periods, and it leaves nothing to 
 be desired : — 
 
 Last week Arthur visited a friend. 
 
 These six periods form, as we have said, a kind of set of 
 pigeon-holes (everybody has the same set) into which we dis- 
 tribute, not letters, but the various acts which we wish to 
 express, which thus find themselves categorically labelled, 
 that is, determined as to time. 
 
 Now transport the fact into an " indefinite" (or unfinished) 
 period of time ; for example, into the period "to-day." To-day 
 presents, as we have just said, several " moments " : — 
 
 Up to now — this morning (or rather ] r*. , • 
 that part of to-day which is passed), j 
 
 Just now, II y a un instant. 
 
 Now, A present. 
 
 Presently, Dans un instant. 
 
 This evening, Ce soir. 
 
 If you will notice, you will find that you never express a fact 
 as taking place in the time to-day without mentioning, or at 
 any rate tacitly indicating, which of the moments the fact 
 took place in. 
 
 To-day (some time up to ) j j,^^^ ^ ,^^^ ^^ ^^.^^^ 
 now, not specined),^ J r ^ 
 
 Just now, I have jnst spoken to my friend. 
 
 Now, I am speaking. 
 
 _, ., f I am firoing to speak. 
 
 Presently, 1 I shall speak. 
 
 Tl.isevening(to.day),{I-ftlak°^^^^'^°^' 
 
 These words — this morning, just now, now, presently, this 
 evening — express parts inseparable from the period termed 
 " to-day." When pronouncing each of these terms, I represent 
 to myself, therefore, by a well-known association of ideas, both 
 the indefinite (or unfinished) period of time, "to-day," in its 
 entirety, and a particular "moment" of this general time. 
 It is, therefore, exactly the same operation as for the definite 
 (or finished) periods of times. 
 
 ^ When the exact moment is specified, the form in English is dilfertut, 
 (See next page) — (Trans.). 
 
2i8 GRAMMAR. 
 
 Let us replace to-day by to-morrow When pronouncing 
 *' to-morrow" I represent to myself the future period of time 
 evoked by this word (and of which " yesterday " is the image), 
 and I employ naturally and spontaneously the verbal form 
 habitually employed for this species of period : — 
 
 I shall speak. 
 Thou wilt speak. 
 He will speak. 
 
 We ask, is there any operation of the mind more elemen- 
 tary, more easy to follow, than this ? 
 
 In what exactly does the intellectual operation carried out 
 by the man who speaks in these different tenses really consist ? 
 There is nothing, I fancy, more simple. He speaks not accord- 
 ing to an abstract rule, but according to his own conception. 
 He imagines to himself the time ; he sees the time, that is, the 
 day, or the week, or the year, &c., in which the act he wishes 
 to express has taken place, takes place, or will take place ; and 
 according as this time is a definite (or finished) time, an indefi- 
 nite (or unfinished) time, or a future time, he makes his choice 
 of the first, of the second, or of the third form above given. 
 
 The person speaking is, therefore, his own arbitrator ; his 
 forms relate only to his fancy. He is guided and ruled by 
 himself alone in defining by a word such as "yesterday" or "to- 
 morrow " the time in which the act happened or will happen. 
 Is not this the intuitive process par excellence ? If one wished 
 to explain what intuitive perception was, could a much better 
 example be chosen ? 
 
 This little word "yesterday," which the grammar disdains 
 or hardly perceives — this worthless word is found to be the 
 luminous beacon which guides in his speech the most ignorant 
 as well as the most learned, and the most learned as much as 
 the most ignorant, without ever allowing them to be led astray. 
 
 We may here open a parenthesis. The difference between 
 the definite periods of time and the indefinite periods of time 
 being thus clearly laid down, we can explain in passing various 
 grammatical facts upon which light has never been clearly 
 thrown until now. For instance, in English, when speaking 
 of a past act within the period of time " to-day," we may say, 
 and say with equal correctness — 
 
 To-day I have opened the door. 
 
 To day, at eleven o'clock, I opened the door. 
 
DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE PERIODS. 219 
 
 Why is this ? In these two phrases has not the act taken 
 place in an indefinite period of time, the period of time to-day ? 
 and is not *' I opened the door" a form exclusively consecrated 
 to the definite periods of time ? Ought the verbal form to be 
 thus in disaccord with the time 1 Is there here what is termed 
 an exception to the rule? No, a true rule is susceptible of 
 explanations ; it cannot permit exceptions. 
 
 In the second case of the example here chosen, the moment is 
 more exactly defined by the words " at eleven o'clock." There 
 is no reason why, if we wish so to do, we should not conceive 
 our period of time to be shorter than a day — to be a forenoon, 
 an hour, even a minute. Whenever the exact moment is de- 
 fined, it will be found that the act is represented as taking 
 place in a short period of time separated from the present, 
 which is, therefore, a definite (or finished) period of time, and 
 the definite form, " I opened," is used whenever it is important 
 to indicate the exact moment. Whereas if the act occurs simply 
 in the period of to-day — some time up to now — its exact point 
 being of no great importance, the form " I have opened " clearly 
 expresses the larger unit of time "to-day." This phenomenon 
 (which does not occur in French) might be said to result from 
 the value accorded to time in England — whether the period of 
 an hour or of a minute — the English proverb, " Time is money," 
 thus appearing even in the conjugation.^ 
 
 We will quote another example, which will serve to confirm 
 our explanation. Some one asks you : — 
 
 " Have you read Moli^re ? " (Avez-vous lu Moliere ?) 
 
 In this phrase the indication of time seems to be lacking. 
 It is there nevertheless. Amongst our periods of time is that 
 of the life of the individual who is, or may be, the author of 
 the act expressed. In the foresaid example the author of the 
 act therein referred to is "you." The word "you" gives the 
 indication of the period of time. Does not " you " imply the 
 idea of your life or your duration of existence'? But your 
 life is an indefinite or unfinished period of time. The act 
 takes place, therefore, in an indefinite period of time, and 
 hence the form, " Have you read 1 " (Avez-vous lu ?), and not, 
 " Did you read 1 " (Mtes-vous ?). 
 
 The expression, "Did you read the Pens^es of Pascal?" 
 
 1 This paragraph, and the other English examples, pp. 225, 233-4, are 
 inserted by the Translators. 
 
220 CxRAMMAR 
 
 (LMes-vous les Pens^es de Pascal?), would be incorrect stand- 
 ing alone, or would inadequately render your idea. 
 
 For the same reason we can say with equal correctness, 
 "Horace wrote an ode on this subject," and "Horace has written 
 an ode on this subject." The first phrase places the fact in 
 the life of Horace, which represents a definite period of time. 
 The second phrase places the fact in time properly so called, 
 which represents an indefinite or unfinished period of time. 
 
 In French a similar phenomenon, but in the opposite 
 direction to the English, takes place. In French is said, and 
 can be said, with the same accuracy : — 
 
 Hier, je fermai la porte. 
 Hier, j'ai ferme la porte. 
 
 " Hier " (yesterday) is a definite period of time, and yet " j'ai 
 ferm^ " is a form consecrated to the widefinite periods of time. 
 Here, again, who is the author of the act expressed 1 It 
 is the "I" or Ego. This "I" represents an indefinite or 
 unfinished period of time (for " I " am still living), of which 
 yesterday is merely a moment of precision. 
 
 The act takes place, therefore, at the same time both within 
 a definite period, yesterday, and in an indefinite period repre- 
 sented by the " I," that is to say, the duration of my life. 
 This, then, simply is the reason why these two expressions 
 are sometimes equally correct. It should be added that the 
 second, the most irregular in appearance, is in France and 
 Germany more employed than the first, which perhaps 
 results from the predominance in man of the perception of 
 the Ego. Evidently these facts and these rules may be con- 
 sidered as so many witnesses in favour of our system of the 
 "periods of time." 
 
 3. The ordinary period of time {yesterday, to-day, to-morroio, 
 Sfc.) — The false p)C'fiod of time of the grammars {the past, 
 the present, the future). 
 
 Compare the words yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, this morn- 
 ing, &c., with the three terms by which the grammarians have 
 thought fit to replace them— the past, the present, the future. 
 
 Yesterday, to-day, to-morrow, certainly represent something 
 to us. By them and in them time takes unto itself a body ; 
 of the abstract it makes itself concrete, — as concrete as is 
 
THE PAST, THE PRESENT, THE FUTURE. 221 
 
 possible for "Time" to be : it becomes almost perceptible ; it 
 becomes quasi-tangible. "To-day" is not a pure idea; it is a 
 reality. "Yesterday" is not a chimera; it was a reality. 
 " To-morrow " is not a vain conception comparable to a 
 thought, a longing ; it is a reality — a reality which is not yet, 
 but which is to be. 
 
 By resting upon these realities of time, Nature remains 
 faithful to her constant process of " going from the abstract 
 to the concrete " (that is, transforming what is abstract and 
 rendering it concrete). Now let us weigh these three other 
 words — the past, the present, the future. 
 
 Every one of us, at school or at college, has read, written, 
 copied, and recopied, during seven or eight years, the words 
 "past" and "perfect." We have continually, so to speak, 
 articulated these words with our lips and received them with 
 our ears. Going to a grammar-school, is it much else, even 
 in our own day, than declining and conjugating ? Well, let 
 the cleverest of those who have conjugated so long with us 
 declare with sincerity whether they have seen in these words 
 "past" or "perfect" much else than a vain termination: — 
 «, isti, it, imus, istis, erunt or ere, amav-i, isti, H, imus, &c. 
 
 Who is he who has ever thought of seeing in these forms 
 the "time reality" which they carry: yesterday, last week, 
 last month, last year, the lifetime of Socrates or of Caesar 1 
 
 How is this 1 Nature conducts a thing essentially abstract 
 — " Time " — to concrete realities ; and the school can find 
 nothing better to do than to push aside these realities and 
 to cast the child into the void of abstraction — The Past ! The 
 Present ! The Future ! 
 
 But do you recognise that these three words represent 
 abstractions to the second power? " Virtuous " is assuredly 
 less abstract than " virtue." The substantive always surpasses, 
 as regards abstractions, the corresponding adjective. To raise 
 the adjectives " past, present, future," to the rank of substan- 
 tives, and make of them "the past, the present, the future," 
 is certainly to raise the abstraction to its second degree. Can 
 you be astonished, after this, that the most profound philo- 
 logist cannot, as we have so often said, accomplish in ten years 
 what the humblest nurse-maid does in six months ? Can you 
 be astonished that the child feels and retains for the study of 
 grammar that taste and tender affection which we all know. 
 
222 GRAMMAR 
 
 By proceeding on the systems at present taught, by taking 
 that which is concrete and transforming it into abstraction 
 in order to teach the child, answer me, have you been walking 
 with Nature or against her 1 Are you going towards progress, 
 or are you not rather rushing into nothingness 1 
 
 4. Erroneous notions of the tenses in the grammars — Various 
 causes of these errors: disdain of ohservatioii, traditional 
 logomachy, confusion of the tense and the act, vain symmetry, 
 
 Nature carries on her work continually beneath our eyes 
 and in full daylight, and with a success that no one can 
 contest. How is it, then, we may ask, that her work and 
 her processes have struck no one's attention, and have re- 
 mained so little understood by linguists ? There are, we think, 
 several causes of this. 
 
 We must denounce, as the first cause, a certain contrariety 
 of the human mind. Man regards with disdain all that is 
 simple and all that is within his reach : in everything at the 
 beginning he prefers the longest way round. To discover the 
 laws of language, it does not occur to him to study the child 
 or the ordinary man who speaks under his very eyes, as it 
 did not occur to the University to study Henri Mondeux in 
 order to learn the art of mental calculation. The being who 
 speaks before us produces the effect upon us of a common and 
 well-known machine. To observe him, to study the secrets 
 of such an ordinary operation, would appear derogatory to our 
 dignity as a teacher. Lord preserve the scientist from seeking 
 the laws of language in so lowly a place ! Will not absolute 
 truth be found rather in the metaphysical regions of the 
 brain 1 It is here we must place ourselves, they think, to see 
 truly and see far. Tt is here we must post ourselves to have 
 the right of dictating rules for the languages, and of regu- 
 lating them with authority. So much the worse for those 
 languages that will not fit into these rules. It is for them to 
 lend themselves to reason, and not for reason to bow before them. 
 
 It is, indeed, unfortunately from these heights that the 
 greater part of our grammars have descended to us. We 
 know not a single one that is based upon the direct observa- 
 tion of the human mind, and of the child day by day creating 
 his language. 
 
ACTS, NOT TENSES. 223 
 
 A second cause is a deplorable confusion of words conse- 
 crated by usage and sanctified by time — a confusion which 
 grammarian bequeaths to grammarian as a tradition. This 
 is the confusion of the time with the act that takes place in 
 this time. 
 
 In itself, the time has nothing in common, and can have 
 nothing in common with the expression of a fact, in the same 
 way that the expression of a fact has nothing in common 
 with the time. One is the container, and the other the 
 contents — nothing more. The act is no more the time than 
 the milk is the jug which it fills. The time can determine 
 the form of the expression as the jug fixes the form of the 
 liquid ; but beware of identifying these Uyo ; if you do, you 
 expose yourself to the error of attributing to the act that 
 which belongs only to the time, and to the time that which 
 belongs only to the act. 
 
 All the present grammars consider the tenses of indicative 
 mood as times ; they name them as such, and they deal with 
 them as such. In ordinary grammar the past definite is a 
 time, the past indefinite is another time; the imperfect is 
 also a time, and the pluperfect is yet another time. The past 
 future (a future which is passed !), the subjunctives — present, 
 past, imperfect, pluperfect; the conditionals, and so to the 
 gerund, the supine, all the forms indistinctly bearing the 
 names of tenses, i.e. times. From this confusion grievous 
 errors have arisen. 
 
 No! "I love," or "we love," or "thou lovest," or "you 
 love," or "he loves," or "they love," is not a tense, i.e. a time; 
 it is the expression of an "act," an act taking place in a 
 present time as now or " ordinarily." 
 
 No ! " I have loved," or " we have loved," or " thou hast 
 loved," or "you have loved," or "he has loved," or "they 
 have loved," is not a tense, i.e. a time ; it is the expression 
 OF AN ACT, a past act which has taken place in an indefinite 
 period, as to day, this week, my life, &c. 
 
 For goodness' sake, let us not couple together the two adjec- 
 tives past and indefinite. What is past is finished and can- 
 not be indefinite or unfinished. Above all, let us not make 
 this monstrous abstraction — " the past indefinite ! " 
 
 Of what use can it be to set your pupils, and from the very 
 commencement, this enigmatical contraction 'i Why discourage 
 
224 GRAMMAE. 
 
 their patience by giving them this Gordian knot to unravel, 
 whose ends you yourselves seem not able to find 1 Seriously, 
 what is the real meaning of this expression — " past inde- 
 finite " (past which is not finished) 1 Is it worthy of science, is 
 it worthy of a grammarian ? Are you really in earnest when 
 you pronounce these two words, which mutually contradict 
 each others— " past indefinite " 1 And have you the right to 
 be astonished that children cannot comprehend you, and espe- 
 cially cannot apply what causes you so much trouble to explain 
 to them ? 
 
 No! "I loved," or "we loved," or "thou lovedst," or "you 
 loved," or "he loved," or "they loved," is not a tense, i.e. a 
 time at all ; it is the expression of an act, a past act, which 
 took place in a definite period of time, such as yesterday, 
 last week, last month, last year, &c. For the sake of science, 
 for the sake of the children, let us not wed together these 
 two adjectives "past and definite." It is clear that what 
 is past is finished. Above all, do not make of these two 
 synonymous adjectives a substantive — " the past definite ! " — 
 as if it were wished to maintain that two adjectives are worth 
 one abstract substantive. Seriously, once more, do you think 
 this play upon words (past which is fi.nished) is worthy of a 
 teacher 1 Cannot our language avoid this tautology ? Is it 
 really necessary that each classical book should reproduce and 
 propagate indefinitely this strange term, simply because it has 
 always appeared in our grammars 1 
 
 And the imperfect tense, and the pluperfect tense, and the 
 future anterior tense ! What nonsense is not hidden by these 
 words or these combinations of words 1 Can you be astonished 
 that the child has great trouble to understand you, and that 
 he confuses together, day after day and for ten years together, 
 your imperfect with your past definite, your pluperfect with 
 your past future, your subjunctive with your indicative or 
 your conditional? Is there any wonder that he can do no 
 better than yourselves with these enigmatical contractions ? 
 
 If he is right occasionally, think not the honour is due to your 
 definitions ; he does it by intuition or by chance. Confusion 
 of the time in which the act takes place with the act itself, 
 confusion of the act with its form and its verbal expression, 
 here we have a second source of the grammatical errors pre- 
 sented by our school books. And it is not the last. 
 
DIFFERENT USES OF THE SAME FORM. 225 
 
 For reasons which we cannot go fully into here, the same 
 form of the verb often serves in some languages to translate 
 an act in different periods of time ; in other words, the same 
 form serves for several periods of time. For instance, in 
 English — 
 
 When he was at the seaside, he loould rise at six. 
 
 Yesterday he would not come with us. 
 
 I ivould go now, if I were you. 
 
 I am sure he loould never cheat. 
 
 If you were to work hard you would succeed. 
 
 In French — 
 
 Autrefois j'aimaz's a dessiner. 
 
 Aujourd'hui je d^jeunais quand il est arrive. 
 
 Demain, s'il faisa^Y beau, j'irais h. la campagne. 
 
 A present, s'il faisazY beau, je sortirais. 
 
 Si tu t'appliquaes, tu r^ussirais. 
 
 These five phrases are expressed in five different periods of 
 time : — 
 
 Autrefois 
 
 — hitherto 
 
 (definite period). 
 
 Aujourd'hui 
 
 — to-day 
 
 (indefinite ,, ). 
 
 Demain 
 
 — to-morrow 
 
 (future ,, ). 
 
 Maintenant 
 
 — now 
 
 (present „ ). 
 
 Toi 
 
 — thee 
 
 (life of an individual). 
 
 And for these five periods of time we have one ending, the 
 form " Ais, AIT," that of the ordinary imperfect. 
 
 Here is a fact to which our grammarians do not seem to 
 have given sufiicient attention. Wherever there is a single 
 form, they seem to say, there could not be several essentially 
 different things. Hence superhuman efforts to reduce " two 
 into one; " hence recourse to all kinds of subtleties to justify 
 this new kind of contraction, and to silence at last this impor- 
 tunate sphinx, that so long has set the grammatical genius at 
 defiance. 
 
 They have not seen, furthermore, that each mood answering 
 to a general faculty of the mind admits, or may admit, as 
 with the faculty itself, of divisions and subdivisions. Who 
 amongst them, for example, has ever dreamt that the indicative 
 may be a complex mood ? Who has supposed that the sub- 
 junctive can be decomposed into three or four distinct moods, 
 and that the conditional itself might be something entirely 
 
 p 
 
226 GRAMMAR. 
 
 different from a simple mood? Hence, again, these forced 
 assemblages of forms and ideas in themselves radically hetero- 
 geneous. 
 
 The ordinary grammar, as we have said, being preoccupied 
 solely with the forms of words, remains perfectly content with 
 counting the various case-endings or verbal changes, grouping 
 them as best it may, sorting them according to accidental 
 analogies, without regard for the intellectual faculties from 
 whence moods and forms are derived, thus becoming the im- 
 possible guide or handbook that we know it to be. 
 
 One may turn its pages over and over, may worry it for 
 twenty years without finally being able to thoroughly compre- 
 hend what the subjunctive really is, without acquiring a really 
 clear idea of the conditional, without being able to distinguish 
 rigorously the past definite from the past indefinite or from 
 the imperfect tense. As we have already said, nothing is 
 more difiicult to conceive than relationships that do not exist. 
 It is much like the effect of looking into an unlighted peep- 
 show. The spectator may imagine he sees something, but it 
 is perfectly certain he does not see very clearly. 
 
 Another fruitful cause of grammatical errors is the love and 
 search for symmetry. Symmetry ! It is here indeed that 
 grammatical pedantry is triumphant. What is called an 
 " imperfect " tense has been placed in the indicative mood ; 
 symmetry requires that we also stick in an " imperfect " in 
 the subjunctive. A pluperfect figures in this same indicative ; 
 in the name of symmetry a pluperfect is planted in the sub- 
 junctive. The particles will be dressed up, always for sym- 
 metry, in surnames such as past, present, future, and this a 
 priori, and without questioning if a participle — that is, an 
 adjective — can ever be past, present, or future, and without 
 perceiving, for instance, that the pretended " present parti- 
 ciple" is employed just as well for past and future tenses as 
 for present tenses. Can one imagine how a mechanism so 
 perfect, arrangements so well thought out, combinations so 
 ingenious, and, above all, so natural, have so little sovereignty 
 over the mind of the pupil, and seem to repel him rather than 
 attract ? 
 
 Let us leave sarcasm. We have attempted to lay bare the 
 proceedings of Nature, we have equally attempted to lay bare 
 the proceedings of the ordinary grammarians ; knowing hence- 
 
PRACTICE OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 227 
 
 forth the route that we ought to take, and the breakers that 
 we have to avoid, we can boldly set sail with confidence. 
 
 VI. 
 
 OUR PRACTICE IN THE FORMS OF THE INDICATIVE. 
 
 I. First Exercise — Simple and momentary ads. 
 
 The class is invited to quit the "present," and to transport 
 themselves in thought into the day of "yesterday." Our 
 lesson will therefore take a new form. 
 
 Yesterday — 
 
 1. I went to the door. 
 
 I drew near to the door. 
 
 I came to the door. 
 
 I stopped at the door. 
 
 I stretched out my arm. 
 
 I took hold of the handle, &c. 
 
 2. J'allai h. la porte.^ 
 
 je m'approchai de la porte. 
 j 'arrival h, la porte. 
 je m'arretai h, la porte. 
 j'allongeai le bras, 
 je pris- la poign^e, &c. 
 
 3. Ich ging zu der Thiir. 
 
 ich naherte mich der Thiir. 
 ich kam bei der Thiir an. 
 ich blieb bei der Thiir stehen. 
 ich streckte den Arm aus. 
 ich fasste den Griff an, &c. 
 
 \. Ad portam perrexi. 
 ad portam accessi. 
 ad portam perveni. 
 ad portam substiti. 
 brachium porrexi. 
 portse ansam apprehendi, &c. 
 
 Allai, with the short closed sound (^) as aJU (Trans.). 
 
228 GEAMMAK. 
 
 Instead of practising the theme in the first person, we may 
 practise it in the second or the third, as already explained 
 
 Yesterday — 
 
 1. Thou wentest towards the door, 
 thou drewest near the door, 
 thou, &c. 
 
 2. Tu alias k la porte. 
 
 tu t'approchas h la porte. 
 tu, &c. 
 
 3. Du gingest zu der Thiir. 
 du naherest dich der ThUr. 
 du, &c. 
 
 4. Ad portam perreidsti 
 ad portam accessisti. 
 ad portam, &c. 
 
 The following remarks are suggested by this new exercise : — 
 
 1. The act is entirely distinct from the time, and the exercise 
 may be entitled, " A past act in a definite period of time." 
 
 2. The time (yesterday) is perceived as a concrete reality. 
 
 3. There is, not identification, but simply alHance, aggrega- 
 tion, association between the act and the period of time, in 
 that the act is placed by the mind — that is, thought or per- 
 ceived — in the period of time of yesterday, and not worked or 
 welded artificially to abstract terms, such as past, perfect, 
 definite, &c. In a word, the translation of the act in the 
 time takes place directly, without any intermediary — that is 
 to say, by " intuition." 
 
 When we consider the pupil to be sufficiently familiarised 
 with this form, we shall substitute the period of time " to-day " 
 instead of " yesterday," and what we have then to express will 
 be, " A past act in an indefinite period of time." 
 
 To-Day (some time up to now not specified) ^ — 
 
 I. I have gone towards the door. 
 I have drawn near to the door. 
 I have come to the door. 
 I have stopped at the door. 
 I have stretched out my arm, &c. 
 
 1 The unit of the " day " is taken here ; it may, of course, equally well be 
 the unit of the week or year — that is, this week, this year, my life (Trane.). 
 
THE PAST PARTICIPLE. 229 
 
 AUJOURD HUI (CE matin). 
 
 2. J'ai marche vers la porte. 
 
 je me suis approch^ de la porte. 
 je suis arrive k la porte. 
 je me suis arrets a la porte. 
 j'ai allong6 le bras, &c. 
 
 H E U T E. 
 
 Ich bin zu der Thiir gegangen. 
 ich babe micb der Tbiir genahrt. 
 ich bin bei der Thiir an-gekommen. 
 ich bin bei der Thiir stehen geblieben. 
 ich habe den Arm aus-gestreckt, &c. 
 
 HODIE. 
 
 4. Ad portam perrexi. 
 ad portam accessi 
 ad portam perveni, &c. 
 
 The lesson, as presented in French, will give rise to the ex- 
 planation of the rule of the participle. In a very few moments 
 the pupil will have seized the idea, and will apply it to the 
 lesson of the verb without the possibility of being deceived. 
 The German and English lessons will give rise to the rule of 
 the formation of the participles, and of the displacement of 
 the prefixes and auxiliaries. This lesson will, moreover, give 
 rise to an observation which applies to most of the modern 
 languages, and justifies our manner of presenting the con- 
 jugation, as follows : — 
 
 When the act took place in an indefinite period of time, 
 a period not yet finished, it is expressed by two terms, an 
 auxiliary and a participle — " I have opened." The auxiliary 
 in this combiDation has the form of the present : — 
 
 I have, thou hast, he has. ) t i, u i. j ^ 1. i . 
 J'ai, tu as, il a. / ^^^ ^^^^' ^^ ^^'*' ^^ ^^*- 
 
 I am, thou art, he is. ) t t. u- j u • ^ 
 
 Je suis, tu es, il est. ] ^"^ l""' <*" '"«*' «'^ '«*• 
 
 The participle is that which expresses a fact already accom- 
 plished (the past participle of the ordinary grammars). 
 
230 GRAMMAR. 
 
 This composite form presents a perfect harmony with the 
 conception. Indeed, in the phrase, " to-day " (or this week, this 
 year), " I have opened the door," the mind distinguishes at once 
 two facts, to wit — 
 
 1. The act of opening the door. 
 
 2. The time in which this act took place. 
 
 The act is past, but the time, ^o-day, this week, this year, 
 belongs to the present time, and the words " to-day " (or this 
 week, or this year), indicate that this period of time is still 
 before the mind's eye. 
 
 The auxiliary corresponds to the time, the participle corre- 
 sponds to the act. The time is present, the auxiliary, therefore, 
 has the form of the present. The act is past ; the participle 
 therefore bears the form of the past. 
 
 The verbal exercise of the ancient language will be the 
 occasion of a remark in the contrary direction. The Latin 
 tongue has only one form for the two periods of time : — 
 (Yesterday), .... Portam aperui. 
 (To-day, some time up to now), Portam aperui. 
 
 The ancients represented to themselves the grammatical 
 time in a manner rather different from ours. It is for the 
 teacher to explain the why and the wherefore. 
 
 The grammatical work of our two first weeks, as above set 
 forth, represents a well-determined whole. It will be useful 
 to write out the synthesis of what has now been done, and to 
 present it to the pupil as a memento. 
 
 We have put forward the idea that the indicative is not, as 
 hitherto imagined, a simple mood. What, then, should be the 
 character of the part or the chapter that we have been dealing 
 with ? The verb varies its forms according to the nature of the 
 periods of time in which the act takes place. It may well be 
 that these forms vary also according to the conditions or the 
 ways of taking place of this said act. An act may, in point 
 of fact, occur separately, or in combination with some other 
 act ; it may be momentary, or it may be continuous ; it may 
 be casual, or it may be habitual. 
 
 If the indicative really does comprise divisions and sub- 
 divisions, no doubt they owe their origin to differences of this 
 nature. It is upon these differences that grammar must 
 attempt to base the subdivisions. The acts to which expres- 
 sion is given in our linguistic lesson are successive acts. They 
 
MOMENTARY ACTS. 
 
 231 
 
 occur separately, one by one, and momentarily — that is to say, 
 they do not continue. It is easy to draw from this a char- 
 acteristic distinction for our first grammatical chapter. Here 
 is the synthesis which we shall present to our pupils : — 
 
 Yesterday . 
 To-Day— 
 
 Sometime up 
 specified 
 
 Just now 
 
 Now 
 
 Presently 
 
 This evening 
 To- Morrow 
 
 HiER . 
 
 Aujourd'hui — 
 
 Ce matin 
 
 Tout-k-l'heure 
 
 A present 
 
 Tout-k-l'heure 
 
 Ce soir . 
 Demain 
 
 Gestern 
 Heute — 
 
 Heute morgen 
 
 So eben . 
 
 Jetzt 
 
 Sogleich . 
 
 Heute Abend 
 Morgen 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 Simple and Momentary Acts, 
 
 . I opened the door. 
 
 to now not 
 
 > I have opened the door. 
 
 I have just bpened the door. 
 . I open the door. 
 . I am going to open the door. 
 j I am going to open the door. 
 * I I shall open the door. 
 . I shall open the door. 
 
 J'ouvris la porte. 
 
 J'ai ouvert la porte. 
 
 Je viens d'ouvrir la porte. 
 
 J'ouvre la porte. 
 
 Je vais ouvrir la porte. 
 
 Je vais o.uvrir la porte. 
 
 J'ouvrirai la porte. 
 
 Ich offnete die Thur. 
 
 Ich habe die Thiir geoffnet. 
 Ich habe die Thiir geoffnet. 
 Ich offne die ThUr. 
 Ich will die Thiir offnen. 
 Ich werde die Thiir offnen. 
 Ich will die Thiir offnen. 
 Ich werde die Thiir offnen. 
 Ich werde die Thiir offnen. 
 
 N.B. — We regard here the list of times as a simple gram- 
 matical indication ; for this reason we construe " ich offnete, 
 ich habe," &c., instead of " offnete ich, habe ich," &c. 
 
^32 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 Heri ... 
 
 . Ostium aperui. 
 
 Hodie — 
 
 Hodie manie . 
 
 Modo 
 
 Nunc 
 
 Jam jam . 
 
 Hodie vesperi . 
 
 . Ostium aperui. 
 . Ostium aperui. 
 . Ostium aperio. 
 . Ostium aperturus 
 . Ostium aperiam. 
 
 Cras . 
 
 . Ostium aperiam. 
 
 This synthesis will not possess the disadvantage for which 
 we have reproached the tables of the ordinary grammars. As 
 a matter of fact, we do not begin by this synthesis — we end 
 with it. We do not bring forth from this table the knowledge 
 of the verb and of the conjugation ; it is the table, on the con- 
 trary, which is the fruit of this knowledge. Abstract in 
 itself, this synthesis is concrete by reason of its object, and 
 can only carry us back to this object, which is the harmony 
 between the forms of the verbs and our conception of the 
 periods of time. If the echo is not the voice, neither is it 
 an abstraction of the voice. In the portrait of a well-known 
 friend, we do not behold an abstraction of this friend, but the 
 image of this friend himself. 
 
 2. Second Exercise — Continuous and habitual acts. 
 
 Instead of happening in a fugitive manner and casually, 
 the simple act may have a certain duration, and may be per- 
 ceived by the mind, sometimes as continuous, sometimes as 
 habitual, sometimes as " frequentative." In these various 
 cases the act presents a constant character, namely, it persists, 
 "it keeps on." 
 
 Every language has a special form to translate this char- 
 acter. One expresses it by lengthening the final syllable, 
 another by doubling the initial syllable ; one by an " aug- 
 ment," the other by an added syllable, another by a special 
 form or auxiliary. 
 
 In English this character is expressed by the syllable ing, 
 or by the locutions '* I used to " and " I would," or by the tense 
 which in most grammars is termed the " present indefinite ; " 
 
CONTINUOUS ACTS. 233 
 
 or in many cases (for the past especially), where the act is 
 itself necessarily a durative one, by the form of the simple 
 past, thus : — " I dwelt, I studied " : — 
 
 Now-a-days I am studying Latin. 
 Formerly I used to bathe before breakfast. 
 When at the seaside we would often bathe at six. 
 Now-a-days I bathe before breakfast. 
 
 In French, for past actions, the verb takes the final long 
 Ais, AIT, &c. (that of the ordinary " imperfect ") : — 
 
 II y QiYait une fois un homme et une femme. 
 
 lis habitazeT?^ pres d'un foret. ... 
 
 Dans ma jeunesse j'allais a la chasse. 
 
 Au college de S^ez on se \&vait a cinq heures. 
 
 In Latin, the syllable " bam " is added to the root form of 
 the present : " amo " becomes " amabam." The Greek pre- 
 fixes an augment. In German, for past actions, the syllable 
 TE is annexed (to the regular verbs), " strecke " becomes 
 " streckte." 
 
 I. The act whose character is to continue may be taking 
 place at the present time, or it may be perceived in the three 
 periods of time — in a finished or definite period of time, in an 
 unfinished or indefinite period of time, and in a future period 
 of time. The following are the forms which correspond, when 
 the act is simple and alone, to these times : — 
 
 Last year I studied Greek, 
 
 this year I have studied German, 
 
 now-a-days I am studying Latin, 
 
 next year I shall study Russian. 
 
 For French we have the following forms : — 
 
 I'ann^e derni^re j'etudiais le Grec. 
 
 cette ann^e j'ai ^tudi^ I'Allemand. 
 
 maintenant j'etudie le Latin. 
 
 I'annee prochaine j'etudierai le Kusse. 
 
 These examples in the two languages show that whereas in 
 English there is a particular form to express the actually con- 
 tinuing act with the termination ing : *' I am studying Latin ; " 
 
234 GRAMMAR 
 
 in French (as in most of the Continental languages) the form 
 for the present continuous act is the same as that for the pre- 
 sent momentary act : " J'^tudie le Latin." 
 
 2. The act maybe frequentative — that is, a single short act, 
 but happening often — in which case in English a different form 
 is employed for the past act or acts, i.e., in the finished or defi- 
 nite period : — 
 
 Formerly I used to bathe (or I would bathe) 
 
 before breakfast. 
 Hitherto (up to now) I have bathed before breakfast. 
 Now-a-days I bathe before breakfast. 
 
 Henceforth I shall bathe before breakfast. 
 
 In French the forms for habitual acts are the same as for 
 the continuous acts. 
 
 Autrefois je dtnais h. six heures. 
 
 Jusqu'ici j'ai din6 a six heures. 
 
 Maintenant je dtne k huit heures. 
 
 D^sormais je dinerai a sept heures. 
 
 This section of the indicative presents in French, in German, 
 and in Latin only one original form. The question arises, 
 How are we to apply this form to our lessons ? How can we 
 exercise ourselves in its use ? To what artifice must we have 
 recourse to give rational opportunity for its practice? We 
 shall call it forth by putting a simple question, the follow- 
 ing, for instance : — " Every day you have opened the door ; 
 now what did you habitually do to open it? Habitually 
 what would you always do to open the door, or what were 
 you in the habit of doing to open the door ? " To which, in 
 English, the pupil will reply (according to the form of the 
 question)— 
 
 Habitually : 
 
 I walked (or I used to, T would walk) towards the door. 
 
 I drew near (or I used to, I would draw near) to the 
 
 door. 
 I came (or I used to, I would come) to the door. 
 I stopped (or I used to, I would stop) at the door. 
 Then I stretched out (or I used to, I would stretch out) 
 
 my hand, &c. 
 
HABITUAL ACTS. 
 
 235 
 
 In French he would answer to either of these — 
 
 2. J'allais 1 vers la porte. 
 
 je m'approchais de la porte. 
 j 'arrivals a la porte. 
 je m'arretais k la porte. 
 j'allongeais le bras, &c. 
 In German — 
 
 3. Ich schritt auf die Thtlr zu. 
 ich naherte mich der Thiir. 
 ich kam bei der Thiir an. 
 
 ich blieb bei der Thiir stehen. 
 ich streckte den Arm aus, &c. 
 
 In Latin it will be — 
 
 4. Ad portam pergebam. 
 ad portam accedebam. 
 ad portam subsistebam. 
 brachium porrigebam, &c. 
 We will now crown this short exercise as in the previous 
 one, with a synthetical table. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 Continuous and Habitual Acts. 
 
 Formerly 
 
 Hitherto 
 
 Nowadays 
 
 Henceforth 
 
 Autrefois 
 Jusqu'ici 
 Maintenant 
 D^sormais 
 
 ( I dined I 
 
 < I used to dine V 
 ( I would dine ) 
 
 I dined 
 
 I used to dine 
 
 I would dine 
 
 I have dined 
 
 I dine 
 
 I shall dine 
 
 Je dtnais 
 j'ai din4 
 je dine 
 je dinerai 
 
 at six o'clock. 
 
 at six o'clock, 
 at eight o'clock, 
 at seven o'clock. 
 
 h six heures. 
 b. six heures. 
 k huit heures. 
 h sept heures. 
 
 3. Third Exercise. — Two acts occurring within the same period 
 of time — Simultaneous acts — Imperfect, anterior, and pos- 
 terior acts — Pluperfect acts. 
 
 The phrase, "Yesterday my friend came in while I was eat- 
 ing my breakfast," is the expression of two acts, viz. , to come in 
 and to eat. These two acts are combined or connected by the 
 
 ^ With the long open d souud (Trans.). 
 
236 GRAMMAR. 
 
 conjunction "while." Tlie word ''yesterday" indicates the 
 grammatical time in which these two actions took place, and 
 " while " establishes their order of succession in this time. 
 What name are we to give to the system represented by these 
 two acts ? We might name them conjoint acts, conjunctive 
 acts, acts co-ordinated within the same period of time. We 
 propose to use, as being most exact, the latter expression — 
 "Two acts co-ordinated within the same period of time."^ 
 
 When two actions occur within the same period of time, 
 they may occupy therein, in relation to each other, four 
 different positions. Two actions may, first of all, occur 
 together, that is, they may be " simultaneous," and under 
 this condition three distinct cases may present themselves. 
 
 1. The two acts may be both continuous, and therefore 
 develop parallel to each other — 
 
 Yesterday, while I was dining, he was working. 
 Hier, tandis que je dinais, il travaillait. 
 
 This relation may be graphically represented by two parallel 
 lines, thus — 
 
 ^— — while I was dining, 
 — ^^^— ■ he was working. 
 
 These two acts may be termed " Parallel Acts." 
 
 2. The two acts may be both momentary, and therefore 
 occur at the same moment — 
 
 Yesterday, as I closed the door, he arrived. 
 
 Hier, en m^me temps que je fermais la porte, il arriva. 
 
 This relation may be represented by two points placed 
 opposite each other, thus — 
 
 • as I closed the door, 
 
 • he arrived, 
 
 and the two acts may then be termed " Coinciding Acts." 
 
 ^ The passage following, as far as page 240, is developed somewhat 
 differently in the original. Upon careful comparison of the two languages, 
 however, the development given above seems to be the true one, the 
 greater difference in form between verbs expressing long and short acts in 
 English having served to show more clearly the psychological distinctions 
 latent in the tense forms. The terms "Parallel, Simultaneous, Con- 
 secutive, Posterior, Imperfect, Anterior, and Coinciding Acts " have been 
 proposed as indicating with exactitude the time relations expressed. The 
 translation of the author's exact text is given for comparison in the Ap- 
 pendix. — (The Translators.) 
 
CO-ORDINATED ACTS. 237 
 
 3. The two acts may be one continuous and the other 
 momentary, still being contemporaneous — 
 
 Yesterday, while I was dining, he arrived. 
 Hier pendant que je dinais, il arriva. 
 
 In this case the continuous action had commenced before 
 the other, and was still going on; the first action was not 
 ended, was not completed, when the second began. Grammar 
 seems to have discovered the true name of this first act, 
 " Imperfect Act ; " it receives the form of the continuous 
 acts, — in English ing, in French the final Ais. We may 
 represent this relation of the two acts by two lines, one of 
 which begins before and ends after the other, thus — 
 
 — — — — ^— while I was dining, 
 •— he arrived. 
 
 4, Lastly, if two actions do not occur together, one of them 
 may, in relation to the other, occupy two different positions 
 in time; it may follow it, or it may precede it. We may 
 represent in each case these relations by two straight lines 
 following each other, thus — 
 
 Yesterday, 
 
 after I had been dining, he arrived.^ 
 
 To-morrow, 
 
 he will arrive before I have been dining. 
 
 The terms Anterior and Posterior (expressing acts anterior 
 or posterior the one to the other) therefore will apply to these 
 acts. The term anterior is one already employed by the 
 grammars. 
 
 If we now transport all these relations into definite (finished), 
 indefinite (unfinished), and future periods of time, the follow- 
 ing are the forms that we shall obtain, first in English and 
 afterwards in French. 
 
 ^ lu ordinary usage the distance of the time, either in the past or in the 
 future, of the acts imagined and expressed, usually causes what may be 
 termed a fore-shortening of the act ; so that unless the length or duration 
 of the act were important, we should use the forms: "Yesterday, he 
 arrived after I had dined," and " He will arrive before I have dined." 
 In cases where the duration of the act is important the above construc- 
 tion is used ; as, ** The doctor will test your lungs after you have been 
 running " (Trans. ). 
 
238 
 
 GRAMMAK. 
 
 ACTS CO-ORDINATED IN THE SAME PERIOD OF TIME. 
 A. — Parallel Acts {both continuous). 
 (To work and to dine.) 
 Yesterday . . while I was dining .... he was working. 
 
 while I have been dining . . he has been working.^ 
 while I am dining . . . . he will be working. 
 
 B. —Consecutive and Simultaneous Acts. 
 A Momentary act : to arrive, in relation to another act : 
 I. To a Continuous act : to dine. | 2. To a Momentary: to close the door. 
 
 To-Day . . 
 to-morbow 
 
 hefore 
 while 
 after 
 
 before 
 
 while 
 
 after 
 
 Yesterday (Definite, or finished, period of time). 
 He arrived 
 Posterior act. 
 
 I had been dining. before 
 Imperfect act. 
 
 I was dining. 
 Anterior act. 
 
 I had been dining, after 
 
 Posterior act. 
 
 I had closed the door. 
 Coinciding act. 
 
 I closed the door. ^ 
 Anterior act. 
 
 I had closed the door. 
 
 To-Day (Indefinite, or unfinished, period of time), 
 
 He arrived • 
 Posterior act. 
 
 I had been dining. 
 Imperfect act. 
 
 I was dining. 
 Anterior act. 
 
 I had been dining. 
 
 To-Mobrow (Future period of time). 
 He will arrive 
 
 befor( 
 
 after 
 
 Posterior act. 
 
 I had closed the door. 
 Coinciding act. 
 
 I closed the door. 
 Anterior act. 
 
 I had closed the door. 
 
 before 
 
 Posterior act. 
 
 I have been dining. 
 
 before 
 
 Posterior act. 
 
 I have closed tlie door. 
 
 while 
 
 Imperfect act. 
 
 I am dining. 
 
 as 
 
 Coinciding act. 
 I close the door. 
 
 after 
 
 Anterior act. 
 
 I have been dining. 
 
 after 
 
 Anterior act. 
 I have closed the door. 
 
 1 For the time NOW, the two acts being both in this time, it is natural that 
 they both take the form of the "present ;" they have no special form result- 
 ing from the co-ordination — NOW, while lam dining, he is working. Further, 
 the time NOW only enduring for a moment, two consecutive acts cannot take 
 place within it. Tlie time NOW, therefore, does not appear in the table. 
 
 2 On certain occasions the same act, as already pointed out, may be con- 
 sidered either as continuous or as momentary, according to the circumstances. 
 We shall thus have forms such as : " He arrived before I had dined," and 
 vice-versa : " He arrived while I was closing the door." But it is not neces- 
 sary to repeat these forms in the two columns. 
 
 2 In English, these forms are the same as for Yesterday— the statement : 
 before, while, or after, at once carries the two acts into a definite past period 
 of time, in specifying the exact moment of to-day. 
 
TABLE OF THE COMPOUND INDICATIVE. 
 
 239 
 
 ACTES CO-ORDONN]feS DANS UNE K&ME PERIODS 
 DE TEMPS. 
 
 A. — AcTES Parall^les (tons deux continus). 
 (Travailler et diner, ) 
 
 HiEB 
 
 Aujourd'hui . 
 Demain . 
 
 tandis que je dinais 
 tandis que je dinais 
 tandis que je dinerai 
 
 il travaillait. 
 11 travaillait. 
 il travaillera. 
 
 B. — ACTES C0NS]6CDTIFS ET SlMULTAN^S. 
 
 Une acte momentan^ : arriver, en relation av£c un autre acte : 
 
 I. Avec un acte continu : diner. | 2. Avec un acte momentane : fermer 
 
 I la porte.^ 
 
 HiER (Temps d^fini) 
 n arriva 
 Acte postirieur. 
 avant que je dinasse.2 
 
 Acte imparfait. 
 pendant que je dinais. 
 
 Acte anterieur. 
 aprfes que j'eus din 6. 
 
 Acte postirieur. 
 avant que je fermasse la porte. 
 
 Acte colncidant. 
 enmeme temps que je fermais la porte. 
 
 Acte anth'ieur. 
 apres que j'eus ferme la porte. 
 
 Aujourd'hui (ce matin) (Temps ind^fini). 
 II est arriv^ 
 
 Acte postirieur. 
 avant que je dinasse.^ 
 
 Acte imparfait. 
 pendant que je dinais. 
 
 Acte anterieur. 
 aprfes que j'ai eu dine. 
 
 Acte posth-ieur. 
 avant que je fermasse la porte. 
 
 Acte coincidant. 
 en meme temps que je fermais la porte. 
 
 Acte anterieur. 
 aprds que j'ai euferm^ la porte. 
 
 Demain (Temps ^ venir), 
 II arrivera 
 
 Acte post^rkur. 
 avant que je dlue.2 
 
 Acte imparfait. 
 pendant que je dinerai. 
 
 Acte anterieur. 
 apres que j'aurai dine. 
 
 Acte postirieur. 
 avant que je fenne la porte. 
 
 Acte coincidant. 
 en m^me temps que je fermerai la porte. 
 
 Acte anth'ieur. 
 apr^s que j'aurai ferme laporte. 
 
 1 It should be noticed that in this table tlie forms of the French verbs 
 are everywhere the same for the momentary as for the continuous acts. 
 
 2 As is seen, this table includes certain forms of the conjugation which 
 the grammars usually place in the subjunctive mood. 
 
240 GRAMMAR. 
 
 The employment of the tense termed the pluperfect (French 
 Phis-que-Parfait) appears to us to be governed by the follow- 
 ing conception : — 
 
 In the same way that the day now present, which we term 
 "To-day," has been preceded by another day termed " Yester- 
 day," and will be followed by another day termed "To- 
 morrow," so also any day which has fled, designated either 
 specially, as " December 3rd," or in a general manner by the 
 expression " a certain day," has been preceded by a day 
 termed "the day before," and followed by a day termed 
 " the next day, the day after." Hence we have the following 
 table : — 
 
 On a certain day (3rd December 1891, for instance) a sportsman 
 
 killed two hares. 
 Previously (the day before, two days before that . . .) he 
 
 HAD KILLED six hares. 
 The next day, or the day after that (two days after that . . .) 
 
 he killed two more hares. 
 
 Tel jour (le 3 decembre 1891, par exemple) un chasseur tua 
 
 deux lievres. 
 AuPARAVANT, (La veille, I'avant-veille . . .) il avait tu^ six 
 
 lievres, 
 le lendemain (le surlendemain . . .) il tua deux autres lievres. 
 
 So, in considering the act of dining upon any particular day 
 as having already been accomplished, we say : — " On a certain 
 day, at eight o'clock." 
 
 already, I had dined, 
 d^jk, j'avais dine. 
 
 These tables afford us the following new forms :— 
 
 In English — 
 
 I was dining. 
 
 I had been dining. 
 
 I had dined. 
 
 I have been dining. 
 
 In French we have six new forms : — 
 
 J'eus din6. 
 
 j'ai eu dine. 
 
 j'aurai dtn^. 
 (que) je dinasse. 
 (que) je dine. 
 
 j'avais din6. 
 
PRACTICE OF THE TENSE-FORMS. 241 
 
 The question now arises, How are we to adapt these forms 
 to our language- lessons ? We do it in a very simple manner. 
 
 1. The teacher will provoke the first by a question similar 
 to the following : " Yesterday you opened this door; how did 
 you do it ? " 
 
 The pupil will reply, " First of all, I walked towards the 
 door." 
 
 T. Well, and when you had walked towards the door, what 
 
 did you do next ? 
 P. After I had walked towards the door, I arrived at the 
 door, 
 after I had arrived at the door, I stretched out my 
 
 arm. 
 and when I had stretched out my arm, &c. 
 
 T. Hier vous ouvrites cette porte : comment vous y prites 
 
 vous? 
 p. D'abord je marchai vers la porte. 
 
 apr^s que j'eus march^ vers la porte, j 'arrival a la 
 
 porte. 
 apres que je fus arriv6 k la porte, j'allongeai le bras, 
 apr^s que j'eus allong^ le bras . . . 
 
 Or, in French the form might be used — 
 
 Hier je marchai vers la porte, avant que j'allongeasse le 
 bras; 
 j'allongeai le bras, avant que je prisse le bouton ; 
 je pris le bouton, avant que je tournasse le bouton ; 
 je tournai le bouton, avant que je tirasse la porte. . . . 
 
 2. In English for the time to-day the forms are the same 
 as for yesterday (see table previously given) ; but in the 
 French, to the question, "Aujourd'hui (ce matin) comment 
 avez-vous ouvert la porte ? " the pupil will reply — 
 
 Aujourd'hui j'ai marche vers la porte ; 
 
 quand j'ai eu marche vers la porte, je suis arriv^ h. la 
 
 porte ; 
 quand j'ai ete arrive a la porte, je me suis arrets 
 
 k la porte; 
 quand j'ai 6t6 arrets k la porte, j'ai allonge le bras, 
 
 &c 
 
24^ GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. To the question, "To-morrow how will you open this 
 door 1 " the pupil will reply — 
 
 To-morrow I shall walk towards the door ; 
 
 after I have walked (i.e., shall have walked) towards 
 
 the door, I shall stop at the door; 
 after I have stopped at the door, I shall stretch out 
 
 my arm, &c. 
 
 In French, to the question, " Demain comment ouvrirez-vous 
 cette porte ? " he will reply — 
 
 Demain je marcherai vers la porte ; 
 
 apr^s que j'aurai march^ vers la porte, je m'arreterai 
 
 a la porte ; 
 apr^s que je me serai arr^td a la porte, j'allongerai 
 
 le bras ; 
 apres que j'aurai allong^ le bras, je prendrai, &c. 
 
 4. To the question, " Yesterday you opened the door, but 
 previously what had you done to open it ? " the pupil will reply, 
 employing the form of the verb called the pluperfect : — 
 
 Previously I had walked towards the door. 
 I had stopped at the door. 
 I had stretched out my arm. 
 I had taken hold of the handle, &c. 
 
 " Hier vous ouvrites cette porte : mais auparavant qu'aviez- 
 vous fait pour I'ouvrir ? " 
 
 Auparavant j 'avals march^ vers la porte. 
 j'^tais arriv^ h la porte. 
 j 'avals allong^ le bras, 
 j 'avals pris la poignee, &c. 
 
 When the pupil has thoroughly assimilated these new forms 
 by practising them, he will be presented with the foregoing 
 synthetical table. It is not necessary to repeat these examples 
 in the other languages. It must be perfectly evident that the 
 exercises can be practised in any and every language spoken. 
 
 The foregoing sections do not even yet exhaust all the forms 
 of the indicative, but all may be equally presented according 
 to the manner in which the facts or the elements of the 
 facts are conceived by the mind. And it will be seen that 
 this mood has not a single form which might not be exercised 
 
PERMANENT CONJUGATION. 243 
 
 or conjugated naturally, and without abstraction, upon the 
 lessons of the series. 
 
 Nevertheless, however effective these exercises may appear, 
 our method does not remain content with this first elaboration 
 of the forms of the verbs. It possesses, indeed, the secret or 
 the means of rendering the conjugations permanent. This 
 method consists in the continuous employment of the relative 
 phrases or interlocutory sentences. By the use of these sen- 
 tences both master and pupil will conjugate constantly without 
 appearing to do so. Transposing, as occasion may require, 
 their own thoughts in all the various grammatical times or 
 tenses, they will be able to vary indefinitely, both regularly and 
 irregularly, all the verbal forms of the expressions they employ. 
 Thirty thousand relative phrases represent thirty thousand 
 opportunities of practising the forms of the verbs. It is not 
 too much to beheve that whoever has accomplished this work 
 will know how to conjugate. 
 
244 GRAMMAR. 
 
 STUDY OF THE VERB. 
 Exercises in Conjugation (Third Week). '^VY'^ 
 YII. 
 
 THE CONDITIONAL AND THE SUBJUNCTIVES. 
 
 I. First Exercise — Tim conditional. 
 
 To any first fact, real or supposed, the human mind has the 
 faculty of associating a second. If the expression of the first 
 represent a " condition," the expression of a second represents 
 a " conditional fact." The two together form the object or 
 material of what is termed in grammar *' the conditional mood." 
 For the reason that every man has the faculty of conjecturing 
 and of associating one fact with any other fact, every language 
 possesses a " conditional mood." The error would consequently 
 be very great if any grammarian were to venture to deny the 
 existence of this mood to any language whatever. 
 
 This mood may lend its form to another mood, or it may 
 borrow them of this latter ; but in itself this mood exists for 
 the reason that it responds to an energy inherent in the 
 human mind. Moreover, this mood is necessarily complex ; 
 it has to translate — 
 
 1. The supposed fact or condition. 
 
 2. The fact which rests upon this or is made conditional. 
 
 Without pretending here to exhaust the question, the above 
 statement is seen to be true from the following forms of the 
 conditional in English : — 
 
 Yesterday (Finished period). 
 Tf > h d h fi [^ should have played (or been 
 
 ^ ^ ^^'^ ""^ • •] playing). 
 
 To-day (Unfinished period). 
 
 If it had been fine . . I ^ '^^ '"^ ^T^ ^^^^"'^ ^°' ^'''' 
 
 1 playmg). 
 
 Now (Present time). 
 
 If it were fine . . .1 should play (or be playing). 
 
 To-MoRROW (Future period). 
 
 If it were to be fine . . I should play (or be playing). 
 
THE CONDITIONAL MOOD. 245 
 
 In French we have forms such as the following : — 
 
 HiER (Temps d^fini). 
 S'il avait fait beau . . J'aurais pech^. 
 
 Aujourd'hui (ce matin) (Temps indefini). 
 S'il avait fait beau . . J'aurais pech6. 
 
 Maintenant (Temps present). 
 S'il faisait beau . . . Je pecherais. 
 
 Demain (Temps a venir). 
 S'il faisait beau . . . Je pecherais. 
 
 This table, therefore, presents us with the following new- 
 forms in English : — 
 
 I should have played, &c. 
 I should have been playing. 
 I should play. 
 I should be playing. 
 
 In French we have two only — 
 J'aurais p^ch^, &c. 
 Je pecherais. 
 
 These forms will adapt themselves to our lessons of the 
 series as easily and as naturally as those of the indicative 
 have been found to do. You have simply to ask the pupil 
 the following question : " If you wished to open this door, 
 what would you do 1 " 
 
 And he will be obliged to answer you in what is termed the 
 conditional mood, present tense — 
 
 I should go towards the door. 
 
 I should draw near to the door. 
 
 I should get to the door, &c. 
 
 "Si vous vouliez ouvrir cette porte, que feriez-vous?" 
 J'irais vers la porte. 
 Je m'approcherais de la porte. 
 J'arriverais a la porte, &c. 
 
 Put the same question to him again, simply replacing the 
 idea of "now" by that of "yesterday" or "this morning," 
 and you will be answered in what is termed the "conditional 
 past." "To-day — some time up to now — if you had wished 
 to open this door, what would you have done 1" 
 
246 GRAMMAR. 
 
 Answer : — 
 
 I should have walked towards the door, 
 I should have drawn near to the door. 
 I should have got to the door, &c. 
 
 " Ce matin, si vous aviez voulu ouvrir la porte, qu auriez- 
 vous fait 1 " 
 
 J'aurais march^ vers la porte. 
 Je me serais approche de la porte. 
 Je serais arrive a la porte, &c. 
 
 2. Second Exercise — The subjunctives. 
 
 What is usually termed " subjunctive " is a mood essentially 
 complex. All the grammarians, on the contrary, seem to have 
 determined up to the present to consider and treat the sub- 
 junctive as if it were a simple mood. Hence the inability of 
 the grammar to formulate the law of the forms attributed to 
 this mood, and to determine their usage. This expression : 
 " I wish it may be fine " ( je desire --t^ qu'il fasse beau temps), is 
 composed of two entirely distinct portions : — 
 
 T. To be fine weather. 
 2. To wish. 
 
 " To be fine weather " represents an objective fact ; '* to 
 wish," represents a subjective fact. It is the alliance of these 
 two facts which, properly speaking, constitutes a " subjunc- 
 tive." This word "subjunctive" (joined beneath), therefore, 
 expresses only half of what it really means. Hence the error 
 of the grammarians, who see the " subjunctive " exclusively 
 in the second part — " (that) it may be fine " (qu'il fasse beau 
 temps) — of the whole expression. 
 
 The reader will not have forgotten our attempt to clear up 
 the question of the subjective language, and, in particular, of 
 the sentence termed by us the " enclitic." Well, what the 
 grammarians designate by the word " subjunctive " is nothing 
 more nor less than the object or material of our enclitic phrase. 
 Now, of these two — objective and subjective — elements, which, 
 think you, is it that commands and governs the other in the 
 complete phrase ? Evidently the subjective element. 
 
 But this element is as diverse as the faculties of the mind 
 are diverse. Therefore that subjunctive which requires one 
 enclitic may easily be quite different from that subjunctive 
 which commands some other enclitic We come, therefore, to 
 
THE SUBJUNCTIVES. 247 
 
 this conclusion, that grammar contains not one subjunctive, 
 but several subjunctives. 
 
 The first thing to be done is to distinguish and to count 
 them. We have previously said that the enclitic expressions 
 could be and ought to be classified and distributed in cate- 
 gories. As many categories as may be found for the enclitics, 
 so many different kinds of subjunctives will there be. We 
 shall have, for instance, the Subjunctive of the Possible, the 
 Subjunctive of Doubt, the Subjunctive of Desire, and so forth. 
 
 This work of classification does not enter into the scope of 
 the present work. The reader will probably dispense with any 
 deeper research into the theory of the conjugation. Let it 
 suflSce, firstly, to count the various forms which the grammars 
 generally connect with the subjunctive mood ; and, secondly, 
 to show how they can be adapted to the lessons of our series. 
 
 The grammars accord the four following forms to the sub- 
 junctive in English : — 
 
 That I open (or may open). 
 That I should open (or might open). 
 That I shall have opened (or may have opened). 
 That I should have opened (or might have opened). 
 In French — 
 
 Que j'ouvre. 
 Que j'ouvrisse. 
 Que j'aie ouvert. 
 Que j'eusse ouvert. 
 
 I. If you put to the pupil the following question: "To 
 open this door, what will it be necessary that you do ? " he 
 mil answer by the subjunctive present : — 
 
 It will be necessary — 
 
 that I walk towards the door. 
 
 that I draw near. 
 
 that I arrive. 
 
 that I stop. 
 " Pour ouvrir cette porte, que vous faudrait-il faire ? " 
 II faudrait — 
 
 que je marche vers la porte. 
 
 que je m'approche de la porte. 
 
 que j 'arrive a la porte. 
 
 que je m'arrete k la porte, &c. 
 
248 GRAMMAK. 
 
 2. If you put the following question : " Yesterday, to open 
 this door, what would it have been necessary for you to do ? " 
 he will answer in what is termed the imperfect of the sub- 
 junctive : — 
 
 It would have been necessary — 
 
 that I should walk towards the door. 
 that I should draw near, 
 that I should stop. 
 
 " Hier, pour ouvrir cette porte, que vous aurait-il fallu 
 faire?" 
 
 II aurait fallu — 
 
 que je marchasse vers la porte. 
 que je m'approchasse. 
 que j'arrivasse, &c. 
 
 3. Put this third question : " Before opening the door, what 
 will it be necessaiy to have done ? " and he will reply in the 
 perfect of the subjunctive : — 
 
 It will be necessary — 
 
 that I shall have walked, 
 that I shall have drawn near, 
 that I shall have arrived, &c. 
 
 " Avant d'ouvrir la porte, que vous faudrait-il avoir fait ? " 
 II faudrait — 
 
 que j'aie march6 vers la porte. 
 
 que je me sois approch6 de la porte. 
 
 que je sois arriv6 a la porte, &c. 
 
 4. To the question,' " What would it be necessary to have 
 done ? " he would reply by the pluperfect of the subjunctive : — 
 
 It would be necessary — 
 
 that I should have walked, 
 that I should have drawn near. 
 
 II faudrait — 
 
 que j'eusse niarch^ vers la porte. 
 que je me fusse approch^, &c. 
 
 Still less, perhaps, than with the indicative does our method 
 remain content with these elementary exercises for the sub- 
 
PRACTICE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVES. 249 
 
 junctive. It has at its disposal some three or four thousand 
 enclitic expressions. Care will be taken that these are not 
 brought into play until both the enclitics themselves and the 
 verbal forms they command are completely assimilated. 
 
 There need be no fear. By the use of the enclitic relative 
 phrases the forms of the subjunctive will become as familiar 
 to the pupil as those even of the " indicative mood, present 
 tense," itself. There is no necessity to speak here of the im- 
 perative, nor of the infinitive, nor of the participle, the exercise 
 of these three moods being permanent in the practice of the 
 relative phrase. 
 
 We here end this too long chapter by the enunciation of 
 two truths which manifest themselves from one end of it to 
 the other : — 
 
 1. The grammar, so far as concerns the conjugation, may 
 really become one, as the human mind is one. 
 
 2. No method, classical or non-classical, exercises or works 
 the conjugation of the verb to anything like the same extent 
 as does our own. 
 
250 GRAMMAR. 
 
 STUDY OF THE SENTENCE./^- ^^0-^/ 
 Elements of the Sentence, their Fu/^ctions. 
 
 vni. 
 
 SPOKEN ANALYSIS OP THE SENTENCE. 
 
 I. Various functions of the terms of a sentence — The pupiVs 
 initiation into this knowledge. 
 
 Syntax, as now understood, has for its object the study of 
 the laws or rules of the sentence. In any sentence there are 
 two things to be considered and determined : — 
 
 1. The functions of the constituent elements of this sentence. 
 
 2. The arrangement of these elements — ordinarily termed 
 the construction of the sentence. 
 
 "Syntax" is, therefore, hardly a correct term, as it only 
 expresses the half of what it really means. How ought we to 
 study the first part, and how do we study it 1 
 
 Let us return once more to our theme of "Opening the 
 Door," — for what good purpose will it serve to change the 
 example if the method of teaching remains, from the first 
 exercise to the last, always identical 1 
 
 Je marche vers la porte. 
 
 When the teacher gives the lesson, this sentence is detached, 
 as we have seen, from the rest of the theme ; then it is con- 
 centrated for one moment in the verb " marche ; " then it 
 blossoms out finally, by unfolding or evolving from itself, first 
 the subject and then the complement of the verb. But is 
 this manner of presenting the phrase really anything else 
 than an analysis — an analysis at the same time both gram- 
 matical and logical ? Will it be necessary, think you, to 
 unmake and remake many such sentences before the student 
 learns to distinguish the subject from the verb, the verb from 
 its complements 1 Where is the child who, at the first hour, 
 at the first lesson, at the first phrase, will not comprehend 
 this " spoken " analysis ? 
 
SPOKEN ANALYSIS OF THE SENTENCE. 251 
 
 The second sentence will then be decomposed, and afterwards 
 recomposed like the first, and so with others. I repeat, the 
 development of our theme, by reason of this mode of giving 
 the lesson, is nothing else than a practical model of logical 
 and grammatical analysis. The functions of each element of 
 the sentences will themselves be studied as to their real signi- 
 fication, as soon as the time for it arrives, which will be when- 
 ever the pupil manifests the need of knowing them and of 
 investigating the obstacles which he will not fail to encounter. 
 To explain this more fully : — 
 
 In the first phrase, for instance, he will tear — 
 
 Je marche vers la porte. 
 In the second he will hear — 
 
 Je m'approche de la porte. 
 
 In one case he will hear " vers la porte," and in another " de 
 la porte." In German he will hear " die Thtir," and another 
 time " der Thiir ; " in Latin he will hear in the same way 
 sometimes "ad portam," and sometimes simply "portse" or 
 " porta." You may be quite sure that the child will be mis- 
 taken at first in the use of these terms, which will immedi- 
 ately lead him to ask the teacher the reason of their diversity. 
 And if, by reason of an indolence happily uncommon, the 
 pupil neglects to put this question, it will be the province of 
 the teacher to provoke it. 
 
 An important problem is, therefore, put forward by the 
 pupil, and the teacher will be led to explain to him that 
 amongst the verbs some are complete in themselves and 
 others are incomplete. '^ I sleep," for example, is a complete 
 verb, because this expression is explained by itself and with- 
 out recourse to another word ; it translates in itself alone a 
 complete situation, a complete state of being. " I go," " I 
 draw near," on the other hand, are incomplete verbs, owing to 
 the fact that their expression has not a finished sense, and 
 requires to be completed by another word indicating " where " 
 I go to and "to what" I draw near. 
 
 The class are thus prepared to receive the notion of comple- 
 ments, direct and indirect. The three fundamental comple- 
 ments are then brought forward, corresponding to the questions 
 
252 GRAMMAR. 
 
 " what," " to what," " by what," put after the verb, and to 
 each of these a numerical order is assigned. 
 
 What ? First complement. 
 
 To what ? Second complement. 
 
 By what ? Third complement. 
 
 Then adding to this list the complements of place, the com- 
 plements of time, the complements of aim, the complements of 
 means or of manner, and the others, if there are any, we 
 obtain a general framework which enables us to reduce to one 
 page only, and to embrace in one glance, the fifteen or twenty 
 chapters of the ordinary syntax. More than this, these cate- 
 gories being psychologically established, our framework will be 
 capable of being adapted to any and every language, so that 
 here again we shall have constructed a chapter of general or 
 rather of universal grammar. The cause or the origin of 
 "cases" and of inflections in those languages which have 
 varied terminations is thus found to be quite naturally ex- 
 plained. There remains the question of teaching them. 
 
 2. A starting-point and a direction. 
 
 We shall ask the reader's permission to open this new 
 chapter by a series of exceedingly elementary questions : — 
 
 Did the nurse of Horace learn off and repeat over to her 
 little charge all the declensions of the Latin grammarians? 
 Apparently not. Did Horace nevertheless manage to learn 
 Latin 1 It certainly appears so. Did he speak it better and 
 more fluently at four to seven years of age, and before having 
 read the grammars and books of his time, than the cleverest 
 of our classicists of thirty to forty years of age, who may have 
 read the whole collection of Latin authors ? Many will dare 
 to maintain the affirmative. 
 
 Another example : — 
 
 Do the mothers of modem Greece begin teaching their 
 babies with the Greek declensions ? They would be extremely 
 embarrassed if they had to do this. Do they always make a 
 correct use of the cases ? Probably not al ^vays. In spite of 
 this, do the little Greeks learn to speak Greek as well and as 
 quickly as the little English children learn to speak English ? 
 We have proof that they do. Do these Greek children speak 
 better and more fluently at four to seven years of age, and 
 
CASES OR INFLECTIONS. 253 
 
 before knowing how to read, than the most erudite of our 
 philologists, who may know by heart the masterpieces of 
 Greek literature'? It is indisputable and not disputed. 
 
 Might it be possible to do better than Nature in this 
 question of the study of languages ? Perhaps. With the aid 
 of the grammarians have we ever done as well as Nature? 
 Never. Why not ? And what process would it be necessary 
 to adopt to do at least as well as Nature 1 That is the problem 
 or the riddle which we have to solve. 
 
 The following is the order of procedure, that the dialectic 
 which has guided us in the solution of the anterior problems 
 has shown to be best : — 
 
 T. To determine well the process of Nature. 
 
 2. To place the classical process and our own side by side. 
 
 3. To decide which of these processes most nearly approaches 
 that of Nature. 
 
 IX. 
 
 THE COMPLEMENTS — CASES OR INFLECTIONS DECLENSIONS. 
 
 I. The art of declining out of school. 
 
 How is it that the child before he has been to school 
 manages to learn the cases, the inflections, the terminations — 
 in a word, the declensions 1 Up to what point in this respect 
 does what we have called the natural grammar carry us ? Or 
 is it quite by chance that this knowledge is acquired, and, 
 consequently, is this labour susceptible of no explanation? 
 Let us remark, first of all, that reason admits of no effect 
 without a cause ; therefore, in our judgment, the acquisition 
 of the declensions and their practice in the every-day inter- 
 course of life is certainly not the work of chance. 
 
 The "cases" serve to express a certain small number of 
 relations of things one to another, which recur always and 
 everywhere the same. The human mind grasps these relations 
 very much in the same manner as it grasps the numbers ; and 
 in the same way that a person may be able to calculate without 
 knowing figures, so he can apply, and does apply, the declen- 
 sions without being acquainted with the written and abstract 
 representation of the cases. 
 
 Man grasps these interrelations directly upon the facts 
 
554 GRAMMAR. 
 
 themselves, without any intermediary, that is, intuitively, 
 and he expresses them as he conceives them, intuitively. 
 That is how the child assimilates the cases, and how he 
 familiarises himself with the various inflections of nouns and 
 adjectives. Here occurs a phenomenon exactly similar to 
 that which we have described with reference to the periods 
 of time and the forms of the verbs in the conjugations, only 
 instead of half-a-dozen periods of time, the mind can grasp a 
 score or so of these interrelations. The child does this in 
 playing without being aware of it and without apparent effort. 
 We have in this, therefore, as for the application of the forms 
 of the verbs, an operation essentially simple, and having 
 in it nothing which puts us in mind, for instance, of those 
 painful efforts necessary to overcome the difficulties of the 
 first lessons in Latin at the grammar-school. 
 
 The written declension is the product of a subtle operation. 
 To constitute this declension, it is necessary first to abstract 
 the sign of each relation — that is, to detach it from the term 
 to which it is welded ; secondly, to consider and study this 
 sign in itself; then to compare it with the signs of all the 
 other relations ; and lastly, to set in order and organise this 
 general review. 
 
 Nature knows absolutely nothing of this operation — that 
 is, of the art of declining. With the child and the uncultured 
 man, the mind goes directly from the perception of the rela- 
 tion to the sign of this relation, and from the sign directly to 
 the relation. He soon becomes very quick at this work, and 
 very shortly sign and relation appear to him inseparable — as 
 inseparable, in fact, as two halves of one and the same whole. 
 In the one he sees the other. 
 
 By reason of this direct interchange between these relations 
 and these signs, the mind actually acquires a new sense — the 
 sense of interrelationships. We might even say, the intellec- 
 tual substance comes forth from its native limits, spreads itself 
 towards the external objects, reaches them, penetrates them, 
 takes up a position between them, and connects them logically 
 together. Hence the child's prodigious rapidity in finding, 
 without apparent effort, the exact expression of each relation ; 
 hence this surety and this volubility of speech which we know 
 not how to admire too much, and which it is absolutely neces- 
 sary should be explained ; hence, lastly, this spontaneity, at 
 
INTERRELATIONSHIPS AND THEIR SIGNS. 255 
 
 which the linguist who declines — that is, who never goes 
 directly from the relation to the sign, that is, never attains 
 the sign except in passing by the intermediary of the abstract 
 table of a written declension — never does and never can 
 arrive. 
 
 We have now revealed the process of Nature in its essen- 
 tials; it remains to determine the degree of perfection 
 with which Nature carries out her work. Let us, first and 
 rapidly, sketch out the history of the interrelations and their 
 signs. 
 
 In itself a relation between objects is a pure abstraction, 
 and has no existence outside the terms which it unites. At 
 first, therefore, the sign of the relationship was not separated 
 from the terms of this relationship, but was fastened, welded 
 to one of these terms, usually the first. It thus becomes 
 placed between the two, a natural enough position for an 
 expression acting as a connecting link. " Port-se cardo ; " 
 oe is here the sign of relationship connecting porta to 
 cardo, and this sign is seen attached to the first term — 
 port-oe. 
 
 It might be said that the mind, conceiving with difficulty a 
 relation apart from objective realities, could not resolve to 
 grant it the right of being represented by a separate and 
 independent sign, and consequently retained it captive and 
 enchained to one of the two terms which it has a mission to 
 unite. At this period the language would be under the 
 dominion of the case or the inflection pure and simple — 
 
 Italiam venit. 
 Lavinia venit littora. 
 
 As it develops, the human mind experiences the need of a 
 more severe exactitude and precision. The case-endings as 
 signs gradually become too vague, too imperfect, too incon- 
 venient; in a word, the ''cases" are found to be insufficient. 
 The relation between objects commences to play an important 
 part in the sentence ; it claims the right of being represented 
 by a special sign, and Nature at last abandons to it those 
 fragments of words and syllables that we are acquainted 
 with : — de, a, ah, e, ex, ad, sub, Szc. 
 
 The relationship then found itself enfranchised, and the pre- 
 position in some measure dethroned the case-ending. The 
 ancient inflection was, however, maintained alongside this new 
 
2S6 GRAMMAR. 
 
 sign, as if for witness of the first condition of the relationship 
 and to recall its true character, " abstraction." 
 
 ad port-am pergo. 
 
 ad port-am subsist©. 
 
 in pute-um se immisit hircus. 
 
 The relationship between objects then became possessed of 
 two signs instead of one. It is to this era of language that 
 the Latin language, amongst others, belongs. 
 
 Still later, one of the two signs was deemed superfluous, 
 and, as such, condemned to be suppressed. The languages 
 cast their useless baggage to the winds ; the case-ending dis- 
 appeared, and the preposition received the exclusive privilege 
 of representing the relationship. 
 
 I go towards the door. 
 
 I draw near to the door. 
 
 I arrive at the door. 
 
 Je vais 
 
 Je m'approche 
 
 J'arrive 
 
 vers 
 
 de 
 
 a 
 
 la porta 
 la porte. 
 la porte. 
 
 Ich gehe 
 Ich komme 
 
 nach 
 bei 
 
 der Thur. 
 der Thiir an. 
 
 The languages of the first age have ceased to exist, at least 
 upon the continent of Europe, and those of the third age re- 
 fuse to recognise declensions. It is, therefore, to the languages 
 representing the second age that what we have already said 
 and what remains for us to say upon the subject of declensions 
 applies. 
 
 If our historic idea is well founded, the case is a thing essen- 
 tially decayed and variable — one, therefore, paying little respect 
 to rules. This logical presumption finds itself amply confirmed 
 by experience. 
 
 When speaking of the conjugation, we have put forward as 
 an incontrovertible fact, as a matter of common observation, 
 that neither the child nor the ignorant man makes mistakes 
 in their mother-tongue as regards periods of time — that is to 
 say, never confounds them one with another. We have equally 
 demonstrated that the confusion of the forms of the verbs 
 which are attached to these periods of time is also impossible. 
 Is it the same when we come to the cases ? 
 
THE DECLENSIONS IN NATURE'S METHOD. 257 
 
 Go through those countries where almost every one knows 
 how to read and to write — Germany, for instance ; listen to 
 the talk of the ordinary villagers from the school, and see if 
 they are always quite sure of the use of the cases. Try to get 
 hold of some of the letters written by the peasants in this 
 language, of which the spelling is perhaps easier than that o^ 
 any save Latin, and examine if the article, to say nothing o\ 
 the other declinable words, is always treated according to the 
 strict rules of grammar. 
 
 If you are at all observant, you will soon come to the con- 
 clusion that Nature is often at fault from fhe point of view of 
 declensions ; that she takes but httle notice of the school teach- 
 ing in this respect, and violates without sciTiple the most solemn 
 dictates of the official grammar. In the rare regions, such as 
 districts of Roumania, where Latin is yet spoken by the people, 
 the most diverse terminations are either rendered through the 
 nose with an obscure sound, or else crammed down the throat, 
 and, as we say, " swallowed." In either case, their differencetJ 
 of sound are strangled or become confounded together in the 
 vain sound of the fall of the voice. 
 
 This, then, is the avowal of Nature. She confesses herself 
 fallible in the region of declensions ; she avows herself clumsy 
 in practising the "cases." But everything in Nature justifies 
 its existence, and this appearance of clumsiness and of negli- 
 gence possibly hides within itself for the pedagogue a most 
 precious lesson. Let us consider for a few moments the pro- 
 ceeding which we have just pointed out. Let us attempt to 
 extract therefrom the principles or the various teachings it 
 may contain. 
 
 I. In Nature the mind passes from the relationship to the 
 sign, and from the sign to the relationship, directly and without 
 lecourse to any intermediary. In itself, all relation between 
 things is an abstraction; nevertheless, at the moment the 
 mind gi-asps it, this relation becomes a reality. It borrows, so 
 to speak, its existence from the two things it unites. It lives 
 in them and by them. Consequently its expression represents 
 something other than a mere void and empty abstraction. 
 
 What is truly abstract is this detached termination separated 
 from its whole, and destined to stand for relationships which 
 may be, but which are not yet. What is abstract is this a 
 priori concept, this assemblage, this factitious scaffolding of 
 
258 GRAMMAR 
 
 terminations, termed the "declension." Here, again, Nature 
 remains faithful to her eternal process ; she works only on the 
 concrete and real, and bears witness once again that she has 
 as great a horror of abstraction as she was supposed to have 
 of a vacuum. 
 
 2. Nature '* practises " the cases ; she does not decline ; she 
 takes no notice of any grouping made from the point of view 
 of a declension. I repeat, she "practises" the cases, and this 
 practice is constant and permanent. This exercise is not 
 abandoned at the end of a month or at the end of twc 
 months to make place for another. It is continuous; it 
 endures as long as the use of the language itself endures. 
 And this exercise gives birth to a sense, the sense which we 
 might call " the sense of interrelationships." 
 
 3. Nature never commences by the raw expression of a 
 relation between objects ; she attaches it first to the concrete 
 part of the word, to its positive element. She never amuses 
 herself, as does the school, by determining the expression of a 
 relationship before being put into possession of the two terms 
 of this relationship. In portoe, for example, oe is the sigr 
 of a relationship. Porta is one of the terms of this rela- 
 tionship, but where is the other term ? This juggling with 
 case- endings pure and simple is utterly foreign to Nature. 
 
 4. In itself the form of the inflection is transitory. Nature 
 feels this, and treats this infl.ection as a thing merely accessoi;v, 
 Hence her negligence, and consequently her clumsiness in tlie 
 use of the cases. Hence her indifference with reference to the 
 solecism, and, I would say, her disdain for the grammatical 
 thunderbolts it evokes. Hence this mobility, this instabilit}: 
 of the case-ending, which becomes modified from one dialect tc 
 another dialect, from one river-bank to another river-bank, from 
 one hamlet to another hamlet — which becomes changed from 
 one generation to another generation. 
 
 It may be said that Nature roughs out the cases, and leaves 
 to the school the trouble of perfecting the system and ol 
 regulating their usage. And if, indeed, the case has become 
 anything at all, it is to the school rather than to Nature that 
 this is due. The latter, on the one hand, points out to \xi 
 the defect in her breastplate, and thereby, possibly, the meanf 
 of vanquishing her ; on the other hand, she teaches us to dis- 
 tinguish the essential from the accessory, to see in the plaj 
 
THE DECLENSIONS IN THE CLASSICAL PROCESS. 259 
 
 of the case-endings not an end but a means, and thus puts 
 us on the alert against the attractions and the perfidious 
 advances of abstraction. 
 
 Let us now develop, side by side, in parallel, and, so to 
 speak, contradictorily, the two rival artificial processes — that 
 of the classical school and our own. 
 
 2. The art of declining at school. 
 I do not think there can possibly be anything in itself more 
 abstract than an inflection, a case- ending : a, oe, am, ce, arum, 
 aSj is, ij um, 0, u, ibns, &c. ; — 
 
 Ros a. Ros se. 
 
 Ptos se. Kos arum. 
 
 Ros am. Ros as. 
 
 Ros se. Ros is. 
 
 Ros a. Ros is. 
 
 For myself, I cannot forget that I spent more than three 
 months in trying to guess what it was that was wanted of me 
 when I was told to study these figures under the form of 
 letters. My teacher long despaired of his pupil. I confess 
 my stupidity to a great extent gave him this right,, in spite of 
 the ardour of my zeal, and a desire to do well which nothing 
 could discourage. Without having any comparison whatever 
 in view, we might recall that the celebrated Alexander von 
 Humboldt used to amuse himself by recounting how, up to his 
 fifteenth year, his grammatical "fooleries" earned him the 
 qualification of " dunce." 
 
 In reality, I fancy this is the history of all children con- 
 demned to pass through the wearisome phase of the classical 
 declensions and conjugations. At college no pupil is despaired 
 of, but he is usually riveted, in the name of experience to be 
 acquired, fifteen or twenty months together (in the earlier 
 forms) upon the interesting table of regular and irregular 
 declensions of nouns and adjectives. Coming from this, the 
 pupil finds himself sometimes capable of making a substantive 
 and an adjective agree in gender, number, and case, and this 
 brilliant result usually calls forth alike the joy of the teacher 
 and his praise. 
 
 Let us speak the truth. However captivating for a man the 
 right study of languages may become, let us frankly confess 
 that the study of the declensions never had, and never can 
 
26o GRAMMAR. 
 
 have, the slightest attraction for any one. Let us say furth( 
 than this, that however the length and complexity of the 
 table may be reduced, this work never becomes anything bi 
 a "torture." It is therefore by a torture — for this laboi 
 extends over two years at least — by an absolute torture thi 
 the classical school commences the study of languages — Ma^ 
 dulcis avi domum I 
 
 Of a surety, it needs all the suppleness of the fibre of chih 
 hood to withstand such strains. Try yourself — you, a grow 
 man or woman — to take your seat on the child's form and \ 
 study there, by his side, whichever language you please, 1: 
 subjecting yourself once more to the method which is impost 
 upon him in order to learn Latin or German. Try, I sa; 
 and let us see how far your perseverance will take you. 
 
 To obtain this astonishing resignation from the child, thei 
 is but one way : to render him unconsciously an accomplice i 
 the outrage thus directed against himself. This is the pai 
 that the school has learnt to play. 
 
 The declension, in point of fact, forms, as it were, a porti 
 to the classical grammatical edifice. Now pupil, professo 
 and grammarian all alike work too long at this portal for tl 
 idea ever to come into their minds to put for one sing 
 moment a question as to its high value or its absolute nece 
 sity. If sometimes the shadow of a doubt comes to disquie 
 their faith in this respect, it is dismissed immediately as 
 suggestion of the spirit of error, or rather it is responded \ 
 by this proud and disdainful saying — We have learnt thuE 
 Our fathers have always so learnt ! Our children shall lear 
 in the same way ! Which is as much as to say, " No one ca 
 learn otherwise." 
 
 You are right, if your children are only required to kno 
 languages as you know them yourselves ; then your resolutic 
 is wise, and the way is excellent ; you may be assured thj 
 they will not outstrip you. And if it be determined, mor< 
 over, that it is absolutely necessary for them to learn tl 
 declensions by the process gone through by yourselves, w 
 should be the first to counsel you in no wise to change tl 
 established order. For if you do not devote the whole of the: 
 childhood and the whole of their early zeal to this study, yo 
 may be assured that in later life they will seldom have tl 
 courage to undertake it. 
 
 According to our personal conviction, it requires more tha 
 
THE DECLENSIONS IN THE SERIES SYSTEM. 261 
 
 courage to devour this sweet morsel so cruelly spiced with 
 abstractions ; it requires the faith and the innocent inexperi- 
 ence of childhood. If at ten years of age you do not know 
 the classic declensions, you stand a very great chance of never 
 knowing them. Whether this may be said to the glory or to 
 the shame of the art which prepares or the art which teaches 
 the declensions, is a question which we need not, at this 
 present moment, discuss; we content ourselves with stating 
 a fact which the partisans of the ancient system themselves 
 oppose to us as a principle. 
 
 We find, then, in the classical school all the efforts, both 
 of teacher and of pupil, are concentrated upon the declensions. 
 Any one would suppose that the whole language was contained 
 therein. Ten years and more of his life are given to this 
 work, and the pupil takes the shadow for the reality, and no 
 one even thinks of forewarning him, or dares to undeceive 
 him. If the declension is all, a solecism will be considered 
 even worse than the use of a barbarism; and, in fact, the 
 second is usually far from having the virtue of the first in 
 exciting the thunders of the master. 
 
 The abstract — this is both the starting-point and the goal 
 of the classical school. Nature, on the contrary, knows but 
 the concrete, rests only upon the concrete, sees but the con- 
 crete. The school and Nature work, therefore, in exactly 
 opposite ways. The first is always striving to make the river 
 flow towards its source. 
 
 Let us now compare our process with the preceding one. 
 
 3. Practice of the declensions in our system. 
 
 From the very first lesson on our system the question of 
 declensions is raised by the pupil himself, and the teacher 
 profits by the occasion to determine the theory of the comple- 
 ments and to explain the origin of cases and of declensions. 
 But he will put aside for a future lesson the task of organising 
 the general table of the declensions, and designedly leaves to 
 grow yet greater this desire of the child to know their usage 
 in a more precise and definite manner. 
 
 Ordinarily, after the twelfth lesson aU the possible case- 
 endings have appeared. The hour has then arrived when the 
 promised table may be drawn up. But who will construct this 
 table, and where will it be taken from ? Will it be copied out 
 of the grammars ? Will the teacher dictate it % 
 
262 GRAMMAR. 
 
 The pupil knows all the case-endings by having heard and 
 practised them. Therefore the Case for him is not an unknown 
 thing, nor an abstraction. Instead of borrowing the declen- 
 sion from such or such a book, it will be created piece by 
 piece; and as all that the teacher does is simply to aid or 
 direct, it will be the class themselves who carry out this work. 
 Each pupil will henceforward comprehend and know to its 
 very roots a table which is of his own construction. This table 
 will be in no way an abstraction ; it will respond, in fact, to 
 a reality, it will represent knowledge previously acquired. 
 
 The table, once arranged, must next be used. The teacher 
 will be the firsfc to make use of it : he will refer to it when 
 elaborating before his class each of the sentences, each of the 
 exercises in the series which he is giving. Afterwards the 
 pupil will himself take up these themes, and reproduce them 
 by making use of the same table, rectifying his phrases by 
 means of it in the same way as did the teacher. 
 
 An entire series is thus elaborated, two series, twenty series, 
 the whole ordinary objective language. This is not all. Be- 
 yond the ordinary series, there are the Scientific Series and 
 the Literary Series. We have stated, and shall shortly demon- 
 strate, that the conceptions of the classical authors may be 
 arranged in series and transcribed sentence by sentence on 
 the model of our linguistic lessons. Now, over this creation 
 at second-hand which we undertake with each work, this same 
 table should preside. Not a sentence, not a phrase, which is 
 not rectified according to this table, not an expression which 
 is not subject to its control. 
 
 Is not this enough ? Shall we have worked upon the de- 
 clensions as long and as thoroughly as the ordinary school 
 teaching ? Do you think that our pupils will know them and 
 be able to handle them as well as theirs 1 
 
 Let us now say a few words upon the manner in which a 
 table of declensions may be conceived and constructed, and 
 we will apply our ideas to Latin. It must be borne well in 
 mind that this question of the cases has been raised by the 
 class themselves, and that the teacher is bound to join with 
 his pupils in the search for the best possible solution. TJiis 
 process presents two advantages : in the first place, the pupil 
 will take more interest in the subject; and in the second 
 place, the solution arrived at will be graven upon his mind 
 with all the characteristics of a personal discovery. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF TABLE OF DECLENSIONS. 263 
 
 The pupil has been led to distinguish two sorts of inflections 
 — those of the terms which complete the verbs, and those of 
 the terms which complete the nouns. He certainly will have 
 the idea of separating these two kinds of complements. This 
 distinction might be made by means of a bar, and we shall 
 then obtain the first table in the following form : — 
 
 port — a 
 
 am 
 
 Below the bar are placed the three endings that porta may 
 take when it acts as complement to a verb or to a preposi- 
 tion ; above the bar, the form which porta may take when it 
 acts as complement to a noun, portoe — cardo ; and on the 
 first line the form which poHa presents when acting the part 
 of subject in a sentence. 
 
 We shall next indicate the function of each case-ending, 
 and our table will become — 
 
 port-a subject. 
 
 se complement of noun. 
 
 am ist complement of verb. 
 86 2nd complement of verb, 
 a 3rd complement of verb. 
 
 The complement of a noun answers to the question "Of 
 what (or whose) ? " asked after the noun. 
 
 The complement (i) of a verb answers to the question 
 *' What?" asked after the verb. 
 
 The complement (2) answers to the question " To what ? " 
 
 The complement (3) answers to the question *' By what ? " 
 
 We can again make these four questions figure in our table, 
 which then takes the definite form — 
 
 What ? port-a subject. 
 
 Of what, whose ? a3 complement of noun. 
 
 What? am ist complement of verb. 
 
 To what ? 88 2nd complement of verb. 
 
 By what 1 a 3rd complement of verb. 
 
264 GRAMMAR. 
 
 The plural will be constructed in the same way, and the 
 whole of the first declension will be contained in the following 
 synthetical table : — 
 
 Table of the First Declension. 
 
 a se 
 
 se arum 
 
 86 IS 
 
 a is 
 
 This form is the one that would be adopted after two or 
 three days of practice. The four other declensions will be 
 collected into analogous tables, so that the five together might 
 be held, as the saying is, " in the hollow of one's hand." 
 
 What advantages has this table over those of the ordi- 
 nary grammar 1 In the first place, that of simplicity and of 
 brevity. The pupil can and does embrace it in one glance. 
 
 A second advantage is its precision and its clearness. The 
 bar that divides it in two reminds the pupil constantly that 
 there are two kinds of complements, and therefore two kinds 
 of case-endings. The grammarians seem never to have in- 
 vented any method to enable the child to distinguish the 
 flexion belonging to a complement of the noun from the 
 flexions belonging to the complements of the verb. Whole 
 weeks of explanation are therefore necessary to enable him 
 to grasp the rule of the genitive case, " liber Petri " (Peter's 
 book). 
 
 A third advantage is the natural order of the cases. I 
 have often wondered, and I still wonder, why it is that in the 
 ordinary grammars the ending destined for the first comple- 
 ment comes after that used for the second complement. 
 
 ros a 
 ros se 
 
 ros ae, 2nd complement of verb, 
 ros am, ist complement of verb, 
 ros a, 3rd complement of verb. 
 
 I confess I see no reason whatever for this inversion. Pos- 
 sibly, indeed, there is none. An insignificant detail, it will 
 be said, a slight imperfection such as will happen anywhere. 
 
USE OV THE TABLE OF DECLENSIONS. 265 
 
 Slight for you, perchance, but not for the child, who has thus 
 to work amongst disorder, believing himself to be working 
 amongst order. To put in the second rank that which should 
 be in the first, to put in the first that which should be put in 
 the second, what more likely than this to lead the learner 
 astray '? Could you do much more even if you wished to set a 
 trap for his inexperience 1 
 
 We have thus re-established the natural order, which is at the 
 same time the logical order. In our table, the first comple- 
 ment comes first and before the second, and the second comes 
 second and before the third. Here, certainly, is an innova- 
 tion which has not needed any very great intellectual effort to 
 make, and yet there is no one, so far as we are aware, who has 
 said a word against the illogical arrangement here pointed out. 
 
 Our table commends itself, we think, also by the clearness 
 of its terminology. We have replaced those surnames ending 
 in ative and itive which usually no pupil really understands, 
 nor can be made to understand, by expressions which we 
 believe to be as exact as they are simple. 
 
 A final property of our table, and the most important, is 
 that of reducing, as we have said, the whole syntax into a few 
 lines. Syntax, in fact, has for its object the determination of 
 the functions which devolve upon the terms of any sentence. 
 Now these functions naturally find themselves determined by 
 the very denominations which we have proposed. 
 
 "I give the poor man a coat." I give what^ A coat 
 (compl. i), vestem. I give to whom? To the poor man 
 (compl. 2), pauperi. And without any difiiculty, and without 
 hesitation, the pupii gives the phrase, " Vestem pauperi do." 
 
 "The shepherd strokes the dog's back with his hand." 
 
 He strokes what ? — the back (compl. i), dorsum. 
 He strokes to whom ? — the dog (compl. 2), cani. 
 He strokes by what ? — by his hand (compl. 3), manu. 
 
 And the pupil with the same surety (after a remark upon 
 the Latin use of the third complement) produces the following 
 phrase, "Dorsum cani manu remulcet pastor." 
 
 In what does the work of the teacher here consist ? He 
 aids the pupil in fixing the order of the complements, that is, 
 in determining the true function of each term. Given the 
 system of our series, together with our mode of teaching, and 
 
266 GRAMMAE. 
 
 ifc can be seen that this work of syntax is perpetual in our 
 language-lessons. It commences with the first sentence of 
 the first lesson, and it ends only with the last sentence of the 
 last series. Who, then, can accuse us of not teaching gram- 
 mar 'i Can the school be named which at any time worked 
 and practised the syntax to the extent that does our own ? 
 
 4. Parallel of the two 2'>'i'ocesses. 
 
 There are, therefore, two manners of teaching the declen- 
 sions. Which is the best 1 To judge, we must compare them. 
 The classical school puts the child to the study of the declen- 
 sions before he knows what may be the object of this study 
 and for what it may afterwards be of service to him. It is 
 imposed upon him six months before he has need of it, two 
 years before he puts it seriously into practice. With us, it is 
 the pupil who solicits the explanation of the cases. The study, 
 of the declensions is, therefore, always premature in the classic 
 school. It is not so with us, because with us the practice 
 begins from the very first day. 
 
 Ad portam pergo. ich gehe nach der Thiir. 
 
 portse appropinquo. ich nahere mich der Thtir. 
 
 ad portam pervenio, &c. ich komme bei der Thiir an, &c. 
 
 The pupil should know why it is that we find in one place 
 portam, in another portce, farther along porta. 
 
 At the classical school the pupil declines for the sake of 
 declining. He learns, or thinks he learns, the declension for 
 itself ; he studies it, therefore, in a state of abstraction. With 
 us it is in order to apply it immediately that he asks for it ; it 
 is in order to join it to something concrete, to realise it in the 
 expression of an actual fact. There the declension is an end ; 
 here it is a means. There it is the form that exclusively pre- 
 occupies both teacher and pupil ; here the essential goes be- 
 fore the accessory ; the foundation goes before the form, as it 
 does in Nature. 
 
 There, for term after term, the students dwell upon empty 
 declensions. The child will decline and conjugate without 
 truce or pity substantives, adjectives, pronouns ; verbs — active, 
 passive, neuter — and the rest, occupied solely with the termi- 
 nation, that is to say, with the accessory. With us, the 
 
PARALLEL OF THE TWO PROCESSES. 267 
 
 explanation of the declension barely requires one hour. There, 
 abstract tables, confused, badly arranged, are taken from the 
 official grammars and imposed upon the pupil like so many 
 dogmas. With us, it is the pupil himself who organises them, 
 and the table represents in his eyes a synthesis — never an 
 abstraction. 
 
 At the classical school, the declension is an intermediary 
 which continually interposes between the perception and the 
 expression of a relation between objects. The pupil never 
 goes directly to this expression ; he never reaches it save 
 through the table of declensions. With us, he goes directly 
 to the expression of the relation, applies it intuitively to the 
 relationship which gives rise to it, then verifies it or rectifies 
 it, if need be, by means of the table. The latter method 
 finishes exactly where the former commences. With one, the 
 student first speaks his thought and then corrects the form of 
 its expression ; with the other, he first of all manufactures a 
 termination, then adapts it to his thought. The first operates 
 intuitively, the second mechanically. 
 
 Which of the two processes approaches most closely to that 
 of Nature, who, absolutely ignorant of the art of declining, goes 
 directly, as we have said, from the relationship to the sign, and 
 from the sign to the relationship — always practising, always 
 working, upon the real and the concrete *? 
 
 There is one objection which a good many persons formulate 
 against our system ; this is the proper moment to answer it. 
 " You do away," they say to us, " with all the difficulties, and 
 you leave nothing to the child's individual efforts. Afterwards 
 let but the smallest obstacle occur, and he will dash against 
 it and bruise himself. The mind must be hardened as well 
 as the body." 
 
 We think so too ; but we lay one condition thereto, that 
 the mind in the end should overcome the difficulties and not 
 succumb to them, for otherwise the best teacher would be he 
 who was most incapable. Can we believe that defeat is the 
 best school for victory ? 
 
 We make the study of Latin too easy ! What an objection ! 
 Our method makes the study of languages too easy ! This 
 is the old complaint of the stage-coach against the railway. 
 Steam also has done away with many obstacles, has smoothed 
 many rough roads, has even eliminated mountains. Is there 
 
268 GRAMMAR. 
 
 lack of obstacles to-day 1 Has human energy become weakened 
 from that day forth ? 
 
 We make study too easy ! Too fruitful, you mean. Is this 
 a defect to cast in the teeth of a method ? Do you qualify as 
 bad a machine that will thresh a hundred sheaves of wheat an 
 hour more than the ordinary threshing-machines ? By the aid 
 of the railway you can now accomplish in an hour what hitherto 
 you could not do in a day. If with our methods you find you 
 can learn in an hour what at present you cannot learn in a 
 day, you would begin to think your faculties injured ! You 
 would think your means diminished, your forces decreased ! 
 You would regret the obstacles against which you used to 
 exhaust yourselves in vain ! 
 
 If, during the time you are wearily mumbling over one book 
 of- Virgil, we can assimilate this author entire, would you 
 declare your work greater than our own, and more fruitful ? 
 For ten obstacles which your pupils have encountered on the 
 way, and which have been for them the occasion of nine 
 defeats, ours have encountered a hundred, which have been 
 for them the occasion of ninety victories. Can you not decide 
 which have taken the better way? We make the study of 
 languages too easy ! Does the lever destroy the power of man 
 because it doubles the effect of each of his efforts ? 
 
 Hitherto youth has exhausted itself in the study of one 
 language; henceforth it may exhaust itself in the study of 
 ten languages. Progress does not destroy the obstacle ; it 
 transforms it or shifts its position. However swift a scientific 
 method may be, life will always be too short to discover all 
 that is true, to see all that is beautiful, to learn all that is 
 good. 
 
 Our duty is to gain knowledge by the shortest and easiest 
 routes, and not to wander about after the fashion of the pil- 
 grim, who imagines he is increasing his merits by wearing 
 thorns in his shoes. 
 
 X. 
 
 THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 We have hitherto considered and dealt with the cases in 
 themselves, apart from the prepositions, which are continually 
 found joined thereto, and which, in appearance at least, govern 
 
THE PREPOSITION. 269 
 
 them. Let us devote a few lines to the study of this element of 
 the sentence, and explain how we practise them in our system. 
 
 The preposition is intimately connected with the verb, 
 often even forming a part of it. It might be termed a 
 detached morsel of the substance of the verb. It fulfils, with 
 regard to the verb, the office of first body-servant. Its func- 
 tion consists principally in indicating the direction in which 
 the action takes place, in defining exactly the point upon 
 which it bears, in marking the end to which it tends. 
 
 Considered from this point of view, the preposition plays a 
 very important part in the sentence, and in connection there- 
 with we may put three principal questions to every linguistic 
 method, and more particularly to our own : — 
 
 1. Does the preposition occupy a place in the method rela- 
 tive to its importance ? 
 
 2. How does its assimilation take place ? 
 
 3. How is its play upon the other terms of the sentence 
 revealed and studied 1 
 
 The exercises of our series reproduce, or may reproduce, all 
 the acts and all the situations possible ; it is therefore certain 
 that the complete play of the preposition will be reproduced 
 therein. So much in the first place. Moreover, the number 
 of the prepositions is very restricted — as restricted, in fact, as 
 the number of relationships they serve to express. These 
 terms are therefore extremely general terms, an essentially cur- 
 rent coinage, which, consequently, should be found everywhere. 
 
 Therefore, in the twenty-five phrases which ordinarily com- 
 pose each theme of our series, there is plenty of room for 
 their appearance; I will add, there is the chance for the 
 greatest number to be effectively called up, and to be called 
 up several times over : — 
 
 I go 
 
 towards 
 
 the door. 
 
 I draw near 
 
 to 
 
 the door. 
 
 I arrive 
 
 at 
 
 the door. 
 
 I stop 
 
 at 
 
 the door. 
 
 The door turns 
 
 on 
 
 its hinges. 
 
 Je vais 
 
 vers 
 
 la porte. 
 
 Je m'approche 
 
 de 
 
 la porte. 
 
 J'arrive 
 
 k 
 
 la porte. 
 
 La porte tourne 
 
 sur 
 (fee. &c. 
 
 ses gonds. 
 
270 GRAMMAR. 
 
 If the verb occupies the first rank in our series, we may say 
 that the preposition occupies the second rank. It has a right 
 to this rank by the very considerable function it fills in the 
 language as a determinative. Our method therefore accords 
 it a place fully adequate to its importance. 
 
 How does the assimilation of the preposition take place? 
 This problem is the immediate corollary of that which we 
 have just solved in relation to the cases or the inflections of 
 nouns. We shall not draw up, as do the ordinary grammars, 
 an abstract list of these prepositions and of the cases they 
 govern. No ; this is an abstract work, a barren task. 
 
 We shall take them, we shall grasp these prepositions 
 living ; as living as the idea of which they are the embodi- 
 ment ; as living as the action of which they translate a phase ; 
 as living as the object upon which they rest ; as living, in fine, 
 as the organism of the phrases of which they form part. The 
 preposition will be learnt in the phrase and by the phrase. 
 
 Will this assimilation be swift and will it be easy ? Will it 
 be swift ? At the end of the tenth lesson the pupil will know 
 them all. At the end of the twentieth he will make use of 
 them with the same ease and the same surety as a pro- 
 fessional philologist. He will know them, not in their defini- 
 tion — this is impossible — but in their sense or inner value, 
 almost as one knows one's own personality without being able 
 to define it. 
 
 Will this assimilation be easy ? It will be as easy — I will 
 say as instantaneous — as the conception itself of the relation- 
 ships they express ; and if these relationships are stamped on 
 the mind, this assimilation will be equally stamped upon the 
 mind, and will operate automatically. 
 
 This will be found difficult, you think ? Possibly, for those 
 who treat the preposition as a pure sign, an abstract sign, a 
 sign deprived of its idea. In this condition I believe it to be 
 not only difficult, but impossible. Count, indeed, the move- 
 ments of the lips and tongue required from your pupil to 
 learn these fifteen or twenty unfortunate syllables; and by 
 the caricatures which usually grin at you from this wretched 
 page of the school-gramnjar you may judge both of the 
 weariness of the pupil and of the uselessness of the labours — 
 always to be recommenced because always fruitless — with 
 which he must periodically toil in this ungrateful field. 
 
INTUITIVE USE OF THE PREPOSITION. 271 
 
 Will it be easy ? you ask. We answer : — After the first 
 week the preposition will be part of the very thought of our 
 pupil, and it will be at the tip of his tongue as certainly as 
 it is in his mind. It needs the heavy bandages of prejudice 
 to prevent the reading of this conclusion in the mere state- 
 ment of the premisses. 
 
 In those languages which have no declension, the preposi- 
 tion exercises no influence on the form of its complement. 
 On the other hand, in the languages which have preserved 
 the inflection, it compels its complemenl; to take a particular 
 and determinate case-ending. We have previously given tlie 
 explanation of this double representation of the relationships. 
 Whether this fact be due to the cause indicated, or whether 
 it be the consequence of a real relationship of subordination, 
 the result in practice is the same ; we may say that the pre- 
 position ''governs" the case in a similar manner to the verb. 
 
 We have spoken of the relationships that the verb sustains 
 with its complements ; we have mentioned how the mind goes 
 from the one to the other, conceives the one in and by the 
 other. The same theory entirely applies to the case before 
 us. It applies to it even more directly than to the first case. 
 In point of fact, the relationship contained within the ordinary 
 verb is found therein in a latent state ; it is enveloped therein, 
 and is divined rather than seen — Portce aj^propinquo. 
 
 On the other hand, this relationship becomes, so to speak, 
 visible and tangible in the body of the preposition which is its 
 special sign, its own particular expression — Ad portam per- 
 venio. The play or the action of the preposition on its com- 
 plement is learnt, therefore, like the rest, by force of practice ; 
 a practice direct and constant, from which in good time springs 
 forth " Intuition." 
 
 The rule is the eggshell, destined to disappear as soon as 
 the life shall have emerged. 
 
 XI. 
 
 THE PREFIX. 
 
 There yet remains for us to speak of one term which, by 
 its form and its nature, must be considered as closely related 
 to the preposition ; perhaps it is even nothing else than this 
 
272 GRAMMAR. 
 
 preposition momentarily disguised. We refer to the " prefix." 
 In the greater number of the European languages the prefix 
 plays but a very minor part. German alone puts it particu- 
 larly forward, and accords it a special and independent position 
 in the sentence. It is, therefore, in this language that it is 
 best studied. 
 
 The prefix is the sign of a sign ; it is the instigator, or, if 
 you will, the prelude to another sign. It calls for, it provokes 
 either a forte of the voice or a gesture of the hand, com- 
 monly both, which begin the signification of the verb or which 
 finish it — 
 
 Ich will die Thur auf-machen. 
 
 Ich mache die Thiir auf. 
 
 In these two sentences the hand and the voice aid, one may 
 say, the word auf, the one by the spontaneous movement, the 
 other by a special accent, the two dictated by instinct, or 
 rather commanded by the idea. This prefix is, therefore, 
 really the sign of a sign. As such, it is, in the true sense of 
 the word, "indefinable." It is a something that a book will 
 always be powerless to explain. The more the subject is 
 expounded, the less you are likely to comprehend. An, auf, 
 ver, zer, are signs so essentially abstract, so general, that they 
 no longer have any appreciable limits. There exist no other 
 terms more general that are capable of circumscribing them, 
 that is, of defining them. They are verily " indefinable." 
 
 There is nothing but a gesture or a modulation of the voice 
 that can render them. They do not represent a word, but 
 the fragment of a word, and of that the most intimate, the 
 most subjective, the most personal part of the word, namely, 
 the " accent," and in the accent the " intonation." There are, 
 therefore, only two means of manifesting the inner significa- 
 tion of the prefix — the tone of the voice and the gesture of 
 the hand. 
 
 Which is the method that has recourse to these two means 
 and which recommends them ? Is it that which is based upon 
 the principle that a language can be learnt without a master, 
 or which condemns you to pick out this language piecemeal 
 from a dictionary, where it is not, cannot be, and never will 
 be 1 Try it and see. 
 
 The German language possesses about a dozen of these 
 terms. Well, these twelve syllables alone constitute an 
 
THE GERMAN PREFIX. 273 
 
 obstacle which I take to be insurmountable by the usual 
 methods — I repeat, "insurmountable/' 
 
 Do you know in what — for the nations of the Latin race in 
 particular — lies the difficulty in learning Grerman ? I can tell 
 you ; for I have waged over this ground a battle of more than 
 three hundred days. I might possibly have been able to 
 triumph over all other obstacles, but I succumbed, and I was 
 bound to succumb, before that of the prefix. Combine these 
 twelve 'or fifteen determinatives with the five hundred root 
 words of the German language, and see what a formidable 
 array the product of the composed terms will become. I 
 struggled, therefore, practically against infinity ; and he will 
 equally have to struggle against infinity who does not attack 
 the prefix upon the side which we shall now indicate. 
 
 The prefix is the most redoubtable rampart of the Grerman 
 language ; but if you can once manage to conquer this, you 
 will practically dominate all. The same may be said of Greek 
 with its prepositions, which we regard as veritable prefixes. 
 These two languages are two impregnable fortresses with the 
 ordinary means. German is equal to Greek, and Greek equal 
 to German, as languages which cannot be assimilated by means 
 of the dictionary and the grammar. And yet these two 
 languages, Greek and German, so rebellious to all the efforts 
 of the classic school, should be, and in reality are, two of the 
 easiest languages for European nations to learn. 
 
 If, indeed, their words may be composed and decomposed at 
 will, this simply proves that the elements of these words are 
 still distinct, while in other languages the most diverse ele- 
 ments are mixed and confounded together, and often absolutely 
 unrecognisable. In such languages, each separate term has to 
 be conquered as an original term, sui generis, and there are 
 some thirty thousand or more of them. Whereas, in the 
 former, it is sufficient to know a small number of elementary 
 words, with the secret of their combinations, to know them 
 almost all. 
 
 Let us base these generalities on facts and figures. We 
 have said elsewhere that the expression of the objective 
 language experienced by a human individuality — ^yours or 
 mine — might be written out in a book of some four thousand 
 pages. Now if a person had studied in French the first three 
 thousand pages, we would not, therefore, guarantee that he 
 
274 QRAMMAB. 
 
 could correctly express and understand the last thousand. 
 But, on the other hand, experience has abundantly shown us 
 that he who has gone through the first two thousand of our 
 themes in Greek or German is then perfectly able to express 
 and understand the other two thousand. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that the pupils who have studied 
 with us in Greek even the first eighty themes of our Series of 
 the Shepherd find themselves all at once able to understand 
 the Greek authors at first sight, while a person who has gone 
 through the same themes in French is yet unable to decipher 
 thoroughly even the easiest of the French writers. To what 
 is this due ? Evidently to the difference in the constitution of 
 the two languages. 
 
 The constitution of a language depends in ^eat measure 
 upon the part to be played therein by the prefix. Our eighty 
 themes represent a total of two thousand phrases. Now these 
 two thousand phrases, inasmuch as they express the most 
 elementary situations, movements, and acts of life, must con- 
 tain, or very nearly so, all the roots of the language. They 
 contain, besides, and necessarily, all the prefixes — the prefixes 
 wedded to the roots, and forming ^\ ith them the greater part 
 of the alliances and combinations of which they are capable. 
 Let the art of teaching make of this raw^ material the same 
 use that Nature knows how to make, and the phenomenon 
 which we have just stated will explain itself. 
 
 In fact, in the course of these eighty themes the pupil cer- 
 tainly has the opportunity of familiarising himself with the 
 two essential and constituent elements of the language; he 
 very soon finds himself able to work upon this material by 
 himself, and from it form new combinations capable of express- 
 ing the rest of his own individuality. So much said, how 
 are we best to teach the use of the prefix ? 
 
 The prefix, let us remember, is a sign which provokes either 
 a raising of the tone of voice or a gesture of the hand, both of 
 them for the purpose of either commencing the signification 
 of the verb or of completing it. 
 
 Ich drehe den Griff um, 
 Ich will die Q'htir a«(/'-machen, 
 as in English — 
 
 I turn the handle roundy 
 I will pull the door to. 
 
CONQUEST OF THE PKEFIX. 275 
 
 Considered thus, the prefix, like the preposition, is part and 
 parcel of the verb. As such, it will partake with the verb 
 in the ruling position accorded by us to the verb in the sen- 
 tence. But it is not only in our written system that the verb 
 occupies a privileged place ; it is above all in the oral expres- 
 sion of the lesson and of its sentences. The prefix marching 
 always side by side with the verb, will share the same advan- 
 tages ; it will be given forth, proclaimed separately, along 
 with the verb or as part of the verb, and we shall take pains 
 to define it separately with a gesture. of the hand or an 
 emphasis of the voice. That is our manner of teaching or of 
 translating the prefix. 
 
 Our elementary Series of the Shepherd, as we have said, 
 contains two thousand sentences ; this alone, therefore, offers 
 us two thousand opportunities of producing this translation 
 of the prefix by accent or gesture. Worked upon in this 
 manner, does the prefix require many weeks to be assimilated 
 by the mind ? Will its virtue and its inner sense long escape 
 the intuitive perception of the scholar ? 
 
 Have you never wondered how it is that the Grerman child 
 manages to solve the twelve formidable enigmas set to him, 
 continually and in rivalry with each other, by the twelve 
 sphinxes which reign as autocrats over his mother- ton gue ? 
 Observe him attentively, and you will see that accent and 
 gesture are the only interpreters to which he has recourse — 
 gesture, which " points " or figures the action ; and accent, 
 which imprints upon it a definite character. 
 
 The constitution of our series, the form of our lessons, our 
 mode of teaching, all permit us not only to practise the prefix 
 as Nature practises it, but to practise it even better than 
 Nature can do. 
 
276 GRAMMAR. 
 
 STUDY OF THE SENTENCE. 
 
 Construction. fP f 
 XII. 
 
 TWO SORTS OF CONSTRUCTION — NATURAL ORDER AND LOGICAL 
 ORDER. 
 
 The materials are now all before us, properly trimmed into 
 shape ; we have nothing further to do but construct. Two 
 styles offer themselves to us, the antique style and the modern 
 style. Will our method adapt itself better to one than to the 
 other of them, or will it accommodate itself equally well to both % 
 Let us see, first, in what each of these two constructions 
 consists. 
 
 In the very ancient languages every term employed to com- 
 plete another term was placed before this other. Instead of 
 saying, for instance, '' upon the table," they said '' the table 
 upon." The modern languages still present certain vestiges 
 of this archaic construction. In English we have " thereon, 
 thereby, therein," &c., and in French the words " la-dessus, 
 la-bas, Ik-dedans," &c., are composed according to this rule. 
 It is this ideal which, to a considerable extent, governs the 
 Latin sentence. The Roman said — 
 
 Ad portam pergo. To the door I go, 
 and not 
 
 Pergo ad portam, I go to the door. 
 
 Here, then, we have the antique order : I call it the 
 " natural order." It is, in fact, more natural than the other. 
 It begins by the determinate to finish by the indeterminate. 
 Consequently, the expression remains concrete from the be- 
 ginning to the end. Greek, according to this rule, is not as 
 ancient in its method of construction as Latin. Its construc- 
 tion is almost that of modern languages. 
 
 If the verb is loaded with several complements, the order to 
 be followed in the distribution of these complements is that 
 presented by our general table of declensions. Write down 
 
ANCIENT AND MODERN CONSTRUCTION. 277 
 
 first of all the first complement, continue by the second, and 
 finish with the third : — 
 
 " Dorsum cani manu remulcet opilio." 
 
 To the rule we have just enounced it is necessary to add a 
 second commanded by cadence and harmony, and with which 
 the first is often obliged to enter into combination. The ad- 
 jective will be separated from its substantive by one or several 
 terms : — 
 
 " Tityre, tu patulse recubans sub tegmine fagi, 
 Silvestrem tenui musam meditaris avena." 
 
 By this arrangement the phrase presents itself in harmoni- 
 ously balanced periods, and it avoids the continuity of mono- 
 tonous consonances. 
 
 Such are the rules which preside over the construction of 
 the antique phrase. Their application is as easy as their expo- 
 sition is simple. 
 
 Modern construction obeys a principle diametrically opposed 
 to that of the ancients. Every term which completes another 
 is placed after this other. This rule, it must be noted, is no 
 more absolute than the first, but it is the ideal towards which 
 the modern sentence visibly tends : — 
 
 I go towards the door, 
 
 and not 
 
 Towards the door I go. 
 
 This inversion is only permissible in poetry, precisely for the 
 reason that poetry especially seeks for archaic forms of ex- 
 pression. Cadence and harmony are here again admitted to 
 their full rights, and the dominant rule is not always rigidly 
 applied. 
 
 The term " logical " seems to us to characterise the order 
 which presides over the construction of the modern phrase. 
 Here the word which is most indeterminate is the starting- 
 point, and the phrase as it develops proceeds by determining it 
 more and more precisely. In the phrase, " I go towards the 
 door," " I " is completed or determined by " go," and " go " is 
 completed or determined by " towards the door " — " I go 
 towards the door." So in French — " Je vais vers la porte." 
 When the verb has several complements, it is usually the 
 cadence or the harmony which decides their place. 
 
 The languages in which the prefix plays an important part, 
 
278 GRAMMAR 
 
 as German (and, to a minor extent, English), should possess, 
 and in fact do possess, a construction of their own. German 
 presents four species of expression : — 
 
 1. Those in which the verb has either no prefix at all, or in 
 which it is welded thereto as an inseparable prefix : — 
 
 Ich bffne die Thiir. 
 Er zerbricht Holz. 
 
 In this case the sentence is constructed according to the 
 "logical" order. 
 
 2. The phrases in which the verb carries a separable 
 prefix : — 
 
 Ich mache die Thiir auf. 
 
 In this case the two parts are separated, and enclose between 
 them, as in a frame, all the complements of the verb. Regarded 
 closely, it is the logical order which presides over this con- 
 struction. In reality, "auf" is nothing else than a deter- 
 minative of *' mache;" as in English, " I pull the drawer 
 out," " I lift the jug up." 
 
 3. The phrases which are commanded by an enclitic verb : — 
 
 Ich will -^ die Thiir auf-machen. 
 Versuchen Sie -t^ die Thiir auf-zu-machen. 
 
 There are in this case two verbs in the phrase, and all the 
 complements are enclosed or enframed between them. This 
 form is a compromise between the antique construction and 
 the modern construction. The enclitic is in the place which 
 it should occupy in a modern sentence, but the second verb, 
 " auf-machen," is preceded by its complement, " die Thiir." 
 
 4. The phrases which occur introduced by a conjunction : — 
 
 Wenn ich die Thiir auf-mache. 
 Wenn ich die Thiir auf-machen will. 
 
 These constructions partake more of the antique than of 
 the modern form. In the above phrase " will " is preceded 
 by its complement ** auf-machen," and "auf-machen" is pre- 
 ceded by its complement " die Thiir." The entire phrase is 
 enframed between the conjunction " wenn " and that of the 
 two verbs which has a personal form, " Ich will." 
 
 These are the four types of construction which a German 
 sentence can present. If we add to these four that in which 
 some complement usurps the place of the subject, or in which 
 
CONSTRUCTION BY THE CLASSICAL PROCESS. 279 
 
 this subject leaps by way of the verb to re-establish the 
 balance, as — 
 
 Die Thiir will ich auf-machen, 
 
 we shall have exhausted all that we have here to say upon the 
 construction of German. 
 
 XIIL 
 
 PRACTICAL STUDY OF THE CONSTRUCTION IN AN ANCIENT OR 
 MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGE. 
 
 We have just seen that the Latin phrase is constructed in 
 a different form to the French or English phrase, and the 
 German phrase differently to either of these two types. The 
 man, therefore, who has never spoken any other language 
 than, say, English or French, is incapable of constructing pro- 
 perly a single phrase in either Latin or German, even if he is 
 in possession of all the elements of those languages. Con- 
 sequently, if he wishes to learn one of those languages, what is 
 required of him is that he should study the construction of the 
 phrase in this language itself. So far as regards our mother- 
 tongue, each of us has learnt the construction directly while 
 learning to think, and we apply it intuitively. Our own lan- 
 guage is not, therefore, the place to study it, at least with the 
 view of its practical application. Hence the problem in question 
 may be formulated as follows : — A pupil is accustomed to think 
 and to speak according to the " logical" order ; to what exer- 
 cise must he submit himself in order to learn to think and to 
 speak with the same facility in a foreign language in which 
 the phrase is constructed according to the "natural" order? 
 The classical school possesses, or believes it possesses, a solu- 
 tion to this problem ; our method proposes a new solution. 
 Let us compare them. 
 
 I . Construction by the ordinary process. 
 
 We will suppose that the lesson to be given in class is one 
 of the Eclogues of Virgil : — 
 
 " Tityre, tu patulae recubans sub tegmine fagi, 
 Silvestrem tenui musam meditaris avena. 
 Nos patriae fines et dulcia linquimus arva, 
 Nos patriam fugimus : tu Tityre, lentus in umbrsi, 
 Formosam resonare doces Amaryllida silvas. ..." 
 
28o GRAMMAR. 
 
 The classical school brutally uproots the sentence from its 
 surroundings to submit it to a species of anatomical dissection. 
 It breaks it up without pity, or at least pulls it to pieces like 
 a child its toy ; then, replacing its elements in the logical 
 order, makes therefrom a modern phrase. This is what is 
 called construction : — 
 
 " Tityre, tu recubans sub tegmine fagi patulae, 
 Meditaris musam silvestrem avena tenui, 
 Nos linquimus fines patriae et arva dulcia ; 
 Nos f ugimus patriam ; tu, Tityre, lentus in umbra, 
 Doces silves resonare Amaryllida formosam. ..." 
 
 To teach the antique construction the school destroys it, 
 makes it disappear, and substitutes in its place the modern 
 construction. I ask if this is really the means to familiarise 
 the mind with the Latin construction ? I ask, how many 
 years are needed to be able, by this strange proceeding, to 
 follow intuitively the natural order— to apply intuitively the 
 antique form of construction ? Instead of bringing the logical 
 order back into the natural order, you force the natural order 
 into the form of the logical order. Were ever means and end 
 more contradictory? As well might one, as some one some- 
 where has said, practise balancing a chair on the tip of one's 
 nose in order to strengthen the arms. 
 
 In thus reading Latin the wrong way round, in speaking it, 
 in writing it the wrong way round, I do nothing but weave 
 the web of Penelope. It is quite evident that by so doing I 
 shall never be able to thoroughly learn this language, which 
 is, nevertheless, one of the easiest of all languages ever spoken 
 on the face of the earth. Nay, further, the more I read it, 
 the more I speak it, the more I write it in this way, the less 
 shall I know of it. 
 
 For observe, between my thought and the antique form 
 of this thought you again place an intermediary. I am 
 obliged to reach the antique construction by way of the 
 modern construction. You condemn me to construct the 
 natural order out of the logical order, which is as much as 
 to say to manufacture light out of darkness. Instead of clear- 
 ing away all obstacles which might hinder my thought from 
 going straight to its expression, you vastly increase them. 
 
 No ! never — however much I work, I should never know 
 Latin; this language would never become for me a natural 
 
CONSTRUCTION BY THE SERIES SYSTEM. 281 
 
 organ of my thought ; never would one of its books bring up 
 before me the true soul of the author ; never will the beating 
 of his heart quicken mine. Virgil, Cicero, thus dessicated, 
 can never be other than dry bones — corpses ! 
 
 This is whither the methods of the classical school lead us. 
 Let us see where our own will lead. 
 
 2. Construction by our method. 
 
 From the very first lesson, from the very first sentence, we 
 put before the pupil the antique construction ; we force him 
 to think according to the natural order, and to accommodate 
 his phrases to this new manner of imagining things. Let us 
 try this first of all upon one of our series, and let us take 
 yet once more our old exercise, " Ostium aperio." 
 
 The teacher gives the first word, pergo. Then attacking 
 the phrase by the complement, and making it start into life 
 by the gesture of his hand and the accent of his voice, he 
 says — 
 
 Pergo. Ad ostium pergo. 
 
 Have we not here both analysis and synthesis 1 Analysis 
 when the master, dividing the sentence into two parts, sets 
 the verb by itself ; synthesis when he builds up around this 
 verb the complete phrase and allows it to blossom forth as 
 upon its natural stem. 
 
 appropinquo Ad ostium appropinquo. 
 
 pervenio ad ostium pervenio. 
 
 suhsisto ad ostium subsisto. 
 
 apprehendo ostii ansam apprehendo. 
 
 torcLueo ostii ansam torqueo. 
 
 recludo ostium recludo. 
 
 vertitur cardinibus vertitur ostium. 
 
 stridet cardinibus stridet ostium, &c. 
 
 Here, then, is no intermediary between the idea and the 
 antique form destined to translate and to manifest it ; no con- 
 struction after the fashion of modern speech. Here it is 
 directly, and without recourse to any mediator, that the idea 
 goes to the form, and that the form comes to the idea and 
 adapts itself to the idea. Of anatomical dissection there is 
 none. As soon as the phrase issues from the mouth, it is 
 living. It lives already in the verb, which is the abbreviation 
 
282 GKAMMAR 
 
 of it j and it is thence, as from a focus, that the Promethean 
 spark springs forth to animate its various members and com- 
 plements. With us the phrase never appears in the state of a 
 corpse, and a corpse, moreover, cut up into pieces as in the word- 
 for-word or interhnear translations of the classical school. 
 
 And nevertheless all is distinct in our sentence. It is a 
 team in which the various guiding reins never get mixed. 
 We owe this advantage to the elevated and firm seat in which 
 we have been able to place our charioteer, " the verb." 
 
 The first part, we think all will confess, is gained : the 
 master has made his class think in Latin; he has initiated 
 them into the secret of the antique construction; he has 
 familiarised them with what we have termed the natural order 
 of the words. More than this, the scholar has, without know- 
 ing it, deserted the logical order — the form to which his 
 thoughts are habituated — to follow the natural order, a form 
 contrary to his habits of thought. A few more exercises and 
 the pupil will no more be able to construct his sentences 
 otherwise than could the ancients themselves. He will not 
 seek for the antique construction; he will apply it by instinct. 
 
 From the first series you will lead him to the second, from 
 the second you will conduct him to the third, and when all 
 the complements possible have found opportunity to manifest 
 themselves and to play their part around the verb, when the 
 pupil possesses that basis of the language of which we have 
 so often spoken — then open Virgil, and, going from sentence 
 to sentence, sow the verbs (or their substitutes) first. From 
 this seed will ripen the brilliant harvest so highly prized. 
 Your scholars shall gather it sheaf by sheaf, and this book 
 shall be for them no more a barren field. Yirgil will no 
 longer be for them what he was for us, " a dead body." 
 
 recuhans Tityre, tu patulae recubans sub tegmine fagi, 
 
 meditaris silvestrem tenui musam meditaris avena. 
 
 lincLuimus Nos patriae fines et dulcia linquimus arva, 
 
 fugimus nos fugimus patriam. 
 
 (lentus) Tu, Tityre, lentus in umbr^, 
 
 resonare formosam resonare doces Amaryllida silvas. 
 
 The classic issues absolutely intact from this operation. It 
 is neither mutilated nor violated by the book in a horrible 
 word-for-word translation, nor is it disorganised nor massacred 
 by a wordiness without shame and a knowledge without taste. 
 
THE EEADING OF THE CLASSICS. 283 
 
 The smallest blemish, the slightest scratch of the sacred text 
 is spared. The length of the typographical line is the sole 
 thing we do not consider ourselves bound to respect. It 
 cannot be here a question of verse. ^Haen the pupil has 
 heard the text, he will be able to open the ordinary edition 
 and therein scan the syllables at will. We would, however, 
 point out that even the versification is only deranged typo- 
 graphically. 
 
 It must, of course, be thoroughly understood that the read- 
 ing of the classics only comes after the study of the series 
 proper. One is the necessary condition of .the other ; it pre- 
 pares for it as the expression of the facts of ordinary life 
 prepares the child for the immediate and fluent reading of 
 the books of his mother-tongue. He who passes from the 
 grammar direct to the literary masterpiece is forced to have 
 recourse to the anatomical dissection commonly known as 
 " construing " or " word for word " translation. 
 
 The solution of the problem which we have presented is the 
 natural product of the general mechanism of our system — a 
 product, indeed, so natural that one would hardly even suspect 
 that there is here a formidable difficulty vanquished. This 
 solution is, as it were, the resultant of all the principles which 
 lie at the root of the system. It follows from the central idea 
 of the series, from their inner construction, from their written 
 and spoken form. It is the immediate corollary of the axiom 
 which has raised the verb to the first rank in the phrase. 
 
 This verb, which allows the sentence to fold itself up, to 
 gather itself together, to contract itself, to force itself into 
 one single term, afterwards to expand itself to make all the 
 various complements that it encloses spring forth — the verb 
 plays in the sentence a part that is not without analogy with 
 that of the heart in the human body. 
 
 It is this double movement of contraction and expansion 
 which our method of teaching can enable the sentence to 
 make that explains the easy triumphs of our method, as it 
 explains elsewhere the miracles of life. No matter what 
 language we take, or under what form a phrase occurs, if 
 there is a verb in this phrase and if there are complements, 
 these complements must come either before or after the verb. 
 We have shown that our process accommodates itself as well 
 to the one as to the other. It is therefore applicable to all 
 languages. 
 
284 GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE MODAL PHRASES. 
 XIV. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND PRACTICE. 
 
 I. Definition of the modal phrase — Its constituent elements — 
 Their relations. 
 
 When, in our school-days, we dealt with phrases such as the 
 following : — 
 
 I think you are crying. Credo te fiere, 
 
 I think that he is reading, Credo ilium legere, 
 
 I think that he has read, Credo ilium legisse, 
 
 Je crois que vous pleurez, 
 je crois qu'il lit, 
 je crois qu'il a lu, 
 
 we dealt with " modal phrases." When we recited the 
 rules of 
 
 Suadeo tibi ut —^ legas, 
 
 Timeo ne -^ proeceptor veniat, 
 
 Cave ne -5^ cadas, 
 
 Dignus est -;^ qui imperet, 
 &c., &c. 
 
 we were still elaborating " modal phrases." 
 
 Various writers have special names for these syntactical 
 forms. The modern grammars usually content themselves by 
 attempting a rule or a definition of what is understood by the 
 word " subjunctive," and refer for particular cases to the dic- 
 tionaries. A treatise therefore remains to be written which 
 should comprise the complete series of the locutions analogous 
 to those just given, and which would classify them according 
 to a rational principle. 
 
 The modal phrase is always composed of two distinct parts, 
 each part with its own verb, but one of them subordinate 
 to the other. The part which governs the other usually 
 
THE MODAL PHRASES. 285 
 
 expresses a mental fact, an attitude of the mind either active 
 or passive. 
 
 I think that -^ you are crying. 
 
 I advise you -^ to read. 
 
 I am afraid that -;=' the teacher will come. 
 
 Take care -^ not to fall. 
 
 He is worthy -?- to command. 
 
 That will make you -^ reflect. 
 
 The first part is nothing else than an enclitic relative phrase. 
 The second part expresses some fact appertaining either to the 
 exterior objective world or to the interior subjective world. 
 To which of these two parts should the name of " modal " be 
 applied ? 
 
 The first is " modal " in so far as it decides the " mood," 
 that is, the form of the second, and the second is '' modal " in 
 the sense that it clothes this form. But that one of the two 
 which is the determining cause of the mood, that is, the first 
 or enclitic phrase, is the true modal phrase, and to it this de- 
 nomination is here applied. The two elements of the complete 
 modal phrase are welded the one to the x)ther either by a 
 preposition or by a conjunction. The conjunction, therefore, 
 forms part of the modal phrases, and cannot, consequently, be 
 the object of any special theory. 
 
 2. Establishment of the moods — Vicious circle of the classical 
 school — Our process. 
 
 In the chapter upon relative phrases we first of all deter- 
 mined the intriusic value of the enclitic and the part which it 
 plays in the language ; then we sought a practical means of 
 teaching it. But that which constitutes precisely its character 
 of " modal," that is, its particular relations with the subordi- 
 nated sentence, yet remains for us to study. In other words, 
 the enclitic has been dealt with as "enclitic," and not yet as 
 " modal." What will be the best manner of procedure in this 
 new study 1 Let us examine first of all how the ordinary 
 grammars proceed ; and we must here ask the reader to permit 
 us the necessary recapitulation. 
 
 The distinct terminations special to the moods known as 
 "subordinate" have first been counted ; then the attempt has 
 been made to put them in order. As the basis of the order 
 desired, the grammarians have adopted, not a real principle. 
 
286 GRAMMAR. 
 
 but a vain symmetry. We have already stated what coniPusion 
 may be engendered by a conception so narrow, a starting-point 
 so badly chosen as this. 
 
 The ordinary grammar draws up at once and a priori 
 the system of conjugations of "subordinate" moods; then a 
 hundred pages or so later it will treat of "modal" or sub- 
 junctive phrases. These phrases are divided into some ten 
 groups, and each group is based upon one of the forms of the 
 pre-established conjugation. The modal phrase is thus subor- 
 dinated to a form of conjugation ; the cause is subordinated 
 to the effect, resulting in a wandering round and round with 
 the fullest confidence in the most perfect of vicious circles. 
 Hence these perpetual contraventions of rules and these inter- 
 minable lists of exceptions. 
 
 Our process will be the exact reverse of that adopted by 
 the classic school. Where, indeed, does the first cause of the 
 subordinate moods reside? Is it not in the idea expressed 
 by the modal phrase? Is it not the modal phrase which 
 "governs" in one place the subjunctive, in another place the 
 conditional, elsewhere the imperative or the supine ? 
 
 We shall commence, then, not by arranging the inflections 
 in paragraphs, but by classifying the modal phrases. We 
 shall then determine the mood to which each of our established 
 classes corresponds. It may very well be that a single form 
 serves two different moods. If so, we shall state the fact, we 
 shall explain it if we can, but we shall guard ourselves from 
 distorting it by any attempt to reduce " two into one." It may 
 equally happen that our moods thus deduced do not agree, 
 either as to their number or as to their form, with those of 
 the usual grammars. We shall not attempt to reconcile the 
 two systems; the starting-point being changed, the destina- 
 tion will also be changed. 
 
 3. Ordinary practice of the modal phrases and the 
 moods — Our process. 
 
 The moods once established and organised, it remains for 
 us to exercise them, to practise them. How does the classical 
 school acquit itself of this task ? It places before the pupil 
 eight or nine types of modal expressions ; then, dictating to 
 him a set of detached phrases, says to him, " You are to make 
 each of these phrases into one of the types consecrated in 
 
ERRORS OF THE ORDINARY PRACTICE. 287 
 
 your grammar, and you will do this in such a way that your 
 phrase shall agree exactly with its model." 
 
 Always tlie same process, and always the same faults. 
 
 1. This work is written instead of being oral. 
 
 2. An intermediary is placed between the idea and its 
 expression. 
 
 3. The intellectual operation is mechanical instead of being 
 intuitive. 
 
 The multifold criticisms of which this process has been the 
 object in previous chapters will absolve us from insisting here 
 upon the fundamental vice which condemns it to utter barren- 
 ness. As to our own process, we have set it forth at length in 
 the chapter upon enclitic phrases. To this chapter we refer 
 the reader. 
 
288 ANNEXES AND COROLLARIES. 
 
 ANNEXES AND COROLLARIES OF THE SYSTEM. 
 
 THE ORTHOGRAPHY — SPELLING. 
 
 Orthography has for its object the written lepresentation of 
 the terms of a language. The greater portion of these terms 
 are formed of two distinct parts, namely, an invariable ele- 
 ment named the "radicle," and a variable element termed the 
 " inflection " or termination. The radicle can only be learnt 
 by the eye. To read and read, to wiite and write, over and 
 over again, that is, to look at or retrace by the eye the repre- 
 sentation of speech, these are the sole means of learning the 
 spelling of this first part of the words. The termination is a 
 more or less conventional thing. As such, it is susceptible of 
 rules, and comes under the scope of the grammar. 
 
 Can the knowledge of orthography in its two elements be 
 acquired directly by the practice of our method ? This pro- 
 perty of the system is too evident to all for there to be any 
 need for us to stop to again demonstrate it. 
 
 The method embracing each language in the totality of its 
 terms and its expressions, both the eye and the hand will have 
 the opportunity of becoming familiarised with the radicle of 
 all the terms which form part of it ; and this taking posses- 
 sion of the roots will be as swift as it is easy. For example, 
 when the theme "open the door" has been fully elaborated 
 in the manner we have explained, it is absolutely impossible 
 that the spelling of the word " door " should not thereafter be 
 engraved for ever on the pupil's memory, or that the fancy 
 should 'take him to write this radicle otherwise than as so 
 often encountered in the course of the lesson. All the advan- 
 tages which the method can offer for the study of languages 
 it also offers for the learning of the spelling either of a foreign 
 language or of the mother- tongue. 
 
SPELLING AND READING. 289 
 
 IL 
 
 READING. 
 
 From the spelling to tho reading is but one step. Every 
 method for the teaching of languages should contain withiii 
 itself a method for the teaching of reading. Indeed, if a book 
 is a good one for teaching how to speak and write a language, 
 it must be equally so for teaching to read. 
 
 Recall the properties of our series ; examine once more from 
 this point of view the arrangement of our lessons and the 
 order of the sentences; remember the mode of giving the 
 lesson by the teacher and the process followed by the scholar, 
 and you will be able, perhaps, to judge whether or not our 
 method may become the most practical of all the methods of 
 teaching children to read yet brought forward. 
 
 What book is the best to give into the hands of the child 
 immediately after teaching him the alphabet? In the first 
 place, it must be a book devoid of all metaphor, and of all 
 metaphysical conceptions — a book expurgated of all those 
 abstruse religious sentiments with which too often the books 
 for earliest childhood are crammed. Let us reserve these 
 matters for a riper age. The little child, however much you 
 may try, cannot at first be made to understand metaphor. 
 Now, no one can read well what he understands ill. 
 
 Reading is the first serious effort demanded of the intelli- 
 gence of the child. Here we have one of the most arduous 
 steps to be undertaken, and we should direct our energies to 
 clearing the road instead of encumbering it with obstacles. 
 The first reading-book must, therefore, be simple — as simple 
 as childhood itself — as simple as the life the child leads around 
 its mother's knee. 
 
 And what should this book be about ? It should deal with 
 the knowledge that the child itself already possesses. The child 
 should find out, with an ever- increasing interest in the reading- 
 book, the expression, the translation of its every-day life, and 
 not endless reflections upon wickedness it knows nothing of, 
 and upon virtues which as yet it does not possess. 
 
 The child gets up in the morning, dresses himself, eats, 
 drinks, and plays ; let him read the story of his getting up, of 
 his dressing, of his breakfast, the description of his little games. 
 
 T 
 
290 ANNEXES AND COROLLARIES. 
 
 All these things written clown will have for him the attraction 
 of a revelation. Is it not, indeed, the progressive revelation 
 of his individuality ? He sees his mother or his nurse light 
 the fire, draw water from the spring, sweep up, wash, dust the 
 room : let him read the story of the pump or the well, and 
 that of the washing-tub. He sees, or should see, his father or 
 some of the men on the farm chopping wood, haymaking, 
 reaping, gardening, driving; let him read the story of the 
 woodman, the haymaker, the reaper, the gardener, the dray- 
 man, &c. He sees, or should see, living around him a cat, a 
 flock of sheep, some horses, fowls in the farmyard, birds, bees, 
 flying beetles, butterflies, flowers, trees, all sorts of things; 
 open before him the history of the rodents, the quadrupeds, 
 the birds, the insects, the plants, and there will be no lack of 
 interest. So much for the material of the book. But what 
 form shall we adopt ? 
 
 First of all, each reading lesson must have a determined 
 length, a length calculated upon the effort that can be sus- 
 tained by a frail intelligence without fatigue. Experience 
 has demonstrated to us that a lesson of twenty to thirty sen- 
 tences is the ordinary measure of the effort of the little child. 
 
 Next, what typographic form are we to give to this lesson 1 
 We could write the sentences one after the other, just as they 
 come, without troubling ourselves either about their beginning 
 or their end, so that if the size of page were large enough the 
 whole might be given on a single line. Or we may write down 
 these sentences one beneath the other upon separate lines, so 
 that the eye not only distinguishes them without effort, but 
 can embrace them in one look, and grasp them at a glance. 
 
 We have to choose between these two types. To which of 
 the two will pedagogy give the preference ? I imagine to that 
 which promises to smooth, and thereby to shorten, the path of 
 the scholar. For this reason it is the second of these we shall 
 take. The book sought is therefore found to be identical with 
 that of our elementary series, identical both as regards mate- 
 rial and form. Our method, therefore, really carries hidden 
 M'ithin it a method of teaching reading — a method as simple 
 and easy as is its method of teaching foreign languages, and 
 practised in exactly the same way. 
 
 And if instead of the usual ABC books — books as abstract 
 as they are arbitrary — and the mechanical alphabets of to-day 
 
THE SERIES READING LESSONS. 291 
 
 were suljstituted a truly rational alphabet, an alphabet in which 
 each letter speaks and itself tells its origin, name, and virtue 
 (and this alphabet is possible, because we ourselves use it i), 
 then the great task of teaching reading will be the work of a 
 few weeks, or rather (with a phonetic spelling) a game of a 
 few days. Better even than this, the child will not learn to 
 read ; he will read as he speaks, by instinct, spontaneously, 
 intuitively. And this is as it should be. 
 
 Doubtless the eye will not be able to dispense with a certain 
 apprenticeship. "When the child first walks alone, he gropes 
 prudently to feel the ground under his feet. When he reads 
 for the first time, the eye will attack each word slowly, with 
 circumspection ; but he will not spell the words — he will read ; 
 he will not syllabify — he will read direct ; he will not gather 
 part of an idea by gathering part of a word — he will gather 
 the entire idea by grasping the entire word. 
 
 Do we ever see our scholars when learning Greek amusing 
 themselves by spelling or "a-b-abbing" the words? When 
 shall we rid school-work entirely of this absurd, this idiotic 
 habit of putting the child everywhere and gratuitously to 
 puzzle his little brain over abstractions ? For regarded care- 
 fully, spelling and dividing words into syllables are operations 
 really as abstract as the calculation of the binomial theorem 
 or the discussion of an analytic formula. 
 
 Yes, with our Series reading becomes, like the rest, a mere 
 game ; so much so indeed, that the children know how to read 
 without ever having learnt. The child's first lesson of reading 
 is then always a language-lesson. He reads that which he has 
 just heard, that which he perceives directly, that which he has 
 just spoken himself ; he reads the speech he has just assimi- 
 lated, the words which are still vibrating in his ear. He does 
 not guess, he does not decipher upon each line one or several 
 logogriphs, puzzles in words ; he recognises quite naturally the 
 expression of his thought. 
 
 This was the method of the Greeks, who all knew how to 
 read, even the slaves. It is, in certain parts of Germany (and 
 of England), the present method. The scholar in Germany 
 does not spell, does not syllabify — he reads. To-morrow, if we 
 would, all our school-children could do the same. Simply let 
 the school do away with its alphabetical abstractions. 
 
 ^ The question of the alphabet will be more fully explained in other 
 works (Trans.). 
 
292 ANNEXES AND COROLLARIES. 
 
 IIL 
 
 DRAWING — ITS RELATION TO LANGUAGE — THE ILLUSTRATED 
 SERIES. 
 
 Let US shake for the last time the tree of our linguistic 
 system ; perhaps there may fall from it yet another forgotten 
 fruit. Each of our themes forms a thoroughly determinate 
 whole ; its totality presents what is termed a picture, and may, 
 if desired, be reproduced otherwise than by writing. If we 
 think of it, it is a subject ready prepared for drawing. No 
 object is forgotten in our series, and the general situations of 
 animals or of things are found therein faithfully retraced. 
 Why could we not attempt, in a series of sketches, to reveal 
 to the child the fundamental, generating, substantial lines of 
 all beings or objects mentioned therein, as they arise upon 
 the scene in the lessons of the series 1 
 
 The art of teaching drawing appears to us to be at exactly 
 the same point as the art of teaching language. There exists 
 as yet no method of teaching drawing which does not repro- 
 duce the same errors as those of the present grammars. 
 Every one of them begins by abstraction. To commence by 
 lines, squares, geometrical figures, is to commence by abstrac- 
 tion ; it is to " spell " the form ; it is to exclude intuition, to 
 prevent inspiration. 
 
 To commence by the nose, the eyes, the ears, is again to 
 begin by abstraction. If it is not '' spelling " the form of the 
 object, it is ''syllabifying" it. Beginning by the head is a 
 superior process to the two preceding. The pupil no longer 
 works altogether upon the abstract; and the teacher, if he 
 is clever, can provoke intuition, can awaken inspiration. But, 
 whatever he may do, this head is part only of a whole — it is 
 not a true whole. 
 
 To read isolated words is not really '' to read," and to 
 draw parts of objects or isolated objects is not really " to 
 draw." That a thing may be rightly drawn, it must bear tho 
 shade of the objects that surround it ; it must be limited, 
 defined, by these objects. We only really read when we 
 enounce a complete phrase ; we can only really draw when 
 we reproduce that which corresponds to the phrase, namely, 
 " a group." 
 
THE SERIES DRAWING LESSONS. 293 
 
 We will venture the statement that the true point of 
 departure of drawing is the group, and not the line ; it is 
 synthesis, and not analysis ; it is the phrase, and not the 
 word, exactly as for language. This principle, dictated to 
 us by logic, is confirmed by experience. Observe the early 
 attempts of any child having the promise of an artist in him, 
 and you will be struck with one fact that allows of no excep- 
 tion. It is not geometric lines, not noses, nor mouths, nor 
 even heads, that first solicit the pencil of the future artist, 
 but always groups, and nothing but groups. It is iJie relations 
 heticecn the tilings which first captivate him ; and it is the 
 intuition of these relations which attaches him to the things 
 themselves. That he shall feel emotion, it is distinctly neces- 
 sary that Nature should say something to him, express some- 
 thing to him. It is this expression that the little artist essays 
 to translate; it is that which we term "the ideal." 
 
 Each of our themes is the expression of a group of facts, 
 and of facts simple, elementary, well known to the child, 
 and already "lived" by him. These facts are set in order, 
 harmonised, as they are in Nature. The child perceives or 
 conceives the true relations that these facts have with each 
 other. Our Series appear to us, therefore, to be able to serve 
 as the basis of a decidedly rational system of teaching drawing. 
 Our system will lose nothing by being interpreted by another 
 art, while this other art would gain in clearness by being 
 guided by language, and following the language in all its 
 evolutions. 
 
 Language and drawing are two revelations of Nature which 
 cannot do otherwise than complete each other without ever 
 contradicting each other. 
 
 To those who would reproach us with wishing to perform 
 too much with a linguistic method, we will answer that in 
 Nature everything is strictly knitted together, that the whole 
 being of man rests upon language, that language is the mar- 
 vellous placenta to which is attached, and by which is fed, 
 every product of the intelligence and of the activity of 
 mankind. 
 
294 ANNEXES AND COROLLARIES. 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE TIME NECESSARY TO LEARN A LANGUAGE. 
 
 The arena is prepared, its limits defined ; the obstacles are 
 all numbered, the difficulties estimated. What time will be 
 required by a runner of average force to reach or pass the 
 goal? In other words, how many months are necessary to 
 learn a language by means of our method 1 
 
 To learn a language is, as we have said, to translate one's 
 own individuality into this language. Our complete series 
 represents the expression of a strong human individuality of 
 about fifteen years of age. Every calculation taken, we have 
 found that our own may be written within a book of 4000 
 pages, divided into fifty or sixty chapters, each presenting the 
 development of a general series consisting of from fifty to 
 eighty separate themes or exercises. Each of these themes 
 contains, on an average, twenty-five sentences. The complete 
 expression of our individuality will therefore be represented by 
 25 times 4000, or 100,000 sentences. On an average, our pupils 
 assimilate five themes in an hour ; 4000 divided by 5 gives 
 the quotient 800. It is therefore 800 hours that is required 
 for the complete study of a language. Let us say 900 to have 
 something in hand and to allow for the unforeseen. 
 
 Nine hundred hours spread over the entire year or 360 days, 
 reduces itself to two hours and a half a day, or an hour and 
 a quarter in the morning and an hour and a quarter in the 
 afternoon. The complete study of a language within the 
 year is therefore an easy task. Nine hundred hours spread 
 over six months, that is, over 180 days, is equal to five hours 
 a day, say 2| hours in the morning and the same in the after- 
 noon. Whoever, therefore, can and will give up five hours 
 a day to the study of a language will with certainty have 
 assimilated the language at the end of six months. 
 
 An objection will here be made to us : let us at once deal 
 with it. Five times 5 are 25. Is it possible to assimilate 
 twenty-five pages of a foreign language per day 1 Is it even 
 possible for them to be given as lessons 'i 
 
 In the chapter upon " The Construction of the System " we 
 endeavoured to bring into light a property of our series which 
 is a direct and emphatic reply to the objection quoted. We 
 
THE TIME NECESSARY. 295 
 
 will recapitulate it. A single series — that of the quadruped, 
 for example — gives us possession of the first basis of a language, 
 that which may be termed its '* substance." The second series 
 rests upon the first, and borrows therefrom two-thirds of its 
 expressions. The third is fed in the same proportion at the 
 expense of the two first ; and so on for the others. The same 
 terms are repeated again and again indefinitely from one 
 sentence to another sentence, from one aim to another aim, 
 from one theme to another theme, from one series to another 
 series. 
 
 At the end of the first series the pupil, therefore, finds him- 
 self in possession of a crowd of expressions which he has only 
 to apply in the second ; the study of the second will facilitate 
 yet more that of the third and of the following ones. At the 
 end of the first month our pupils are generally able to receive 
 and assimilate up to twelve exercises in the hour. From the 
 second month forward the pupil, therefore, can finish his daily 
 task in two hours. 
 
 As regards the teacher, it is quite evident that he requires 
 no more time to give than the pupil needs to learn the lessons. 
 We must not forget, moreover, that the successive acquisition 
 of the lessons day by day facilitates the teacher's task and 
 abridges it. But the writing? Where will the pupil find 
 time to write out the twenty-five pages a day ? 
 
 The speech of man, we have said, is continuous. Our entire 
 life has therefore been spoken by us. Bat who of us has 
 written it out in all its details 1 To know our native language, 
 the foreigner is no more bound than we are ourselves to write 
 out the hundred thousand sentences which express our indivi- 
 duality. He will write as many of them as he can — the more 
 the better. The essential part, however, is that he should 
 speak them all. 
 
 Here we may parenthetically remark that of our 4000 themes 
 2000 or more will appertain to science properly so called. 
 Have we not defined our system as " the sciences by the lan- 
 guages and the languages by the sciences " ? Consequently, 
 with our system, and by reason of it, and it alone, the time 
 given to languages is not stolen from the sciences. It is as 
 much given to them, indeed, as to the languages themselves. 
 By our system pupils learn the sciences and obtain the lan- 
 guages into the bargain. 
 
296 ANNEXES AND COROLLAKIES. 
 
 Nine hundred hours ! This is the time necessary to assi- 
 milate the entire series, that is to say, the objective language. 
 But this language does not constitute the whole of language. 
 Alongside or above the series there is the subjective lan- 
 guage ; there also is the figurative language, and there is the 
 grammar. Will it be necessary to devote special and supple- 
 mentary hours to the study of these three parts. 
 
 We will refer the reader to the chapters in which they have 
 been treated in full. Vie have shown how far the figurative 
 language is attached to and hangs, so to speak, upon the themes 
 of the series; how the relative phrase, enclitic or other, is 
 taught with and by the same themes ; lastly, how the grammar 
 is exercised upon them, and is applied to them without oppos- 
 ing or hindering their development. 
 
 The figurative language slips into the interval between the 
 series; the relative phrase fills up the interval between the 
 sentences; the grammar commands and guides the whole. 
 The objective language, under the form of the series, repre- 
 sents a penetrable bod)', having the property of aggregating 
 others to itself without increasing its volume. 
 
 Nine hundred hours ! I repeat, the study of a language 
 requires 900 hours. Whether a person have or not what is 
 called the " gift for languages " (and each of us receives it on 
 being born), there is the total amount of time which it is 
 necessary to devote to it. There we have the price, the exact 
 price of a language. He will appear and will be reputed to 
 be the most clever and the most gifted who is able the soonest 
 to invest the capital required. 
 
 From the defensive we will pass to the offensive. In the 
 first place, what must we think of those teachers of languages 
 who engage to include an entire language in ninety pages, to 
 teach it to you by opening their mouths ninety times, to make 
 you assimilate it by honouring you with forty-five visits, or to 
 deliver it to you complete on receipt of the fiftieth ticket? 
 
 Our judgment will be brief. Justice condemns for cheating 
 persons less qualified for it than these. He who sells a piece 
 of goods that he knows he cannot deliver is not an honest 
 man. A language is a whole world to conquer. Now, no one 
 can conquer a world by executing haphazard a dozen marches 
 and a couple of dozen countermarches. 
 
 Next, let us judge the official scholastic programmes from 
 
THE TIME NOW GIVEN. 297 
 
 the point of view of the study of languages. Two hours of 
 French or of German a week make a total of eight hours 
 a month, say eighty hours for the whole scholastic year. 
 Eighty divided by 10 gives a quotient 8. It is, therefore, 
 eight full days that the school accords to the children for 
 learning a modern language. 
 
 Eight days a year — a little over a week ! This figure eight 
 is in itself at once a criticism and a judgment — a judgment so 
 severe that we can hardly allow ourselves to translate it into 
 the vulgar tongue. Eight full days to conquer a language ! ! 
 
 The course, it is true, is spread over ten months, but these 
 ten months are quite evidently nothing but a delusion ; and 
 whatever any one may say, a course of ten months at two hours 
 a week will never represent more than eight full days. Further, 
 eight days spread over fifty weeks have not even this value. 
 
 A rower who, in order to progi'ess up a river, should struggle 
 against the stream t^vo hours a week, and all the rest of the 
 time should allow himself to drift down with the ordinary 
 current, would be more likely to get to the sea than to the 
 river's source. The scholar who is learning a foreign language 
 floats alternately upon two currents opposed to each other, and 
 of unequal force. If he will not be carried away by the stronger, 
 that of his mother- tongue, it is absolutely necessary for him to 
 have recourse to extraordinary means. 
 
 Then you count for nothing, we shall be told, the tasks, 
 home-lessons, writing exercises — the personal work, in point 
 of fact — from one class to another, as a means of keeping the 
 pupil to his work. Alas ! experience has proved to us, and 
 thoroughly proved, that this work is not only unfruitful, but 
 disastrous. Remember our own attempt on the German 
 authors and dictionaries. Our work was assuredly at least 
 worth that of the collegian, as much for the quantity as for 
 the quality of it. And to what result did our efforts, so 
 severely classic, lead us ? 
 
 Either the pupil does over again an exercise already done, 
 which is much the same as beating a sheaf already well 
 threshed, or he makes up a new one himself, which is as 
 much as if one delivered into the hands of a workman who 
 knows not his trade an ingot of gold from which to manufac- 
 ture a watch. The raw material may be squandered, but 
 converted into a watch— never ! 
 
295 ANNEXES AND COROLLARIES. 
 
 There can only happen to your scholar what happened to 
 ourselves. He will falsify his pronunciation, pervert his 
 accent, fabricate vicious expressions, and confiding to the eye 
 what should be confided to the ear, he will perceive syllables, 
 but will always forget the thought in the language he is 
 studying ; and therefore, try as long as he may, he will never 
 properly assimilate it. We know, besides, that the virtue of 
 iirst impressions is that they are never eradicated. This is 
 the point to which, as regards languages, personal work, such 
 as is inculcated by the ordinary school, at present leads. 
 
 We shall be told, again : But we give up nine or ten years 
 to continue, complete, and perfect our linguistic teaching. 
 Ten times 80 are exactly 800 hours. Is not this your 
 amount ? No j it is not our amount. In point of fact, who- 
 ever does not, within the space of the four seasons of one 
 year, manage to learn practically all there is to be learnt of 
 the basis of a language, will never learn it. 
 
 We have many of us studied Latin and Greek for ten years. 
 Who among us is there who can be said to thoroughly know 
 Latin and Greek? No; it is not the amount we require. In 
 ten years the public school should give us ten languages. In 
 this same time a child's nurse, who should change her situa- 
 tion each year, would teach the bulk of her language ten 
 separate times. 
 
 The evolution of the language may be made to, and ought 
 to, follow that of the seasons. While the year performs one 
 revolution, the child expresses all the phenomena which it 
 unfolds successively before him. And if from one day to the 
 next he applies, that is, repeats while modifying and extending 
 it ceaselessly, the language which expresses his individuality 
 of one day, so also, from one year to the next, he will recapi- 
 tulate the language that expresses his individuality of a year. 
 
 That which the young child performs so easily cannot be 
 impossible to the adult ; and if, as we ourselves did at Berlin 
 at first, he finds himself after a year's effort less advanced 
 than the little child, there can be little doubt it is because he 
 is on the wrong road ; and what is not less certain is, that if 
 ho does not see fit to change his route, he will not attain his 
 aim any more the second year than he did the first. In the 
 second year the learner can recapitulate after the manner of 
 the child, and can enter into possession of his acquisitions. 
 It is impossible for him to recommence his campaign. 
 
WOMEN TEACHERS. 299 
 
 Last and supreme objection : Man has not to learn lan- 
 guages only, and the time given up to the study of languages 
 is lost for that of the sciences. 
 
 In the ordinary system this is true, but not with ours. On 
 the contrary, by the languages we teach the sciences, and by 
 the sciences Ave teach the languages. Who does not see in 
 this system an immense simplification of methods of teaching 1 
 In itself the thing is logical We shall try to show shortly 
 that it is realisable. 
 
 THE TEACHING OP LANGUAGES BROUGHT WITHIN THE REACH OP 
 ALL — LINGUISTIC APTITUDES OF WOMEN. 
 
 In the hands of a clever workman even a bad tool some- 
 times accomplishes wonders. It has been remarked that the 
 authors of methods otherwise defective employ them always 
 themselves with success. It is right, therefore, to inquire 
 whether our system, which may be fruitful when practised by 
 its author, acts equally well when some other person attempts 
 to apply it. 
 
 We have exposed in its entirety the secret of our process of 
 teaching. It is for the reader to judge whether our directions 
 are or are not easy to carry out. 
 
 And if we are fui-ther pressed to give our own opinion in 
 this respect, and to base it upon certain facts, this is what our 
 reply would be : In the first place, it is, of course, fully un- 
 derstood that the composition, the writing, the arrangement 
 of the book itself remains entirely as given by the author. 
 If, in order to apply our system, each teacher had to construct 
 it for him or herself, its application might as well be renounced 
 at once. We have spoken of the inherent difficulties of this 
 kind of work ; no one knows them better than he who has 
 spent a large part of his life in overcoming them. 
 
 To impose a similar task upon every teacher would be to 
 declare the scheme impracticable at the very outset. We start, 
 therefore, with the assumption that this system is definitely 
 constructed, and that the instructor has only to apply it. 
 
 We believe that we have demonstrated that the pupil who 
 has thoroughly assimilated one of our themes is in a state to 
 
3oa ANNEXES AND COROLLARIES. 
 
 be able to teach it in his turn almost as well as ourselves. 
 Remember once more that they were little children who aided 
 US to translate our individuality in German, as afterwards in 
 English and in other tongues, and that we owe the develop- 
 ment of our series to the simple workmen who figure as actors 
 therein. It was a ploughman who told us the Series of Tilling 
 the Ground ; it was a shepherd who gave us the Series of the 
 Shepherd, and a woodman who gave us that of the Woodman. 
 
 Our reply, therefore, to the question put is : " Whosoever 
 knows how to speak a language is capable of teaching in this 
 language our Elementary Series, those which reproduce the 
 
 If this be so, our method is likely to open up a new career 
 for the activity of women. It gives, in fact, into the hands of 
 women the whole elementary teaching of foreign languages. 
 AYomen have, indeed, a far greater aptitude than men for this 
 kind of teaching. A woman's tongue is more subtle and more 
 supple than that of man ; her ear more delicate, her accent 
 more pleasing and more penetrating; and for children her 
 devotion is only equalled by her patience. 
 
 In cur own public and private classes we have always found 
 that the girls assimilate a language (ancient or modern) much 
 more quickly and much more correctly than the boys. In the 
 countries where languages are most cultivated it is alwayvS 
 the woman who speaks them best and who knows them most 
 thoroughly. If she has not already outstripped man in the 
 teaching of languages, this is because of the imperfection of 
 the methods which are imposed upon her. The abstract is 
 the bugbear of childhood. Our method, by combating and 
 suppressing it everywhere, places (or so, at least, it seems to 
 us) the teaching of foreign languages well within the reach of 
 woman. 
 
 If our system when practised by man is worth anything, we 
 are convinced that it will double its value on the day that the 
 application of it is undertaken by women teachers, and the 
 language of our new generation cannot but gain in purity, 
 in nobleness, in elegance, and, I might add, in decency. If it 
 were permitted to us to chose for our method an interpreter 
 and an apostle, we should certainly chose a woman. The 
 practice of our system is therefore well within the reach of 
 every one. 
 
IS A TEACHER NECESSARY? 301 
 
 VI. 
 
 CAN A LANGUAGE BE LEARNT WITHOUT A TEACHER*? 
 
 Can a student learn a foreign language without a teacher ? 
 The greater part of the authors of modern methods maintain 
 that he can, and this declaration may be considered as the 
 most efficacious cause of their success. Ollendorf owes to this 
 in great part the 200 editions of his works. A volume, in 
 fact, costs less than a teacher. What answer does the classical 
 school make to this question 1 It commences by a negative 
 and ends by an affirmative. 
 
 From the lowest form to the highest the classical method 
 gives to the scholar a whole legion of masters in order to teach 
 him Latin. What means this long array of pedagogic forces, 
 unless it be that the individual must be considered as incapable 
 of arriving by his own unaided efforts at knowing a given 
 language. Looking at it from another point of view, however, 
 and taking into consideration the means to which recourse is 
 had, we might conclude that the study of language is a purely 
 personal work. 
 
 The classical master, when placing in the hands of his pupils 
 a grammar and a dictionary, says to them, in effect : " The 
 whole language is contained within these two books, and the 
 smaller one will teach the use of the larger. W^hen you are 
 hungry, you do not ask other people to eat for you ; in the 
 same way, it would be of not the slightest use to you if your 
 teacher learned the grammar for you, searched in the dictionary 
 for you, construed the phrases for you, wrote out exercises for 
 you. What you must set yourself to do is to carry out all this 
 work for yourself." I ask if it is possible to affirm more 
 categorically that the study of a language, is an individual, 
 a personal labour ? 
 
 How does the classical school reconcile its teaching with its 
 practice ? In a manner as ingenious as it is original. " It 
 does not propose," its professors say, " to teach languages, but 
 only how to learn to learn them ! " Begging the question in 
 this manner, the classicists hesitate to draw the conclusion. 
 We are therefore obliged to do so for them. 
 
 " Here is a hammer, a square, and a chisel, and there lies 
 a block of marble," the classical school says to its disciples. 
 
302 ANNEXES AND COROLLARIES. 
 
 " You have here everything that is needed for carving any 
 statue you please. You will now set to work and carve 
 from this block the statue of the Emperor of China, whom you 
 do not know, and it must be a good likeness." 
 
 There you have exactly the task imposed upon the Latinist- 
 who begins in the studio of the classical school ; the grammar 
 is the hammer, chisel, and square; the dictionary is the block 
 of marble, and the statue of the unknown Emperor of the 
 Celestial Empire represents the language to be constructed. 
 One need not feel astonished if the apprentice toils ten years, 
 fifteen years, twenty years, all his life, without ever being able 
 to bring about the desired resemblance. The pupil is con- 
 demned to " recognise " a thing which he has never seen, to 
 discover a language he has never heard. What is required of 
 him is to draw the language forth from his brain, where it is 
 not and never has been ; or from a book, the dictionary, where 
 it may be found in much the same state as the Madonna of 
 Raphael in the artist's colour-box. Will your disciple, after 
 such a training, however long it may be, have even learnt how 
 to learn ? 
 
 To conclude. Work which is solitary and purely personal 
 will never produce an efficient knowledge of a language. We 
 base this thesis upon axioms or principles already thoroughly 
 established. The receptive organ of language is not the eye — it 
 is the ear. But in order that the ear may receive, speech must 
 be produced ; therefore to study a language it is necessary to 
 have a master — that is, a person who speaks before the pupil. 
 
 Each language has a pronunciation proper to itself ; each 
 sentence has its note, each word its accent ; these three things 
 have their effect, not upon the eye, but upon the ear ; there- 
 fore to study a language a master is needed, a person who pro- 
 nounces and accentuates before the pupil. 
 
 The forms of things are presented to the intelligence by the 
 eye, but it is the ear to which is confided the duty of trans- 
 mitting to the intelligence the sounds, the words, together 
 with the ideas of which they form the body; therefore to 
 study a language we require a master — that is, a person whose 
 mouth articulates the syllables and utters the sounds. 
 
 The written language, that which is transmitted to the 
 memory by the organ of sight, is graven thereon with diffi- 
 culty, and the impression of it is ephemeral ; the spoken lan- 
 guage, that communicated to the mind by the ear, is graven 
 
A TEACHER IS NECESSARY. 303 
 
 thereon instantaneously, and the impression of it is almost 
 ineffaceable. Therefore, once more, to study a language wo 
 require a master — that is to say, living speech, whose vibration 
 shall set in motion the organ of thought itself. 
 
 He who boasts of having assimilated a language without 
 recourse to the speech of others, either does not know this 
 language or deceives himself. Language is the connection of 
 mind to mind. In order that it shall be something more than 
 a mere abstraction lacking consistence, it must be the direct 
 and real product of the intercourse of two or more minds. 
 
304 AUXILIARY SERIES. 
 
 PART FOURTH. 
 THE AUXILIARY SERIES. 
 
 The creations of literature, the sciences, the trades, the arts 
 may become the material for fresh series. We designate these 
 by the general name of " Auxiliary Series." 
 
 They are useful but not indispensable for the knowledge of 
 a language. They do not give the first basis of a language — ■ 
 they presuppose it. They nourish it, maintain it, amplify it, 
 complete it — they do not create it. They are to the ordinary 
 series what the heat of the sun is to the field of corn ; they 
 do not supply it, but they ripen it. 
 
STUDY OF THE CLASSICAL AUTHOES. -,05 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS 
 (LITERARY SERIES). 
 
 Outline of a New Process for Translating, Reading, and 
 Assimilating the Classical Authors. 
 
 I. 
 
 PUTTING A LITERARY WORK INTO SERIES. 
 
 I. Principle and point of departure. 
 
 The study of a language is incomplete and mentally sterile 
 if it does not include the literary masterpieces of this language. 
 Every such masterpiece therefore requires not only that the 
 student should read and comprehend it, but should assimilate 
 it. We know too well what the ordinary processes of teaching 
 the classics can do in this respect; we know how much we 
 ourselves retained of them on leaving the sixth form at 
 school. 
 
 A practical and rational method for reading, translating, 
 and assimilating the great classical works yet remains to be 
 found and organised. This method should be, it seems to us, 
 the direct product and the natural corollary of a linguistic 
 method worthy of the name ; it should bear witness in favour 
 of this result, and should end, so to speak, by consecrating it. 
 If our system is what we believe it to be, it bears within it 
 this second method, or rather it is itself this method. Let us 
 attempt to demonstrate this. 
 
 Every literary work represents a series of conceptions linked 
 together by the logic personal to the author. Each conception 
 therein is developed in its turn by a series of distinct sentences; 
 and it has been already demonstrated that this development- 
 has its natural limits, and that its measure is a constant one 
 in all the works which deserve the name of masterpieces. 
 
 U 
 
3o6 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 Therefore every literary work is capable of being decom- 
 posed into themes of a determined length, each one representing 
 the development of a particular conception. From this it 
 follows that every literary work can be transcribed under the 
 form of one of our Linguistic Series. Therefore, finally, it may 
 be treated exactly as one of our series themselves is treated. 
 The scholar will assimilate a book of Virgil, a book of Homer, 
 a chapter of Herodotus, a chapter of Tacitus, exactly as he 
 assimilates the Series of the Ploughman, the Series of the 
 Plant, the Series of the Insect. 
 
 But may it not be said that to assimilate a literary work 
 thus, conception by conception, sentence by sentence, is to do 
 over again the work of the author himself ? If our method 
 renders this w^ork possible, it is really what we have claimed 
 for it — a veritable method for reading, translating, and 
 thoroughly assimilating the classical masterpieces. And if, 
 along with this, it delivers into the hands of the master the 
 secret of rendering this assimilation as rapid as the exposition 
 of the lesson itself, as instantaneous as speech, I maintain 
 that this method comes very near to realising the ideal to 
 which the teaching world aspires. 
 
 Its success will depend upon two things : — 
 
 1. The mode of transcription of the classical work ; 
 
 2. The elaboration of the exercises furnished by this tran- 
 scription. 
 
 We will describe or repeat how this double work should be 
 carried out. 
 
 2. Transcription of a classical worJc into literature lessons. 
 
 Given a classical work to be studied : — 
 
 1. We draw up, first of all, a list of the diverse and suc- 
 cessive conceptions of the author ; then, dissecting, detaching 
 these conceptions one from another, we form therefrom a 
 series of scenes or pictures, that is, of distinct lessons. 
 
 2. Each of these themes is divided in its turn into its 
 separate sentences, and each sentence is placed on a line by 
 itself. 
 
 3. Each sentence has a centre around which gravitate its 
 various elements, which is, as it were, its soul. The soul is 
 the " verb," or the term which takes the place of the verb. 
 We detach this verb from the sentence, and place it in full 
 
ORGANISATION OF LITERATURE LESSONS. 307 
 
 view in a column arranged to the right-hand side of the 
 page. 
 
 4. Each conception is capable of being still further sub- 
 divided ; it presents, usually, two or tliree distinct groups of 
 sentences, which form the various "moments" of this con- 
 ception. We term these divisions " steps " (paragraphs), and 
 we mark these stopping-places by the sign ( — ). Between two 
 consecutive steps of our text we also leave a rather larger 
 space than between two lines of the same group. 
 
 As is seen, the arrangement of our litei:ary themes or lessons 
 is in every way similar to that of the ordinary series. We 
 have transcribed and lithographed under this form the greater 
 part of the classical authors. A book of Yirgil, for instance, 
 gives us an average of a series of seventy themes, each having 
 twenty-two to thirty sentences. A book of Homer furnishes 
 thirty-five to forty lessons. The "Ars Poetica" of Horace 
 yields thirty-six. ^ We may point out that the Greek and 
 Latin prose writers are already divided in the current editions 
 into small chapters, which usually correspond to our own 
 divisions. 
 
 5. In the same way that there is, for the development of 
 the various conceptions of the mind, an average length, so also 
 there is an average length for the separate sentences, and it is 
 this that decides the size of page of our transcription. If 
 this size be well chosen, the greater number of the sentences 
 will go upon one line. It is well to avoid double lines, for two 
 reasons. In the first place, irregularity is always painful to 
 the eye: in the next, the unily of the thought seems to call 
 for the unity of the line. The intelligence takes it in more 
 easily in this state. 
 
 6. Whenever a phrase is composed of two portions, an 
 enclitic and a subordinate sentence, w^e usually write these 
 parts upon two separate lines, connecting them together by 
 the conventional sign (-^). Placed at the end of an enclitic 
 expression, this sign serves both to bring this expression into 
 relief, and to draw the pupil's attention more forcibly to it. 
 
 The organisation of our literature lessons is dominated by a 
 fact which we have already pointed out, and of which it is 
 
 ^ Printed privately by the author for the use of his French students. 
 They will form part of the practical course (Trans.). 
 
3o8 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 important here once more to remind our readers. This is, 
 that our transcriptions reproduce the exact text of the author, 
 without ever either altering the terms or the construction. 
 The length of the typographic line alone is not respected. 
 Need we hesitate to sacrifice the arbitrary to the logical ? 
 When questions of methods of teaching are before us, there is 
 one interest which should guide the orders of the publisher 
 or the printing foreman, and this is the pedagogic interest. 
 
 3. Specimens of transcriptions. 
 
 To make still more clear the process which we have just 
 described, it appears to us that it would be w^ell to offer sundry 
 short examples of the transcriptions of authors. We will 
 take one of the fables of La Fontaine, a fable of Phsedrus, 
 one of Grimm's fairy-tales, and a scene from " Romeo and 
 Juliet." A longer work, such as a book of Yirgil,' would doubt- 
 less be a more striking example, but the length, already con- 
 siderable, of the present work will not allow us to occupy so 
 much additional space. Moreover, the lessons which follow 
 will amply suffice for a first trial. He who thinks well of the 
 system will be able to avail himself of the collection of our 
 transcriptions of the classical authors. 
 
SPECIMEN LITERARY SERIES. 
 
 3^9 
 
 THE LION AND THE GNAT (La Fontaine). 
 
 I 
 
 The Outrage and the Duel. 
 
 — ''Be off, thou paltry insect, thou excrement be off 
 
 of the earth.'" 
 
 It was in these words that the Hon spoke one spoke 
 
 day to the gnat. 
 
 The gnat declared war against him ; declared 
 
 " Thinkest thou," said he, -^ thinkest thou 
 
 *' that thy title of king affrights me, affrights 
 
 or even disquiets me ? disquiets 
 
 An ox is more powerful than art thou, is powerful 
 
 and I can lead it whither my fancy pleases." can lead 
 
 — Hardly had he finished these words had finished 
 than he himself sounded the charge, sounded 
 and became both herald and challenger. became 
 
 At first he keeps a safe distance, keeps 
 
 then, taking his time, taking 
 
 dashes at the lion's neck, dashes 
 
 and drives him nearly mad. , drives 
 
 The quadruped foams at the mouth, foams 
 
 and his eye glitters ; glitters 
 
 he roars. roars 
 
 All hide, hide 
 
 all quake in the neighbourhood, quake 
 
 and this universal alarm is the work of a gnat, is the work 
 
 — The miserable wretch of a fly harasses him harasses 
 
 in a hundred places, 
 
 stings him sometimes on the spine, sometimes stings 
 
 on the nose, 
 
 sometimes creeps up his nostrils. creeps 
 
 His rage then rises to the utmost. rises 
 
310 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 THE LION AND THE GNAT. 
 
 II. 
 
 Triumph and Ruin. 
 
 — The invisible foe triumphs, triumphs 
 and laughs to see -^ laughs 
 that there is not a tooth nor a claw of the is tooth 
 
 irritated beast 
 
 but does duty in bringing blood. does duty 
 
 The unhappy beast tears his own flesh, tears 
 
 lashes his tail against his flanks, lashes 
 
 vainly beats the air, beats 
 
 and his extreme fury wearies him, wearies 
 
 overthrows him. overthrows 
 
 He is utterly defeated. is defeated 
 
 — The insect retires from the combat with retires 
 as he sounded the charge, [gloi"y ; sounded 
 so he sounds the victory, sounds 
 goes here and there to announce it, announce 
 and meets on his way the ambush of a meets 
 
 he there likewise meets his death, [spider ; meets 
 
 — What things may we be taught from may be taught 
 I can see two, [this ? can see 
 
 of which the first is, that -^ is 
 
 Amongst our enemies the smallest are are to be feared 
 
 often the most to be feared ; 
 
 the other, that -^ is 
 
 Through perils great one may have passed, may have passed 
 
 To perish from the slightest thing at last, perish 
 
SPECIMEN LITERARY SERIES. 
 
 31 
 
 CANIS ET LUPUS (Ph^drus). 
 
 I. 
 
 Pereo fame. 
 
 
 — Quam dulcis sit libertas 
 
 dulcis sit 
 
 
 breviter proloquar. 
 
 proloQLiiar 
 
 
 — Cani perpasto macie confectus lupus 
 
 
 
 forte occurrit. 
 
 occurrit 
 
 
 Salutantes dein invicem 
 
 salutantes 
 
 
 ut restiterunt : 
 
 restiterunt 
 
 L. 
 
 Unde sic, quseso, nites ? 
 
 nites 
 
 
 Aut quo cibo fecisti tan turn corporis ? 
 
 fecisti 
 
 
 Ego, qui sum longe fortior, 
 
 sum fortior 
 
 
 (ego) pereo fame. 
 
 pereo 
 
 
 — Canis simpliciter : 
 
 dixit 
 
 a 
 
 Eadem est conditio tibi. 
 
 est eadem 
 
 
 prsestare domino si par officium potes. 
 
 prsestare 
 
 L. 
 
 Quod (officium) ? inquit ille. 
 
 quod est 
 
 a 
 
 Gustos ut sis liminis, 
 
 custos ut sis 
 
 
 furibus tuearis et noctu domum. 
 
 ut tuearis 
 
 L. 
 
 — Ego vero sum paratus ; 
 
 sum paratus 
 
 
 nunc patior nives imbresque 
 
 patior 
 
 
 in silvas asperam vitam trahens ; 
 
 trahens 
 
 
 quanto est facilius mihi -^ 
 
 est facilius 
 
 
 sub tecto vivere 
 
 vivere 
 
 
 et otiosum largo satiari cibo ! 
 
 satiari 
 
 C, 
 
 Yeni ergo mecura. 
 
 veni 
 
3f^ 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 CANIS ET LUPUS. 
 
 IL 
 
 Regnare nolo liber ut non sim mihi. 
 
 — Dum procedunt procedunt 
 
 adspicit lupus a catena collum detritum 
 
 cani : 
 
 adspicit 
 
 Unde hoc, amice ? 
 
 unde est 
 
 Nihil est. 
 
 nihil est 
 
 Die, quseso, tamen. 
 
 die 
 
 — Quia videor acer. 
 
 videor 
 
 alligant me interdiu, 
 
 alligant 
 
 luce ut quiescam. 
 
 ut CLuiescam 
 
 et vigilem 
 
 vigilem 
 
 nox quum venerit. 
 
 venerit 
 
 Crepusculo solutus, 
 
 solutus 
 
 qua visum est vagor. 
 
 vagor 
 
 Affertur ultro panis ; 
 
 affertur 
 
 de mensa sua dat ossa dominus. 
 
 dat 
 
 frusta jactat familia, 
 
 jactat 
 
 et quod fastidit quisque pulmentarium. 
 
 fastidit 
 
 Sic sine labore venter impletur meus. 
 
 impletur 
 
 -Age! 
 
 age 
 
 si quo abire est animus. 
 
 abire 
 
 est licentia 1 
 
 est licentia 
 
 Non plane est, inquit. 
 
 non est 
 
 Fruere quse laudes, canis ; 
 
 fruere 
 
 regnare nolo, 
 
 regnare 
 
 liber ut non sim mihi. 
 
 non sim liber 
 
SPECIMEN LITEEARY SERIES. 
 
 3'i3 
 
 pic bvei §pinnevinx%en (©ritnnt). 
 I. 
 
 3)a5 faiitc SKab^en. 
 
 — Qs tear etn 5Wab(^cn faul, 
 uiib ivofltc ni^t fpiunen ; 
 
 bie 3Kuttev wtcci^te fageii \t>a6 jic h?of(te, 
 
 @ie fonnte eg ni^t baju Bringcn. 
 
 (Enbli^ iiBevnaTjm bie 5Kutter einmal 3ovn imb Ungebutb, 
 
 bap fie if)m ^^Idije gaB, 
 
 ivcvubev eig faut ju ivcinen anfieiuj. 
 
 — 0lun fuf)r gevabe bie ^onigiii vcvBei, 
 nub aU fie bag SScinen (;cvte, 
 
 liep fie aut)alten, 
 
 tvat in bag ^aug, 
 
 nub fvagte bie SWuticv, -r^ 
 
 iMVum fie i^ve S!ocf)ter fc^d'ige, 
 
 bap man braupen auf bcr <£trapc \)a6 ©d^rcien Ijorte. 
 
 — 2)a fc^dmte ftd^ bie ^Jraii -^ 
 
 bap fie bie g^auU^eit i^rer %od)kx offenBaren fcf(te, 
 
 unb f^vac^ : 
 
 „ ^d) fann fie ni(^t ijcm <Si)innen aBBringen, 
 
 fie luill immer nnb eiv»ig fpinnen, 
 
 nnb ic^ Bin arm 
 
 unb fann ben %in^6 nid^t ^erBcifci^affen." 
 
 — '^a antnjovtete bie ^cnigin : 
 
 „ 3d| f^m nic^tg lieBer alg fpinnen, 
 
 nnb Bin ni(f)t wergnfigter 
 
 a(g iuenn bie Oidbeu f^nnrren : 
 
 geBt mir enve S^o^ter mit in'g <Srf)(cp, 
 
 id| ^aBe %{a^6 genng, 
 
 bu fo(( fie fpinnen fc yiel fie gnfl T>"it." 
 
 eg i»ar 
 
 fpinnen 
 
 fagen 
 
 Bvingen 
 
 iiBernaT;m 
 
 gaB 
 
 iceinen 
 
 fntjr vorBei 
 
 I|orte 
 
 anf;aiten 
 
 trat 
 
 fvagte 
 
 f^Iitge 
 
 fc^dmte fic^ 
 
 cjfenBaven 
 
 fprac^ 
 
 aBBringen 
 
 fpinnen 
 
 Bin arm 
 
 IjerBei fc^ajfen 
 
 antiocvtetc 
 
 I)crc 
 
 Bin »ergnngter 
 
 fc^nnrren 
 
 l^aBe 
 fpinnctt 
 
314 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 pie bvci ^pimxcxinncn. 
 II. 
 
 — 3)ie ^ixttex mx'6 ttoii ^erjcn genie jufviebcn. twar jufricbeu 
 S)ie ^onigin nalim bag a^abc^eu mit, natjtn wit 
 unb fii^r nac^ bem (Sd^top guvitcf ; fu^r juruc! 
 aU fie in'g @c^(op gefommeu waxm, gefommen 
 fi'i^rte fie e^ (;inaiif gu brei ^ammevn, f ut)rte 
 
 bie lagen von unteu big oben »ol( »om feinflen ^in^S. lageii »ott 
 
 — „ @vinn' ttiir biefeii ^fac^g," fpiiin' 
 
 f^jrad^ bie ^oiitgin, fproc^ 
 
 „ unb iuenn bu eg fertig bringfl, fertig bvingfl 
 
 fo foflfi bu -^ foriil 
 
 ttiei^en dttefien (Sot^n jum ©ema^l l^aBen ; ()a6en 
 
 bifi bu glei^ arm, bifl arm 
 
 fo ad)V id) nic^t barauf, a^k barauf 
 
 bein unvevbtopeuer gleip ifi 5lugflattung gemig." ifl ^lugfiattung 
 
 — S)ag aWdbd^en erfd^ra! innevUd^ : cifc^vaf 
 benn eg fonnt t-T^ fonnte 
 
 ben ijtad^g nic^t fpinnen, fpinnen 
 
 tDiir'g brei^unbert Sa'^r alt geirorben, icdre geivovben 
 unb ^tk ieben Xag von SWorgen big Olbenb babei gefeffcn. t)dtte gefefjen 
 
SPECIMEN LITERARY SERIES. 
 
 315 
 
 pie bxei §pinncxxnnen. 
 III. 
 
 S)ic aSerjtofijIung. 
 
 — Sirs nun fca6 SWafcc^en affein irar, 
 gu iueinen, fieng c^ an -^ 
 
 nnb fa^ fo brei Xa^t 
 oXjnt bie Jganb gu ruf^ren. 
 
 — 9lm tritten Xao,t fam bie .^cnicjin ; 
 
 unb aU fie fa'^, ba^ -^ 
 
 noc^ nic^t^ gefponnen icar, 
 
 yeviDunberte jie fic^. 
 
 Slber ba^ aJJdbd^en entfc^utbigtc fi(^ bamit, bap 
 
 eg, ttor groper SSetrubnip 
 
 fiber bie (Jntfernung awe feiner SWutter J^aufe, 
 
 no(^ ni(^t 'fidtte anfvingen fonnen. 
 
 — !Dag liep fid^ bie ^onigin gefaffen, 
 fagte aber beim SBegge'^en, 
 „morgen ntupt bu ntir anfangen -^ 
 
 gu avbeiten. 
 911^ bag SWdbci^en irieber aKein loar, 
 toupte eS -T- 
 
 ji(^ ni(^t tnel^r ju ratteen 
 
 unb JU Tjetfen. 
 
 affein U^ar 
 fieng an ujeinen 
 fap 
 riit^ren 
 
 fam 
 
 fa^ 
 
 gefponncn 'max 
 
 »er)runbevte fic^ 
 
 entfd^ulbigte Tid) 
 
 vcv 
 
 fiber 
 
 anfangen 
 
 gefatten 
 fagte 
 anfangen 
 arbeiten 
 affein ivar 
 
 ratr;en 
 I)ctfen 
 
rsi^ 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 pic bvei §p\nncv\nncn. 
 
 
 lY. 
 
 
 5)vei fcttfame 2Bei6er. 
 
 
 — 3n feiiiev ?Betvfi6ui^ 
 
 in 
 
 hwt tag 3Kafcc^cn i^cr bag ^enj^cr. 
 
 tvat 
 
 5)a faf; eg brci SSeifcer t)ciffonittten : 
 
 Ijevfommen 
 
 bavcn fjattc bie evfte einen Bveiten ^fatfcfcfiip; 
 
 r>itte 
 
 bie jweite l^attc einc fo grope llnterlip^ie,- 
 
 t)atte 
 
 bap fie iibev bag ^inn Jjerunter I;{ng, 
 
 t)ernntev I;ing 
 
 iinb bie bvitte \)^tk einen Breiten JDaumen. 
 
 r;attc 
 
 — 3)ie btieBen ijov bem ^enj^er jlel^en, 
 
 blieben jlef^cn 
 
 fc^auten I^inanf, 
 
 fc^auten tjinanf 
 
 luib fragten bag 3Kdbd^en ivag ii)m fetj^te. 
 
 fragten 
 
 (fg ffagte il^nen feine Stctf; ; 
 
 riagte 
 
 ba tnigen fte ir;m if^ve ^ulfe an, 
 
 trugen an 
 
 nnb fprad^en : 
 
 fprad^en 
 
 „ ®i((jl bn ung ^nx ^od^jeit eintaben, 
 
 einlaben 
 
 bid^ unfer nic^t f^amen, 
 
 fc^amen 
 
 imb ung beine S5afen Tjeipen, 
 
 r;eipen 
 
 and^ an beinen %\\^ fc^en, 
 
 fetjcn 
 
 fo ivotfen ivir bir ben ^yfac^g ir»egfpinnen, 
 
 iregfpinnen 
 
 nnb bag in fnvjcr 3cit." 
 
 (tr^nn) 
 
 — „ 35on ^n^tn gem," antioortete eg : 
 
 antlrortete 
 
 „ fomntt nur l^crcin, 
 
 fommt ein 
 
 nnb fangt gtei(^ bie ?lvBeit an." 
 
 fangt an 
 
SPECIMEN LITERARY SERIES. 
 
 31/ 
 
 pic bxei §}pinncv\nixcn, 
 V. 
 
 2)ad raf(^c i^tac^gfvinnctt. 
 
 — Xa tiep f^ bic brci fcltfameu 2Beibcr l^erciu, 
 
 licp herein 
 
 unb utac^tc in bcr evfien hammer eine Siicfe 
 
 tttac^te 
 
 iro jxe fid^ l^infe^tcn 
 
 I)infe|ten 
 
 uiib i^r ^viititf" aut^uben. 
 
 an^uBen 
 
 — JDie eine jcg ben S^abcn 
 
 m 
 
 unb trat bag (Rab ; 
 
 txat 
 
 bic anbere ne|tc ben ^dbcn, 
 
 ne^te 
 
 bie britte brc^tc i^n 
 
 breljte 
 
 unb fd^tug mit bem ?yingcr auf ben Xif^ ; 
 
 feeing 
 
 unb fo oft jie fci^Iug, 
 
 Wn 
 
 fid cine Sa'^I ®arn jur @rbc 
 
 M 
 
 unb bag njar aufg feinfic gefponnen. 
 
 9cf))otincn 
 
 — 33or bcr ^onicjin tiev6ai\3 jie bie brci (Spinnerinucn, 
 
 ycrBarg 
 
 unb jcigte i:^r. 
 
 gcigte 
 
 fo oft fie fam, 
 
 fam 
 
 (jeigte i^i*) bie SWcnge beg gefponncncn ©arng, 
 
 gcigtc 
 
 bap bicfe beg goBcg !cin ©nbc fanb. 
 
 fanb 
 
 9irg bie crjie hammer leer njar, 
 
 leer war 
 
 gincjg an bie jn?cite, 
 
 9i«iJ 
 
 cnblid^ an bic britte 
 
 9i"9 
 
 unb bie ioar auc^ Balb auf^erdumt. 
 
 hjar aufgeraumt 
 
3ia 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 '^ie bxci ^pinnctinncn, 
 VI. 
 
 Xxtnt uub S)aiif6arfcit, 
 
 — SJlutt nal^mctt bic brci SBeiber Slbfd^ieb, 
 uub fasten ^um SWabd^eii : 
 „ SSergif nid^t, iva^ bu uiig verfprcc^eu I;ait : 
 e0 itiirb bein ®lucf fein/' 
 
 nai^mcn 
 
 fagteii 
 
 loirb fcin 
 
 — Sltg bag SWdbc^en ber ^ouigiu bic lecren ^ammeni uiib jeigtc 
 ben grof en ^aufen ®arn gcigte, 
 
 tic^tete |ic bie ^oc^geit ane. 
 
 rid^tete ou8 
 
 2)er 93rautigam fveute fic^, bap -^ 
 
 f rente jici^ 
 
 cr eine fo gefci^idte unb ffeipige %xclh Mamt, 
 
 befdmc 
 
 unb tcbte jie geivattig. 
 
 Icbte 
 
 ~„ 3(^ ^abe brei a3afen/' 
 
 ^aBe 
 
 fpva^ ba5 3Wdbc^en, 
 
 fprad^ 
 
 „ unb ba jie mix »ie( @uteg enoiefeu l^aben, 
 
 crtoiefen I;aBett 
 
 fo WoUk id^ jte nic^t gevn -^ 
 
 hJoHte 
 
 in nieiuem ®luc! ttergeffen. 
 
 ijergejTen 
 
 (BxlawU bod^, bap -^ 
 
 eriaubt 
 
 i£^ lie ju bcr ^cc^jcit einlabe, 
 
 cintabc 
 
 unb bap fie mit an bent Zi\d) fi^en/' 
 
 fi^fii 
 
 JDie ^oiiigin unb bee S3idutigam gaben if;i:e @inivif(igung. gabcn 
 
SPECIMEN LITERARY SERIES. 
 
 19 
 
 pic bxci §pnxxxcxinncn. 
 VII. 
 
 — 9U^ nun bag g^ejl antjuB, 
 
 tiaten bie brei Sungfrauern in tounbcvUci^cr Xxad)t l^cteiii, 
 
 iinb bie a3raut fpraci^ : 
 
 „ <Seib h)if(fommen, tiebe S3afen/' 
 
 „ 91^ ! " \a%k ber SSrautigam, 
 
 „ wit fommji bu ju ber garjiigen Srcunbfc^aft ? " 
 
 — IDavauf gieiig er gu ber einen, 
 ber ntit bem breitcn ^(atfd^fup, 
 uiib fragte : 
 
 „So»on l^abt Sfjr einen fold^en breiten iJu^?" 
 
 „ 93cm XxtUtt/' antirortete jie, 
 
 „ »om J^reten." 
 
 2)a gieug ber SSrdutigam gur jiveiten, 
 
 unb fprac^ : 
 
 „ SSoijon l^abt 3l)r nuv bie {jevuutcv^dngcubc Siv).^eV " 
 
 „ 93cm Secfen/' auticcrtete jie, 
 
 „»cm Secifen." 
 
 5)a fragte er bie britte : 
 
 „ 9Bo»on I)aBt 3^r ben breiteu SDaumeu V 
 
 *^^cm ijabeu brel;en/' antiucrtete jie, 
 
 „ vcm gabeu bret)cn." 
 
 — !Da crfd^raf ber Jl6iug6fct)n, 
 unb \px<id) ; 
 
 „ <Bo fofl mir nun unb nimmermel;r meine f(f)cuc 93raut -^ 
 
 ein ©pinnrab anru'^rcn. 
 
 2)amit tear jie bag bcfe glad^gfpinnen (eg." 
 
 an'^uB 
 
 traten Ijerein 
 fprad^ 
 feib loilif. 
 fagtc 
 fcmmft 
 
 gieng 
 
 mit 
 
 fragte 
 
 I)aBt 
 
 l^aBc 
 
 l^aBc 
 
 gieng 
 
 fpra^ 
 
 I?aBt 
 
 ijiibt 
 
 I;abc 
 
 fragte 
 
 Ijabt 
 
 ijalt 
 
 I)alje 
 
 crfc^raf 
 fprac^ 
 fcf( 
 
 anru^ren 
 ivar log 
 
320 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 Romeo and Juliet. 
 
 Act III., Scene 5. 
 I. 
 
 — Jul. Wilt thou -^ be gone ? be gone 
 
 It is not yet near day : is not day 
 
 it was the nightingale, and not the lark, was nightingale 
 
 that pierc'd the fearful hollow of thine ear ; pierc'd 
 
 nightly she sings on yon pomegranate tree, sings 
 
 Believe me, love, believe 
 
 it was the nightingale. was nightingale 
 
 — Rom. It was the lark, the herald of the was the lark 
 
 morn, no nightingale. 
 
 Look, love, -^ look 
 
 what envious streaks do lace the severing do lace 
 
 clouds in yonder east. 
 
 Night's candles are burnt out, burnt out 
 
 and jocund day stands tiptoe on the misty stands tiptoe 
 
 mountain tops. 
 
 I must -^ must 
 
 be gone and live, be gone 
 
 or stay and die. stay 
 
 — Jul. Yon light is not daylight : is not daylight 
 I know it, I ; know 
 
 it is some meteor is meteor 
 
 that the sun exhales, exhales 
 
 to be to thee this night a torch-bearer, be torch-bearer 
 
 and light thee on the way to Mantua : light 
 
 therefore, stay yet ; stay 
 
 thou need'st not ^^ need'st 
 
 to be gone. be gone 
 
SPECIMEN LITERARY SERIES. 
 
 321 
 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 Romeo and Juliet. 
 
 Act III., Scene 5. 
 
 II. 
 
 — Rom. Let me — be ta*en, be taken 
 
 let me — be put to death. be put to death 
 
 I am content, —p- am content 
 
 so thou wilt have it so, have so 
 
 I'll say, will say 
 
 yon grey is not the morning's eye, is morning's eye 
 'tis but the pale reflex of Cynthia's brow ; is reflex 
 
 nor that is not the lark, is the lark 
 
 whose notes do beat the vaulty heaven so do beat 
 high above our heads ; 
 
 — I have more care -^ to stay, 
 
 than will -:^ to go ; 
 
 come, death, 
 
 and welcome ! 
 
 Juliet wills it so. — 
 
 How i8*t, my soul 1 
 
 Let's talk ; 
 
 it is not day. 
 
 go 
 
 come 
 
 be welcome 
 
 wills 
 
 how is 
 
 talk 
 
 is not day 
 
322 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 Romeo and Juliet. 
 
 Act III., Scene 5. 
 III. 
 
 — Jul. It is, it is ; 
 
 is day 
 
 hie hence. 
 
 hie thee 
 
 be gone, 
 
 be gone 
 
 away I 
 
 away! 
 
 It is the lark, 
 
 is the lark 
 
 that sings so out of tune. 
 
 sings 
 
 straining harsh discords and unpleasing 
 
 straining 
 
 sharps. 
 
 
 — Some say -^ 
 
 say 
 
 the lark makes sweet division ; 
 
 makes division 
 
 this doth not so. 
 
 doth not 
 
 for she divideth us. 
 
 divideth 
 
 — Some say -=- 
 
 say 
 
 the lark and loathed toad change eyes ; 
 
 change 
 
 0, now I would -^ 
 
 would (that) 
 
 they had chang'd voices too ! 
 
 had changed 
 
 since arm from arm that voice doth us affray, 
 
 doth affray 
 
 hunting thee hence with hunt's-up to the 
 
 hunting 
 
 day. 
 
 
 — 0, now be gone ; 
 
 be gone 
 
 more light and light it grows. 
 
 grows light 
 
 Rom. More light and light ; 
 
 grows light 
 
 more dark and dark our woes. . . . 
 
 grows dark 
 
SPECIMEN LITERAKY SERIES. 
 
 323 
 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 Romeo and Juliet 
 
 Act III., Scene 5. 
 
 IV. 
 
 — Nurse. Madam ! madam I 
 
 Jul. Nurse ? ' nurse ! 
 
 Nurse. Your lady mother's coming to your is coming 
 
 the day is broke ; [chamber : is broke 
 
 be wary, look about. be wary 
 
 Jul. Then, window, let day in, let day in 
 
 and let life out. let life out 
 
 Rom. Farewell, farewell 1 farewell 
 
 one kiss, (give) one kiss 
 
 and I'll -?- descend. Will descend 
 
 — Jul. Art thou gone so 1 
 
 Love, lord ! ay, husband, friend ! 
 
 I must hear from thee every day in the hour, 
 
 for in a minute there are many days : 
 
 0, by this count I shall be much in years 
 
 ere I again behold my Romeo. 
 
 Rom. Farewell ! 
 
 I will omit no opportunity -^ 
 
 that may convey my greetings, love, to thee. 
 
 art gone 
 my love ! 
 must hear 
 are many days 
 shall be in years 
 behold 
 farewell 
 will omit 
 may convey 
 
324 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 SHAKESPEARE. 
 Romeo and Juliet. 
 
 Act III., Scene 5. 
 
 V. 
 
 — Jul. 0, think'st thou -^ 
 we shall ever meet again ? 
 Rom. I doubt it not ; 
 
 and all these woes shall serve for sweet dis- 
 courses in our time to come. 
 
 think'st 
 shall meet 
 doubt not 
 shall serve 
 
 — Jul. God ! 
 
 I have an ill-divining soul ; 
 
 methinks -^ 
 
 I see thee, 
 
 now thou art below, as one dead in the 
 
 bottom of a tomb : 
 either my eyesight fails, 
 or thou look'st pale. 
 Rom. And trust me, love, 
 in my eye so do you : 
 dry sorrow drinks our blood. 
 Adieu 1 adieu I 
 
 aod! 
 
 have ill- divining 
 
 methinks 
 
 see (thee as dead) 
 
 art below 
 
 fails 
 
 look'st pale 
 
 trust 
 
 so do you (look) 
 
 drinks 
 
 adieu! 
 
 — Jul. fortune, fortune I 
 
 all men call thee fickle : 
 
 if thou art fickle, 
 
 what dost thou with him 
 
 that is renown'd for faith ? 
 
 Be fickle, fortune ; 
 
 for then, I hope -^i- 
 
 thou wilt not keep him long, 
 
 but send him back. 
 
 fortune I 
 call fickle 
 art fickle 
 what dost thou 
 is renown'd 
 be fickle 
 I hope 
 
 wilt not keep 
 send back. 
 
METHOD OF TEACHING THE CLASSICS. 325 
 
 II. 
 
 ELABORATION OF A LITERARY SERIES — OUR METHOD OF 
 TEACHING. 
 
 I. One of La FontaMs Fables. 
 
 In our transcription, the fable of " Tlie Lion and the Gnat " 
 is divided into two portions, the first nuncibering twenty-two, 
 and the second twenty-five sentences. Each theme is divided 
 quite naturally into three paragraphs, and therefore comprises 
 tliree distinct steps. The teacher will recount first of all the 
 subject of the fable, not with the details and in the terms used 
 by the author, but freely, bringing up the whole situation in 
 his own words. 
 
 He will then begin the first step of the first lesson by the 
 phrase which has as its verb ** Be off." He throws, as it were, 
 this verb (be off) down in front, then upon it builds up the 
 phrase. " Be off, thou paltry insect," &c., giving to each term 
 its proper value, and justifying its use in this place or object- 
 ing to it. During this time each pupil writes down in a 
 column to the right of his exercise-book the verb : "Be 
 off."i 
 
 The second sentence develops from the verb " spoke." The 
 master will first enounce this verb ; the class will inscribe it 
 beneath " be off," and then will listen to the teacher as he 
 finds out and reconstructs piece by piece the phrase used by 
 La Fontaine. The third sentence will be " created " in the 
 same manner, then the next and the next, to the end of the 
 first step. 
 
 The most backward boy in the class will then be asked to 
 go through the entire " step," and to reconstruct each phrase 
 with the aid of the verb, the whole class carrying out the 
 same work silently to themselves. 
 
 A second scholar is now asked to discover the logical 
 sequence of the verbs, and with them to reconstruct from the 
 beginning the entu-e step, by conceiving it as the author must 
 have conceived it. 
 
 ^ For greater clearness the exercise is here expressed in English ; the 
 French text and the corresponding relative phrases are given in the 
 Appendix (Trans.). 
 
326 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 At this moment the disciple has become equal to the master ; 
 he is ready to pass to the second conception. The second step 
 is then taught and assimilated as wa8 the first, and the third 
 as the two others. 
 
 After the conquest, the entering into possession. Silence 
 will be called for, and while the teacher goes away to teach a 
 similar lesson in an adjacent class, each pupil will write out, 
 either from memory alone or by the aid of the verbs pre- 
 viously set down the first part of La Fontaine's little master- 
 piece. 
 
 On the teacher's return, the least advanced pupil will be 
 asked to read out his second-hand creation. He will give* it 
 sentence by sentence, the others calling attention, by correct- 
 ing them, to the slight imperfections that may have escaped 
 him. After this, the second part of the fable will be elaborated 
 in the same way, and the aim proposed will be attained, viz., 
 " The pupil will have done over again the work of the author 
 he is studying." 
 
 As regards the manner in which the teacher constructs 
 each phrase before his class, this will vary with the teacher, 
 and will depend on his capacity and his aptitude. It seems 
 to us impossible to represent one of our lessons by writing, or 
 to give our own personal process for an example. We may, 
 however, formulate a precept which will stand as a definition 
 of this process : — 
 
 " The teacher should strive, not merely to read the phrase of 
 the author, but to create it, to cause it to be born, laboriously 
 and with pains, as the author himself must have done; substi- 
 tuting successively one term for another, in the manner of 
 an algebraist who transforms indefinitely the formula before 
 him into another and simpler one." This pedagogic precept 
 evidently implies the thorough and exhaustive discussion of 
 each term of the classic studied. 
 
 In every literary lesson of this kind there are two sorts of 
 expressions particularly important and particularly difiicult to 
 appropriate : these are the " metaphors " on the one hand, and 
 on the other what we have termed the " relative phrases." 
 The pupil will be required to glean these two species of ex- 
 pressions, and to write them out in a list apart at the end of 
 the text. By means of the collection of the first species of 
 
CLASSICAL METAPHORS. 327 
 
 expressions he will appropriate to himself the imaginative 
 ideas of each writer, and this work will very quickly form his 
 literary taste and judgment. The collection of the relative 
 phrases will deliver into his hands the secret of expressing the 
 most delicate and finest relationships of ideas and of things ; 
 and this exercise, by sharpening his mind day after day, will 
 endow it finally, and in a short time, with that precious quality 
 which is termed " tact or refinement." 
 
 Here, for example, are the metaphors that may be gathered 
 from the fable '* The Lion and the Gnat ".: — 
 
 to finish a word. declare war. 
 
 to take time. sound the charge, 
 
 rage rises. sound the victory, 
 
 fury wearies. announce the victory, 
 
 fury overthrows. meet his end. 
 
 fury defeats. pass through peril. 
 
 After an author, or at least a work, has been entirely gone 
 through, all the metaphors will be brought together and 
 grouped into order according to some system that shall enable 
 them to be embraced at one glance, and consequently to be 
 looked through often. We have already explained in the 
 chapter upon the figurative language how a metaphorical 
 theme is constructed. Evidently it is to this process that we 
 should have recourse to set in order the metaphors of the 
 authors we are studying. 
 
 The pupil will therefore glean, as we have expressed it, all 
 the metaphors of the authors read by him ; he will attempt 
 to deduce therefrom the various *' symbols " which they re- 
 veal, and upon these symbols he will construct his meta- 
 phorical themes. Thus will gradually be elaborated for him, 
 and by him, a sort of systematic dictionary of the figurative 
 language of each writer, — a precious spring, always pure and 
 always wholesome, from which he may draw boldly and exten- 
 sively. If, indeed, there is one species of riches which is. 
 common, and should remain common to all the members of the 
 same race of mankind, it is the symbolism of their language, 
 that which characterises, expresses, and defines their race. 
 
 After the metaphors we should attack the relative phrases. 
 The following are those which will be noted by the pupil in 
 
328 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 the above fable, or which the teacher will aid him to dis- 
 cover : — 
 
 to think that -^^ to triumph, 
 
 to be affrighted. to rise to the utmost, 
 
 to be disquieted. to laugh to see that -^ 
 
 to be powerful. to do one's duty in —^ 
 to lead anything whither one's to be defeated. 
 
 fancy pleases. to retire with glory, 
 
 to keep one's distance. to sound the victory, 
 to take one's time. &c. &c. 
 
 it is the work of -^ 
 
 The following proverbs are also found : — 
 
 1. Amongst our enemies the smallest are often the most 
 to be feared. 
 
 2. Through perils great one may have passed, to perish from 
 the smallest thing at last. 
 
 The expressions followed by the sign (-7-) are enclitics. 
 
 It is not sufficient, however, merely to copy out these 
 abstract formulae ; it is not enough merely to draw up a list 
 of these fragments of thoughts. To become fruitful of result 
 they will have to be grafted upon something solid. Trans- 
 ferred, amalgamated, wedded to what we have termed "the 
 motives " of the relative phrases, these formulae will give 
 place to concrete expressions, to interlocutory sentences such 
 as the following : — 
 
 Gonty I think that -r^- you know what follows. 
 
 P. att. Do not think that -s' thou canst learn without 
 taking pains. 
 
 Take p. Thinkest thou that -t- a language can be learnt 
 without pains ? 
 
 Gont. And let nothing affright you. 
 
 Gont. The construction of such a simple phrase need 
 
 not affright you. 
 
 F. gd. I can see you are not affrighted. 
 
 Gont. If you make a mistake, let not that disquiet you. 
 
 V. gd. Your memory is becoming more powerful day by 
 day. 
 
 ^ Cont. Continue, go on. &p. b. Speak boldly. 
 
 P. att. Pay attention. W. dn. Well done. 
 
 F. gd. Very good. Att. Attention. 
 
 B. g. ch. Be of good cheer. Take p. Take pains. 
 
INTERLOCUTORY SENTENCES. 329 
 
 V. gd. In constructing a phrase no one is more powerful 
 than art thou. 
 
 V. gd. You lead the language whither your fancy pleases. 
 
 Slowly. Take your ease : keep, as they say, a safe dis- 
 tance at first. 
 
 Slowly. Take your time. 
 
 Cont. And first, picture the fact clearly in your mind. 
 
 Cont. And first, give the verb. 
 
 W. dn. That is the work of a clever scholar. 
 
 B. g. ch. You will triumph. 
 
 B. g. ch. We shall triumph. 
 
 V. gd. I am triumphant -7^ to see you doing so well. 
 
 F. gd. I laugh to see -^ that there is no further difficulty 
 for you. 
 
 Att. Do your duty by -^ clearly imagining the fact you 
 
 have to express. 
 
 Att. Do your duty by -^ speaking distinctly. 
 
 Sp. b. Your duty is -tp- to know it well. 
 
 V. gd. You are not yet overcome. 
 
 Cont. Show me that -^^ you are not yet defeated. 
 
 V. gd. From the combat you will retire with glory. 
 
 V. gd. You can now, I think, sound the victory. 
 
 Att. Mind the little words : amongst our enemies the 
 
 smallest are often the most to be feared. 
 
 Att. Through perils great one may have passed. 
 
 To perish from the slightest thing at last. 
 
 We have already explained in the chapter on the relative 
 phrases how the exercise of these phrases is combined with 
 the study of the series. The literary themes can be, and are, 
 treated in the same manner. As one pupil reconstructs the 
 phrase of the author, the master or a fellow-pupil answers 
 him with one of the preceding formulae. He gives it once, 
 twice, until it is graven upon the memory of all, and becomes 
 for the whole class, as it were, a species of current coin. 
 
 What we have thus done for a fable of La Fontaine we 
 have done, or we will or might do, for all the classical mas- 
 terpieces — in Latin, Greek, German, French, Italian, Russian, 
 Arabic, Sanscrit, &c. Prose or poetry, sciences or literature, 
 all kinds (save only that of the empty vocabulary, essentially 
 antipathetic to a system basing itself on life and desiring life 
 everywhere), all kinds may be dealt with by this process. 
 
330 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 This we affirm from experience we have already obtained. 
 Now let us enumerate the advantages presented by this mode 
 of teaching. 
 
 The pupil produces not a composition open to criticism, but 
 a masterpiece. This creation is not the privilege of those only 
 who are clever, it is the work of the less gifted of the class as 
 well as the more gifted. The progress of those that are weak 
 imposes no hindrance upon those that are strong. Art thus 
 re-establishes the equality of intellects by re-establishing the 
 equality of wills — that is, of attentive forces. 
 
 The art of reading well has for its first condition the need 
 of a good accentuation. But to accentuate a phrase well the 
 reader requires to know upon what word or upon what syllable 
 the stress of the voice is to fall, and in order to know this 
 word or syllable it is necessary to have first definitely deter- 
 mined the various parts that the terms which compose the 
 phrase have to play, and to know exactly what each of these 
 terms is intended to reveal. The work of exegesis which we 
 have just described thus represents as useful a lesson of speak- 
 ing or reading as it does of literature. The pupil who has 
 composed over again with us the fable of La Fontaine will 
 assuredly be able to speak it and to read it. 
 
 The whole class knows the fable to its very roots. I defy 
 time itself to efface it from the memory of any one of our 
 pupils. Yet he has not learnt it " by heart " — he has created 
 it with his judgment. He has not confided its terms merely 
 to his lips, as we so often force little children to do — he has 
 kneaded it into his own substance ; he has moulded it with his 
 thought ; in other words, he has made it his own by " con- 
 ceiving " it in his mind. The work before him is really his 
 own work ; he would almost have the right to sign it with his 
 name. And because it is his own work he has not the power 
 to forget it. 
 
 How much time have we spent upon the creation of this 
 masterpiece? On an average we need a quarter of an hour 
 to elaborate a theme of about twenty-five sentences. When 
 a problem was read out to Henri Mondeux, the last word had 
 hardly been pronounced when the shepherd-boy gave back 
 the answer. After a certain number of exercises carried out 
 under conditions such as we have described, the memory of 
 
VALUE OF THE METHOD. 331 
 
 the child absorbs it almost as quickly as it can be spoken. 
 Make a trial of the process yourselves, and you will soon see 
 what is the capability of the memory, or rather the genius of 
 the child, when he is placed under the dominion of logic and 
 of mental representation. 
 
 The scholar gathers from success in the earliest days a 
 knowledge of his personal power, and this confidence in him- 
 self has immediately the effect of redoubling his energies. 
 Instead of requiring a spur, he will nee4 a brake. A school 
 conducted upon methods having this effect may well produce 
 men of genius. Every man yet created loves his work — above 
 all, when this work is constantly successful ; and the love of 
 the work done applies also to the labour which produces it. 
 Our process is therefore a preventive to idleness, which is far 
 better than its punishment. It creates the taste for work ; it 
 even gives rise to a passion for labour and study. From the 
 very first day it lights the sacred fire. 
 
 Each scholar feeling himself a creator, every one is atten- 
 tive — every one is entirely occupied with his own effort, his 
 own creation. Therefore the words " imposition and discipline " 
 will sound like barbarisms in the ears of our children. But 
 for the words to remain always barbarisms, we must not forget 
 that the human strength has certain very precise limits, and 
 that if a sermon or a lecture three-quarters of an hour long 
 exhausts a grown man, it will certainly a fortiori exhaust the 
 child. Many of our pedagogues have not yet understood this 
 axiom. It is for this reason that, in the eyes of children, the 
 master is not a master, but an enemy. He is this indeed, 
 because in the person of the child he does violence to, and 
 cruelly wounds, human nature itself. He is more than an 
 enemy — he is a tyrant. 
 
 The correction of exercise-books is no longer needed ; all the 
 exercise-books are perfect. In and by our process composition 
 and correction are synonymous, and represent one and the 
 same operation. The recitation of lessons also is no longer 
 called for. Every one knows his lesson thoroughly. At the 
 College of Caen, as I dare say elsewhere, this recitation of the 
 lessons used to take an hour. It was always our despair, 
 and it ought to become so for every conscientious professor. 
 The children were enervated, or rather exhausted, before the 
 real work of the class had even commenced. 
 
 No more dictation lessons. This deplorable exercise is 
 
332 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 severely interdicted in many of the German schools. The 
 German pedagogues stigmatise it by the name of " the abuse 
 of confidence," and they are right. It would be better simply 
 to copy ; the pupil at least would not make mistakes, and to 
 copy he does not need a master. During the time that he 
 scribbles and blots one page under dictation, he might assimi- 
 late it and read it over twenty times. Therefore we have no 
 more corrections, no more recitation of lessons, no more 
 dictation. 
 
 How much time have we thus gained ! What weariness 
 have we spared our pupils ! How many impositions have we 
 avoided ! How much good feeling drawn to the master ! The 
 child will no longer see in the man set to form his mind and 
 morals an enemy and a tyrant. He will love him, he will be 
 drawn to him as the most worthy and the most estimable of 
 his friends. We shall see the child running to school with 
 the same ardour as to the village fair. 
 
 By substituting everywhere lectures for silent study, our 
 process suppresses in those schools which adopt it the ungrate- 
 ful duty of monitor. It raises this personage to the position 
 of assistant- master or of preceptor to beginners, with all the 
 title and authority of an educator. It is upon him that falls 
 the duty of teaching the elementary part of the languages. 
 We have demonstrated that our method puts this teaching 
 within the reach of every one. The teaching of the sciences 
 will be for the learned professor. 
 
 An honest and devoted nurse sometimes occupies a larger 
 place in the child's heart than even its own mother. The 
 despised elementary language teacher will have, under the 
 method that we propose, the first fruits of the scholar's affec- 
 tion. More than this, the prestige which the knowledge of 
 languages gives will perhaps make of him a personage more 
 regarded than the learned science master himself. 
 
 To all these advantages let us not forget to add that trans- 
 lated by the formula often evoked in this book : — *' For three 
 classes one master." While the scholar is writing out his 
 lesson, that is, is giving a tangible form to his conception, the 
 master could be training a second class, then a third, deliver- 
 ing to each of these the germ or the raw material of a creation 
 similar to that already given — " One harvest is ripening while 
 two others are being sown ! " 
 
A LATIN LESSON. 333 
 
 2. A Page of Virgil, 
 
 ^NEiD, Book II. V. 544. 
 
 Instead of the lesson which we have just elaborated, we 
 may substitute a theme in a classic tongue. Let us take, 
 for example, from our transcription of the -^neid, the 45 th 
 theme of the Second Book. 
 
334 
 
 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 THE DEATH OF PRIAM. 
 Nunc morere ! 
 
 — Sic fatus seiiior, fatus est 
 telumque imbelle sine ictu conjecit ; conjecit 
 rauco quod protinus sere repulsum, repulsum 
 et summo clypei nequicquam umbone pependit. pependit 
 Cui Pyrrhus : dixit 
 
 " referes ergo hsec referes 
 
 et nuntius ibis Pelidae genitori : ibis 
 
 illi mea tristia facta narrare 
 
 degeneremque ISTeoptolemum narrare me- narrare 
 
 Nunc morere ! " [men to, morere 
 
 — Hoc dicens, dicens 
 altaria ad ipsa trementem traxit traxit 
 
 et in multo lapsantem sanguine nati, lapsantem 
 
 implicuitque comam Iseva, implicuit 
 
 dextraque coruscum extulit (ensem) extulit 
 
 ac lateri capulo tenus abdidit ensem. abdidit 
 
 — Hsec finis Priami fatorum : finis fuit 
 hie exitus ilium sorte tulit, [gama, tulit 
 Trojam incensam et prolapsa videntem Per- videntem tuL 
 tot quondam populis terrisque superbum reg- regnatorem 
 
 natorem Asise : 
 
 Jacet ingens littore tr uncus jacet 
 
 avulsumque humeris caput avulsum 
 
 et sine nomine corpus. sine nomine. 
 
TRANSCRIPTIONS OF THE CLASSICS. 335 
 
 One remark with reference to the transcription of this exer- 
 cise. How is it that amongst the number of professors who 
 have undertaken the literal line-for-line translations, no one 
 has had the idea, in the first place, of numbering the various 
 distinct conceptions of the classic authors, and of constituting 
 with each of them a separate exercise analogous to our own ; 
 and in the next place, of separating the sentences instead of 
 dealing with single words ; and, lastly, of arranging these sen- 
 tences for the student in the order in which they are present-ed 
 by our transcriptions ? 
 
 The explanation of this fact is very simple. The Literary 
 Series is the immediate corollary of our Linguistic Series. To 
 conceive the one it is necessary to have first conceived the 
 other. The high value of the verb in the language, its pre- 
 ponderance in the sentence, the amplitude of the intellectual 
 effort of mankind, the measure of each one of our conceptions, 
 the average length of the sentence, the part to be assigned to 
 the ear, with the principles or precepts which devolve there- 
 from, and which constitute, in very truth, the art of teaching 
 languages — these are the data which it was necessary to have 
 possessed to be able even to formulate the problem. It will 
 be remembered by what mere chance it was that we ourselves 
 were enabled to unite them. 
 
 If, besides this, we keep in mind the blindness in which 
 the spirit of routine, under the form of a word-for-word 
 translation, has kept our humanists until the present time, 
 one need not be astonished that they have stood so long close 
 alongside our idea without ever even having caught a glimpse 
 of it. So much having been said, let us show how the lesson 
 of Virgil is given. 
 
 The end to be attained is : "To enable the work of the 
 author to be reproduced by the pupil." The master first gives 
 a free translation in his own words of the conception or the 
 scene of Virgil ; then beginning the first sentence of the first 
 step he gives it in English — 
 
 " Thus spake the old man." 
 
 He strikes once more the term " spake " alone, and from 
 this throws forth the Latin verb " fatus est," which he says 
 again and again (fatus est — fatus est) ; and on this verb he 
 builds up the phrase — 
 
 " Sic fatus est senior." 
 
336 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 The pupil writes down on the margin of his exercise-book 
 the verb " fatus est ; " and then the master enounces the next 
 sentence — 
 
 " And, without force, he cast an impotent javelin." 
 He repeats " cast," and then substitutes " conjecit ; " estab- 
 lishes this verb solidly, and upon it as foundation raises the 
 sentence — 
 
 " Telumque imbelle sine ictu conjecit," 
 evoking the subject, evoking the complements, evoking the 
 grammar and the genius proper to Latin, constructing always 
 according to this genius, i.e., placing that which completes 
 before that which is completed. Meanwhile, each pupil in- 
 scribes "conjecit " beneath the " fatus est." After the second 
 phrase the third is expounded ; after the third the fourth, and 
 so on until the whole of the first step is finished, at which 
 point a halt is made. 
 
 Now the teacher and pupil exchange parts. The teacher 
 has just given what we term the theme of the first step ; 
 the pupil, by listening and interpreting mentally each Latin 
 phrase, has made the translation of it. Next in his turn the 
 pupil gives the Latin of this mental translation. The master 
 gives him the verb, " fatus est," and, if need be, the English 
 phrase corresponding thereto, and the pupil should be able to 
 find the sentence — 
 
 "Sic fatus est senior." 
 
 The master then challenges him afresh with the verb " con- 
 jecit." The pupil takes up the gauntlet and responds by the 
 phrase — 
 
 " Telumque imbelle sine ictu conjecit." 
 
 The master gives him the third verb, and the pupil returns 
 the third sentence, and so on to the end of the paragraph. 
 The second step is attacked and carried like the first, and the 
 third like the two others. A second pupil will wish to go 
 through the whole of the theme with the sole aid of the verbs 
 written on the margin of his exercise- book ; another may 
 solicit the favour of being allowed to reproduce the whole from 
 memory. 
 
 The class have thought with Virgil, have spoken his words, 
 have penetrated to the height of his genius, have assimilated 
 a fragment of his art. Without reading Virgil directly, with- 
 
THE STUDY OF VIRGIL. 337 
 
 out translating him, without copying him, the pupils have 
 actually conceived and rewritten the scene from the great 
 master, and this work has required for pupils at this stage at 
 most ten or fifteen minutes of time. The conception of Virgil 
 has passed entire into the conception of the scholar. This is 
 much — but it is not yet enough. 
 
 Every student now opens his book of transcriptions, and each 
 separately looks rapidly through the work hitherto done in 
 common. Then the books are closed, and in the exercise- book, 
 which bears the verbs on its margin, the pupil recomposes, 
 opposite these verbs, the corresponding sentences. Lastly, the 
 correction is carried out in the manner we have mentioned, by 
 the reading aloud of a single copy. At this moment, the con- 
 ception of Virgil will have passed by all the senses of the 
 scholar — first the ear, then the tongue, then the eye, and lastly 
 the hand. Henceforth it will form part of his individuality ; 
 " he can never forget it." 
 
 We may point out further, that the exercise of the grammar 
 has been constant though no grammar has figured in the class, 
 and that the pupil has learnt the whole crowd of expressions 
 without having once turned to his dictionary. 
 
 The metaphors and the relative phrases will next be noted 
 or gathered together, and at a second reading — that of the 
 whole book — they will be made the object of a special exer- 
 cise. The relative phrases will furnish the elements of what 
 we have called " An ordered conversation." 
 
 Under what conditions will this second reading take place ? 
 By the ordinary processes it is little less laborious than the 
 first. The same difficulties are encountered ; the same faults 
 are committed j the same time is spent or wasted ; and the 
 utter weariness engendered ends by making odious to the 
 student both the classical work and the name of its author. ^ 
 But an entire book of the ^neid, for example, read through 
 by means of our transcriptions, requires about two hours. 
 Done from memory and aloud in class, together with the con- 
 versation by means of the relative phrases, it takes some 
 three or four hours. 
 
 Seventy to ninety Latin lessons worked through in a morn- 
 ing ! At this rate we have been able boldly to undertake 
 to thoroughly learn, not only a few scraps of certain clas- 
 
 ^ "Horace, whom I hated so." — Byron. 
 
338 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 sical masterpieces, but these masterpieces themselves in their 
 entirety. 
 
 The study of authors by means of our transcriptions is 
 therefore as rapid as it is easy, and it is not the less fruitful. 
 
 Might not the language, we shall be asked, be learnt by the 
 reading of the authors alone ? Might we not do without the 
 ordinary series 1 The present work is a continual demonstra- 
 tion of the negative. No ; the reading of the classics, however 
 long, persevering, and obstinate it may be, will never lead you 
 to the true and thorough knowledge of the language. 
 
 If I were to desire to maintain the contrary hypothesis, 
 should I not be opposed with the contradiction of the sorrow- 
 ful experience achieved after so many years by all the schools 
 and colleges of the world ? All of these make their students 
 read the Latin authors. Which of them, I ask, has discovered 
 the true secret of teaching Latin ? To learn a language, let us 
 recollect for the hundredth time, is not to translate a book ; it 
 is to translate our own individuality into this language. We 
 have pointed out how this human individuality is constituted. 
 Now there is no classical work which contains this indi- 
 viduality ; or rather it can only be found therein as Homer in 
 the dictionary. 
 
 You have gathered together, we will suppose, all the mate- 
 rials for a house. The totality of these materials cannot be 
 called a house, and will not really be a house, until the day on 
 which these materials are grouped together and set into a 
 certain definite order. In the same way, let us admit that all 
 the elements that form part of your individuality can be found 
 in the literature of a language. For these elements to repre- 
 sent your individuality, they must be first united, then grouped, 
 then set into order in a certain manner — that is to say, 
 brought together into what we have called the Ordinary 
 Series. 
 
 Moreover, these are the only means to assure Latin being 
 spoken and used in ordinary life. And if Greek is usually 
 less well known than Latin, it is simply because it is less 
 spoken. I used to read, re-read, and have read to me, during 
 more than twenty years, the Greek and Latin classical works, 
 and this exercise did not give me possession of either Greek or 
 Latin. A desperate and continued reading of the German 
 classics did not prove of greater benefit to me. I finally applied 
 to these languages the system of the series — that is to say, I 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLASSICS 339 
 
 translated my individuality into these languages. Since then, 
 but only since then, have I felt that these languages have 
 become my own. Language is an edifice which has its summit, 
 its crowning point, in its literature. This summit is always 
 something quite other than the foundation. It presupposes 
 this foundation, but it never can take its place. 
 
 The process of which we have just given, a description may 
 be brought to bear upon a literature lesson in German, in 
 French, or in Arabic, as well as Latin. We have chosen the 
 latter in order to put to rout once more the absurd prejudice 
 which proclaims the necessity for two methods of teaching 
 languages — the one for ancient languages and the other for 
 modern. 
 
 Whoever the man who thinks and who writes may be, he 
 does it by linking conception to conception, sentence to sen- 
 tence. The work will be read well by that man who knows 
 how to discover these links, and to accommodate his march 
 and his length of step to the march and the step of the 
 author. 
 
 Two more observations, and the exposition of our " method 
 of translating, reading, and assimilating the classics " will be 
 complete. The class have reproduced each of the foregoing 
 themes in two manners : first orally, and then by writing. It 
 is, perhaps, hardly necessary to state that this second exer- 
 cise is not continual. One may undertake to read the principal 
 masterpieces of the literature of a language, but not of writing 
 out the whole of them by hand. The written theme has spe- 
 cially in view the art of composition. This art may be quite 
 well taught to the student in making him reproduce, not all 
 the models, but a certain number of them only. 
 
 The student must not be made to read for the mere sake of 
 reading, but in order to understand and to learn. The book 
 must therefore be one adapted to the age and the knowledge 
 of the reader — that is to say, the reading must be graduated. 
 Our system itself supplies us with a rule or a principle for 
 establishing this graduation. The works will be classified 
 according to their relation to the objective language such as 
 we have defined it. The tale, for instance, being the reproduc- 
 tion of the facts of every-day life, is the kind that approaches 
 most nearly to our elementary series. The first exercise of 
 reading in a foreign language will be given, therefore, by 
 
340 STUDY OF THE CLASSICS. 
 
 means of a collection of tales written in this language. Is not 
 this also the first book understood, sought for, and assimilated 
 by the child in his own language ? After the tale will succeed 
 the epic poem ; to the epic will succeed the history ; to the 
 history the other kinds of literature, — all called forward in 
 an order corresponding to the degree of their afiinity with the 
 Elementary Series or the objective language. 
 
REDUCE THE SUBJECTS. ' 341 
 
 THE LANGUAGES BY THE SCIENCES AND 
 THE SCIENCES BY THE LANGUAGES. 
 
 THE SOLIDARITY OF THE SCIENCES AND THE LANGUAGES. 
 
 ** Reduce the number of subjects taught ! " This is the cry 
 we hear continually ; and from year to year this cry will grow 
 louder — " Reduce the subjects ! " The burden imposed on 
 childhood surpasses the measure of its forces; the day's length 
 of study exceeds the day's length of life. Instead of building 
 up, edifying, this task overwhelms and crushes; instead of 
 developing, this labour simply exhausts ; therefore, " Reduce 
 the subjects ! " A cry so universal cannot but be the symptom 
 of a real disease : — " Yox populi, vox Dei ! " 
 
 Count, indeed, the sciences that the human mind has 
 created or organised during the last fifty years; reckon up 
 and measure the chapters which are added to each of them 
 from one day to another, and you may well be astounded at 
 the task laid upon the modern teacher and the modern scholar. 
 Therefore, " Reduce your subjects," repeat the crowd. 
 
 But to do this we should have to omit some of the sciences. 
 Now the suppression of science now-a-days is almost equi- 
 valent to the amputation of a limb. Let the ablest man be 
 so good as to point out which are the superfluous sciences, 
 and which parts are to be cut out. The schoolmaster who 
 should announce his intention of striking out of his curri- 
 culum physics, for example, or chemistry, or some branch of 
 natural science, would be to-morrow the object of universal 
 reprobation, and would very soon lose all his pupils. And he 
 would deserve it. Is not school the place to teach the sciences'? 
 Where else can our children learn them ? 
 
 Thus the same voice that cries " Reduce the subjects," cries 
 at the same time, " Do not alter the list of subjects." How 
 are we to reconcile injunctions so contradictory? Is it not 
 the predicament of the sick man who calls for the doctor, but 
 pushes away the remedy prescribed ? 
 
342 * STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 This is because, as a matter of fact, the duty of the school 
 is to add to, and never to take away from, human knowledge. 
 The school is at one and the same time the first representative 
 and the first instrument of progress. Its mission is to give 
 light and still more light, and never to hide the candle under 
 the bushel. " Reduce your subjects " does not mean " Suppress 
 science ; " it means, " Reform your methods." 
 
 It is not science, it is routine that must be suppressed ; it 
 is not knowledge which must be decreased out the time which 
 must be lengthened ; it is not the load \\ t ich must be dimi- 
 nished, but the power that must be douMed ; it is not the 
 comparatively feeble horse, but the stean? » -ngine which must 
 be called upon to draw the train which carries the modern 
 fortune. 
 
 Every human science borrows its expression from language. 
 To teach a science is to speak this science ; to learn a science 
 is again to speak this science. The knowledge of it is usually 
 nothing else than speech — speech "set in order." Why 
 is it that this speech par excellence, could not be utilised for 
 the study of language properly so called ? Why cannot the 
 material of this science be used as a linguistic theme ? 
 
 There is in school one ogre who devours not the flesh, but 
 the time of children, who consumes their force and their life. 
 This ogre is the study of language. For one hour given to 
 the study of sciences the scholar spends four upon that of 
 language under the form of grammar, spelling, dictation, of 
 Greek, of Latin, of French or Grerman. Whence is this dis- 
 proportion ? Why would not the lesson on zoology or botany 
 serve as the theme for the lesson of spelling ? Why should 
 not the lesson on physics or on history be employed as the 
 theme of a lesson in German or French 1 
 
 Yes ! between science properly so called and that of language 
 there exists a profound solidarity, of which linguistic science 
 should have been able long ago to make wonderful use. While 
 studying languages we might study the sciences, and in study- 
 ing the sciences we can study the languages. This is the 
 point, the true point, upon which the attempts of reformers of 
 the curriculum should be brought to bear. 
 
 Let the pedagogic science find the secret of making a science- 
 lesson out of a language-lesson, and a language-lesson out of a 
 science-lesson, and it will have trebled or quadrupled the time 
 
REFORM OF HISTORY TEACHING. 343 
 
 and the force of both master and pupil. Then the studies will 
 be harmonious and the work properly balanced. Then the 
 list of subjects will be found light. More ; they may even be 
 trebled and yet be found light. 
 
 How is it that this reform yet remains to be carried out ? 
 It is because it can only be accomplished upon the basis of a 
 method which equally suits either the revelation of scientific 
 truths and the translation of the forms of. language. Where 
 is this method ? Until the present moment has the problem 
 even been formulated ? 
 
 Perhaps we may be permitted to apply in passing, and 
 briefly, the principles of our linguistic method to the study, 
 for instance, of the natural sciences, to that of the exact sciences 
 and to that of history, in order to see if our humble essay 
 might not prove to be the preface of that system for which 
 pedagogic science has been waiting so long. We will com- 
 mence by the end — that is to say, by history. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE LANGUAGES BY HISTORY AND HISTORY BY THE LANGUAGES. 
 
 I. Necessity of a reform in the teaching of history. 
 
 The teaching profession should renounce resolutely all those 
 manuals or abridgments which present history to the minds 
 of childhood in an altered, chopped up, mutilated form. It 
 should seek to replace all these bad books by complete treatises, 
 in which the life of the people and the instructive play of 
 causes and effects develop with all the richness of truth. 
 History is the grand school in which the future should gain 
 its instruction — a school of politics and morals. Until now 
 what have figured almost exclusively on the walls of this 
 school are certain names and dates, in which are enshrined a 
 few more or less important facts. Pedagogic science ought to 
 pass the sponge over these insipid abstractions and replace 
 them by living pictures. 
 
 It should resuscitate the past with its splendours and its 
 miseries, with its heroisms and its deficiencies, with its pas- 
 sions, noble or criminal ; it should reproduce, with all its inci- 
 dents, the great drama of liberty struggling against despotism. 
 
344 STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 This is the kind of history I should wish to teach to my chil- 
 dren ; but where is the book that realises this ideal, and that 
 I can put into their hands ? 
 
 All the histories are composed and written for minds which 
 meditate, analyse, and synthetise — for men of forty years old 
 and upwards. But where is the history that is composed and 
 written to be assimilated by children and youths ? It is in 
 vain that we ask them of pedagogic science. 
 
 Do not be deceived. All the so-called historical works " pre- 
 pared for the use of children" are perfectly inaccessible to 
 the child, and even to many grown-up persons. Between these 
 books and all the others I see absolutely no difference other 
 than the title — " For the use of children," and this title is 
 a misnomer. Examine them yourselves. Are the chapters 
 in these books thought out, shaped, or distributed differently 
 to those in other books ? Are the occurrences more detailed 
 and placed in better sequence ? Is the synthesis more logi- 
 cally connected? Has the style less of metaphor, less of 
 rounded periods, less of pomposity? All these histories, I 
 repeat, have nothing special in them ; the most celebrated, so 
 far as I have yet seen, have nothing truly pedagogic either in 
 their basic idea or in their form. 
 
 And in this there is nothing very astonishing. The pro- 
 blem of a reform in the teaching of history has hardly as 
 yet been put. If languages are badly taught in the great 
 schools, what must we say to their teaching of history ? 
 History, real history, is too often not taught at all. Open 
 the books and see if history is to be found therein, you who 
 know what history is. See if the child can draw therefrom 
 lessons and principles which may serve him and direct him 
 when he becomes a citizen and has to exercise his rights. 
 
 Why are there throughout the country so many divisions 
 and so many political parties ? It is in great part because we 
 do not know our country's history, or because each man has a 
 history of his own, and not the impersonal history of a healthy 
 pedagogic science ; because the little that we do know of it has 
 not been learnt at school where it is practically prohibited — 
 but from newspapers ; because we have oft-times the passion 
 of it, but not the reason — the error of it, but not the truth. 
 
 History, real history, practically taught, practically written, 
 here is the sacred book, the bible of the future. But this 
 
HISTORY PUT INTO SERIES. 345 
 
 book is not yet written. The profession of teachers must set 
 themselves courageously to this task, and create for their own 
 use a method for teaching history such as that which M'e have 
 attempted to create for the teaching of languages. And the 
 creation of this book is of the first necessity. History and 
 the reading of history, and meditation therein, must be for 
 the future citizen a sacred daily duty. History must become 
 an essential part of our moral personality. It is important, 
 therefore, that this history should be true ; and it is equally 
 important, seeing the richness and the extent of the material, 
 that it should be in the highest degree easy of assimilation. 
 
 In fact, it will not be in a volume of 300 pages that you 
 will recount — I will not say the history of the world, nor even 
 the history of the nation, but one single epoch of this history. 
 It is therefore necessary to find a system so simple, so practical, 
 that the pupil has but to read in order to know, has but to 
 look in order to retain, has but to turn over the pages to 
 refresh his memory. Is such a system possible ? And would 
 it be possible to-day to establish the basis and trace the chief 
 outlines of it ? We will attempt it. We may be able to prove 
 that our project deserves to be considered as something more 
 than a mere chimera. 
 
 2. History put into Series. 
 
 History is the story of the passions, the aspirations, the 
 tendencies, that is, the various and successive ends which have 
 been pursued by a people, and the means by which they have 
 attempted to attain them. History represents, therefore, a 
 tissue of ends and of means. But wherever there are " ends 
 and means" there is opportunity and place for Series. There- 
 fore the series, the basis of our linguistic system, may become 
 the basis of a historic method. We should proceed to 
 establish, to weave, this new kind of series in the following 
 manner : — 
 
 Given a certain historical fact — the Seven Years' War, for 
 instance, or the reigns of Louis Quatorze of France or of 
 King Charles I. of England, or a special moment in any one 
 of the reigns, such as the Wars of the Roses — we shall study 
 with care the men who have played a part in this political act, 
 and the passions which have moved them ; we shall count 
 minutely the various ends into which their movements may 
 
346 STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 be resolved ; we shall draw up a catalogue of these ends or 
 aims, not according to an alphabetical list, but according to 
 their chronological succession. Then seeking the means by 
 which these various ends have been attained as time passed 
 on, and expressing them in the same order in which they 
 succeeded, or should have succeeded, each other, we shall 
 arrange them upon the model of our Linguistic Series. Put- 
 ting the Life of the People into series — this is at one and 
 the same time both the foundation and the plan of an historical 
 method ; we will indicate here, briefly, the work of detail, and 
 the form of the edifice. 
 
 The general history of events will be found divided into a 
 considerable number of particular stories, which form so many 
 pictures or scenes. Each scene will contain one simple and 
 unique fact, strongly brought into relief by the style and the 
 movement of the phrase. This scene will occupy a special 
 page, and will bear a title as simple as itself, of which the 
 text of the page is the development. On this page the order 
 of succession in time will be rigorously followed — an order of 
 which far too little account is taken even in the most elemen- 
 tary text-books of history, and which, nevertheless, is certainly 
 the secret of precision and of clearness, as it is the condition 
 of prompt and easy assimilation. For, indeed, what is memory 
 if it is not the logical classification of facts in the mind ? 
 If, therefore, the facts are already classified, the mind will 
 grasp them and will retain them so much the more rapidly, 
 and the less able pupils will be able to remember them as 
 well as the most gifted. 
 
 We shall have none of these reflections and prognostications 
 such as fill up our present text-books and dishearten the 
 child, for the reason that he is not able to understand them, 
 and is still less able to distinguish them from the real history 
 of facts. The facts, nothing but the facts — the facts with 
 the dramatic movement of causes and of effects — the facts 
 which speak for themselves and cause the reader to think — 
 the facts interpreted solely by the accent of the professor — 
 these are what we require. And in the expression of them we 
 must have none of those gross and empty metaphors that the 
 child understands not, which mislead rather than guide him, 
 and which cause him to take vain shadows for living realities. 
 
 Conceived on these lines, history may be written in quite a 
 
THE HISTORICAL SERIES. 347 
 
 different fashion to that we now know. We shall write it 
 in simple and short phrases, which course after one another, 
 having all the rapidity of the movement with which the life 
 of the people is unfolded. 
 
 1. Each phrase will only express one idea or one simple 
 fact. 
 
 2. Each phrase will be distinct from that which precedes 
 and from that which follows it, both on the paper as well as 
 in the mind, i.e., each sentence will be placed line by line as 
 in our Linguistic Method. 
 
 We have shown the justification for the use of this form of 
 the printed page when speaking of the themes of our series : 
 the same reasons justify the use of it for our historical themes. 
 
 The method is sketched out : let us suppose that it is con- 
 structed ; how are we to apply it ? This question is one that 
 is not less grave than that of the method of teaching our 
 Linguistic Series. In order to fix ideas and to facilitate our 
 explanation, we reproduce on the following page an historical 
 theme taken almost at hazard from one of our lithographed 
 transcriptions. This scene has no other pretension than that 
 of showing the typographic form of our Historical Series.^ An 
 isolated theme can with difficulty be made to give any exact 
 idea of our historical treatises : it would be necessary at least 
 to devote an entire chapter to the subject. 
 
 ^ This specimen history-lesson has been also given in the French, as it 
 then equally illustrates the property of the system of forming advanced 
 language-lessons from the history of the country whose language is being 
 studied (Trans.). 
 
348 
 
 STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 BATTLE OF ROSSBACH. 
 
 JSTOVEMBER 5, 1757. 
 
 — On the morning of the 5th, Soubise com- 
 
 manded the attack. 
 The army deployed in a long line, 
 with the idea of turning the Prussians, 
 and enclosing them in a circle of fire, [tent, 
 Frederick remained perfectly still within his 
 tranquilly following the movements of the 
 
 enemy. 
 At noon he sat down to table as usual. 
 The French continued to advance ; 
 drums were beating, 
 
 bands were sounding triumphal marches ; 
 nothing stirred in the ^Prussian camp. 
 The French attributed this calm to fear, 
 and could not comprehend such apathy. 
 
 — It was two o'clock in the afternoon ; 
 Frederick came quickly out of his tent, 
 and gave the order, " To arms ! March ! " 
 In the twinkling of an eye the tents are 
 
 struck, folded, 
 orders cross in the air, 
 
 and the battalions hasten to the place assigned. 
 ** Forward," cried Frederick a second time, 
 and the army threw themselves on the foe. 
 
 — A rain of fire and bullets fell upon the 
 
 French. 
 Prince Henry took their infantry in flank. 
 Seidlitz attacked them in the rear with his 
 
 cavalry. 
 This violent and unforeseen movement of the 
 
 Prussians acted as a surprise ; 
 the amazed Imperialists took to flight. 
 The French maintained their position until 
 disputing the ground foot by foot. [dusk, 
 
 commanded 
 
 deployed 
 
 turning 
 
 enclosing 
 
 remained 
 
 following 
 
 sat down 
 
 advance 
 
 were heating 
 
 were sounding 
 
 stirred 
 
 attributed 
 
 comprehend 
 
 was 
 
 came out 
 gave order 
 struck 
 
 cross 
 hasten 
 cried 
 
 threw them- 
 selves 
 
 fell 
 
 took 
 attacked 
 
 acted 
 
 took 
 
 maintained 
 
 disputing 
 
SPECIMEN HISTORICAL SCIENCE. 
 
 349 
 
 BATAILLE DE ROSSBACH. 
 
 5 NOVEMBRE 1757. 
 
 — Le 5 au matin, Soubise fit sonner la charge ; 
 Tarm^e se deploya sur une longue ligne : 
 il s'agissait de tourner les Prussiens, 
 et de les prendre dans un cercle de feu. ' 
 Fr^d^ric resta immobile dans sa tente, 
 suivant tranquillement les mouvements de 
 
 I'ennemi. 
 A midi il se mit k table comme a I'ordinaire. 
 Les Fran9ais continuaient d'avancer, 
 les tambours battaient, 
 la musique jouait des marches triomphales ; 
 rien ne bougeait dans le camp prussien. 
 Les Frangais attribuaient ce calme a la peur 
 et ne pouvaient s'expliquer tant d'apathie. 
 
 fit sonner 
 
 se deploya 
 
 tourner 
 
 prendre 
 
 resta 
 
 suivant 
 
 se mit 
 
 avancer 
 
 battaient 
 
 jouait 
 
 bougeait 
 
 attribuaient 
 
 s'expliquer 
 
 — II 4tait deux heures de relevee : ^tait 
 
 Frederic sort pr^cipitamment de sa tente, sort 
 
 et crie : " Aux armes ! k I'ennemi ! " crie 
 
 En un clin d'ceil les tentes sont arrach^es, pli^es ; arrachdes 
 
 les commandements se croisent dans I'air, se croisent 
 
 et les bataillons courent k la place assignee. courent 
 
 " En avant ! " cria une seconde fois Frederic, cria 
 
 et Tarmee se rua sur I'ennemi. se rua 
 
 — Une pluie de feu et de balles s'abattit sur les s'abattit 
 
 Franfais. 
 
 Le prince Henri prit en flanc leur infanterie, prit 
 
 Seidlitz la prit en queue avec sa cavalrie. prit 
 
 Ce mouvement violent et imprevu des Prussiens agit 
 
 agit comme une surprise ; 
 
 les Imperiaux ^pouvant^s prirent la fuite. prirent 
 
 Les Frangais tinrent bon jusqu'au soir, tinrent bon 
 
 et disputerent le terrain pied k pied. disput^rent 
 
350 STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 3. The teaching of the history lessons. 
 
 A iiistory lesson is a play in two acts ; we have the work 
 of exposition by the master, and then the work of assimilation 
 by the pupil. Let us deal first with that of the master. In 
 beginning the lesson, the master does not read ; he improvises. 
 Nothing cools the ardour of a class of children more than 
 reading; the book acts as a screen, and both paralyses the 
 feelings of the teacher himself and hinders his thoughts from 
 radiating to the minds of his hearers. A picture, a chart, such 
 as would be illustrative of the facts he wishes to enforce, should 
 be the only auxiliaries of a good teacher of history. To the 
 eyes of the pupil, the professor should be a living history. 
 He needs not only to know history, but to appear permeated 
 therewith. 
 
 He must not, therefore, have his historical lessons written 
 out exactly as he is to give them ; their titles at most may 
 act the part of programme, as memoranda or notes. He will 
 abandon himself to the inspiration of the moment, to his own 
 conception, and will expose the facts as if he saw them or 
 knew them, with order, with clearness, with precision, and 
 with warmth, giving emphasis to those that deserve emphasis, 
 and this in language half-conversational, half- academic, and 
 with an occasional humorous turn which will serve to place 
 the fact in relief in the memory. 
 
 The block of marble is drawn from the quarry, trimmed, 
 roughed out ; the inspiration is communicated. We next endea- 
 vour to perfect the statue. After having made the facts speak 
 for themselves, the teacher will make the book speak. Now 
 he reads ; but this exercise is not an ordinary reading ; it is a 
 translation, the translation of a scene already well known to 
 all, and in which, shortly before, the whole class were vividly 
 interested. This exercise presents itself as the solution of a 
 fresh problem of which the following is the statement : — 
 "To find the best expression possible of the historical drama 
 to which the class have just been giving their attention." 
 
 From this point of view the reading has a great interest. 
 Rest assured that here we have discovered a method for keep- 
 ing each pupil attentive. The teacher reads, comments upon, 
 criticises each phrase, — carries out, in fact, a work analogous 
 to that which we have described when speaking of the reading 
 
THE TEACHING OF THE HISTORY LESSONS. 351 
 
 of the classical authors. So much for the teacher's part : now 
 let us investigate that of the pupil. 
 
 In the first place, he knows to its roots the history he has 
 before him. What he lacks is the expression of it. How can 
 he conquer this ? Nothing is more simple. We may point out 
 at once that our historical lessons are all as exactly and defi- 
 nitely organised as our linguistic lessons. The theory that we 
 have developed when dealing with these equally applies in its 
 entirety to the history lessons. 
 
 This stipulat-ed, the pupil will proceed as follows : — Covering 
 up the text, he will read aloud the verbs one after the other, 
 and on each verb he will build up the corresponding phrase. 
 He will elaborate in this way, piece by piece, the first para- 
 graph or step, and going through it a second time, he will 
 thoroughly assimilate it. He will do the same with the second 
 and with the third step. It will require, we have found, five 
 to seven minutes for a pupil to learn, in this manner, a history 
 lesson such as that given. This result is rich in consequences : 
 we will refer to them farther on. 
 
 The teacher now asks the dullest in the class to repeat the 
 lesson. He ascertains that this child knows the page, and will 
 conclude from this that all know it. To what exercise will he 
 now pass 1 This will depend upon the age and the ability of 
 the children before him. If he is dealing with beginners who 
 do not yet know how to write correctly, he will simply give 
 them the lesson to copy out, or perhaps he will dictate it care- 
 fully, pronouncing each word separately, or possibly will have 
 it dictated by one of the scholars. 
 
 This exercise will advantageously replace that of the usual 
 dictation exercise and the writing lesson, and will, moreover, 
 be a diversion and an opportunity for the pupils to digest the 
 lesson. If the class are already well drilled in spelling, if 
 serious mistakes need be no longer feared, the history lesson 
 will become the material for a literature lesson in composition. 
 In such a case, these are the conditions under which the work 
 would be carried out : — 
 
 Each pupil will copy into his exercise-book the series of 
 verbs from the history lesson, then closing the printed book, 
 he will reproduce in writing the phrases corresponding to 
 the verbs. The correction of these exercises will be as short 
 as they are easy. It will be sufficient for the teacher to have 
 
352 STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 one copy read out aloud. Each pupil will correct his phrase 
 according to that which is judged perfect. If the class is 
 still further advanced, the history lesson will be reproduced 
 as a true narrative after a single reading or a single hearing, 
 and without other help than the logic of the facts. 
 
 There remains yet one other category of pupil — those who, 
 trained by these various exercises, have learnt to think for 
 themselves, that is, to seize the true relations of things, and 
 who along with solid principles have acquired the forms where- 
 with to express all their conceptions. These will treat the 
 history lesson from a higher point of view ; they will trace the 
 portraits and sound the praises of the great men whose actions 
 are before them ; they will paint the battles ; they will judge 
 the revolutions, will give their appreciations of the legislation, 
 will give over again the speeches of the great politicians, 
 attempting to revive in these compositions the ideas and the 
 passions which have agitated bygone times, seeking by these 
 means to epitomise each epoch, to characterise each historic 
 moment. 
 
 Studied in this way, history will inevitably enter at each 
 lesson deep into the mind and the heart of the child, and will 
 early make a man of him. Our aim can now be seen ; history 
 is considered by us first of all as a science, and is treated as 
 such ; afterwards it is used as a literature lesson, marvellously 
 suitable for forming the language and the style of the pupil. 
 
 Prepared as we have just indicated, history is a collection 
 of narratives, in which we set down successively the forms and 
 turns of expression most habitual and most important in lite- 
 rary composition. By means of these narratives the literary 
 education of a class will be carried on day by day. The prin- 
 cipal advantages of this method of proceeding are these : — 
 
 1. Each history lesson forms one complete narrative, of a 
 length suitable to beginners. 
 
 2. The facts are analysed and developed in this lesson 
 methodically. 
 
 3. Order and movement are given to them. 
 
 4. The pupil will quickly learn to control his thought by 
 means of these short and rapid phrases, which are used to 
 translate the facts of the narrative. 
 
 5. Each phrase being a whole in itself, the pupil is forced 
 to give equal care to every phrase. 
 
HISTORY AND LITERATURE COMBINED. 353 
 
 In ordinary compositions one phrase compensates for 
 another — the best for those less well turned. But in our 
 scenes each part is well in view. Each sentence requires to 
 be considered separately, to be balanced, put into cadence. 
 Teachers well know that this is the last thing to be obtained 
 (when it is obtained), even with the most promising of their 
 scholars. 
 
 The film material of history is far better for beginners, 
 is infinitely easier to deal with than are the subjects usually 
 proposed, by which the idle imagination alone is excited, 
 Avhile the pupil generally knows not from which side to 
 commence the attack. The brevity and facility of the history 
 compositions will enable either one or several to be given every 
 day. These exercises being all polished to the point of per- 
 fection, or nearly so — every effort being fruitful, every hour 
 producing its result — little time will be needed to form a 
 taste and a genius for narrative in the pupil's mind. 
 
 The history lesson is, therefore, really a literature lesson as 
 well, and in our opinion one of the most practicable that a 
 teacher can propose to give in class. For this reason the his- 
 torical series is the first auxiliary we propose to the purely 
 linguistic series. 
 
 When the basis of the language has been conquered, 
 reading lessons and recitations are needed, in which all the 
 terms, both real and figurative, recur, so to speak, in their 
 free state, and as called forth by the incidents. What more 
 convenient could be imagined, either for the teacher who 
 recounts or for the pupil who listens, than these historical 
 series ? 
 
 What reading-lessons easier, and at the same time more 
 profitable, than these could the student undertake ? What 
 subject more advantageous to his mental progress could he 
 study ? His eye has never to take in more than one line at 
 a time, his mind has only one sentence to grasp. He descends 
 from thought to thought with surety, without possibility of 
 mistaking the sense. By reason of the natural order which 
 links incident to incident, he can divine, so to speak, each 
 phrase even before reading it. The " Steps " mark the precise 
 points at which he should stop, or at which the recital 
 should be broken off, so that he may read over what he has 
 already understood, in order to take thorough possession of 
 
 z 
 
354 STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 ifc. We need not again refer to the verb, which announces the 
 idea as the dawn announces the day. 
 
 Up to the present time, no really practical book, it seems 
 to us, has ever been written for the use of those who wish to 
 perfect themselves in the study of a language, or to keep up 
 their knowledge of it, while at the same time giving useful and 
 interesting information. History treated in the manner we 
 have here indicated appears to us to be able fully to satisfy 
 this need. 
 
 Amongst the advantages of this method, there is one which 
 we certainly ought to indicate in concluding, as it answers 
 at the same time an objection which cannot fail to be levelled 
 at us. Would it be believed ^ this process, which enables 
 us^nay, which forces us to descend into the very smallest 
 details, in order to really make the actions and the men live 
 over again, actually has the advantage of brevity over all the 
 others. 
 
 We have put into seiies on this system the French 
 historian certainly farthest beyond rival in this respect — 
 Voltaire ; we have narrated and written out the reign of 
 Louis XI Y. in 250 themes or lessons, without omitting a 
 single one of the facts contained in the work of this great 
 writer. And the book by Voltaire, in the edition of a similar 
 size of page, has 600 pages ! over 300 of which must there- 
 fore be explanations, remarks, or other matter not absolutely 
 necessary to the progress of the story. 
 
 There remains the difficulty of execution. We who are 
 engaged upon the work know better than any one else can 
 possibly do how much labour may be spent in arranging a 
 treatise of history in this way ; but when one feels oneself to 
 be at last on the right track the work becomes easy. Two 
 things suffice to succeed : faith and courage. 
 
 We are now in a position to calculate the length of time 
 that a history course carried out under these conditions will 
 require. Each whole lesson given by the teacher will usually 
 embrace one well-determined episode, decomposed into at least 
 five or six different movements, which give rise to as many 
 separate page exercises. These exercises are to the whole 
 lesson what the paragraphs of a book are to the chapters. 
 
 At the end of our treatise " Project for County High 
 Schools " (Projet d'Ecoles Cantonales), an episode of the 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL SEEIES. 355 
 
 Frondist war is given, forming the material of one ordinary 
 losson. To this treatise the reader who desires to know more 
 of our history lessons is referred. Basing our calculations 
 upon this lesson, we are able to estimate the amount of history 
 work accomplished every day. An episode properly prepared is 
 given easily within half-an-hour, and five themes can be learnt 
 in thirty-five minutes. On an average, one hour, therefore, will 
 be sufiicient for the elaboration of five historical themes, com- 
 prised in one episode. 
 
 It is always better that a complete episode should be given 
 at each lesson. Experience has demonstrated to us that the 
 longest of these episodes seldom exceeds ten pages — that is, ten 
 exercises. When such a case presents itself, the whole hour is 
 devoted to the study of this episode, and the next day the 
 whole hour is given to the literary work of the lesson. The 
 i-esult is exactly the same— ten exercises in two hours. At 
 the end of the 300 days of the scholastic year the pupil will 
 thus have been able to assimilate a volume of 1500 pages. 
 Compared to what is now obtained even in the best schools, 
 this result must appear prodigious, and represents at least 
 the work of three years. Added to this, these 1500 exercises 
 have been conscientiously elaborated and conquered by all the 
 pupils. I repeat, by all. 
 
 With regard to the written work, this must be put to the 
 credit of the literary tasks. What we have already said upon 
 this point should be remembered ; each theme should be ela- 
 borated orally, but not all of them need be written out on 
 paper. 
 
 One such series may be given in English, another in French, 
 this one will be given in German, and that in Italian ; by 
 history the languages will be studied, and by the languages 
 the history will be studied. 
 
 4. Georjrajpldcal Series. 
 
 The teaching of history is involuntarily associated in the 
 mind with that of geography. 
 
 If the teaching of geography is capable of reform, this reform 
 must be based upon a reform in the maps. It is in this direc- 
 tion that we have attempted to solve the problem. In our 
 " Projet d'Ecoles Cantonales " — Reforme des Methodes, p. 37 — 
 we have set forth our process at length. We there state how 
 
356 STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 we have been able to reproduce by drawing the true configura- 
 tion of a given region ; how the apparent relief of the surface in- 
 creases, becomes more precise, as our maps are withdrawn further 
 from the eye ; how the map by this means, by rendering pos- 
 sible the collective teaching of geography, becomes a thoroughly 
 pedagogic instrument ; how each continent is subdivided into 
 regions, natural or climatic ; how each region is itself put 
 into series — that is, decomposed into its various countries and 
 subdivisions ; how each theme of this new series is taught and 
 elaborated ; and, lastly, how the geographical theme may be 
 converted into a linguistic theme. 
 
 TIT. 
 
 THE LANGUAGES BY THE NATURAL SCIENCES AND VICE VERSA. 
 
 To determine first the diverse ends of each being or of each 
 force, then to reveal the means, still more diverse, by which 
 these ends become realities, is not this, in point of fact, 
 the true object of the teaching of all science, physical or 
 natural ? If this definition is correct, the principles of our 
 method should adapt themselves admirably to the material of 
 physical or natural science, both for defining the conquests 
 of scientists, as well as for popularising them. We repeat, 
 wherever there are means and ends, there is the possibility 
 of series. Now, the series, the properly organised series, 
 is incontestably the most practical, the most clear, one 
 may say the only logical, form under which truth may be 
 manifested. 
 
 In reality, scientific men, whether they know it or not, 
 pass their lives in reading, deciphering, then in constructing 
 such series, or in preparing the material for these series. 
 The oral teaching of every good professor is nothing more 
 than the development of a series. Given from his lips, the 
 series is almost always perfect, the end being presented as 
 an end and the means as means. But the book which repro- 
 duces his teaching is seldom irreproachable. Too often it 
 flings ends and means together into a confused heap. Here 
 we have the true reason why a course of lectures is always 
 found more helpful than a printed book. 
 
 We have here once more, therefore, a reform to be attempted, 
 
THE TEACHING OF BOTANY. 357 
 
 nrmely, a reform in scientific text- books, one which cannot 
 but be of considerable service to the scientific man himself, 
 to the science which he cultivates as well as to the teaching 
 of it. An example will more fully explain our idea. 
 
 There exists no good treatise on botany which contains 
 less than 400 ordinary pages. To assimilate the contents, the 
 student is obliged to meditate upon them for days and weeks 
 together, and finally himself re-edit — that is to say, " set in 
 order " — the material which they comprise. Now, the series of 
 a tree — that of the oak, for example, following this member 
 of the vegetable kingdom from the moment the acorn drops 
 to the ground and takes root, right through to the moment 
 when it becomes in its turn a fruitful tree — will encounter 
 on its path all the phenomena of vegetation imaginable, from 
 the birth of the cells, the development of the roots, the 
 circulation of the sap, to the formation of the wood, to the 
 blossoming of the flower, to the mysteries of reproduction. 
 The linguist who should construct this series would, there- 
 fore, on the one hand, have to recognise, to count, to deter- 
 mine one by one the various and successive ends proposed by 
 Nature in the plant ; and on the other, to observe and express 
 the ways and means by which each one of these ends is 
 variously attained. 
 
 Now, each problem solved or posed by science corresponds, 
 or ought to correspond, to an end or aim of Nature. How 
 many different problems could the greatest botanist in the 
 world enounce upon the complete development of an oak ? 
 We may boldly advance the statement that he would be 
 greatly embarrassed, in spite of the richness of the material 
 before him, if he were asked to formulate two hundred. 
 Therefore the contents of all the botanical treatises in the 
 world (speaking of the principles and the theory of botany) 
 might well be comprised within a series of 200 themes. 
 
 The science of botany would therefore gain considerably in 
 precision, if its expression were elaborated according to the 
 principles of our method. It would gain still more in clear- 
 ness if the problems set by it were to succeed each other in 
 the rigorous order of a series, where each theme presented the 
 logical development of a particular problem, that is to say, 
 the means by which Nature successively accomplishes each of 
 her aims. 
 
358 STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 The written science would thus become the rival and tlie 
 perfect image of the reality. Problems as yet unsolved, being 
 brought fully into view, would more directly attract the atten- 
 tion of scientific men to them, and the conquests of science 
 w^ould become, at the same time, both more certain and more 
 rapid. 
 
 What we have said with respect to the Fcience of botany 
 applies equally to all other sciences. As a method of exposi- 
 tion, our system seems to us, therefore, capable of rendering 
 the greatest services to true science. VVhat use can the study 
 of language make of this property of the system? It can 
 make an immense use — one so great, indeed, that our method 
 would be impossible if the sciences could not be taught by 
 the series. 
 
 In fact, the material of which our series is constructed, as 
 w^e have stated in the chapter on the construction of the 
 system, is natural history itself — it is the translation of the 
 life of the plant, the translation of the life of the insect, the 
 life of the bird, the life of the quadruped, the play of the 
 elements ; it is the expression of the general life of mankind, 
 and its development by and in the trades, the arts, the in- 
 dustrial occupations ; all this is organised — as living as that 
 reality itself which the method attempts to interpret. 
 
 Everything is fixed, defined, immutable in Nature; ends 
 and means, all are contained therein, all are linked together. 
 Where could linguistic science possibly find material more 
 fruitful, or one easier to put to its use ? Is not the principle 
 of causality, which rules over the order and the harmony of 
 the world, the sole basis that should be adopted by a method 
 aspiring to be truly rational? 
 
 The work carried out for science and by science will serve 
 also, therefore, for the study of language. In return for this, 
 linguistic science should set in order, define, popularise the 
 revelations of physical science, and consequently should ofi'er 
 a system of which the true definition will still be — 
 " The languages by the sciences, 
 The sciences by the languages." 
 
 It has needed some courage on our part to resist here tho 
 temptation to put into series either a chapter of physics, or 
 the history of a plant, or an entomological study by Reaumur. 
 But we have explained at the commencement of the book 
 
MATHEMATICS. 359 
 
 how the series of a quadruped, the series of a plant, or the 
 series of an insect should be constructed. We must content 
 ourselves with this general indication, and must reserve the 
 elaboration of the scientific series for definite scientific works. 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE LAXGUAGE3 AND THE EXACT" SCIENCES. 
 
 It should be stated, in the first place, that the exact sciences 
 are just those which are taught with the greatest success in 
 the ordinary schools. .What is the reason of this 1 Open a 
 book of mathematics, and you will find a series of lessons, 
 termed theorems, developed separately and methodically. 
 Their enunciation exactly corresponds to the expression of 
 the " ends " or aims of our linguistic lessons, and the demon- 
 stration by deduction answers to the development of the 
 successive "means" by which our ends are attained. The 
 books, therefore, which treat the exact sciences do really 
 present these sciences under the form of series. 
 
 It is, in fact, to this disposition of their lessons that the 
 teaching of the exact sciences in our present schools owes its 
 successes, or rather its triumphs. The mathematical books 
 therefore bear telling witness in favour of our system. 
 
 The fact now stands revealed — our system is not new ; it is 
 as old as the sciences, which have applied it instinctively for 
 centuries. 
 
 But that which is even better than the mathematical 
 books, and which still more resembles our series, is the verbal 
 lesson or exposition of the teacher. The book often presents 
 two deductions, or two fragments of deductions, upon the same 
 line. The teacher gives forth only one sentence at a time. 
 He stays and rests, as we do, upon this sentence ; his accent 
 isolates it, so to speak, and sets it alone upon its own line. 
 The book often omits a connection or a deduction ; the teacher, 
 who speaks in order to be understood, never commits this 
 fault, or, if such an omission occurs, he at once corrects it. It 
 is for this reason that the student usually prefers his own 
 notes and exercises to the most learned of printed books. 
 
 What, then, we may ask, is lacking to the geometric or 
 algebraic theorem for it to be a perfect linguistic theme? 
 
36o STUDY OF THE SCIENCES. 
 
 Nothing, or next to nothing, so far as regards its basis. The 
 nature of the exact sciences specially lends itself to the prin- 
 ciples of our system. In fact, there is nothing more rigid 
 than mathematical deduction. It is no longer, it is true, tho 
 relationship of succession in time which links idea to idea, 
 phrase to phrase, but the logical relationship of principle to 
 consequence, which is not less inflexible than the former ^ {vide 
 "Ecoles Cantonales," p. 36). Let but a teacher be ruled to 
 some extent by pedagogic science, and his book will be as 
 perfect as his lecture. The arbitrary disposition of the typo- 
 graphical line spoils the book; it paralyses or lames the 
 straightforward march of reason ; it embarrasses deduction, it 
 lessens or obscures the evidence. 
 
 If a mathematical theorem were written as it should be 
 written, any scholar would be able to assimilate a book upon 
 mathematics just as easily as a book upon history. The exact 
 sciences are, indeed, nothing but the development of pure 
 reasoning — reasoning never contradicted, altered, or corrupted 
 by sentiment. 
 
 It is, therefore, the form, and more particularly the written 
 form, or the printed book, which yet leaves something to be 
 desired in the teaching of the exact sciences. Let but treatises 
 be written in which the theorems are grouped and classified in 
 families, in which deduction is rigidly conducted and thoroughly 
 developed, in which the sentences, simplified and disentangled 
 from each other, occupy their natural place, and stand each 
 on its own separate line as they do in our series ; in which 
 the paragraphs, after the manner of our steps, are multiplied 
 as necessitated by the ideas and according to the varied play 
 of the data, and the mathematical theorem will present all the 
 properties of a linguistic theme. It could be given and after- 
 wards assimilated in the same way, and in any language 
 desired ; and the study of mathematics, instead of opposing 
 and hindering the study of languages, would serve it as aii 
 auxiliary. 
 
 However restricted the language of the exact sciences may 
 be, this language certainly has its value. In default of colour, 
 it can give to the science of language the precision, the swing, 
 
 1 Why should not the exact sciences themselves be reformed, so that 
 they also might be the .study of facts according to their order of succession 
 in time? This is perfectly possible (Tran.«.). 
 
REFORM OF SCIENCE TEACHING. 361 
 
 the force, the feeling of pride and of independence which spring 
 from truth. Witness the style of Pascal. 
 
 Grant a reform in the method of teaching languages and 
 sciences, both in written text-books and in the manner of giving 
 the lessons, and languages and sciences will lend each other 
 mutual aid and compete in rivalry for the advancement of 
 each other. Then the more the languages are studied the 
 better will the sciences be understood ; tjie greater the work 
 done on the sciences the more the languages will be exercised. 
 The sciences will be benefited by the time given to the lan- 
 guages : the languages will be benefited by the time devoted 
 to the sciences. 
 
 In this way we shall have reduced the number of subjects, 
 while at the same time making the lessons more fruitful, while 
 making them produce double and treble harvest; in other 
 words, we shall reduce the labour while multiplying the work 
 done. 
 
 One good result always draws others in its train. This 
 reform delivers into our hands the secret of forming complete 
 minds. The teacher will cease to be a mere huckster of vain 
 declensions and pure abstractions, and the student will cease 
 to be the fraction of a man. His knowledge will become the 
 harmonious compound of science and of literature, of science 
 and of morality, of science and of art. 
 
362 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 PART FIFTH. 
 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 I. 
 
 THE VALUE OF GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 I. 27^6 interest of the race. 
 
 My name is a compound of five letters. Taken separately, 
 these letters are to me nothing more than they are to all the 
 world besides. Grouped in a certain fashion, they form a word 
 which has the virtue of exerting a very peculiar effect upon my 
 miiid : it is the name of my father, the name of my mother ; it 
 is my own name ; it is a part of myself — it stands for myself. 
 
 This word includes for me a whole world of ideas, of senti- 
 ments, of remembrances. It contains and sums up the exist- 
 ence of beings who are or have been the most closely connected 
 with my own existence. For me this name cannot perish ; it 
 is for me dearer and more sacred than even the portraits of 
 those whom it recalls. The portrait can show but one moment 
 of an existence, the name translates its totality. 
 
 To renounce this name, to barter it for another, seems to 
 me to be almost impossible. I should feel myself committing 
 the blackest of impieties, the meanest of apostasies. I should 
 feel as if I were denying the name of my father and mother, 
 blushing for their life of self-sacrifice, despising their love. 
 Such is the virtue of a family name. 
 
 I am bound by ineffaceable ties to the cottage in which I 
 was born, to the orchard which was the scene of my childish 
 games, to the village where dwelt my mother, to the village 
 church and the village chimes. When I hear the words " my 
 country," it is to these scenes that my soul takes wings. 
 
 I cling to the persons, old and young, whom then I knew, 
 
THE INTEREST OF THE RACE. 363 
 
 or rather all these things belong intimately to my being ; they 
 ai-e as if welded to me ; they form part of my very self. Hence 
 this sorrowful emotion when one of them passes away from 
 earth ; hence this rending of my very substance which trans- 
 lates itself to the external world by a sigh or by tears. It is 
 a part of this substance which is torn violently from me ; it is 
 a part of my being which dies, a living image which goes out 
 upon the hearthstone of my life. 
 
 Such is the virtue of our earliest remembrances ; and it is 
 within the depths of this double sentiment that the domestic 
 and religious traditions have their roots. 
 
 As with' individuals, so the races have also their name — a 
 name which expresses them and defines them — a name which 
 includes the facts of their life, the archives of their existence ; 
 and this name is — their language ! It is bequeathed from 
 generation to generation as an entailed patrimony. The lan- 
 guage has all the virtues of the family name ; the race by whom 
 it is spoken clings to it as to a part of itself, and deems it 
 imperishable. 
 
 Is it possible to imagine a nation decreeing the abolition of 
 the language of its forefathers ? 
 
 As with individuals, the races have their reminiscences, 
 their childhood's earliest remembrances; they are termed 
 "traditions." And these traditions constitute the basis of 
 the racial characteristics ; they are their substance. If these 
 were to perish, the races would perish. It is the living source 
 from whence the three great arteries of the Good, the True, 
 and the Beautiful draw their sustenance. 
 
 For the Latin races, Latin is the language of their fore- 
 fathers ; it is the true name of the race, and its literature 
 contains a part of the substantial traditions of this race, more 
 especially that of the Law. 
 
 Greek is not the language of their forefathers, but it is that 
 which brings in a golden sunbeam the traditions of the True 
 and the Beautiful, which, joined to the traditions of the Roman 
 law, rendered the Renascence possible. The Greek language 
 is so encrusted within the languages of our own day, that, 
 to get rid of the one, we should have to destroy the other. 
 For the Latin races the Roman tongue furnished the raw 
 material, but Greek fashioned it: the material is Latin, but 
 the construction is Greek. If Latin is the original nnme, we 
 
364 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 might say that Greek is the surname. One represents the 
 essence, the other the manner of existence. 
 
 The surname often says more to us than the original name, 
 and even becomes a title. And if Greek has become a dis- 
 tinctive title of a race, have they any right to renounce it ? 
 
 The life of nations is as a balance; one of the scale-pans 
 carries their past, the other carries their future. The State is 
 the pivot upon which the whole is supported. It is formed 
 for both of them, and, as its name (status) seems to imply, it 
 is by means of the State that the equilibrium — that is, the 
 conciliation of opposed and apparently antagonistic forces — 
 takes place. 
 
 Although the attributes of the State are as yet but ill- 
 defined, there are certain functions which belong to it by 
 nature. The State is before all else the representative of the 
 race ; to it are confided the interests of the nation. It has 
 the charge, like the Vestal virgins of Rome, of maintaining 
 upon the altar of the country that which may be termed 
 the sacred fire of the race, and to watch not only that this 
 shall never go out, but that it shall never diminish or languish 
 in the least degree. To it, therefore, is confided the sacred 
 keeping of the ancient mother-tongues of the race. The 
 interests of the race imperatively demand the maintenance of 
 the Greek and Latin tonsfues : " Caveant consules 1 " 
 
 2. TJie interest of the individual. 
 
 The study of ancient languages has received a name so 
 true, so just, so profound, that we might almost say it had 
 fallen from heaven : this name is — " the humanities ! " 
 
 To study these languages is to make a man of one's self ! 
 Every harmonious being has two poles. To be complete, the 
 man of to day should be grafted upon the man of ancient 
 times. There is something lacking to him who has not 
 studied ''the humanities." His personality is ill-balanced: 
 he himself dimly feels this. He may be thrice as gifted as 
 the humanist who stands before him, yet by instinct he will 
 everywhere yield the highest places to the humanist. This 
 may be noticed more particularly in the writer and the 
 thinker. The exclusively modern man is timid. He has no 
 confidence in himself — he lacks assurance. Whence comes 
 this ? It is because he can feel no solid base whatever beneath 
 
THE HUMANITIES. 365 
 
 his feet. He rests, indeed, only upon himself. But a man's 
 self is not a b£\se : it is a gradual " growth." 
 
 That which gives the humanist his strength is the basis 
 upon which he rests. He feels within himself two persona- 
 lities — the ancient man, in whom no further change will 
 occur, and in whom the race is personified, and the new man 
 or individual, engrafted upon the first, nourished by it, and 
 destined to change — that is, to live and to produce. It is like 
 the tree with its unchangeable trunk, and the graft which 
 borrows therefrom its juices, to transform these successively 
 and periodically into leaves and flowers and fruit. 
 
 The harmonious alliance between these two beings, the 
 racial man and the individual man, this it is that makes the 
 great man, the man of genius, the useful man, the good 
 citizen, the man jiar excellence, who unites within his own 
 personality a House of Commons and a House of Lords, a 
 Senate and a Chamber; the two moving in accord, the one 
 sustaining the other — the one vivifying the other. The truly 
 great man will disappear from off the earth on that day when 
 the individual — that is, egotism or the rule of the "ego " — be- 
 comes exclusive. 
 
 I have just spoken of the great writer. It has been stated 
 above that there are two manners of constructing a sentence — ■ 
 that is, two manners of conceiving the form of a thought : 
 the one antique, the other modern — the one natural, the other 
 logical. 
 
 These two constructions are the two wings of an author. 
 He who has but one of them will never wing an harmonious 
 flight in the world of ideas. In this respect the study of 
 Latin, even if imperfect, has a considerable value. 
 
 As regards its form, it is the most antique of the languages 
 spoken on the European continent — a quasi -primitive lan- 
 guage. It is in the Latin school, therefore, that we can best 
 study the antique manner of thinking and of speaking. The 
 great writer, like the great man, is he who can amalgamate in 
 their right proportions the antique step to the modern gait, 
 the natural movement to the logical movement, in the same 
 way that a truly classical work is an harmonious composition 
 of these two spirits and the two processes. 
 
 It is owing to this hidden virtue that Latin has not suc- 
 cumbed under the criticisms (otherwise well founded) of its 
 
366 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 detractors ; it is this incontestable merit that has made it 
 deserve the privilege of being adopted as the first basis of 
 literary education of all the nations who have schools at all, 
 both of the Latin or the non-Latin races. Let us add, that 
 if this language has its adversaries, it is not in reality the 
 language itself that is attacked, but the absurd and irrational 
 method by which it is applied, which cause it alone to absorb 
 a good third of the student's life. 
 
 In our opinion, there is no tongue which presents so perfect 
 and tempered a mingling of antique and modern as the French 
 language. Hence, perhaps, that secret charm which captivates 
 all nations ; hence that singular prestige which has caused the 
 French language to be considered the human language par 
 excellence. For all these reasons, the "humanities" should 
 remain dear to us and to our children. Let the State protect 
 and foster them, for they are the source not only of beautiful 
 forms of expression, but still more of precious traditions which 
 aid in forming good citizens. 
 
 The interests of the race, however, are not always in accord 
 with those of the individual. It may be that what is obliga- 
 tory for the race should remain optional for the individual. 
 The race has an unlimited time before it, while the days of 
 the individual are numbered. For the individual the first 
 duty is to live. If it be necessary, he will alienate even his 
 family title-deeds, and no one has the. right to make of this a 
 crime. Therefore the State cannot absolutely impose upon 
 a free man the obligation to partake of '' the humanities," 
 whatever other social interests may be invoked to do so. 
 
 The true source of riches is the good use of time — " time is 
 money," as the proverb has it. Is it making good use of 
 time to give twelve years of one's life to the study of a lan- 
 guage which we are assured can never be thoroughly learnt ? 
 My time belongs to me. I beseech you, leave me to dispose 
 of my own goods as I think fit, otherwise do not call me free. 
 
 I have said that the duty of the State is to protect, to foster 
 — I did not say to impose — the humanities. - Now, it will pro- 
 tect them, will foster them, will even propagate them, if it 
 can reduce the length of time necessary to be given to them ; 
 if, instead of selling them to its subjects at the ruinous price 
 of ten years of their lives, it were to grant them at the price 
 of a few months, and more particularly, if, besides it could 
 
STUDY OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 367 
 
 ^larantee them to be delivered complete — that is, fruitful. 
 Now this the State can do if it will. 
 
 II. 
 
 CONDEMNATIOX OF THE PROCESSES APPLIED TO THE STUDY 
 OF ANCIENT LANGUAGES/ 
 
 I. Ten years and ten masters. 
 
 Are ten years of one's life under ten teachers absolutely 
 necessary to learn Latin ? Why is the very same child who 
 can learn English, or French, or German, without going to 
 school at all, obliged, when he goes to school, to give ten 
 years to the learning of Latin? The question seems to us 
 to be very well put : we demand a frank and precise answer. 
 
 Let no one here attempt to make the triflingly subtle 
 distinctions or antitheses between the spoken language and 
 the written language, the every-day language and the literary 
 language, the living language and the dead language, the prac- 
 tical language and the philological language. Whether it be 
 acknowledged or not, there is for each language a definite foun- 
 dation, a first footing, upon which is based all its ulterior deve- 
 lopments, literary or otherwise. This foundation is no more 
 dead in Latin than in German. To teach it, it is necessary 
 to speak Latin as one would speak German. 
 
 Now, a person either possesses this foundation or he does 
 not possess it. When he has learned it, he knows, or at 
 least he understands, all the various ''languages" which con- 
 stitute this language ; and when he does not possess it, he 
 understands none. This foundation of the Latin tongue 
 was taught by every Roman mother to her child within the 
 circle of one year. ■ Who can doubt this ? Does the present 
 school teaching deliver it to our children at the end of forty 
 or of fifty seasons 1 Who will dare affirm that it does ? 
 Does it even know this foundation of the Latin tongue itself ? 
 We should not care to guarantee this. 
 
 Let us here lay down a principle : — -The perfection of a 
 linguistic method is, or should be, in inverse ratio to the 
 number and the cleverness of the teachers required by its use. 
 
 I am aware that the classical school will acknowledge with 
 
368 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 difficulty any such principle, for it goes against its very consti- 
 tution ; and, as we have said, the privileged classes were always 
 enemies to reform. But, nevertheless, a principle is a principle, 
 and the above statement is evidently one. In fact, the more 
 defective a system, the greater are the efforts required on the 
 part of those who apply it ; the worse the method, the harder 
 one has to work. What heavy labours are not spared to the 
 workmen of to-day by new types of machinery that a child 
 can direct with one hand ! What services have not been 
 rendered — first by the sail, and then by the propeller blade, 
 instead of the galley oar — to our modern sailors ! 
 
 Compare the post of ancient days with the telegraph of 
 to-day I Where once it required coachmen, and horses, and 
 carriages, and legions of servants, all that is now necessary 
 is the attentive eye of a slim girl, calmly watching a dial-face 
 which thinks and speaks for the whole universe. I repeat, 
 the perfection of a method is in inverse ratio to the efforts 
 which its use necessitates. 
 
 If this principle is true, was ever a system more imperfect 
 than that of the classical school ? The plethora of teachers 
 which, it declares absolutely necessary for its working is 
 either a formidable abuse, or else the indication of a vice 
 more formidable still. 
 
 What do we find? It requires the combined efforts of 
 eight or ten graduates — that is to say, the knowledge which 
 lepresents more than two hundred years of study — to produce 
 in ten yegirs — what ? A result which the humblest of mothers 
 can realise infinitely better than ourselves in two or three 
 terms ! We shall be reminded of the number of the pupils. 
 But why do not our colleges have also twelve professors for 
 German, twelve for Italian, twelve for arithmetic ? Are these 
 languages and these sciences less difficult than Latin ? 
 
 Be it not forgotten, it is not against the teachers them-, 
 selves that we are here instituting proceedings, but against 
 the methods, against routine. The time has come when the 
 truth may be spoken without need of tenderness of feeling 
 for that egotism of cliques or of castes which everywhere 
 hinders the march of progress. The upholders of national 
 education should dare to cast to the winds those calamitous 
 traditions which it has received from the enemies of progress. 
 
 No, it is not necessary to spend ten years of one's life in 
 
THE DICTIONARY. 369 
 
 learning Latin. It no longer needs the combined efforts of 
 ten Masters of Arts. 
 
 Ad portam pergo, 
 ad portam appropinquo, 
 ad portam pervenio, 
 ad portam subsisto, 
 brachium porrigo, 
 ansam apprehendo, 
 ansam torqueo, &g. 
 
 Is it necessary to hear this lesson twice to know it ? Is 
 there any need of making a word-for-word translation, or to 
 construe it — that is, to pick it to pieces ? Is it necessary to 
 turn up the dictionary or to worry over the grammar ? Of 
 all the languages spoken in Europe, is there one in which this 
 exercise is easier than it is in Latin ? 
 
 When a child strikes itself against an obstacle, it often 
 avenges itself with its foot or its fist. Do not let us act like 
 children. If we find ourselves incapable of teaching Latin, 
 do not let us lay this incapability to the nature of this lan- 
 guage itself, but rather to our own want of skill in teaching it. 
 
 2. The dictionary, or the discijnijie of the vicious circle. 
 
 We shall not here undertake the enumeration of all the 
 vicious errors adopted and followed by the classical school in 
 teaching the ancient languages ; as well might we repeat our 
 entire book. AVe shall content ourselves with examining the 
 lever or the general tool which is placed in the hands of the 
 student to enable him to carry out his various linguistic 
 labours : we refer to the dictionary. The dictionaiy being 
 used in every lesson, every translation, and every reading of 
 the classic authors, we shall, when treating of it, reach all 
 three of these fundamental operations of the ordinary grammar 
 school teaching. 
 
 Let us first of all give the definition of this grave and austere 
 volume. It is the complete collection of all the terms of a lan- 
 guage considered separately. It is this language dissected. 
 The language is not to be found in a dictionary in a living, 
 but in a dead state — the state of a corpse, and, moreover, of 
 a corpse cut up into pieces, one in which tho elements are 
 subjected to a semblance of classification. This classification 
 rests upon no principle, but merely upon a convention. Thp 
 
 2 A 
 
370 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 classification has therefore no linguistic virtue ; it has no use- 
 fulness for the determination of the value of the terms. These 
 terms are classified by the simple chance of their initial letters ; 
 they are arranged in what is termed alphabetical order. 
 
 The making of a dictionary has its difiiculties, but this work 
 does not affect either the teacher or the pupil. The tool is 
 given into their hands ready made ; they have only to use it. 
 
 The dictionary, we have said, is a collection of isolated 
 w^ords ; therefore it contains nothing but generalities — that is, 
 abstractions. The problem to be solved is therefore this : w^ith 
 the abstract to form the concrete ; with the dead to make the 
 living; " out of darkness to bring forth light." 
 
 Let us take an example. A pupil proposes to translate into 
 Latin this every-day fact, " I raise my hand to my head." He 
 turns up his dictionary, and at the word " raise " he finds the 
 following expressions : tollo, attollo, erigo, effero, augeo, &c. 
 He has several expressions before him, of which he has to 
 choose one. Which shall he decide upon ? If the dictionary 
 formed a true system, it would be sufiicient to have the key to 
 make the choice. But the dictionary is a dead body, and as 
 such is dumb. Once more, what will make the way clear to 
 the student, and guide him rightly in his choice 1 
 
 I have known scholars who thought to construct good Latin 
 by taking from amongst the words served up to them by the 
 dictionary those which appeared the most strange to them. An 
 expression was considered to be so much the better Latin the 
 less it resembled the corresponding expression in their own 
 tongue. 
 
 A child is taken with its eyes blindfolded into an unknown 
 land; he is placed at four crossways, then given his sight and 
 told, *' You must open your eyes ; here are four roads, choose 
 you that which leads the most directly to Rome, and take care 
 you choose aright." We know that all roads lead to Eome, 
 but we also know that from any one point to another there is 
 only one straight line. There is, therefore, only one road that 
 is truly direct. 
 
 The embarrassment of the child in such a predicament would 
 be great, or rather it might bo great ; for what he is mo.st 
 likely to do is to laugh at you, and he would be right to laugli. 
 What you propose to him cannot be seriously meant. To 
 make a choice he must at least know in which direction Rome 
 lies. 
 
DISCIPLINE OF THE VICIOUS CIRCLE. 371 
 
 This is exactly the case of our young Latinist. To clioose 
 between four significations of the word ''raise," he should 
 know the connection of each, not only with the abstract word 
 "raise," but the idea expressed by the sentence in his own 
 language. In other words, he requires to know the precise 
 meaning of the four Latin words. And if by chance — a chance 
 which presents itself, as we know, just as often as not — neither 
 of the four words served up by the dictionary is the correct 
 word — what then ?. 
 
 It stands confessed, to be able to construct rightly a Latin 
 theme by the aid of the dictionary, it is necessary already to 
 know Latin ! We defined, and we had the right to define, the 
 study of languages by the dictionary as "The discipline of the 
 vicious circle." 
 
 But we shall be told : " Raise " is not the whole of the phrase. 
 If the student comes to grief over the verb, possibly he will be 
 more lucky with the other words. I will suppose that this 
 does happen, although there are good reasons to suppose the 
 contrary. To what result would this lead? Remember that 
 we are requiring not the translation of isolated and abstract 
 words, but of organised phrases. Now, the word that rules 
 the whole sentence, that imprints upon it its character, and 
 that makes it what it is, is the verb. If you confess yourself 
 incapable of translating the verb in the exact sense indicated 
 by the sentence, you may throw down your pen, close the 
 dictionary and trouble yourself no further with the construc- 
 tion of Latin sentences. 
 
 Yes, it certainly is the verb that causes almost the whole of 
 the difiiculty with foreign languages. It is for this reason 
 that our method concentrates upon the verb all the energies of 
 the mind of the pupil, and all the efforts, all the attention, all 
 the art of the teacher. 
 
 The classical school will reply : There are dictionaries and 
 dictionaries. A practical dictionary should give abundance 
 of examples, and should reproduce, as occasion required, a 
 pai-t of the literature of the language. Then the pupil reads, 
 compares, and, after this excellent exercise, chooses his word. 
 Do you believe a child will do this 1 " Sic notus Ulysses 1 " 
 A child who compares expressions in a language he does not 
 know ! And how clever he is at this operation ! 
 
 Every comparison presupposes an ideal. Whence, think you, 
 
372 GREEK AND LATIN 
 
 is the scholar to obtain his ideal of Latin 1 If he already 
 possesses this ideal, he has no need to search; in other words, 
 he would not require to study Latin. Your " practical '* 
 dictionary puts the difficulty a little further away, but it in 
 no way solves it. The pupil strays abroad in rather a wider 
 circle, but the circle is always a vicious one. To learn liatin, 
 you use a dictionary ; but to use a dictionary you must first 
 know Latin. 
 
 AVe professors, when we are obliged to have recourse to a 
 dictionary, even for a French expression in the dictionary of 
 the Academj^, nay, even in the monumental work of Littro 
 itself, sometimes hesitate for a considerable time over the 
 choice of a single expression ; and yet we condemn a child 
 of twelve years old to find out in their school dictionaries the 
 exact expression of any of the hundred thousand sentences 
 required to translate the human individuality into Latin. 
 The classical pedagogy, in default of other virtue, seems at 
 least to have that of being very childish and very simple ! 
 
 Just consider : in order to translate into Latin the ordinary 
 expression, " I stop at the door," I myself had to read, not 
 the school dictionary ^ — which does not contain it and does not 
 know it — but two or three classics. After I had learnt the 
 German dictionary by heart, I translated with some confidence, 
 " Je mets mon chapeau " (I put on my hat), by " Ich lerje meinen 
 Hut zti " (instead of " Ich seize meinen Hut au/").^ I should 
 certainly have composed a Latin phrase in the same excellent 
 taste, if I had taken counsel of the Latin dictionary to say in 
 Latin, "I stop at the door." 
 
 You are sure you have chosen correctly when you have the 
 good fortune to come across the complete phrase in the dic- 
 tionary. But consider what this means. . . . 
 
 Why should I be made to turn up words in the dictionary 
 at all ? Would it not be simpler to give me by word of mouth 
 the correct expression at once? If the dictionary is fairly 
 complete, you have the pupil condemned to go through two, 
 three, five, ten columns ! AH this to find one unhappy word — 
 a word which he cannot always find, which he even finds but 
 seldom, unless the dictionary were an encyclopaidia, containing 
 
 ^ Quicherat. 
 
 2 As if in English " Je mets mon chapeau " were translated, •' I put my 
 hat" (Trans.). 
 
GRADUATED DICTIONAEIES. 373 
 
 all that has been said or that might be said, in which case the 
 whole of one's youth would have to be given to the study of 
 the dictionary. What an amount of time and effort lost ! 
 It is true that the classical school makes cheap of time. It 
 rsks ten years to bring even its incomplete operation to a 
 termination ! 
 
 I hear a new protest on behalf of the necessary book. The 
 mind, it is said, only preserves long that' which it has had 
 trouble to assimilate. Now, the time that the pupil gives to 
 determining an expression is the graver which engraves it 
 upon his memory. 
 
 Very good ! But suppose this expression is false, which 
 happens at least as often as not ; it is then an error that the 
 mind of your student broods over, keeps warm, assimilates ! 
 And if the expression happens to be correct, let us see exactly 
 to what the duration of this incubation is reduced. The egg 
 is only being hatched while actually under the hen. The word 
 is only subject to its incubation while actually under the eye 
 of the student. Now, how long does it remain under his eye 1 
 Just the duration of one glance. For you can hardly put to 
 the credit of the incubation the time lost by the student in 
 turning over the leaves of his dictionary. If the incubation 
 of anything whatever goes on during this time, it is the 
 expression in the pupil's own language, and not the ti'ansla- 
 tion of it, which he does not yet know. 
 
 Then, again, no sooner has the student caught sight of it 
 than it is written down : he does not willingly expose himself 
 to the chance of losing a treasure that has cost so much 
 trouble to discover. And this is to what the duration of the 
 pretended incubation is reduced ! Could an expression given 
 directly and orally by the master, or that given by an inter- 
 linear translation, have a more ephemeral effect than this ? 
 
 Another objection by the classicists : We do not begin, they 
 say, as you seem to imply, with a complete dictionary ; but, 
 graduating the difficulties, we put into the hands of the pupil 
 a vocabulary made expressly for translating a certain text. 
 The lesson-books, after giving the course of exercises, contain 
 also a dictionary in which are to be found all the words given 
 in the lessons, and in the exact sense that they are employed. 
 
 Yery good I Here, then, at last, we have a practical dic- 
 tionary. The pupil, at any rate, has no longer any need to 
 
374 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 fear that he may be deceived. But now, perhaps you will 
 kindly explain to me what pleasure and what profit you can 
 find in making him turn over and over for two hours at 
 a time even this lesser heap of paper, in order to enable him 
 to put into Latin ten lines which you might very well teach 
 him to express to perfection in a few minutes ? It is, indeed, 
 very much as if a mother, when her child asked the name of 
 some object, instead of giving it to him directly herself, were 
 to refer him to the people down in the village. 
 
 There prevails among the teaching bodies of all countries 
 at the present time a curious disease which we may call by 
 the name of " vocabulomania." While this disease lasts, the 
 study of languages cannot make progress. 
 
 Dictionaries are made for teachers and not for scholars. 
 The lesson manufactured by means of the dictionary repre- 
 sents a labour worse than barren. By this exercise, not only 
 does the pupil not conquer the language, but the little that 
 he does learn is mostly false. The acceptable expressions 
 that come from his pen from time to time are reminiscences. 
 lie owes them, either to the actual voice of the teacher, or to 
 the reading of authors undertaken aloud in class. In these 
 two cases it is his ear, in which these expressions still vibrate, 
 that dictates them to him ; it is never the dictionary that 
 inspires him to give them. 
 
 A disastrous councillor for translating into Latin, will this 
 same dictionary prove a better aid for translating from Latin 
 into the pupil's native tongue ? The degree of perfection of an 
 instrument can be established by means of two data : — 
 
 1. The degree of perfection of the product itself. 
 
 2. The time necessary for producing it. 
 
 Twenty candidates present themselves for the examinations. 
 A Latin paragraph of fifteen or twenty sentences is given to 
 them. They are allowed two hours or so to divine the signi- 
 fication of these few sentences. The faculty is triumphant 
 if it so happens that only one half of them are plucked.^ 
 
 And, nevertheless, it is not practice that these unlucky 
 ones require. They have been manipulating their instrument 
 for some nine years at least. They certainly ought, it would 
 seem, to know it thoroughly to the depths of its resources. 
 
 * And ill France a dictionary is often allowed to candidates as well 1 
 (Trans.). 
 
READING OF THE CLASSICS. 375 
 
 And, be it noted, there is no question here of Greek or 
 of Sanscrit, but of translating Latin, where, for a French 
 student, every word shows its meaning, and even for an 
 English student every other word is akin to words in his 
 native tongue. ^ 
 
 Nine years of practice ! Two hours to interpret fifteen or 
 twenty sentences ! Two or three mistranslations in half a 
 page ! The dictionary is condemned. It .is not less clumsy 
 an instrument for translating from, than into, a language. 
 
 We now come to the third operation, the reading of classics. 
 We have no need to add to what others have said upon this 
 subject. The most bitter of criticisms, the most cutting of 
 ironies have vied with each other in heaping insults upon the 
 classical processes of teaching. Notwithstanding this, the 
 classical school perseveres in its errors. This is because, if 
 the ancient system is condemnable and condemned, nothing 
 has yet been brought forward which might replace it. 
 
 The pupils on our sj'stem assimilate in five minutes that 
 which they could not manage to interpret correctly on the old 
 system in two hours by the aid of the dictionary. " Five 
 minutes against two hours ! " This ratio is sufiiciently elo- 
 quent in itself for there to be any need of commenting further 
 upon it, but it requires a little explanation. 
 
 In the classical process the phrase is read out once, twice, 
 often a third time. Then a halt is called and the attempt is 
 made to divine the meaning. Then the phrase is rearranged 
 in the modern or "logical construction." The pupil makes a 
 mistake; the teacher brings him back again. Finally, the 
 scholar grasps, or fancies he grasps, the author's idea, and 
 ventures upon an equivalent phrase in his own tongue. It is 
 generally wrong; the master attempts to correct him, sub- 
 stitutes another phrase, and often still another. 
 
 Place your watch in front of you and see how long this 
 operation takes. Multiply this time by two thousand, and 
 calculate how long it will take you to translate a book of 
 Virgil — how many years will be needed to read the entire 
 ^^^neid. I should add that, if one pupil has construed aright, 
 you are not by this assured that all the others have heard and 
 understood thoroughly. If you are a good teacher, you should 
 now recommence, and have the sentence repeated by those 
 pupils suspected of inattention. It must not be forgotten also 
 
3/6 GREEK AND LATIX. 
 
 that in this estimate, already so heavy, the time devoted to 
 what is termed preparation is not included. 
 
 Against this labour let us place that of our method. We 
 have already explained how, by our process, each conception 
 of the author becomes the conception of the whole class ; how 
 each of his thoughts becomes the thought of each of our pupils ; 
 how we proceed, not from word to word, but from sentence to 
 sentence, doing the work of the author over again, not by 
 translating it, but by composing it in the language itself, 
 without the possibility of making mistakes or mistranslations, 
 without the need of recourse to construction and reconstruc- 
 tion, nor to repetitions and readings always requiring to be 
 begun over again. Expending one-fifth or one-sixth the time, 
 we get through five times or ten times the work. This is our 
 secret, the whole of our secret. 
 
 The instrument put into the hands of the child to work 
 upon the languages is defective from all points of view. Con- 
 sequent upon the false principle that the study of a language 
 may be a personal and solitary work, the use of the dictionary 
 is the occasion of an incalculable waste of time, and seems to 
 have been designed expressly and solely to kill time and occupy 
 students during the intervals between classes. 
 
 The slowness of the process discourages the child, paralyses 
 his energy, and, little by little, kills his will, like all the exer- 
 cises which have come down to us from the Jesuits. If incom- 
 plete or poor, the dictionary is of no use at all ; if complete, it 
 is impracticable. It should be banished from all elementary 
 classes, and a logical and fruitful process of teaching should 
 be made at last to replace this pitiful delusion — the barren 
 and pernicious discipline of the vicious circle. 
 
 III. 
 
 THE FEAR OF IMPROVEMENT SCEPTICAL DISDAIN OF THE OFFICIAL 
 
 SCHOOLS AND THEIR SECRET AVERSION TO REFORM. 
 
 I. A last contest. 
 
 We have stated our opinion upon the importance of Greek 
 and Latin. But if it were only possible to buy the knowledge 
 of these languages at the price of the ten best years of our 
 
SERIES METHOD FOR GREEK AND LATIN. 377 
 
 lives, we should be the first to advise against the study of 
 them. To the modern individual they certainly are not worth 
 the price. We have exposed the vices of the methods of teach- 
 ing applied to these languages. If it be insisted that these 
 methods should be maintained, it will be necessary to insist 
 that the ten years of study shall also be maintained. If this 
 is done, we may feel perfectly assured that modern require- 
 ments will not hesitate to cast overboard entirely the study of 
 Greek and Latin. ^ And the decision would be wise. 
 
 German can be learned in six months. Why should the 
 grammar-schools and colleges demand twenty times as much 
 for Latin ? Is it incapacity on their part, or is it speculation ? 
 In any case, we cannot consent now-a-days to be victims to 
 trickery or to suffer by the incapacity of others. Therefore, 
 if we wish to save " the Humanities," the methods must either 
 be reformed or a process must be invented which will enable 
 an ancient language to be learnt at school as rapidly and as 
 thoroughly as a modern language can be learnt in the family. 
 
 But can anything be discovered that the official teaching 
 has not 3'et discovered 1 This seems to be the great objection 
 of the members of the teaching profession and those that 
 govern it. Even supposing that a method might be discovered 
 for teaching German in six months or a year, can we hope to 
 discover one for teaching Latin within the same time. 
 
 This insidious and contradictory formula is the last entrench- 
 ment of routine. If we can cast down this inner fortress, 
 reason will be forced to acknowledge our victory. Yes, there 
 is a process for learning Greek or Latin as well as German in 
 six months or a year, and this process is the Series Method. 
 One final blow we must strike against this absurd prejudice, 
 which refuses to admit that the same system may be applied 
 to several languages. 
 
 Your system, we are told, appears to be excellent for the 
 study of modern languages, but it would be absolutely impos- 
 sible to apply it to the study of the ancient languages. 
 
 Why so, if you please ? Upon what do you found such a 
 presumption ] One of two things must be true : either we 
 apply, after having discovered it, the true process of Nature, 
 or we do not apply it. If we do not apply it, our system will 
 
 1 We find already in England strong indications that this prophecy is 
 very rapidly being fulfilled (Trans. ). 
 
378 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 not be less impotent for modern languages than for ancient 
 languages. If we do apply it, why should we not achieve 
 the result achieved by Nature herself ? Once more we ask, 
 Did the mothers of ancient days possess and follow other 
 pedagogic principles than those possessed and followed by 
 the mothers of the children of to-day *? 
 
 If we really have discovered this maternal process, by what 
 right do you doubt its success with Greek and Latin? Do 
 you find these two languages to be of such peculiar nature that 
 it is necessary to invent special methods for them ? From the 
 official objections one would really think that, in order to have 
 the gift or the secret of teaching Latin, it would be actually 
 necessary to have been a Roman matron of the time of Numa 
 or Vespasian ! 
 
 But Latin is a dead language, they cry ; a dead language 
 cannot be treated like a living language. Why not ? Whence 
 do you take the premisses of this conclusion ? What influence 
 can the qualification of dead or living exert upon the teaching 
 of a language ? Is German less a dead language than Latin 
 itself in the countries where no one speaks it — as with our- 
 selves, except in the class-room? It is true that not much 
 greater success is usually achieved with it than with the dead 
 languages. Its quality of " living " is not of very great use 
 to it. 
 
 Let us repeat a reflection previously uttered. A language 
 which is spoken is not a dead language. Now, in order to 
 teach a language, we have said it is necessary to speak it. 
 Therefore, from the point of view of teaching, there are no 
 dead languages. 
 
 At bottom the prejudice we are combating has no avowable 
 motive whatever ; and it is a strange thing, but we find this 
 prejudice chiefly amongst the professors themselves. If we 
 press them to justify their opinion, they have usually nothing 
 to say but that '* it is their feeling," and that is all. A pro- 
 fessor ought to know that a feeling is not a reason. This 
 sceptical disdain, this aversion of the school for any reform of 
 the school, this fear of anything better, must have some reason 
 for its existence. Let us set forth these reasons, and judge 
 them in the full light of day. 
 
 The sentiment in question appears to us to have its origin 
 in three distinct causes. The first is the imperfection itself of 
 
OBJECTIONS ANSWERED. 379 
 
 the modern linguistic methods. All of them, in fact, have 
 aimed at solving the problem of the ancient languages. But 
 the verdict of experience has not been given in their favour. 
 And in this there is nothing astonishing. Systems radically 
 incapable of teaching us a living language cannot pretend to 
 be in possession of the secret of teach iug an ancient language. 
 This non-success has had the effect of discrediting everything 
 terming itself a linguistic method. We know how mankind 
 is too apt to reason, and how at one bound it raises this gene- 
 ralisation — 
 
 " A certain modern method is proved worthless, 
 Therefore all are worthless." 
 
 And this has been to the triumph of the dictionary process of 
 learning languages. 
 
 The second cause is the feeling which is to be found more 
 or less at the root of every contradiction, namely, personal 
 egotism. We have stated that the objection of which we are 
 speaking is generally made by members of the teaching pro- 
 fession. Unconsciously their judgment is dictated by personal 
 interest and a feeling of amour propre. By their interest ; for 
 does not our system institute an indirect attack upon their 
 position ? What becomes of the present methods if the teaching 
 of languages can be simplified to the extent we have indicated 1 
 By their amotir -propre ; for why could not they as well as 
 others have discovered a better system, if any better system 
 could exist than that of the present colleges ? These unworthy 
 feelings, however, would never be allowed weight by those who 
 saw in a new system a true means of helping forward the 
 cause of education. 
 
 A third cause, and the principal one, is the knowledge of 
 the difficulty of a really effective reform. This reason is a 
 legitimate one, and deserves to be taken into consideration. 
 
 In the first place, a professor has always present to his 
 mind the remembrance of his long struggle with the classical 
 languages, and it is extremely difficult for him to believe that 
 any one can triumph over them with less effort than he was 
 obliged to expend upon them himself. He has, besides, his 
 every-day experience, ceaselessly reminding him of the amount 
 of pains it costs to obtain even the most moderate linguistic 
 development in the schoolboy mind. Therefore by training, 
 if not by nature, the teacher is very sceptical when mention 
 
38o GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 is made of the virtue of certain methods. For him the imbe- 
 cility of the mind does not come from the defectiveness of 
 methods, but the powerlessness of the methods finds its 
 explanation in the imbecility of the mind. In our opinion 
 this is to take the effect for the cause ; but it must be admitted 
 that it is extremely difficult for any one who is committed 
 to the practice of the ordinary methods not to fall into this 
 
 To all this is added the difficulty of working upon a dead 
 language. One can conceive, it may be objected, that you 
 might be able to construct your series in a living language, 
 either by actually going to the country where this language 
 is spoken, or by having recourse to the knowledge of a native 
 of this country. But how could you manage to construct your 
 series in a language w^hich nobody now speaks 1 
 
 This is a grave question, and one which it is proper to 
 answer, not by general considerations, but by precise facts. 
 
 2. Solution of the conflict. 
 
 We will concede, in the first place, to our opponents that 
 the task is an arduous one ; we will grant that the enterprise 
 is even more laborious than they themselves suspect. Having 
 made this reservation, we justify in the following manner our 
 position and our statements. 
 
 Suppose for a moment that our method had been constructed 
 in the time of Cicero or of Demosthenes. Applied to the two 
 classical languages then " living," they would have rendered 
 the teaching of these languages as easy as that of German or 
 of French or English to-day. In fact, grant that this method 
 is an excellent one for the living languages, is it not confessed 
 thereby that it would have been " of old " equally excellent for 
 Greek and Latin ? But can a method which was a good one 
 for these languages in the lifetime of Cicero cease to be excel- 
 lent when applied at the present day ? 
 
 There remains, therefore, to be proved that if our system 
 had been created at the time of Cicero, it would not have 
 sensibly differed from that which we have constructed or, 
 believe ourselves able to construct, at the end of the nineteenth 
 century. Cicero and Demosthenes are dead, and wdth them 
 every one who spoke their tongue. But there remains to us 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF THE CLASSICAL SERIES. 38 1 
 
 the written Latin and Greek literature. Tiie following, then, 
 is our plan of work. 
 
 We shall take — ourselves or the reader of these lines — the 
 set of pigeon-holes of our Series — Domestic and Rural, Animal 
 and Vegetable, the Harvest, the Shepherd, the Feast, the Battle, 
 the Ship, &c., with the subjective and metaphorical categories 
 — and setting this up before us, we shall open a first author — 
 Phsedrus, for example. Each of his sentences translates 
 either a fact of our Series, or one of our relative phrases, or a 
 detail of one of our metaphorical themes. We shall first of 
 all mark these sentences by special signs, then we shall throw 
 each sentence into the pigeon-hole that is waiting for its 
 reception. Our transcriptions of the classical authors, in 
 which each sentence is placed separately line by line, will be 
 of immense service to us in the execution of this work. After 
 Phsedrus we shall take Quintus Curtius ; after Quintus Curtius, 
 Virgil or Livy ; after Virgil, Tacitus, or such other as is thought 
 best. We shall strip in this way one after the other the 
 small number of Latin authors that is left to us. 
 
 They are not, be it observed, abstract, isolated words that 
 we shall dispose in our pigeon-holes, but sentences — complete 
 expressions. It is for this reason that the dictionary can be 
 of no use to us whatever. And, moreover, is not the dictionary 
 quite incapable of responding to the greater part of the de- 
 mands of our pigeon-holes ? 
 
 As we proceed, we shall indicate by figures the chapter, 
 paragraph, or verse of the author. This will be our hall-mark. 
 By thus declaring the origin of each expression, our work will 
 confound incredulity and defy criticism. 
 
 Suppose this work to be accomplished and our pigeon-holes 
 filled, will it be difiicult, then, for us to construct our Series 
 in a language that is no longer spoken? And, constructed 
 under these conditions, will our system be sensibly different 
 from what it would have been if put together by some person 
 in the time of Cicero or of Demosthenes'? This system will, 
 therefore, have resuscitated two of the most illustrious of the 
 dead, and henceforth Greek and Latin can be taught exactly 
 as are the living languages. 
 
 And notice one fruit of this labour : by studying the Series 
 the pupil will assimilate the whole of the expressions of the 
 classical masterpieces. The Series finished, let him open any 
 
382 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 book whatever, and he will find himself in the presence of a 
 language he already knows well ; he will never, in fact, meet in 
 these books any expression which does not figure in the Series. 
 He will, therefore, read this language, and will understand it 
 as each of us reads and understands a book written in his 
 mother- tongue. For that pupil Greek and Latin will be surely 
 something other than " dead" languages. 
 
 " But how will you deal with the terms of entirely modern 
 creation," some one accustomed to judge of things only from 
 their smallest side will be sure to object, " terms such as 
 powder, gun, cannon, steam, electricity, telegraph, &c. ? " Our 
 method preoccupies itself solely with the sentence and with 
 the verb. It must not be forgotten that we know a language 
 thoroughly when we thoroughly know these two elements. As 
 to this dozen substantives of modern creation, we can, at need, 
 graft them upon the ancient languages exactly in the same way 
 as they have been grafted on the modern languages. One may 
 know a language perfectly, and yet be ignorant of these few 
 technical terms. If a river receive the water from sundry 
 gutters or from a few fresh runnels, it is not thereby any 
 less the same river. 
 
 I know of only one further objection to our system. Who 
 will entjaofe to do this work 1 Who will undertake this dis- 
 section of two great literatures ? It cannot be expected that 
 this should be imposed upon the ordinary teacher. To carry 
 it out, it would be necessary to have complete possession of 
 the vast system of disposition, and all the secrets of the 
 *' Series." Our answer is : This work is in part accomplished ; 
 it is already over twenty years since the labour was com- 
 menced. 
 
 What might be termed *Hhe error in Greek and Latin 
 teaching " is not an error special to the English school, or the 
 French school, or to any school ; it is German, Swiss, Eussian ; 
 it is European, it is universal. Every school in the worhl 
 cultivates it in rivalry with its neighbour. All, without 
 exception, treat Greek and Latin practically under the same 
 process. 
 
 At no time in the world's history has the question of reform 
 been so much agitated as at present. At no time have tlio 
 errors of the classical systems been criticised with so mucli 
 vehemence, nor the entrenchments of pedantry assailed with 
 
THE DYING DIALECTS. 383 
 
 so much resolution. If a new way can be opened, the time is 
 certainly ripe for it ; the reform is no longer a mere idea — it 
 is an urgent need. And with so much in its history that 
 points to liberty, the nations will not fail to honour France 
 for being in the vanguard of progress in the scholastic world 
 as it is in the social world. 
 
 IV. 
 
 THE DYING DIALECTS — AN ARK OF SAFETY. 
 
 A nation is not a homogeneous w^hole, as the politicians 
 of the present day — in an interest quite other to that of its 
 happiness — wish to make the world believe. The great races 
 are not vast families issuing from a single stock, but assem- 
 blages of tribes, at one time distinct, and often enemies to 
 each other. 
 
 Hence, alongside each general language we have special 
 languages called dialects, which survive among the tribe by 
 which they are spoken, as the man is survived by the name 
 which he has made illustrious. 
 
 Europe still abounds with minor languages of this kind. 
 We have said that the races bear a name which sums up their 
 life and defines their character ; this name is their language. 
 The dialects are, therefore, as the residues of civilisations 
 which have preceded our own. Each of them represents a 
 chapter in the annals of the human race. For this reason 
 the dialects deserve to be immortalised. History will have 
 hard things to say in after years of the levelling despotism of 
 our time, which has declared war not only against the liberty 
 of nations, of tribes, and of families, but even against their 
 languages themselves. 
 
 Unity in variety — this is Life ; unity without variety — this 
 is Death. Therefore the dialects should be allowed to live, 
 and with them the races and the tribes that speak them. 
 A state desiring to be something more than a mischievous 
 abstraction, must rest upon strong and numerous indivi- 
 dualities. True unity is something quite other than a dull 
 uniformity. 
 
 The dialects have a great value, not only as the repository 
 of the thoughts and of the life of another age, but still more 
 as the substratum of the general modern languages. 
 
384 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
 The dialects are, therefore, worthy of attention from the 
 triple point of view of history, of linguistic literature, and of 
 their influence upon the national character. Everywhere care 
 is taken to preserve the stone monuments of earlier ages ; 
 science cannot permit political vandalism to raze to the ground 
 and bury out of sight the chief monument of those very agea> 
 But where is the ark that shall shelter and save the sacred 
 archives of the civilisations of which ours is the resultant? 
 The dictionary perhaps, or possibly the libraries ? 
 
 Let us try to estimate the chances of safety that a language 
 could find in these two sanctuaries. The dictionary, as we 
 have seen, only preserves a language in the state of a dead 
 body, and of a dead body in pieces. To reconstitute a lan- 
 guage by means of the dictionary is not less impossible than 
 to reconstitute the world by the aid of the fourscore prime 
 elements known to chemistry. Let a German, for instance, 
 attempt to find out in Littr6 the expression of his whole 
 individuality in French ! Or let a Frenchman try to express 
 his own in German by the aid of the dictionary of Grimm ! 
 It could not be done. The dictionary is, therefore, perfectly 
 powerless in itself to save a language from oblivion. 
 
 Do the libraries offer better guarantees of safety? Yes, 
 assuredly, but upon one condition : this is, tliat the dialect 
 possesses a rich literature. But where is the dialect that 
 enjoys this privilege ? Indeed, a dialect is a dialect, only for 
 the reason that it has not, or has no longer, any literature. 
 
 And, moreover, if a literature is an eminently fit sanctuary 
 for the preservation of a given language, it should be thoroughly 
 recognised that this language itself cannot be extracted there- 
 from but with infinite pains and precautions. We will go 
 further, and maintain even, that, without a system such as 
 that we have set forth, this operation is practically impossible. 
 Therefore, literature abandoned to its own resources is found 
 to be almost equally powerless with the dictionary for per- 
 petuating either the knowledge or the usage of any dialect 
 whatever. 
 
 That service which the two great means of which we have 
 just spoken — the dictionary and the literature — are incapable 
 of rendering to the dying dialects, or those which are con- 
 demned to die, our method of Series now comes forward to 
 offer. Have we not demonstrated that this system is a mould 
 
CONCLUSION. 38^ 
 
 from which may be cast, palpitating with life, the whole 
 human individuality of no matter what period of time ? And 
 if this is so, nothing will be easier, once the system is written 
 in a first language, than to transpose it into Breton, Basque, 
 Alsatian, Bohemian, Coptic, Welsh, Gaelic, and all the other 
 idioms at present existing. 
 
 Being the direct and spontaneous expression of an indi- 
 viduality thinking in each dialect, this translation will repre- 
 sent the complete system of this dialect in its living reality, 
 one which will spare the philologists of the future that laborious 
 exegesis now needed, ending only in incomplete resurrections, 
 always open to dispute and always disputed. 
 
 The dialects, therefore, need be henceforth in no fear of 
 either dying or of being forgotten. They will be transmitted as 
 a tradition ; they will be within the reach of all, and will be 
 learnt like an ordinary language, not in ten long years, but 
 in a few short months ; not at the schools of the universities, 
 but in those of the village, or rather round the paternal hearth. 
 
 We must bring to a close with this last application of it 
 the exposition of our system. It has shown itself capable of 
 resuscitating the dead languages ; there but remained for it to 
 discover the secret of rendering imperishable the tongues 
 ready to die, thus yielding for its last fruit a fruit of life. 
 
 This volume is but the preface to the system. Even now 
 the work is in hand of putting together the material already 
 collected. If the work prove good, help will not be lacking ; 
 and it has long been demonstrated that when human power 
 is added to human power, it can remove mountains and incline 
 oceans. 
 
 The complete work will have, and should have, two chapters 
 — the written book, and the school wherein it is practised. To 
 write the book, Science will lend its treasures, and, if need be, 
 its legions. The school might be offered by one of the many 
 scholastic or commercial bodies that would benefit from it. 
 
 2 B 
 
386 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 I.— THREE FRENCH SERIES LESSONS. 
 
 LA POMPE. 
 
 I. 
 La femme se rend a la pompe. 
 
 — La femme prend le seau par I'anse, prend 
 la femme leve le seau, l^ve 
 
 la femme traverse la cuisine, traverse 
 
 la femme ouvre la porte, ouvre 
 
 la femme franchit le seuil, francliit 
 
 la femme sort de la cuisine, sort 
 
 la femme se retourne, se retourne 
 
 la femme ferme la porte. ferine 
 
 — La femme quitte la cuisine, quitte 
 la femme s'c^loigne de la cuisine, s'^loigne 
 la femme se dirige vers la pompe, se dirige 
 la femme s'approche de la pompe, s'approclie 
 la femme parvient a la pompe, parvient 
 la femme s'arrete pres de la pompe, s'arr^te 
 
 la femme leve le seau, l^ve 
 
 la femme allonge le bras, allonge 
 la femme place le seau sous le tuyau de la pompe, place 
 
 la femme lache Fanse du seau. l^che 
 
 1. Femme (fiUe, fiUette, bonne, servante, gar9on, domestique, 
 
 serviteur . . . ). 
 
 2. Seau (arrosoir, urne, cruche, broc, seille, jatte, baquet, 
 
 vase, vaisseau, ustensile . . . ). 
 
 3. Cuisine (maison, logis, demeure, domicile . . . ). 
 
SPECIMEN FRENCH SERIES LESSONS. 
 Appendix I.] 
 
 LA POMPE. 
 II. 
 La femme pompe de Feau. 
 
 387 
 
 — EUe etend le bras, 
 elle saisit le balancier, 
 elle hausse le balancier, 
 elle abaisse le balancier, 
 elle hausse le balancier, 
 elle abaisse le balancier, 
 le balancier grince, 
 
 la pompe tremble. 
 
 — L'eau monte dans la pompe, 
 I'eau coule par le tuyau, 
 
 l'eau tombe dans le seau, 
 
 l'eau frappe le fond du seau, 
 
 l'eau bruit au fond du seau, 
 
 l'eau tournoie dans le seau, 
 
 l'eau ecume dans le seau, 
 
 l'eau monte dans le seau, 
 
 l'eau monte, monte et monte encore, 
 
 elle emplit le seau; 
 
 la femme lache le balancier. 
 
 dtend 
 
 saisit 
 
 hausse 
 
 abaisse 
 
 hausse 
 
 abaisse 
 
 grince 
 
 tremble 
 
 monte 
 
 coule 
 
 tombe 
 
 frappe 
 
 bruit 
 
 tournoie 
 
 ^cume 
 
 monte 
 
 monte 
 
 emplit 
 
 ytche 
 
 1. Balancier (le bras, le levier, le manche, la machine, le 
 
 machin, I'affaire . . . ). 
 
 2. Pompe (le corps de pompe, le cylindre, I'int^rieur, le 
 
 dedans . . . ). 
 \. Tuyau (le conduit, le canal . . . ). 
 
388 APPENDIX. 
 
 Appendix L] 
 
 LA POMPE. 
 
 III. 
 
 La femme emporte Feau a la cuisine. 
 
 — La femme se penche vers le seau, se penche 
 prend le seau par I'anse, prend 
 
 et le retire de dessous le tuyau ; retire 
 
 elle ferme le poing gauche, ferme 
 elle appuie le poing gauche centre sa hanche, appuie 
 
 elle se penche du cote gauche, se penche 
 
 et fait ainsi ^quilibre au poids de Feau. fait dc[uilibre 
 
 — Elle tourne le dos a la pompe, tourne 
 elle quitte la pompe, quitte 
 elle s'^loigne de la pompe, s'^loigne 
 elle se dirige vers la cuisine, se dirige 
 elle s'approche de la cuisine, s'approche 
 elle arrive a la porte, arrive 
 elle ouvre la porte, ouvre 
 elle franchit le seuil, franchit 
 elle entre dans la cuisine. entre 
 
 — Elle referme la porte, referme 
 elle traverse la cuisine, L, traverse 
 elle porte le seau d'eau a sa place ; porte 
 elle se penche, se penche 
 et pose doucement le seau d'eau k terre, pose 
 
 elle lache I'anse du seau, l^che 
 
 se redresse, se redresse 
 
 et reprend haleine. reprend 
 Puis, elle emploie I'eau aux usages ordinaires du emploie 
 manage. 
 
 — Place (le lieu, I'endroit, le coin . . . ). 
 
CO-ORDINATED ACTS. 389 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 
 CO-ORDINATED ACTS— THE AUTHOR'S TEXT. 
 
 (See p. 236.) 
 
 The following portion of the text has been replaced by the 
 translators by a slightly expanded development, after careful 
 analysis and comparison with all the English forms (which 
 were not given in the original) : — 
 
 When two actions occur within the same period of time, 
 they may occupy therein, in relation to each other, four dif- 
 ferent positions. 
 
 1. They may take place parallel to each other, that is, simul- 
 taneously : 
 
 " WTiile he was enjoying himself, I was working." 
 " Tandis qiCil s'amusait, je travaillais." 
 
 This relation can be expressed by two parallel lines. 
 
 2. One of the two actions may have commenced before the 
 other, and be still going on — it was not ended, it was not 
 complete when the other began. Grammar has discovered the 
 true name of the first — " Imperfect Act," and it receives the 
 form of the Continuous Acts, — [in English ing], in French the 
 final Ais : 
 
 *' Yesterday, he came ivMle I was eating my lunch." 
 *' Hier, il 2irvi\2i. pendant que je d^jeiinais." 
 
 We may represent this relation by two lines, one of which 
 begins before and ends after the other. 
 
 3. The two acts may be contiguous or follow immediately 
 one after the other : 
 
 ** Yesterday, y^s^ as I had dined (done dining), he came in." 
 "Hier, sitot que j'eus d^jelin^, il arriva." 
 
 Grammar once more affords us an exact denomination by 
 which to designate the first of these acts — the word *' Perfect " 
 (that is to say, a perfected act). The first act, indeed, is 
 accomplished or perfect when the other begins. 
 
 We may represent this third relation by two lines, the 
 second of which will begin opposite the point at which the 
 first finishes. 
 
390 APPENDIX. 
 
 4. Lastly, the first action may have been finished for a cer- 
 tain time at the moment the second act commences : 
 
 "Yesterday, I had already dined (been dining) when he 
 
 arrived." 
 " Hier, j'avais deja din6 quand il arriva." 
 
 Here, the first action is more than perfect when the second 
 occurs. The term Pluperfect (that is, Act, plus or more than 
 perfect — Plus-que-Parfait), furnished by the grammars, there- 
 fore in every way suits the first of these two acts. We may 
 represent this relation by two straight lines which follow each 
 other at a certain interval. 
 
 If now we transport these four relations into definite 
 (finished), indefinite (unfinished), and future periods of time, 
 the following are the forms we shall obtain : — 
 
 ACTS CO-ORDINATED IN THE SAME PERIOD OF TIME. 
 
 A. — Simultaneous Acts. 
 
 Yesterday while I was dining ... he was working. 
 
 To-DAY . while I have been dining ... lie has been working. 
 To-MORROW while I am dinin^j ... he will be working. 
 
 B.— Consecutive Acts. 
 
 Yesterday (definite or finished period of time). 
 
 He arrived 
 
 while I was dining. Irrvperfed act. 
 
 just as I had dined (been dining). Perfect act. 
 
 already I had dined. Pluperfect act. 
 
 To-day — this morning (indefinite or unfinished period of time) 
 He arrived 
 
 while 
 
 I was dining. 
 
 Imperfect act. 
 
 just as 
 
 I had dined (been dining). 
 
 Perfect act. 
 
 already 
 
 I had dined. 
 
 Pluperfect act. 
 
 To-MORROW (future period of time). 
 He will arrive 
 while I am dining. Imperfect act, 
 
 just as I have dined (been dining). Perfect act. 
 
 already I shall have dined. Pluperfect act. 
 
CO-ORDINATED ACTS— AUTHOR'S TEXT. 
 Appendix II.] 
 
 391 
 
 ACTES CO-ORDONNl&S DANS UN MfiME TEMPS. 
 
 A. — ACTES SlMULTAN^S. 
 
 HiER . 
 
 Ce Matin 
 Demain 
 
 tandis que je dinais 
 tandis que je dinais 
 tandis que je dinerai 
 
 11 travaillait. 
 il travaillait. 
 il travaillera. 
 
 pendant que 
 sitSt que 
 d^jd 
 
 B. — ACTES CONS^CUTIPS. 
 
 HiER (temps defini). 
 
 II arriva 
 
 je dinais. 
 j'eus dine, 
 j 'avals din6. 
 
 Acte imparfait. 
 
 Ade imrfait 
 
 Acte plus-que-parfait. 
 
 Aujourd'hui, Ce Matin (temps Indefini). 
 
 II est arrive 
 
 pendant que je dinais. Acte imparfait. 
 
 sitot que j'ai eu dine. . Acte parfait. 
 
 d^jd j'avais dine. Acte plus-que-parfait. 
 
 pendant que 
 sitot que 
 dejd 
 
 Demain (temps k venir). 
 II arrlvera 
 
 je dinerai. 
 j 'aural din^. 
 j'aurai dine. 
 
 Acte imparfait. 
 
 Acte parfait. 
 
 Acte plus-que-parfait. 
 
392 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 LE LION ET LE MOUCHERON (La Fontaine). 
 
 I. 
 
 L'Outrage et le Duel. 
 
 — Va-t-en, ch^tif insecte, excrement de la 
 
 terre ! 
 C'est en ces mots que le lion parlait un jour 
 
 au moucheron. 
 L'autre lui d^clara la guerre : 
 Penses-tu, lui dit-il, --=- 
 que ton titre de roi me fasse peur, 
 ni me soucie ? 
 
 Un boeuf est plus puissant que toi ; 
 je le m^ne k ma fantaisie. 
 
 — A peine il achevait ces mots, 
 que lui-meme il sonna la charge, 
 f ut le trompette et le h^ros. 
 Dans I'abord il se met au large ; 
 puis prend son temps, 
 
 fond sur le cou du lion, 
 qu'il rend presque fou. 
 Le quadrup^de ^cume, 
 et son ceil 6tincelle ; 
 il rugit. 
 On se cache, 
 on tremble k I'environ, 
 
 et cette alarme universelle est I'ouvrage d'un 
 moucheron. 
 
 va-t-en 
 
 parlait 
 
 ddclara 
 
 penses-tu 
 
 fasse peur 
 
 soucie 
 
 est puissant 
 
 m^ne 
 
 achevait 
 
 sonna 
 
 fut trompette 
 
 se met 
 
 prend 
 
 fond 
 
 rend fou 
 
 bourne 
 
 ^tincelle 
 
 rugit 
 
 se cache 
 
 tremble 
 
 est I'ouvrage 
 
 — Un avorton de mouche en cent lieux le harcelle 
 
 harcelle, 
 
 tant6t pique I'^chine et tant6t le museau, plane 
 
 tant6t entre au fond du- naseau. entre 
 
 Le rage alors se trouve a son faite mont^e. mont^e. 
 
TRENCH LITERATURE LESSONS. 
 Appendix IIL] 
 
 393 
 
 LE LION ET LE MOUCHERON. 
 
 IL 
 
 Triomphe et Ruine. 
 
 — L'invisible ennemi triomphe, 
 et rit de voir -^ 
 
 qu'il n'est grifFe ni dent en la b^te irrit^e • 
 
 qui de la mettre en sang ne fasse son devoir. 
 
 Le malheureux lion se dechire lui-meme, 
 
 fait r^sonner sa queue a I'entour de ses flancs, 
 
 bat I'air qui n'en pent mais ; 
 
 et sa fureur extreme le fatigue, 
 
 I'abat; 
 
 le voila sur les dents. 
 
 — L'insecte du combat se retire avec gloire ; 
 comme il sonna la charge, 
 
 il Sonne la victoire ; 
 
 va partout I'annoncer, 
 
 et rencontre en chemin I'embuscade d'une 
 
 il y rencontre aussi sa fin. [araign^e ; 
 
 triomphe 
 
 rit 
 
 n'est griffe 
 
 mettre en sang 
 
 se dechire 
 
 rdsonner 
 
 bat 
 
 fatigue 
 
 abat 
 
 voil^ 
 
 se retire 
 
 sonna 
 
 sonna 
 
 annoncer 
 
 rencontre 
 
 rencontre 
 
 — Quelle chose par 1^ nous pent ^treenseign^e? enseignee 
 
 J 'en vols deux : vols 
 
 dont I'une est que -t- Tune est 
 
 entre nos ennemis les plus k craindre sont k craindre 
 
 souvent les plus petits ; 
 
 r autre, que -^ I'autre est 
 
 aux grands perils tel a pu se soustraire se soustraire 
 
 qui p6rit pour la moindre affaire. 
 
 p^rit. 
 
394 APPENDIX. 
 
 Appetoix III.] Le Lion et le Moucheron. 
 
 (Relative Phrases or Interlocutory Sentences.) 
 
 Gont.'^ Je pense que -^ vous savez la suite. 
 
 F. att. Ne pense pas que-;^tu puisses apprendre quelque 
 
 chose sans cela ! 
 
 D. t. p. Penses-tu que -^ Ton puisse apprendre une langue 
 
 sans cela ? 
 
 Cont. Et que rien ne vous fasse peur. 
 
 Oont. La construction d'une phrase ne doit pas vous f aire peur. 
 
 Tr. b. On voit que vous n'avez pas peur. 
 
 Cont. Si vous faites une faute, que cela ne vous soucie. 
 
 Tr. b. Yotre m^moire devient de jour en jour plus puissante. 
 
 Tr. b. Pour batir une phrase nul n'est plus puissant que toi. 
 
 Tr. b. Vous menez la langue a votre fantaisie. 
 
 Lent. Mettez-vous, comme on dit, au large. 
 
 Lent. Prenez votre temps. 
 
 Cont. Et dans I'abord repr^sente-toi bien le fait. 
 
 Cont. Et dans I'abord produisons le verbe. 
 
 j5. dit. C'est 1^ I'ouvrage d'un bon ^colier. 
 
 Cour. Vous triompherez. 
 
 Cour. On triomphera — nous triompherons. 
 
 Tr. b. Je triomphe -^^ de vous voir si bien marcher. 
 
 T?'. b. Je ris de voir -5^ qu'il n'est plus de difficult^ pour vous. 
 
 Att. Mettez-vous en devoir -^ de vous bien representor le 
 
 fait que vous exprimez. 
 
 Att. Faites votre devoir -^ de bien pron oncer. 
 
 Att. Fais ton devoir -:^ de parler correctement. 
 
 P. har. Qui fait une faute souvent n'en pent mais. 
 
 Tr. b. Vous n'etes pas encore sur les dents. 
 
 Cont. Montrez que -^^ vous n'etes pas encore sur les dents. 
 
 Tr. b. On ne pent pas dire : le voila sur les dents. 
 
 Tr. b. Du combat vous vous retirerez avec gloire. 
 
 Tr. b. Vous pouvez, je crois, sonner la victoire. 
 
 Att. Prenez garde aux moindres mots : entre nos ennemis 
 
 les plus k craindre sont souvent les plus petits. 
 
 Att. Aux grands perils tel a pu se soustraire qui perit 
 
 pour la moindi e affaire. 
 
 1 Cont. Continuez. D. t. jp. Donne toi de la peine. 
 
 F. att. Fais attention. P. ha^. Parlez hardiment. 
 
 Tr. b. Tr^s bien. Cour. Courage. 
 
 Lent. Lentement. Att. Attention. 
 
 £. dit. Bien dit. Ap. v. Appliquez-vous. 
 
CERTIFICATE OF M. LOCKROY. 395 
 
 APPENDIX IV. 
 
 Certificate op the French Minister op Public Instruc- 
 tion TO M. Tempi^, who provided Funds for Experi- 
 mental Courses in German. 
 
 [Copy] 
 
 Paris, Le gjuin 1888. 
 A Monsieur Tempie. 
 
 Monsieur, — Monsieur le vice-recteur de TAcademie de 
 Paris m'a transmis un rapport sur les r^sultats obtenus dans 
 Tenseignement de Tallemand h I'^cole normale d'instituteurs 
 de Paris par Monsieur Gouin, qui a ^t^ autoris^ k faire Tappli- 
 cation de sa mdthode dans cet etablissement. 
 
 Get essai a permis de constater d'une maniere certaine qu'en 
 moins de 300 le9ons les Aleves suivaient une conversation 
 ordinaire, comprenaient un expose fait en allemand, savaient 
 donner eux-memes une lefon, ddmontrer les regies de la 
 grammaire et ecrire correctement. 
 
 Je crois devoir vous adresser mes felicitations pour les 
 r^sultats dtis k votre initiative. 
 
 • Monsieur le vice-recteur m'informe que vous auriez I'inten- 
 tion d'etablir k Paris, dans un local que vous demanderiez a 
 la ville, des cours de langues vivantes oil votre (la) method e 
 pourrait recevoir une utile application. Ce projet merite 
 d'etre pris en consideration, et je verrais avec plaisir que la 
 consecration donn^e par cette lettre aux resultats d6]k obtenus 
 pAt decider les conseils generaux a vous envoyer des boursiers 
 pour suivre ces cours. Recevez, Monsieur, I'assurance de ma 
 consideration tr^s distinguee. 
 
 Le Ministre de Vlmtruction Puhlique et des Beaux Arts, 
 
 Lockroy. 
 
396 APPENDIX. 
 
 [Translation.] 
 
 To M. Tempi^. 
 
 Paris, June gth, 1888. 
 
 Sir, — Monsieur le Vice-Eecteur de TAcad^mie de Paris has 
 forwarded to me a report upon the results obtained in the 
 teaching of German at the Normal School of Preceptors, Paris, 
 by M. Gouin, who has been authorised to carry out the 
 application of his method in that establishment. 
 
 This trial permits the definite statement to be made 
 that in less than 300 lessons the pupils followed an ordinary 
 conversation, understood a lecture given in German, knew 
 themselves how to give a lesson, to demonstrate the rules of 
 grammar, and to write correctly. 
 
 I think it my duty to congratulate you upon the results 
 due to your initiative. 
 
 Monsieur le Yice-Recteur informs me that you have the 
 intention of establishing in Paris, on premises which you will 
 ask of the town, classes for the teaching of modern languages 
 in which the method might receive a useful application. This 
 project deserves to be taken into consideration, and I should 
 see with pleasure that the official recognition given by this 
 letter to the results already obtained might decide the General 
 Councils to send you exhibition scholars to follow these courses. 
 Keceive, &c. 
 
 The Minister of Public Instruction and-Fine Arts, 
 
 (Signed) Lockroy. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 -H 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abstract ideas, absence of, in the child 55 
 
 and metaphors ...... 184, 193 
 
 words, futility of studying . . *, . . .155 
 
 Abstraction 182, 209, 221, 257, 291 
 
 Accent 151, 272, 330 
 
 Acts, present 2oi 
 
 not tenses 223 
 
 simple and momentary . . 227 
 
 continuous and habitual ....... 232, 235 
 
 co-ordinated 236, 238-9, 389 
 
 parallel and coinciding ........ 236 
 
 anterior and posterior ........ 237 
 
 pluperfect . 240 
 
 -^«eid . 94, 333, 337, 375 
 
 Alphabet, a rational 291 
 
 Analysis and synthesis 7 
 
 and early lessons . . . . . . . *. 107 
 
 of the sentence 250 
 
 Ancient and modern languages, to be studied in the same manner . 141, 
 
 166, 2^7, 377 
 
 Annexes and corollaries of the system 288 
 
 Appendix 388 
 
 Arabic referred to 6, 166, 329, 339 
 
 Arbitrary, the, in language lessons 45 
 
 Article 123 
 
 Artificial method 85 
 
 Association, logical 42, 90 
 
 of word and thought 84 
 
 of time and act 228 
 
 Atrophy of linguistic powers 139 
 
 Attention of pupils .95 
 
 Auxiliary Series . 304 
 
 " Battle op Rossbach " 348-9 
 
 Berlin University 25 
 
 family in 56 
 
 philosophical bout at -^57 
 
 Bird, Series of 51, 62 
 
 Book, ABC 290 
 
 397 
 
398 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Book, form of teaching 290 
 
 reading 289 
 
 of Nature -59 
 
 Botany, the teaching of 342,357 
 
 Breathing, and the length of phrase 93 
 
 Cakn, studies at 8 
 
 Cadence 277 
 
 " Canis et Lupus " 31 1 
 
 Cases 253 
 
 knowledge of, by Germans 257 
 
 instability of 258 
 
 Certificate by M. Lockroy . 395-6 
 
 Child, method of 4 
 
 a hackneyed riddle 5 
 
 learns no grammar . 17 
 
 living language of • • 35 
 
 logical order of ......... 34 
 
 linguistic work of 40, 47 
 
 subjective language of 52 
 
 curiosity of, cause 124 
 
 learning a language easy to 128 
 
 distinguishes by accent 152 
 
 instinctive grammar of 196, 203 
 
 and the present tense 207 
 
 and the German prefix 275 
 
 enjoyment of school 332 
 
 Chinese referred to 6, l6i 
 
 Cicero revived 380 
 
 Classes, at Berlin 25 
 
 Classics, author's antecedents in 9 
 
 study of 305 
 
 organisation of 381 
 
 Classical process, Greek 10, 30 
 
 declensions 260 
 
 construction 279 
 
 subordinate moods 285 
 
 time given in 297 
 
 and teachers 301 
 
 Complements of verba 251, 263 
 
 Concentric Series . 107 
 
 Conception, mental . . 39, 88 
 
 length of 93. 94> 9^ 
 
 of an author 305 
 
 Conditional mood 244 
 
 Conjugation, study of 198 
 
 unity 203 
 
 perfect 209 
 
 tables of . . . , . . .231,235,238-9 
 
 practice of 227, 241 
 
 permanent 243 
 
 Conjunction 285 
 
INDEX. 399 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Construction, ancient or natural 276 
 
 modern or logical 277 
 
 German 278 
 
 by the classical process 279 
 
 by the Series method 281 
 
 Construing abrogated 283 
 
 Continual talk, the 79} 82, 295 
 
 Conversation in German 14 
 
 Co-ordinated acts 236, 238, 389 
 
 Curiosity of child 124 
 
 " Death of Priam " 334 
 
 Dead languages 166, 378 
 
 Declensions, Latin 252 
 
 in the classical school 259 
 
 study of, a torture ....'... 259 
 on the Series method . . . . . . .261 
 
 construction of table 262 
 
 Definite periods of time 213, 219 
 
 Dialects, the dying 383 
 
 Dictation • 53^5 342 
 
 Dictionary, learning off by heart 27, 32 
 
 cure of the fear of 58 
 
 totality of, contained in the Sei ice ..... 65 
 
 use of, in the classical school 30 1 
 
 condemnation of, as an instrument for study . . . 369 
 
 Discovery of the Series system 38 
 
 Discipline, strict and lax 143. 162, 331 
 
 Dislike for the study of languages explained 128 
 
 Difficulties, in construction of Series 88, 299 
 
 of ordinary process 164 
 
 of reform . • 379 
 
 Diversion necessary to pupils 95, 132, 198 
 
 Domestic Series 123, 124 
 
 Dominant, the 87, 193 
 
 Drawing, art of teaching 292 
 
 ** Drei Spinnerinnen " 313 
 
 Ear, as the organ of language . . .33, 47, 48, 56, 128, 139, 303 
 
 as tuning-fork or standard 140 
 
 Early reminiscences 362 
 
 Elementary Series 96 
 
 given by workmen 300 
 
 teachers 332 
 
 verbs 134 
 
 Enclitics 146, 285 
 
 uniformity in all languages 146 
 
 classification 147 
 
 Virgil's 148 
 
 method of teaching 163 
 
 constitution of . . .176 
 
 in German 278 
 
400 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Enclitics in the classics 307 
 
 English, first lesson in . . . . . . . . . 1 74 
 
 employment of definite tense 219 
 
 Equality of intellects . 131, 330 
 
 Errors of the classical school ... 33, 35. 127, 222, 264, 280 
 
 Everyday language • 75» 289 
 
 Exercise, construction of 67 
 
 properties of 70 
 
 value of 75 
 
 difficulties of construction 84 
 
 length of 94 
 
 Eye, futility of teaching by 33, 48, 134 
 
 Failuke 30 
 
 Figurative language 5S> i<^2 
 
 based on domestic life 75 
 
 organisation of 183 
 
 art of teaching 189 
 
 Fire, Series of 106, 112 
 
 First lesson 133, 165 
 
 in eight languages 168 
 
 Fowl, Series of 51 
 
 French, first lesson in . . . . . . . . • 171 
 
 employment of indefinite tense ...... 22Q 
 
 a difficult language 273 
 
 the human language 366 
 
 Game 37, 148 
 
 Gifts of Nature 5, 210 
 
 Gift for languages . 6,31,296 
 
 Generalisation 38, 89, 185 
 
 Geography, the teaching of 355 
 
 German, attempts of author to learn 9 
 
 roots 12 
 
 thinking in 56 
 
 first lesson in 173 
 
 conjugations 231 
 
 prefix 271 
 
 an easy language 273 
 
 Goethe, translating 15, 17, 49 
 
 Grammar 196 
 
 author's study of German 1 1 
 
 a quasi-attractive science 178 
 
 practical value of ^ 196 
 
 psychologic basis 197 
 
 a game 202 
 
 unity of 203, 249 
 
 reform of 209 
 
 natural 215 
 
 Grammatical sense 202, 207, 209 
 
 Greek, author's knowlege of 10 
 
 pronunciation 137 
 
INDEX. 401 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Greek, teaching of 166 
 
 first lesson in 169 
 
 declensions 252 
 
 grammar 253 
 
 an easy language . . . 273 
 
 and spelling lessons 291 
 
 must be spoken 338 
 
 value of, in education 364 
 
 compulsory 377 
 
 Grimm, " Die drei Spinnerinnen " 313 
 
 Hambukg Univbesitt 9 
 
 History, teaching of 343 
 
 the sacred book , . 344 
 
 put into Series . 345 
 
 specimen Series . . 348 
 
 method of teaching 350 
 
 advanced students of 352 
 
 and literature combined 353 
 
 in foreign languages 355 
 
 Homer, length of scenes in 94, 307 
 
 Horace 252, 307 
 
 Hospites 180 
 
 Humanities 364 
 
 Humboldt, Alex, von, a dunce at school 259 
 
 Imperfect acts 226, 237 
 
 Incubation of language 43> 95 > 393 
 
 Indefinite periods of time 214, 219, 229 
 
 Indicative mood 203,211 
 
 simple 231 
 
 continuous and habitual 235 
 
 co-ordinated 238-9 
 
 Individuality, weaving of, by nature 39 
 
 formation of, by language 48 
 
 translation of 49, 88 
 
 formed within one year 50 
 
 mystic ladder of 51 
 
 expressed in 100,000 sentences 294 
 
 Instinct S>207 
 
 Intellectual effect, measure of 93j 331 
 
 Intelligences equal 81 
 
 Interlocutory sentences 1575328,394 
 
 Inter-relationships 253 
 
 Intuition 210, 218, 224, 228, 271 
 
 Italian, first lesson in 1 70 
 
 Jaootot, absence of theory 8 
 
 system of 22, 90, 92 
 
 formula of . .47 
 
 Japanese 6 
 
 2 
 
402 INDEX. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 La Fontaine 309 
 
 Language, may be learned in six months 6 
 
 art of learning 38, 48 
 
 subjective 53. 60, 144, 159 
 
 objective 53> 60, 61, 127 
 
 figurative 55» 60, 182, 189 
 
 limit of 65 
 
 inarticulate . . . 123 
 
 ease of learning 128 
 
 psychological differenco 151 
 
 time necessary to learn 294 
 
 a whole world to conquer 296 
 
 the name of a race 363 
 
 Languages, two different 52, 149, 177, 181 
 
 by the sciences and vice versd ..... 341, 356 
 
 study of, an ogre at school 342 
 
 Latin, teaching of 166 
 
 construction of exercises 166, 276, 279 
 
 first lesson in 168 
 
 grammar 205, 253 
 
 conjugation 232 
 
 belongs to second age of language 256 
 
 spoken in Roumania 257 
 
 cases 263 
 
 study of, made too easy 267 
 
 no longer a dead language 282 
 
 modal phrases 284 
 
 ordinary knowledge of 298 
 
 now requires ten masters 301 
 
 method of teaching 335 
 
 must be spoken 338 
 
 value of 363 
 
 difficulty of translating into 370 
 
 Life of the people put in Series 34^ 
 
 Line by line arrangement 7^5 94 
 
 Linguistic method, need of i 
 
 an art 86 
 
 "Lion and the Gnat" 309.392 
 
 method of teaching 325 
 
 Literature and history combined 353 
 
 Literary Series 3o5» 335 
 
 specimen 3^9 
 
 method of teaching 3^5 
 
 classification of 339 
 
 Logic of the child 35> 9° 
 
 Logical order of construction 277 
 
 Mathematics 359 
 
 Means and end 43. 62, 71, 79, 92 
 
 of demonstration 7 
 
 Memory 33» 82, 91, 134, 346 
 
 Mental railway . • 2, 4 
 
INDEX. 403 
 
 PAOK 
 
 Metaphors 183, 191 
 
 of a classical author 327 
 
 Metaphorical Series 194 
 
 Method, artificial 85 
 
 of teaching . . . 129^ 159, 189, 198, 261, 281, 325, 350 
 
 one only, of learning languages 146 
 
 Mill, visit to 36 
 
 child's series of 43 
 
 generalisation of 89 
 
 Mind, faculties of 148 
 
 Mind's eye, seeing in . . 39, 97 
 
 Mnemonic properties ' . . . .80 
 
 Modal phrases 284 
 
 Moments of precision 214 
 
 Mondeux, Henri 6, 210, 330 
 
 Moods 285 
 
 Mother's Series .82, 123, 150 
 
 Motive of Relative phrases 155, 176 
 
 Mystic ladder of individuality 51 
 
 Name, properties of . 362 
 
 Native teachers . 179 
 
 Natural forces tamed • • 3 
 
 Natural method 5, 24, 85, 91, 92 
 
 order of construction 277, 365 
 
 sciences 356 
 
 Nature, process of ... . 6, 35, 38, 44, 128, 178, 253, 293 
 
 logic of 40, 43 
 
 school of 91, 257 
 
 order of 92 
 
 secrets of 35? 59 
 
 at fault with the cases 257 
 
 Necessity of specifying the time 216 
 
 Norwegian, first lesson in 175 
 
 Nursemaid, her series S3, 123, 150 
 
 can teach the bulk of a language in six months . 128, 221 
 
 Oak, Series of 49 
 
 Object lessons 22 
 
 Objective language 53 
 
 organisation in Series 61 
 
 method of teaching 127 
 
 Ollendorf, absence of theory 8 
 
 German method 18 
 
 appreciation of 19 
 
 study of 20 
 
 failure of 21 
 
 use of the substantive 4S> 67 
 
 hideous confusion of 90 
 
 without a master 301 
 
 Oral exercise, to come first 133 
 
 Ordered conversation 163, 337 
 
404 INDEX. 
 
 PAQB 
 
 Order of Nature 92 
 
 and disorder 91 
 
 natural and logical 276 
 
 Organ of language 33> 47? 127 
 
 Orthography 288 
 
 Parsing in practice 131 
 
 Participle . 226, 229 
 
 Pascal, quoted S9> 84 
 
 style of 361 
 
 Past, present, and future 213, 221 
 
 Perception of the mill 37 
 
 and conception 39, 41, 48 
 
 Periods of time . . 211 
 
 Perpetual speech 79, 83, 295 
 
 Personal work of the student 135, 267, 297, 301 
 
 Phffidrus, " Canis et Lupus " 3 1 1 
 
 Phrase, measure of 93 
 
 Plant, Series of 63 
 
 Ploetz, systematic vocabulary 24 
 
 Pluperfect acts 240, 390 
 
 Prefix 271 
 
 Prendergast's system 92 
 
 Preposition 256, 268 
 
 Present tense, importance of 208 
 
 Project for county high schools 354, 355, 360 
 
 Pronunciation, falsification of 57, 302 
 
 good 82 
 
 reason of false 136, 298 
 
 -figured 138 
 
 Psychology, language a chapter of 80 
 
 Psychological classification 147 
 
 Pump, Series of . 96, 99, 386 
 
 Punishment, a diversion 95 
 
 QuiETisTs, objections of 3 
 
 Reading 205, 289, 330 
 
 the classics 339 
 
 Reading-book, child's first 289 
 
 Reading-lessons in history 353 
 
 Reduce the subjects 341, 361 
 
 Reform of language teaching 127, 142 
 
 of grammar 209 
 
 of teaching reading 289 
 
 of teaching drawing 292 
 
 of teaching history 343 
 
 of teaching geography 355 
 
 of mathematics 3^0 
 
 of text-books 3^1 
 
 of teaching Greek and Latin 377 
 
 Relative phrases 54 
 
INDEX. 405 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Relative phrases, definition 145 
 
 classification 149 
 
 motives 155 
 
 double function 177 
 
 of a classic author 327 
 
 Relationships, logical 42, 90 
 
 between things 253, 293 
 
 Remembrances, virtue of 362 
 
 Robertson, absence of theory 8 
 
 system of 23, 90, 92 
 
 Romeo and Juliet • . . . . 320 
 
 Roots, Greek and German 12 
 
 true, of tongues 19 
 
 Roumania, knowledge of Latin in 257 
 
 Routine 91, 139, 260 
 
 Rule for construction of a classic pliru:-e . . . . . . 329 
 
 Russian, referred to 166, 329 
 
 Sacristi! . . .153 
 
 Sanscrit, referred to 6, 329 
 
 Saying and doing . 37 
 
 Sciences by the languages 295, 341, 356 
 
 Seasons and the language 298 
 
 Sentence, study of 250 
 
 Sentences not words 45 
 
 Series of verbs 49> 5i 
 
 definition of 6i 
 
 material of 61 
 
 construction of ^2, 65, 86, 97 
 
 of the Mill .42 
 
 of the Bird . . 51, 62 
 
 of the Plant 50, 63 
 
 of the Bee 64 
 
 of the Wood-chopper 69 
 
 the nursemaid's or mother's 83, 123, 150 
 
 pedagogic measure of 87 
 
 of the Pump 97> 99 
 
 of the Well 104, 108 
 
 of the Spring 105, iii 
 
 concentric ......... I02, 107 
 
 of the Baker 105 
 
 ofthePire 106,112-119 
 
 of the Stove 107, 120 
 
 co-ordination of 122 
 
 domestic 123 
 
 indoor and outdoor 124 
 
 rural 125 
 
 of the Shepherd . . 125, 273 
 
 technical 126 
 
 of the Games 126 
 
 of Opening the Door . . . . . 129, 160 
 method of teaching 129 
 
4o6 INDEX. 
 
 PAGB 
 
 Series, specimen, in eight languages 174 
 
 metaphorical 1 94 
 
 for reading-lessons ......... 289 
 
 for drawing-lessons . . 292 
 
 literary .... 309 
 
 historical . 345, 348-9 
 
 geographical • . . . 355 
 
 spoken 356, 359 
 
 scientific 356 
 
 mathematical -359 
 
 classical 381 
 
 specimen in French . 386 
 
 Series method, applicable to all languages . . 6, 166, 283, 329, 385 
 
 Shakespeare ........... 320 
 
 Simplification of teaching 142, 361 
 
 Spanish, first lesson in 172 
 
 Spelling 288, 291 
 
 Spring, series of the ill 
 
 State, duty of, in preserving languages 364 
 
 Steps or divisions in exercises 72, 307 
 
 Stove, Series of the 120 
 
 Students at Berlin 25 
 
 Style 277, 327, 361 
 
 Substantive 45 
 
 Substantives, general and specific 76 
 
 Substitutes 73. 77, 82, 103 
 
 Subjective language 52 
 
 its organisation 144, 157 
 
 method of teaching 159 
 
 Subjunctives 246 
 
 Succession in time ......... 42, 71, 92 
 
 Symbols of metaphors 186, 327 
 
 Symmetry, vain search for 226 
 
 Syntax 250, 265 
 
 Synthesis 7 
 
 Systematic vocabulary 24 
 
 Teacher, one for three classes . 142, 162, 193 
 
 necessity of a 301 
 
 Teacher's task simplified 135 
 
 spoken series 359 
 
 Teaching must assume the character of a game . . . .129 
 
 Tenses and acts 204 
 
 various use of same 225 
 
 Theory ^ 8 
 
 Thinking in the foreign language 57, 130, 141 
 
 Thought and words . . 122, 139 
 
 Third person 203, 208 
 
 Time in general * . .212, 228 
 
 always mentionpd 216 
 
 necessary to learn a language 294, 368 
 
 Traditions 363 
 
INDEX. 407 
 
 PAQK 
 
 Tragen, inner meaning of l6 
 
 Transcription of a classical work 306 
 
 Translation, Goethe and Schiller 15, 16, 31 
 
 judgment of 17, 141,370 
 
 Typographic form . . . . . . . . . 290, 307 
 
 Value of Greek and Latin 362 
 
 Variants 104 
 
 Verb, importance of 45, 283, 306 
 
 Series of 50 
 
 principal part played by . . . . ' . . . .67 
 
 concentration of attention upon 82, 13 1 
 
 definition by position 102 
 
 study of 198 
 
 Verbs, of ends and of means 77» 79 
 
 irregular 202 
 
 complete and incomplete 251 
 
 Vicious circle of the dictionary 371 
 
 Virgil, translating 49 
 
 length of scenes in 94, 307 
 
 enclitics in . 148 
 
 assimilation of 268, 306, 337 
 
 Eclogues, construction 279 
 
 no longer a dead language 282 
 
 specimen of transcription 335 
 
 method of studying 336 
 
 Vocabulary 24, 65, 73, 373 
 
 Vocabulomania 374 
 
 Voltaire's History 354 
 
 Web of language 46 
 
 Well, Series of the 108 
 
 Women teachers 300 
 
 Wood-chopper, Series of 69 
 
 Words, inner sense of 15 
 
 number of, in a Series lesson 73 
 
 and thoughts 122, 139 
 
 Writing 179. 295, 339 
 
 Written Series 84 
 
 words 140 
 
 Zeitwort 46 
 
 Zoology 342 
 
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