LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION IN SCOTLAND BY JOHN CLARKE LECTURER ON EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN OF UNIVERSITY OF FO\ LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1904 A II rights reserved nun PREFACE. THIS little book is offered as a contribution toward the solution of problems many of which are familiar to students of Public Education in Scotland. Some of these problems may seem to be administrative rather than strictly edu- cational; but the intimate connection of the two aspects can easily be shown, the former constantly involving the latter. It may seem, too, that the topics discussed are to some extent of merely passing interest, and that legislation, for which the country has so long looked in vain, will set a limit to the factitious importance they at present possess. This is hardly the case : the principles involved, e.g., in the relations of Primary and Secondary instruction, in those of central and local 133146 VI PEEFACE. authority, in the contrast of urban and rural conditions, or in the educational outlook, must all continue operative ; their importance is per- manent and quite independent of any current phase which they may underlie. In our age it is inevitable that one should be led to regard the educational system as a growth and development : and, indeed, without such an attitude no historical institution can be fully understood. In keeping with this the purpose has been, in the first two chapters, to obtain a point of view from which to regard the development. From this standpoint in the past the sequence through the present to the future is by gradual and natural transition. The general trend is most likely thus to be caught ; but only the briefest and broadest outline of the actual course of the movement has been sketched. For the facts I have made constant use of the available official sources in particular the Census returns for 1901, the Eeports of the Committee of Council on Education in Scot- land, and the Eeports of various Koyal Com- missions. Errors there may be, I fear, both PKEFACE. vii in fact and in inference : I shall be indebted to any one who will take the trouble to point them out for correction. I have endeavoured to state fairly the conclusions to which the facts seemed to point, though in more than one case they have proved contrary to personal sympathies and predilections. A word of explanation is necessary regard- ing the seventh chapter, which has turned out quite different from my original design. In deference to what is known to be a widely- felt want, a somewhat detailed plan has been sketched of the new local education authority. This has been done in order to present some- thing definite and concrete, and to show how the principles advocated are capable of being applied in detail ; but I am far from maintain- ing that this is the sole, if even the best, method of applying them. It has at least the merit of being a definite scheme, which carries us beyond the generalities of "large areas," " large powers," " correlation," and so forth, terms which are very far from precise, but which all agree to because any required mean- ing can be read into them. Apart from this, Vlll PREFACE. the principles must stand or fall through their inherent truth. What, however, most concerns the nation is the educational work waiting to be done ; the topics dealt with in the last chapter are those of pnramount importance. Much may be effected through improved grading, through extension of the Continuation School, through the realisation of the possibilities of the Secondary School, hitherto so severely handi- capped. The practical problems involved here will tax our energies to the utmost during the coming years. Undoubtedly the future of the nation physical, material and moral is with the Schoolmaster. I could wish my book were more worthy of its great theme. The palliation of its short- comings, in so far as not due to more radical causes, must be the pressure of two heavy sessions of University work together with multifarious other educational activities and demands on time and thought. It is perhaps better to make even a small and imperfect contribution than none at all. If my efforts either tend to the fuller comprehension of the PKEFACE. IX issues involved, or serve to aid or cheer the teacher in his arduous and sometimes thankless labours, they will be justified and more than rewarded. J, fuge ; sed poteras tutior esse domi. CHANONRY, OLD ABERDEEN, Christmas, 1903. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE Retrospective The Origins of Existing Educational Institutions 1 Introductory ambiguity of "Education" and "Educa- tion question " the present Education question in Scotland necessity of legislation assumed review of facts necessary to prove it situation involves institu- tions of various types, instruction of different grades Institutions extent of country and distribution of populition to be provided for Elementary School the Parish Educational organisation prior to the Reformation Knox's scheme of reform in education and its immediate result its importance the old Parish School and its curriculum Schools in Burghs, chiefly Secondary efforts of Church in seventeenth and eighteenth centuries on behalf of education nineteenth century addition of Schools of various kinds, Side, Free Church, Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge confused state of matters in 1860-1870 Argyll Commission and its labours progress sinc^ 1872 Higher Schools Bnrgh Management of them successful Academies state of Burgh Schools in 1868 Act of 1872 injurious from many causes to Secondary Education Endowel Schools and Endow ments Secondary work performed by Elementary Schools the evidence of the Leaving Certificate Xll CONTENTS. Higher Grade Schools Universities private enter- prise in education in Scotland. CHAPTER II. Governing Bodies and Funds 65 Bodies enumerated those charged with care of Institutions each independent of the other Bodies administering funds alone methods of administration regarded from the side of the Elementary and Secondary Schools re- spectivelyconfusion from multiplicity of demands to be satisfied Secondary School in worse position than Elementary statistics of educational governing bodies and their membership Technical included in Secon- darylegislation necessary in order to the solution of the "Education question". CHAPTER III. Relations of Elementary and Secondary Education . 82 Secondary involves Elementary on one side and University on other local and central authorities required machin- ery a necessary evil in education simplest form best comparative importance of local governing body various reasons for this arguments for two governing bodies considerations making for a single governing body contrast of conditions in urban and rural areas respec- tivelydifficulties of scheme of two governing bodies arising from the requirements of pupils detailed ex- amination of the operation of a single governing body in town and country relative importance of Secondary Education in various parts of Scotland, northern and southern, industrial and agricultural Secondary Edu- cation in rural areas must continue to a large extent in its earlier stages attached to the Elementary School interests of Elementary and Secondary local administra- tion in some irreasure conflicting reasons in favour of either being considered paramount line of least resist- ance to be adopted single control better than dual Secondary here regulates Elementary. CONTENTS. Xlll CHAPTER IV. PAGE The School Board 122 Reconstruction of present authorities better than scheme which breaks with the past variety of judgments on School Board varieties of School Board theoretical basis of School Board rendered nugatory in practice cumulative voting simultaneous demission of office demands of Elementary Education on early School Boards more recently Boards have done much for Secondary Education Burgh School Board well fitted to be new local governing body small School Boards difficulties and imperfections the teacher's position under them the system at once wasteful and in- efficient, especially for Secondary Education in rural areas must be replaced by one suitable to conditions and competent for duties to be performed. CHAPTER V. Burgh and County Councils and Committees . . 145 Town Council administration of the Residue Grant not much opportunity of independent action municipal affairs more than sufficient to engross attention Burgh Committee has had little real power and little oppor- tunity of showing its administrative capacity no argument here for abolition of Burgh School Board County Council contrast of County and Burgh administration in general opportunity of County Council in Technical Instruction County educational administration successful where systematically under- taken County Committee like Burgh Committee has had little freedom of action its system of distribution of grants in certain cases administers successfully the Residue Grant affords a basis for reconstruction of rural educational local government. XIV CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. PAGE The Teacher The University Endowments . . 162 Importance of the teacher his rights bound up with national well-being his claims on the State his presence necessary on local governing body in order to provide expert opinion not otherwise available University too much detached from schools mutual gain from closer contact scheme of representation on new local governing bodies Educational Endowments hitherto outside ordinary public management diffi- culties of question varieties of object of Endowments suggestions as to treatment permissive, but not compulsory, union with public administration. CHAPTER "VII. The New Educational Authority 179 Principles involved in adequate system of local government of education possible administrative areas in rural dis- tricts the Parish impossible for Secondary Education the District its merits and demerits preponderance of latter a new grouping of Parishes suitable for Ele- mentary but unsuitable for Secondary only efficient controlling body must be for whole County Burghs of 50,000 to have separate authorities difficulties of County body through varying size and circumstances of individual Counties not insuperable, but require adjustment a separate educational authority repre- sentative and specially elected for the purpose electoral divisions the management of Elementary Schools co-operation of Parish Council parochial rate for Elementary Education, County rate of small amount for Secondary appointment of teachers management of Secondary Schools advantages of proposed scheme CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER VIII. PAGE The Central Authority 219 Spheres of duty of central and local authority respectively necessity for independence of each an Advisory Board undesirable unless representative adjustment of the curriculum Parliamentary sanction a mere form central authority in relation to examination combination of Leaving Certificate and University Preliminary suggested transference of central depart- ment from the metropolis itineration in Scotland. CHAPTER IX. Analogies between Scotland and England . . . 233 Principle involved in adoption of foreign methods certain enactments of English Education Act of 1902 to be embodied in reformed Scotch system no close parallel possible owing to difference in stages of development Voluntary Schools in Scotland need not be interfered with no "religious question " involved. CHAPTER X. Some Aspects of the Work of the New Local Authority 241 Method of distribution of grants for Secondary Education principles of allocation to administrative areas the Continuation School seriousness of the educational problem for pupils of over fourteen years of age diffi- culty of obtaining convincing statistics compulsion to be deprecated meantime physical training indus- trial education co-operation of masters and workers with educational authorities moral aspects duties of citizenship and parenthood training of teachers. CHAPTEK I. RETROSPECTIVE THE ORIGINS OF EXISTING EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. EDUCATION is a subject of perennial interest. As long as there are children to be educated, the ways and means of educating them will always demand forethought and study on the part of parents and community. In that sense there is always, and always will be, an " Education question ". But this question presents different aspects from time to time now one, now another side of it becomes prominent. In one decade the great problem is how the State is to intro- duce itself into the domain of Education ; in the succeeding one, how school fees may be got rid of ; a later period finds the nation divided into hostile camps because parties cannot agree as to the relation of the Church to the School. 1 2 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Politics, sociology, religion, besides many other subjects, border on the sphere of Education, and even enter into it. Questions of this kind, whatever their origin, soon become highly controversial ; they lie in great part outside Education as it is understood by the philosophic educationist. It is true that no theory of Education laying claim to any sort of completeness can ignore, say, the relation of the School to the Church and to the State. But these problems, abstractly discussed, do not introduce questions of party and sect, as they invariably do when they become matters of dis- cussion on the public platform. Two inferences may be drawn from this. First, it bears testimony to the importance of Education itself. By common consent the na- tional welfare is inseparably bound up with the interests of the school. The influence exerted by the school is so great that it is worth the while of great parties and great religious de- nominations to contend vigorously for the con- trol of it. We might go further and say that, apart from all controversial or sectional interest , it is held a worthy ambition for every states- RETROSPECTIVE. 6 man and public man to promote to the extent of his power the prosperity and efficiency of this great means of advancing the nation's best interests. The second inference is that through the ex- tent and variety of the meanings attaching to Education, the use of the term is always more or less ambiguous. One must be informed of the exact circumstances before one can so much as understand what the " Education question " of the moment means. From what has been said it will appear that the Education question is seldom a purely educational question. The contrast might be pointed thus : It is a purely educational question how moral and religious instruction is to be im- parted, at what age, or, perhaps, to speak more correctly, during what period, by what agency or agencies ; and so is the further problem what the relation of the moral to the religious is or ought in the school to be. On the other hand, part of the Education question at present, in England if not in Scotland, is in what pro- portions the different religious sects are to be represented on the authorities that locally con- 1* 4 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. trol or manage the public schools. No one will maintain that the two questions are wholly unconnected, but the connection is not always made evident. Thus " Education " and " Edu- cational " are, in such a context, by no means co-extensive. Education itself means one thing to the teacher or the educationist, quite an- other to the politician or churchman. The Education question of the moment is very far from being always a purely educational question. One might go on to show how the word takes its colour throughout from the associations of the rank, occupation or ideal of those who employ it ; but it is unnecessary to do so here. So much has been said only in order to make it plain that when " the Education question " is spoken of, we must be perfectly certain what is meant. That we have an Education question in Scotland at the present moment needs no proof : that its exact extent and sig- nificance are, in general, fully understood is less certain. My purpose in what follows mainly is to examine the chief factors in the educational situation , and to endeavour to discover the prin- ciples that underlie them, in accordance with RETROSPECTIVE. 5 which its problems must ultimately be decided. Manifestly the settlement of the matters in debate, when it comes, will be permanent and satisfactory just in proportion as it recognises and observes the essential facts and causes in- volved. The Education question, as it appears to the casual observer, at the present moment seems to be What is to be the future of the public administration of Education in Scotland? In particular we seem to be concerned with the relative amount of power to be entrusted to the State and the locality, the central authority and the local authorities. Mixed up with this there are the relations of the various stages of Educa- tion, chiefly of primary and secondary, the so- called correlation and co-ordination of our sys- tem ; while the training of teachers and cognate matters, though things somew T hat apart from reorganisation pure and simple, have also re- ceived more or less notice. The assumption is that the present state of matters, the present relations of governing bodies , are unsatisfactory , and that legislation must be invoked to remove the disabilities under which we labour. b SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. It has been on some such supposition that recent discussion has been based. In this con- nection several valuable contributions have , dur- ing the past year or two, been made through the public press, by conferences, pamphlets, etc., towards the solution of the question. Many suggestions, too, have been offered as to the form that legislation should take, and most of the important bodies interested have expressed their views more or less fully on the situation. This is all as it should be , testifying as it does to the general interest of the nation and the store set upon reform. Nothing but good can come of intelligent discussion. Legislation, to be beneficial, must have regard to all the issues and embrace all that may be urged from all points of view. Legislative change had better not come at all than be partial and one-sided. But perhaps the necessity of legislation is too readily assumed. There is to be sure authority of the very highest for the assumption. But, even so, it would be better if we could first answer distinctly to ourselves the question why legislation is required at all. Only if we can do so, shall we understand what direction it ought RETROSPECTIVE. 7 to take? I propose devoting the present chap- ter to the elucidation of this point. At the same time I do not commit myself to the view that the Education question is, or ever can be, one simply of particular legislative enactments. The conviction has forced itself on most of those who have devoted attention to educational affairs in Scotland that the present educational machinery is defective. Wherein is it defec- tive? Have we not had a great Education Act in beneficent operation for thirty years? Has not its influence been extended and increased by supplementary Acts until the whole field has been covered with a perfect network of them? Add to this that there are zealous local bodies, a ubiquitous Government to control and direct, arid what more is there to desire? Such ques- tions cannot be answered off-hand : we have to review the facts in some detail if we are fairly to face the situation. The subject of our inquiry is in reality the present position of educational affairs in Scot- land and how it has arisen ; but manifestly a full discussion of such a wide topic w^ould re- quire a large volume to itself. The volume 8 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. would form a long and important chapter in the history of Scotch Education, all the more valuable if legislation so alter the aspect of our schools and other educational agencies that the present phase cannot be recalled. That is, however, aside from our present aim. All that can be attempted here is a brief outline of our system in its main features, a bird's-eye view, so to speak, which will put us au courant with the trend of the development of our Scotch system, indicate very generally how it has come to be what it is, and enable us to appreciate proposed changes, being first convinced of their necessity. The facts of the situation as it stands could be seen most clearly by grouping, under sepa- rate and distinct heads, the various educational institutions and forms of government, and de- scribing each separately. The method is hardly practicable, even for existing agencies, for the reason that wholly distinct classes of them can not be formed. There is a good deal of admix- ture and some degree of overlapping. Different authorities and different institutions cannot be cut off by a definite boundary from one another. RETROSPECTIVE. 9 In dealing with one you must treat others also. A system almost implies a dovetailing of parts if it is to be secure. For example, the junction of primary and secondary at once shows how impossible it is to deal with either as if it were wholly cut off from the other by a clear line of demarcation. All that can with safety be said is that there are prevailing types of educational activity, and educational authorities whose juris- diction is predominantly in a certain sphere, but this does not amount to the exclusion of mixed types and common spheres of action. Still more difficult does a definite division become if we seek to include under it anything of the past, and attempt to show the relation of the present system to its growth. Opinions will differ as to the best method of arranging and presenting what is confessedly a complex state of matters, and the position will arrange itself, to some extent, in accordance with the relative importance attached to one or other phase of it. The situation, as it presents itself to my mind, seems to embrace and bring into prominence three things in particular : first, the educational 10 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. institutions the schools; second, their govern- ing bodies ; third , the funds by which they are supported. Another principle of division which runs right through the preceding is that fur- nished by the grades or stages of the curricu- lum, and here the terms primary or elementary, secondary and university, seem to answer all practical purposes. Subdivision might be carried further by the introduction of a form intermediate between primary and secondary, as has sometimes been done : here it is hardly necessary. However far subdivision were car- ried within each of the main divisions, some- thing w r ould still be wanting to a clear-cut division between part and part. Though the terms elementary, secondary arid university may be somewhat illogical, they are well under- stood, which, after all, is the chief matter. In some parts of the Kingdom secondary is desig- nated " Intermediate ". The scheme would then shape itself as includ- ing educational institutions, governors, funds, and these running through the three chief grades of instruction. But withal there is no clearly marked division between one part of EETEOSPECTIVE. 11 the system and another, and it is only for con- venience that prevalent types are selected. The principal educational institutions of Scot- land are : (A) Elementary Schools ; (B) Higher Schools, variously designated Grammar Schools, High Schools, Academies, Colleges, Institutions; Institute and Collegiate School are now rare, while Seminary seems to have entirely dropped : to these may be added Higher Grade and Technical Schools ; (C) Universities. Before anything is said of these individually, it may be useful to recall some of the pertinent facts relative to the country for which edu- cational provision has to be made, for whose sake the whole machinery of Education exists. Scotland has a population of about 4,500,000, spread over an area of some 30,000 square miles, giving an average distribution of 150 per square mile, the distribution varying in density from 1,523 per square mile in Lanarkshire to 11 per square mile in Sutherlandshire. A considera- tion of the detailed figures reveals the fact that over the greater part of the country the distri- 12 SHOUT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. bution gravitates towards the lower extreme, for in only 11 counties , representing less than a fourth of the total area, does it exceed the aver- age ; while in the other 22 counties, which cover more than three-fourths of the area, it falls below the average. To this point we shall have to return later on. The portion of the population falling within the scope of Education may be conveniently divided into two parts those between the ages of 5 and 14, i.e., over 5 and under 14, and those between 14 and 20. The former belong to the Elementary stage, the latter to the Secondary and Higher stages. The age of 14 forms one of the few sharp divisions in Education, being that legislatively prescribed as the boundary between Elementary and Secondary, or, perhaps rather, that of exemption from compulsory attendance at the Elementary School. The children of the compulsory school stage (5 to 14) constitute nearly one-fifth of the population (19 '38 per cent.), and number 866,908; those of the Sec- ondary and Higher period (14 to 20) number 551,196, being almost exactly one-eighth of the whole population (12'32 per cent.). The Ele- THE ELEMENTABY SCHOOL. 13 mentary Schools of the country must provide for the education of upwards of 850,000 chil- dren, the other schools, up to and including in part the university, for that proportion of 550,000 which voluntarily elects to continue its education , or which can be persuaded or induced to do so. A. THE ELEMENTABY SCHOOL. There are 3,141 Elementary Schools in Scot- land in receipt of grants from Parliament, and they constitute the first line in our educational army. They are all in a rough way Public, but they are not so in the strict sense as being all under public management. The official division of these, according to the latest avail- able return, is as follows : Public 1 2,788 Church of Scotland 24 Free Church 4 Episcopal 67 Roman Catholic 189 Undenominational and other Schools . . 69 Total . . 3,141 : The official name of the great majority of elementary schools is not to be confounded with the use of the word as 14 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. If we are to understand the position of the Elementary School we must look into the past and see whence it has sprung. It is the more necessary to do so, as its position and function have given rise to much debate and difference of opinion, and there is hardly a more difficult practical question in the whole circle of Educa- tion than to determine the exact scope and sphere of the Elementary School. As the diffi- culty is more felt in rural areas than in centres of population, it will be best to begin with the former. John Knox is credited with most that is good in the Scotch system of Education, and is popu- larly believed to have created the Parish School , of which the rural Public School is the lineal descendant. This is in a sense true ; but, per- haps, not the whole truth. The foundations of our educational system are prior to Knox's time, and are bound up , as they are in most countries , applied to schools in England. Between the English and the Scotch Public Schools there is no analogy : they have nothing in common. There are in Scotland a few Higher Class Public Schools, thirty in all, but these are seldom spoken of as simply Public Schools. The epithet " Higher Class " is the distinctive one. THE ELEMENTAEY SCHOOL. 15 with ecclesiastical institutions. In pre-Refor- mation days there were parishes, and some attempt was evidently made to impart instruc- tion in connection with the parochial system of the Church, though not much of a useful charac- ter was accomplished. The parish itself seems to have been originally a division of an estate or demesne that could be served by one church, to which, by the way, the lord of the manor ob- tained, by-and-by, the right of presenting an incumbent. In these early times the religious ordinances were ministered by some person supplied from the central organisation, the abbey or the cathedral. Persons told off in this way to a rural cure of souls were parish priests, and were at once ministers of religion and teachers. The office was not so attractive from a worldly point of view as that of a priest or monk attached to the abbey or cathedral itself. Besides, the parish priest had multi- farious duties to attend to, and we cannot be surprised that, as instructor of youth, he was not a marked success. To this has to be added that there were not a great many, especially in rural parts, who desired education at the time. 16 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Those who did desire it, attended the abbey or other central schools, many of which were, even before the Kef ormation , comparatively flourishing and efficient. Thus, prior to the Eef ormation there was the parallel organisation of Church and School. In the centres of population, St. Andrews, Arbroath, Perth, etc., there were abbeys or cathedrals with a full staff of officials who were at once preachers and teachers ; in connection with the abbey or cathedral was an Abbey or Cathedral School, which, at a subsequent date, became the Burgh or Grammar School. On the other hand, in the country, to which we more particularly refer, there were districts assigned to the care of the various abbeys, lands also, which they themselves owned, for the spiritual cure of which, including Education, members of the religious community were told off. The office was not an easy one, and it had not so many attractions as life at the abbey. The parish priest who held the office hardly took rank with his urban colleague. No doubt he did what he could for Education in his dis- trict, as well as for religion, but one cannot >ilVERSfTY THE ELEMENTAEY SCHOOL^ be surprised that under these circumstances rural or parochial education was not a great success. Knox and his colleagues did not aim at abolishing, but at reforming, both Church and School. They proposed to extend and perfect such machinery as was in existence, and to fill up the gaps in the agencies already at work. It must be remembered that the Keformation itself made Education a far more important matter than it had ever before been. Knox in Scot- land affords a complete parallel to Luther in Germany in his scheme for the establishment of a national system of Education. The re- formed religion relied upon the intelligence and instruction of its adherents. The doctrines of the Reformation would have been a caricature unless the people could examine them for them- selves, and, in particular, unless they could read the supreme authority, the Scriptures, in the vernacular. Knox may have been a Eeformer first and an educationist afterwards. "It really dods not matter for our purpose. Nor does it matter whether his educational ideas were original or derived from Germany or Geneva. 2 18 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. What does concern us is that he, with his co- a'djutors, sketched in the First Book of Discip- line a scheme which has ever since remained an ideal. The proposals did riot deal merely with the Parish Schools, -they extended to all grades up the "great schollis callit Universities," which, as the ultimate aim, were to be replen- ished with those apt to learning, so that the nation in its civil, no less than in sacred con- cerns, might derive benefit from the intellectual gifts of its people. The Keformation was in some measure the triumph of the parish as against the abbey. The Parish Schools may be said to have received their charter from Knox, but his scheme was not specially designed for their benefit. They were included equally with other grades of Education ; if they benefited most, it was because there was most room for improvement there, because they were more de- ficient than other existing institutions. Knox's scheme was a complete whole, and aimed at the national organisation of Education from top to bottom. Brains have always been* the nation's chief asset. Knox would have had this a,sset worked to the highest national profit THE ELEMENTAEY SCHOOL. 19 in Church and State. Apart from Church in- terests he would probably have been willing to adopt the language used forty years earlier by Luther to the German cities : " Even if there were no souls, and we had not the least need of schools and the languages for the sake of the Scriptures and of God, this one reason should suffice to cause the establishment of the very best schools everywhere, both for boys and girls, namely, that the w r orld needs accomplished men, and women also, for maintaining its out- ward temporal prosperity," etc. (Quoted by Painter, History of Education, pp. 143, 144.) It would be aside from our purpose to discuss the policy and aims of the First Book of Discip- line further than they bear upon the matter in hand the evolution of the Elementary School. It is not irrelevant, however, to remark that the full scheme contemplated at least four kinds of educational institutions. (a) The upland or wholly rural school , taught by the ' ' reader or minister ' ' of the parish , embracing instruction in the rudiments and the Catechism ; (6) in the larger villages and smaller towns, as seems the probable interpretation of the words, a school 2* 20 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. still in connection with the Church, but taught by a separate official, a schoolmaster competent to give instruction in Grammar and Latin ; (c) in the larger towns Colleges, i.e., High Schools, with a staff of " sufficient," in other words, efficient, masters, giving instruction in the arts, at least Logic and Rhetoric, as well as in languages ; (d) the crown of the system was to be the Universities. Curiously enough no pro- posal was made for any system of national Uni- versities or extension of their number beyond the existing ones. They were accepted as accomplished facts, sufficient apparently for all practical requirements, and that at a time when Edinburgh University had not been founded ! We find it hard to believe. To us accustomed to schemes of comprehen- sive organisation there may not seem anything very startling in Knox's proposals. They were business-like and to the purpose, likely to pro- mote efficiency, an advance upon the past. This we readily concede. But how came it that they so appealed to the imagination of contem- porary and succeeding generations that they seemed almost inspired, and that they are still THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. 21 regarded in some quarters as the ideal after which we should strive? They were, in the first place, a great step in advance of anything within man's horizon in the Scotland of that day (1561). They are to be measured by the contrast they presented between current inefficiency and a compre- hensive system worthy of the nation, and containing the earnest of complete efficiency. Perhaps the cause may have been in part because they satisfied, or gave promise of satis- fying, that ardent aspiration for knowledge which is so deeply rooted in the nation and so widely spread through all classes of the com- munity. They recognised, too, the local pat- riotism which Scotland possesses to such a remarkable degree. Further, by its widespread ramifications the system gave opportunities of instruction without breach of the family life, and without exposing the youthful members of it to risks to health and to temptation at a ten- der age, if they should be compelled to resort to " strange and unknawin placis " in order to obtain their education. All or each of these reasons may have operated. The Book of Dis- 22 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. cipline itself refers to the last as well as to subsidiary advantages from the arrangement proposed. Whatever the reason, the fact re- mains that Scotland has continued to hold Knox's scheme in high repute, and still wishes to have its Education brought within convenient reach of its children. If climate and poverty have been the ultimate causes of this sentiment, these have been our greatest blessings in dis- guise. The story of the rejection of the First Book of Discipline, and of the selfish cupidity of the Scotch nobles who brought about its rejection, is too well known to require repetition. Money was needed to carry out the scheme. Knox expected to get it from the confiscated revenues of the abbeys and monasteries, but these splen- did endowments were attached by the hungry barons for private purposes. Though -the Book of Discipline was supported by a certain num- ber of the Reforming nobles, it never passed into law, but remained a " devout imagina- tion," perhaps all the more precious in the eyes of the nation because unattainable. The importance of the Reformers' proposals THE ELEMENTAEY SCHOOL. 23 in the immediate sequel lay in the fact that they were accepted by the thoughtful and re- sponsible portion of the nation as wholly suited to the requirements of the country, and as the ideal whose realisation was a worthy object of effort. The men of the seventeenth century held this as a model before their eyes, and worked steadily to have it embodied in living form. Knox's scheme remained the one and only object of educational reform worth striv- ing for. In considering the direction that effort took we must bear in mind that the Scotland of the seventeenth century was a very different place from the Scotland of the twentieth century. The population was comparatively small, and it w r as widely scattered ; added to which the means of communication were bad. The difficulty always was to bring Education within reach of those who desired it. If the difficulties of travelling were one of the chief reasons for founding a separate University at Aberdeen in 1494, it need not surprise us that, a century later, a date two and a half centuries before the age of steam, our ancestors' chief concern 24 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. still was so to spread the means of Education as to render it accessible to those who could neither travel day by day to the centre where it was to be had, nor afford, even if they desired, to reside there during school terms. Every- where during this age w r e find the prominent question in Education to be that connected with the parish. It was more difficult of solution than that of urban areas, the reason being in part the inaccessibility of remote country dis- tricts, to which reference has been made; in part the fact that burghs were already in some measure supplied with schools. In the latter, in addition to, and in part in succession to, the good work of the abbeys, the municipal authorities had, from an early period, interested themselves in Education, and had succeeded in establishing schools, many of them excellent of their kind. As yet there was in them little or no differentiation of primary and secondary, but the Burgh School from its inception im- parted all the instruction necessary up to the stage of entrance to the University. The Re- formation gave the rural area its chance. The centralisation of the abbey system, which had THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. 25 left Education starved in the outlying districts, was to give place to an equitable distribution of the means of instruction, in which all parts of the country were to share equally. M. Compayre says (History of Pedagogy, p. 112) : " In its origin the Primary School is the child of Protestantism, and its cradle is the Re- formation," a remark which has a considerable measure of aptness in its application to rural Scotland as to Germany. But perhaps it hardly covers the whole ground with us. The Reformation, to be sure, gave the Primary School in Scotland its chance ; but there never seems to have been in practice, though there was, to a certain extent, in Knox's original plan, any idea of restricting the rural Parish School to subjects of primary instruction. Every school that is charged with the whole of Education up to the University must, from the nature of things, be predominantly ele- mentary, simply because there are ten pupils taking elementary subjects for every one who devotes himself to secondary subjects. But this does not at once establish a standard of value. In Education, of all subjects, quality 26 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. comes first, quantity second by a very long way. So it was with these old Parish Schools estab- lished after the Ivnox type. The instruction contemplated \vas chiefly elementary, but care- ful provision was made for the select pupils, often few in number, who aspired to higher things. It may have been that something was even sacrificed to them ; it is difficult to say. Sacrifice within limits was quite justifiable. It does not argue neglect of elementary sub- jects that the teacher has his higher ambition of turning out scholars. The ambition is a stimulus which reacts on the lower work, and is a sanctifying influence throughout the school , maintaining that intellectual interest and alert- ness without which any teaching, however formally efficient, is uninspiring and compara- tively profitless. Besides, the presence of the better scholars was an inspiration to others ; they were the pride and the reward of their teacher ; an object-lesson and incentive to their fellows. Certain it is that they were in the old days regarded as heroes, like the Homeric warriors, one of them equal to a host of the mere elementary pupils ; and, indeed, the spirit is not yet obsolete. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. 27 This was, as generally understood, the type of the old Parish School, whose foundation, or re-foundation, dates from close upon the Refor- mation, a school to serve all the wants of the area in which it was situated, giving instruction to all children of parishioners, and necessarily for the most part in elementary subjects ; but reaching the height of its possibilities only in the production of those scholars who went out to win fame for themselves, their teacher and their parish in the wider arenas of University and public service. In the centres of population, to which we now turn, an analogous type was also found, but it is by no means so prominent in connec- tion with purely Elementary Schools. The chief reason, probably, is that in towns the school of secondary stamp was the rule rather than the exception. The Burgh School w^as a Grammar School, i.e., one in which attention was paid to the study of language, chiefly Latin. Instruction in elementary subjects w r as no doubt often given, but it did not bulk so largely as the other, to which a considerable number of pupils devoted themselves. In the Rural School 28 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. elementary instruction bulked most largely, but it was the ambition of the school to pass beyond that stage in selected instances. In the Burghal School language or grammar was the objective, for the sake of which some prelimin- ary preparation in elementary subjects was required, and consequently admitted. When, in course of time, more people in towns desired elementary instruction, this was often provided in " Lecture " or Reading Schools, which were Elementary, or Preparatory, and nothing more. The numbers to be taught rendered a division of function in the schools of the Burghs pos- sible, and, indeed, economical of effort, while no such subdivision was practicable in the rural areas. Added to this, the development and differen- tiation of Primary Education in the Burghs is a matter of recent date, that is, since people began to crowd into towns, and since the requirements of an increasingly complex civil- isation have rendered universal instruction up to a certain standard essential. Hence it is that the true historical parent of the modern Elementary School is the rural type the Parish THE ELEMENTAEY SCHOOL. 29 School established after the Knox pattern not the Burgh School, which at the period referred to was more of a Secondary than a Primary School : these facts can never safely be forgotten in dealing with the matter. The stages in the history of the development of the Elementary School throw additional light on the subject. The century after Knox is of great interest and importance in this develop- ment. The work accomplished during the seventeenth century lasted on through the eighteenth, and it is not till the nineteenth that the Education question again becomes acute. After the Eeformation the work of agitating for educational reform was taken up by the Church, and the efforts put forth in this direc- tion constitute one of the most honourable chapters in its history. The question turned, as most questions do, on finance. The attempt to secure the revenues of the old Church for national purposes, including education, had failed. The State had not yet entered the field of educational administration. Whence were funds to be obtained? The ultimate answer was that it was the duty of the landowners to 30 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. provide for the education of their tenants, whose labour sustained them ; and this practically meant for the community at large. The public body representative of the collective interests of the landed proprietors was the heritors. Accor- dingly we find educational reform following one uniform line during the period under review ; the Church presses upon the heritors in each parish the duty of providing a school, with suit- able equipment and endowment. Kirk Session, Presbytery, General Assembly are all active. When the Church's direct efforts fail it is power- ful enough to get Acts of Parliament to back it up. All through the seventeenth century the struggle goes on, the Church insisting, the heritors resisting. Even Acts of Parliament, somehow or other, always seem to fall a little short of success. The year 1616 is an important date, as it marks the distinct recognition by the Privy Council of the necessity of a school '' in every parish of this Kingdom where con- venient means may be had for entertaining a school" just a reaffirmation of Knox's idea. Many other instruments might be cited in a similar sense. But it was not till 1696 that the THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. 31 great Act of Parliament was passed which may be regarded as the legislative charter of the Parish School. It succeeded where previous Acts had failed, probably because, in default of the heritors' action, it introduced an alternative machinery for carrying out its enactments, and because it provided remedies and penalties whose force would make itself unpleasantly felt. This Act may be regarded as the completion of the movement begun by the reformers in one of its branches. In the scheme of .the First Book of Discipline there had been two chief underlying ideas : first, universal provision of schools for the country; second, a carefully graded system leading up to the University. After a hundred and thirty-five years the first was embodied in the law of the land. But, alas ! after two more centuries Scotland still lacks the carefully graded system. During the eighteenth century the Church's chief effort was directed toward the carrying out of the provisions of the Act of 1696. It still had to be vigilant lest the heritors should shirk the duties imposed on them. The heritors were pretty much like their successors and like 32 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. public bodies in general : some were zealous and enlightened, others apathetic and disin- clined to incur expenditure which could be avoided. Naturally more is heard of the latter than of the former. The Church, however, remained firm and consistent in its endeavours to secure at least the minimum of provision for Education a proper school in each parish. But the century was one of progress too. A higher standard of accommodation for scholars and teachers was set up, better emoluments were provided, and otherwise educational in- terests were advanced and the status of the teacher improved. Several Acts of Parliament were passed, all with this object, and all. no doubt, due in chief measure to the representa- tions and influence of the Church. On the whole during this period the evolution was in the direction of improving the schools rather than increasing their number. By the beginning of the nineteenth century the necessity for more schools became apparent. From 1803 onwards there is a series of enact- ments in which the erection of additional schools is generally a prominent feature. These schools THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. 33 were all after the model of the Parish School, and were designed to spread Education more generally, to bring it within reach of children in the more remote parts, to perfect the sys- tem in fact as well as in theory. The estab- lishment of additional schools, besides the Parish Schools, is analogous to the establish- ment of quoad sacra parishes. There were in many of the wide parishes ' ' with houses f er asonder " districts which were without the range of religious and educational influence emanating from the parish church and school. For these quoad sacra churches and additional schools were provided in course of time. The two chief classes of these were Side Schools (1803) and Parliamentary Parish Schools (1838). These classes have now been merged with the older Parish Schools, and all rank as Elemen- tary Public Schools. Within the parish there is generally, even at the present day, a dis- tinction maintained between the Parish School and other schools, all which, without respect to their origin, appear to be now called Side Schools. There are among these Side Schools some 3 34 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. which arose in a different way from the pre- ceding, and which introduce us to the next important event in connection with the history of the Elementary School. The great ecclesi- astical convulsion which parted Scotland into opposing camps in 1843 reacted powerfully upon Education. The Church of Scotland had all along, as we have seen, taken the warmest and most active interest in the progress of Education. The spirit of the whole was carried into the parts, into which the Church of Scot- land was now divided, the Established and the Free Churches. The latter, from its position as schismatic, was bound to take the aggressive in the establishment of schools. The old schools, with the old churches, remained in possession of the old Church. The new Church applied itself with the utmost energy and generosity to the building of schools no less than of churches. These schools were more or less rivals and competitors of the schools already in existence, but they proved in great measure supplementary to them. The country was still undermanned with schools. What was begun by the Free Church from denominational zeal, and was indeed a sine qua non of its existence THE ELEMENTAEY SCHOOL. 35 where dispossessed teachers had to be provided with employment and children had to be brought up in the true faith , proved of immense national benefit. We have reason to bless its zeal and generosity which gave us schools which would not otherwise easily have been provided, and equipped them in a manner worthy of its high aims. The sites of the schools were not, of course, always chosen to the best advantage. Sometimes the site desired was not available ; at other times there was more anxiety, it is said, to oppose an existing school than to pro- vide educational facilities. The reasons con- cern us less in this connection than the facts. The fact is that the Free Church added largely to the school supply of the country, though, at the same time, the efficiency of Education was not to an equal degree promoted by the dis- tribution of schools where they were most required. It only remains to mention that various other agencies, some of a semi-public character, others wholly private, had been at work in the educa- tional field during the latter part of the period under review. Of these the most important was the Society for the Propagation of Christian 36 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Knowledge, established as far back as 1709, and by law connected with the Established Church. Its schools, however, formed a separate item from the Church schools, and numbered some 200. Then, between 1830 and 1840, Government- had stepped in by means of the Privy Council, making grants to schools under certain con- ditions, and introducing therewith a system of inspection, which, so far as one can gather, in the first instance came considerably short of what it was designed to ensure. With so many agencies at work, each pur- suing its own object irrespective of the rest, and with no controlling and unifying influence to harmonise their efforts, it is not to be won- dered at that waste, overlapping and all the other evils of an anarchic condition were pre- valent. The culmination was reached in the years 1860-70. This, which may be called the decade of confusion, would seem to have been somewhat analogous to the past twelve or fifteen years in the realm of Secondary Education. The chaos in Elementary Education of 1861-72 led to a great reform. The parallel condition in respect to the agencies at work in the field of THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. 37 Secondary work will appear more fully by-and- by. We can well bear up through it if we are assured that it is to issue in comparative order, such as was established by the Act of 1872 among the Elementary Schools of the land. The sum of our remarks on the origin of the Elementary School amounts to this : The parent and type was the old rural Parish School, dating from the Reformation or earlier. Of these schools there was usually one in each parish, and there were sometimes more, the additional ones being now designated Side Schools, but having their origin in several dif- ferent ways. On the old model were founded Schools of the Society for the Propagation of Christian Knowledge and Free Church Schools, while there were also numerous private schools. The Elementary School in the Burgh is usually of more recent origin. Its prototype seems to have been the " Lecture " School, usually, it would appear, a private concern ; while the Public or Burgh School was more of a Second- ary than an Elementary School. But it may be further noted that by the middle of the nineteenth century the Churches had entered the urban field with Sessional or Mission 38 SHOBT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Schools, and there were various other classes of schools, denominational and undenomina- tional, which, as not concerning the evolution of the school, need not be particularised. A Koyal Commission, presided over by the Duke of Argyll, was appointed in 1864 to en- deavour to disentangle the confusion into which things had drifted, and thence to evolve a national system. It reported in 1867, and soon after the Education Act for Scotland of 1872 embodied in statute law the chief results of its labours. The following is the Commission's statement of the numbers and classes of schools furnishing Elementary Education in those por- tions of the country from which returns were procured : Parochial 917 Side 189 Parliamentary 27 Church of Scotland 519 Free Church 617 U.P. and other Presbyterian .... 45 Episcopalian . .... 74 Roman Catholic 61 Undenominational and others . . . 1,084 Private Adventure . . . 910 4,443 Add numbers for Kilmore and Kilbride, not classifiable 8 Total , 4,451 THE ELEMENTAEY SCHOOL. 39 The total number of children on the roll was 312,795, being 1 in 6 '5 of a population of 2,050,024, which represented, generally speak- ing, the rural area. No return was obtained by the Commission from most of the burghs, except in the case of Glasgow, where separate pro- vision was made for a complete investigation of the facts. Thus 1,012,270 of the burghal population are not included in the above. Of this number Glasgow contained 395,503 with 233 schools, having on the roll 41,248 scholars, being 1 to 9*6 of the total population. The children of school age (here taken as 3 to 15) were 98,767, so that, in Glasgow at any rate, the existing state of matters left much to be desired. For 616,767,! fully one-fifth of the urban 1 Although in general the Burgh Registrars would not undertake the duty of making the return required by the Argyll Commission, it must be borne in mind that the numbers given above do not at all accurately represent the respective proportion of rural and urban population. The groups are roughly rural and urban, but the 2,050,024 contains such Burghs as Airdrie, Arbroath, Dunfermline, Falkirk, Kirkcaldy, Stirling, etc. On the other hand, in the 616,767 there appear Kingussie and Insh, 2,033, Wigtown, 2,637, and several others considerably under 10,000. The figures are those of the census of 1861, when the total population of Scotland was 3,062,294. 40 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. population of Scotland, there was no return at all. If we turn now to the figures of the Ele- mentary Schools, as given in the Annual Re- port upon Education in Scotland, we find that the classification for 1872, a date very little subsequent, is : Public Church of Scotland 1,311 Free Church 523 Episcopal 46 Roman Catholic 22 Undenominational and other schools . . Total . . 1,902 A footnote regarding the Church of Scotland Schools states : ' ' Including Parish (now Public) Schools vested in the School Boards by section 23 of the Act of 1872". On the last item, undenominational, etc., the comment runs: " Included with Church of Scotland and Free Church prior to 1879 ". A comparison of these figures with those of the Argyll Commission shows that there must apparently have been a severe shaking out of weak and inefficient schools when the Act of 1872 came into operation. It would require THE ELEMENTAEY SCHOOL. 41 very elaborate statistics to illustrate the effects in detail, but enough has been said to indicate the general trend of the movement as well as to show the main features of the history and development of the type of school now recog- nised as distinctively elementary. Again, a comparison of the figures for 1872 and those in the latest report shows the pro- gress that has been made within the past thirty years. It is undoubtedly far greater than was ever made in any similar period of our history. The number of schools has increased by 50 per cent., and not only so, but the standard of accommodation and of equipment has been raised enormously. In external adornment and in internal fitting the Public Elementary School of the best type now leaves little room for improvement. The mere fact that the number of State-aided schools has increased from 1,902 in 1872 to 3,141 in 1902 is not to be accepted as proof that all the 1,200 schools have been additional educational means. The population has increased during the same period by over a million. It must have required several hun- dred schools, at least half the increase, to 42 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. accommodate these. Then the increased space required per pupil accounts for another part of the increase. But when these deductions have been made, there still remains a solid residuum which represents pure educational gain. If it were our object to trace the educational pro- gress that has been made, we should, of course, have to take account of many other circum- stances besides. In fact, the mere number of schools is the least of all the gain. The average school now represents a much larger number of pupils. While the population has increased by only 25 per cent, during the thirty years, the average attendance at the Public Schools in cumulo has probably increased by at least 50, and perhaps 75, per cent., 1 and the advance is still more manifest in the number of teachers and their efficiency. In any esti- mate of the merits and demerits of our present system facts like these should not be over- looked. The purpose is not, however, to dwell on this aspect of Education, but to give some 1 Some of the figures of the Argyll Commission were dis- puted, but I have adopted what seems to me a reasonable inference in view of all the circumstances. HIGHEE SCHOOLS. 43 account of an Elementary School in its origin and development. On that subject probably enough has now been said. The primary instruction of the country, in so far as not given in the Public Elementary School, or by Voluntary Schools receiving pub- lic money, is given in private schools, of which there are quite a number in our larger towns, especially for girls ; or in preparatory depart- ments attached to Secondary Schools. When we have mentioned these, our enumeration of the institutions for elementary instruction is sufficiently complete. B. HIGHER SCHOOLS. Institutions for Secondary Education are numerous and varied in character, but a de- tailed description of them is not necessary, all the more as it has been in part anticipated in what has been said of the Elementary School. The parent of the Higher or Secondary School was the Burgh School , whose distinctive sphere was to impart instruction in Language, especi- ally Latin, from which fact it was sometimes known as the Latin School, as well as the Gram- 44 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. mar School. To begin with, it was founded in connection with the abbey, monastery or cathedral, which attracted to itself all of learn- ing and research that existed in the early ages. Under the protection of the great Churches towns subsequently grew up, and very early it became an ambition of the Burgh to encourage, and later to control, the school. From being an ecclesiastic concern Education became a municipal concern. Eventually the Burghs ob- tained the control of the Abbey or other Church Schools situated within their bounds, though seldom without a struggle more or less keen. It is probable that the secret of the triumph of the Burghs, i.e., of the town councils, as against the bishop or other ecclesiastic, was the readiness of the Burgh to undertake the financial responsibilities connected with Edu- cation. Municipal corporations displayed from a. very early period a just pride in the good name and efficiency of their schools, and contributed liberally to their maintenance in all reasonable ways. The connection of the Burgh with its school constitutes on the whole a very honour- able chapter in the municipal records. HIGHEK SCHOOLS. 45 Though the abbey was the original, it was by no means the sole founder of the schools which afterwards became Burgh Schools. Several, indeed many, were established by municipal corporations themselves, being called for by the wants of the age, and supplying a kind of instruction in many instances different from the old Church School. For a time the Burgh School supplied the place of both School and University, but, after the foundation of the University, the school had a more clearly-defined sphere ; at the same time the University was, on the whole, the goal toward which it pointed . It must have been, an incentive to the schools to have a definite object thus presented to them. While it relieved them of part of their work, it ensured their continu- ance by rendering their efforts a necessary preliminary to entrance on the higher studies which, in their turn, were a preparation for professional avocation or political career. Any compendious account of the develop- ment of the Secondary Schools of Scotland is almost bound to be misleading, as nearly every school has something distinctive in its history : / ( UNIVE UNIVERSITY 46 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. a detailed account lies quite beyond our aim. Much useful information on the subject will be found in the two volumes of the Argyll Commission Beport, specially devoted to the Burgh and Middle-class Schools. The old Burgh Schools, ecclesiastic or muni- cipal in origin, had developed, under the care of town councils chiefly, each according to the special circumstances and requirements of its locality, and, though somewhat straitened by lack of endowments, were in a not unpros- perous condition in 1872. But they had been supplemented from the middle of the eighteenth century onward by another class of school, called, by way of distinction, Academy, which requires a passing notice. The Academy was in its origin and aim a modern school. It was designed to teach science, and in general to provide " a more liberal and more practical course of education than that supplied by the old Burgh Schools". 1 One of the earliest Academies was that at Perth, founded 1760-66. But it was by no means a new foundation ; it was simply the remodelling on new lines of a 1 Grant, Burgh Schools of Scotland, p. 115. HIGHER SCHOOLS. 47 Grammar School that had existed for five or six centuries previously : the same holds good of other Academies. But there were Academics that were new, e.g., Inverness, founded in 1793, and Airdrie, as late as 1850. The chief point of interest, perhaps, is that the new school gravitated toward the old type, and became, in course of time, a Grammar School to all intents and purposes. The time had not yet come when a complete course of Education could be had through modern sub- jects. The inherent merits of the older linguis tic training carried the day, and the Academy, instead of supplementing the Grammar School and rendering available a wider range of culture and a greater variety of choice for parents, ended by superseding or absorbing the Gram- mar School ; that is, it became itself the Gram- mar School, but on a somewhat more modern and slightly improved basis. Where Academy and Grammar School continued to exist to- gether, it was as rivals and competitors, and not as coadjutors, each providing for its own constituency. Thus the name Academy lost all that was distinctive of a separate class of 48 SHOBT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. school, and the same holds of Institution, College, etc., which are now mere labels, or at best contain a little bit of history. We may designate the whole class collectively as Burgh Schools. In 1872, or, to be strictly accurate, in 1868, there were x 87 so-called ' ' Public Secondary Schools " in Scotland, of which 33 were Burgh Schools proper, 23 Academies, and the remain- ing 21 either Burgh and Parochial or simply Parochial, filling the place of Burgh Schools. The instruction given was, in some cases, ele- mentary, in some cases distinctly beyond the elementary stage, in others mixed. In the second of the divisions, as thus determined by the character of the instruction, i.e., the real Secondary Schools, there were but six, and one gathers that the third class was the most numerous. The instruction, taken over all, was good as far as it went, and formed an adequate preparation for entrance to the Uni- versity, which, as already stated, was the standard aimed at. We see, then, that in 1872 there were 56 1 The return is not quite complete. HIGHEE SCHOOLS. 49 schools of a Secondary type, and that the rest of the Secondary Education of the country was given in schools either wholly or semi-parochial. Secondary Education was at the time, though " in a satisfactory condition," of a somewhat heterogeneous character, and one is surprised that steps were not taken by the Commission to introduce into the organisation of the Second- ary Schools some principles of orderly ar- rangement. The position in Elementary and Secondary was in one respect, the co-ordination of effort, very much alike, and yet it was only the former that received reorganisation and was supplied with adequate funds. ' There is," say the Assistant Commis- sioners (vol. iii., p. 109 1 ), " no distinction be- tween the different classes of schools, and no line of demarcation between the higher and the lower. . . . The Burgh and Middle-class Schools, . . . which might be expected to be Secondary, combine in themselves Infant, Ele- mentary and Secondary Schools. Sometimes in the same class-room , and taught by the same master, there are boys and girls of fifteen and 1 Report of the Argyll Commission. 4 50 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. sixteen years of age reading, it may be, Homer and Virgil and Eacine, and, alongside of them, infants under six years of age learning their letters and the multiplication table, and young men of eighteen and twenty, who, according to age, ought to be in the Universities. . . . There is no uniformity or organisation through- out the country, but schools have been left just as they have grown up, or old schools have been amalgamated with new, so that the general result is a sort of ill-ordered patchwork, and the great marvel is how much good comes out of this disorder." It is surprising that, in face of these and similar statements, the effort to grade schools and to improve organisation was not extended all along the line. The result has been that, while Elementary Education was put on a new basis in 1872, Secondary was left to muddle along as it could, and the confusion has been rendered worse confounded by partial measures adopted in the interval since then. Secondary Education awaits its reorganisation. Nor is this all. The Education Act of 1872 was, in fact, disastrous, if not to Secondary Edu- cation, at any rate to the Secondary Schools. HIGHER SCHOOLS. 51 The reasons are not far to seek. It established Elementary Education securely, and provided it with ample funds. New governing bodies were set up, School Boards, which thought their ex- clusive duty was toward Elementary instruction, and which, besides, doubted of their statutory powers to aid the higher class schools. It was only certain Secondary Schools that actually came under the administration of the School Boards ; but they had soon a special reason to lament the change of control, and to long for the old days of more generous Burgh govern- ment. 1 Besides, their chief source of revenue, fees, was greatly reduced through the com- petition of the higher departments of Ele- mentary Schools ? which soon became efficient, and could supply the education required by a certain class of children at a much cheaper rate than could the higher class school which had not Government grant or rates to fall back upon. Many of the private adventure schools were killed outright, while the Public Schools 1 The Argyll Commission had reported (vol. iii., p. xii.) : "In these circumstances we do not propose that any change shall be made in the management of the Burgh and other Second- ary Schools of Scotland ". 4* 52 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. languished through want of funds ; the educa- tional requirements were constantly increasing, and the means of meeting them, which were at the disposal of the Secondary Schools, dwind- ling rather than increasing, until within the past few years, notably in 1892 and 1899, funds specially designed for their assistance have been secured, and they are now at last beginning to emerge from their long eclipse. The consoli- dation of funds and simplification of administra tion are still urgently required in order to free them from the trammels of multiplied condi- tions and examinations which everywhere cramp their action. Among the present Secondary Schools there are a considerable number which had their origin in endowments bequeathed by pious founders for the benefit of Education. Their interests now are pretty nearly the same as those of the schools that were originally under the manage- ment of Burghs, but their past has been very different. A separate chapter would be re- quired if an attempt were made even to sketch the history of Scotch Educational Endowments. The matter is to be referred to only that we HIGHEE SCHOOLS. 53 may be in possession of the salient facts re- garding the institutions occupying the field of Secondary Education. The endowments specially applicable to Secondary Education were chiefly attached to " Hospitals," which were at once boarding- houses and schools, with their benefits con- fined to pupils drawn from a certain class of the community ; with one exception in Glasgow and one in Aberdeen they were all situated in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. They numbered eleven , and had a gross revenue of some ^650,000 per annum in 1868. But there were other endowments, many and varied, which, in the attempts made at reform, were included in the same general category and dealt with by the same Acts of Parliament and other instruments. Even before the passing of the Act of 1872 the subject was taken in hand, and from 1869 onward there are series of Acts and Commissions, each going a little further than the preceding, designed to bring the old mortifications into line with changed circum- stances. One need hardly do more than name the Colebrooke Commission of 1872 and the 54 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Moncrieff Commission of 1878. But the later one, presided over by Lord Balfour (1884-90), is of much greater importance. It may be said to have settled the destination of endow- ments, at least for the time. It dealt with the whole range of Education, and, after due in- quiry into special circumstances in each locality, submitted its schemes for the approval of Government in the case of endowments amount- ing to nearly ^200 ,000 per annum. The general effect of the reform of endow- ments has been to render available for pressing wants considerable sums that were previously tied up by restrictions that had ceased to be applicable to the conditions of the country : it was a national gain. But the immediate effect was to some extent undesirable. The En- dowed Schools which were opened up became competitors in various instances to Burgh Schools in the immediate vicinity, and the same state of things extended more or less throughout the country. The Endowed Schools had funds to draw upon which the historic Burgh Schools, put under the School Boards in 1872, had not. A common source of in- HIGHER SCHOOLS. 55 come was fees ; but while the Endowed Schools could draw upon endowments in supplement, the School Boards did not show any disposition to put their hand into the rates for a similar purpose. The Endowed Schools could thus afford to undersell their rivals, and a most undesirable state of matters ensued for some years a rather unworthy, if in part involun- tary, rivalry of schools which ought to have been seconding one another's efforts, together with the gradual decline of the strength of the old Burgh Schools. Happily the phase has as good as passed, and the Secondary Schools whether originally Burgh or Endowed now begin to make common cause with one another. The general situation has so far changed since 1868 that the classification of that date scarcely any longer applies. It is not quite easy at the moment to say definitely what are to be regarded as the Secondary Schools of Scotland. There are , first of all , some 32 higher class ' ' Public ' ' Schools, i.e., under public management, the School Board; second, there are 23 (or 25) Endowed Schools these are respectively what I have called the historic Burgh Schools, and the 56 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. schools arising out of the endowments just re- ferred to; and third, there are (37 or) 39 other schools inspected by Government, but not directly subsidised for Secondary Education ; and fourth, there seem to be a few others supplying Secondary Education, but neither inspected nor subsidised. There are slight discrepancies in the official lists as returned for different purposes, but the following is substan- tially correct : I. Burgh 32 II. Endowed 23 III. Inspected but not subsidised . . .39 IV. Other schools neither inspected nor sub- sidised 6 Total . . 100 Of these, according to the latest return in which the figures are to hand (1901) , 88 sent in candidates for Leaving Certificates. As the Leaving Certificates examination is, on the whole, the best test that exists of the Second- ary work being done throughout the country, we may take the number as fairly indicative of the present supply of strictly or predomin- antly Secondary Schools. The number of pupils presented was, in the year 1901, 5,465, HIGHER SCHOOLS. 57 which may be taken to represent the upper two or three classes of the schools. The returns do not give the numbers in actual attendance at the 88 schools, but for the 55 higher class schools, Public and Endowed, the total num- ber of pupils over twelve years of age was, in 1902, 12,991. Here we are again confronted by a question which has already been raised in one aspect of it : To what extent do the " Secondary " Schools undertake Elementary work, and to what extent do " Elementary " Schools under- take Secondary work? The Government re- turns do not furnish a complete answer, but they offer some suggestive data. In the one case, unfortunately, we can speak only of the 55 schools, while in the other the comparison is with the larger number, 88. In the 55 Higher Schools, directly subsidised by Govern- ment for Secondary Education, there were, in 1902, 4,692 pupils under the age of twelve, which is for this purpose taken as the border line between Elementary and Secondary. Com- paring this with the number over twelve (12,991), we find that fully one-fourth of the 58 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. pupils of the higher class Public and Endowed Schools are engaged, I will not say in Ele- mentary studies, but in the Elementary stage of Secondary studies. On the other hand, besides the higher class schools, in this case 88, sending in their 5,465 candidates for Leaving Certificates (in 1901), there were no fewer than 353 State-aided schools that also sent in candidates, in all 11,940, and that exclusive of 303 schools from which pupil teachers alone were presented. A comparison of the number of papers taken shows : 5,465 pupils from 88 higher class schools took 21,494 papers = 3-9 per cent, papers per pupil. 11,940 pupils from 353 State-aided schools took 34,592 papers = 2-9 per cent, papers per pupil. The immediate inference from this would seem to be that the State-aided schools of the coun- try actually do considerably more than half the Secondary work ; but a moment's reflection will show that this is not warranted by the statistics as they stand. There are three grades of Certificate Lower, Higher and Honours with considerable differences in standard be- HIGHER SCHOOLS. 59 tween them. The Lower Grade " seems too frequently to be aimed at by those who have nothing but the most elementary and frag- mentary knowledge of a subject " (Report for 1902, p. 14). " On the other hand, success in Honours implies not only thorough teaching, but individual ability beyond the average " (ibid.). The Lower Grade Certificate marks very moderate proficiency ; the Honours Grade is beyond the reach of the average pupil, how- ever well taught ; besides , it is rather a barren honour to win it, as it confers no privileges which the Higher does not. Hence it is that the Higher Grade Certificate is the object aimed at, and the real test of the efficiency of a school, i.e., so far as the chances of an examination afford such a test. And a further important condition of a fair comparison would be that well-arranged groups of subjects should be taken by candidates, and the pass standard determined in view of the whole performance of a pupil. If we had statistics showing this in whole or in part, we should then be in a position to draw a correct inference, within the limits stated. In absence of this information 60 SHOKT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. we can merely say that there is undoubtedly a large amount of work ranking as Secondary performed by State-aided schools. This we know from other sources to be the fact, and it is such an important one that the exact extent of it should be carefully ascertained. 1 Besides higher class Public and Endowed Schools and State-aided Schools supplying Secondary Education, as has been stated, mention may, in passing, be made of a new type of school in recent years, the Higher Grade School. It is the direct creation of Government, and is designed to continue the work of the Elementary School in the direc- tion of modern studies, including English, Modern Languages and Science, rather than on the literary lines which lead to the Uni- versity. In Higher Grade Schools or Depart- ments, which number 34, there are 3,518 pupils, all, with the exception of 67, over the age of thirteen ; the average attendance reaches 1 This morning's paper records, inter alia, at a country village school in the North of Scotland, five Higher Grade Leaving Certificates (English, Latin, Greek, French and Mathematics) obtained by one pupil a girl. This is rare, but perhaps not unprecedented. THE UNIVEKSITIES. 61 the very satisfactory total of 3,270. The edu- cation of the Higher Grade School leads by a natural transition to the Technical College. C. THE UNIVEKSITIES. The Universities are named, not in order to a discussion of them, but for the sake of com- pleteness. A system which is what we have in view must take cognisance of the top no less than of the bottom. The Universities are four in number, and such they are bound to remain. The distribution of population has confirmed the forecast of our ancestors. While other countries are multiplying their higher seats of learning to meet the wants of new centres of population, we are trying to adjust our Universities to altered conditions of civilisa- tion, to broaden and modernise the curriculum and to afford such opportunities to special in- dividual effort as shall keep us abreast, or, if possible, ahead of what is being done elsewhere in the same direction. In one instance, it is true , the industrial centre of population of more recent growth and the ancient seat of learning stand at some distance from one another; but 62 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. steam and engineering have bridged the gap, and the fusion may be regarded as now virtu- ally complete. The expansion of scientific investigation in every field of industry and commerce has been so great and rapid that the somewhat inelastic machinery of the University has barely kept pace with it. Added to this there are branches of study which the University can never pro- vide for so well as institutions differently con- stituted. The University is not, and never was, a school of universal learning. From these and other causes there has made its appear- ance in recent years an institution of inter- mediate status between Secondary School and University. It is more common in England than in Scotland. It is the Technical School or College, or Higher Commercial College. There are two or three of them in Scotland, but these are rather offshoots and extensions of Secondary Schools than independent establish- ments, at least as yet. In connection with these, and in connection with many other schools, Secondary and Ele- mentary, a great deal of most useful work THE UNIVERSITIES. 63 is now being done in Evening Classes. No special mention has been made of this, nor of the distinctively scientific side of instruction in the schools, because we are here dealing with institutions of different grades rather than with the details of the instruction they afford. But the subject is in itself of immense and ever-growing importance. The Continuation Classes number their pupils, chiefly industrial and commercial workers, by tens of thousands, and yet there is room, as we shall see. But, meantime, enough has been said about institutions and their history. Elementary, [Higher Grade], Secondary School, [Technical College], University, form a series, but with each covering in part the same ground as its nearest neighbour or neigh- bours, this feature being most conspicuous and least avoidable in the case of Elementary and Secondary., Private enterprise is still in evidence in the field of Scotch Education, but to a greatly diminished extent since 1872. As public ad- ministration has become more efficient, the sphere of private effort has been narrowed. 64 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. There are still a few excellent private schools, and there are a few semi-public institutions which take high rank among our educational agencies. They cover both Elementary and Secondary Education, but are more prominent in the latter. In the next chapter I will say a few words about governing bodies and funds. CHAPTER II. GOVERNING BODIES AND FUNDS. THE chief local authorities in our educational system are : School Boards , Burgh and Parochial ; Governors of Endowments and Endowed Schools ; County and Town Councils ; County and Burgh Secondary Education Committees ; Governors of Voluntary and Proprietary Schools ; University Courts and Seriatus. Then there is the central authority : Com- mittee of Council on Education in Scotland (Scotch Education Department). None of these is quite unrelated to the others, but there are great distinctions in the functions they discharge. The governing bodies charged 5 65 66 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. with educational institutions, as distinct from funds, must be separated from the others. They are : School Boards ; Governors of Endowed Schools ; Governors of Voluntary and Proprietary Schools ; University Courts. The other authorities administer funds only. School Boards control and manage Element- ary Public Schools and Higher Class Public Schools, also Higher Grade Schools; Governors of Endowed Schools, the Endowed Schools, Elementary and Secondary, for whose sake chiefly they exist ; Governors of Voluntary Schools, Voluntary Schools chiefly in connection with one of the religious denominations. Proprietary Schools receive no grants from Government, though they are inspected and are allowed to send in pupils for the Leaving Certificate. 1 Proprie- tary Schools may, with a certain show of reason, be classed as private, but are semi-public 1 Government returns give both under the designation " voluntary," but the term is thus rendered very ambiguous. GOVEKNING BODIES AND FUNDS. 67 in respect to management ; they are chiefly Secondary, while Voluntary Schools are Ele- mentary. With Universities and their government we need not deal further at the moment. Each of the bodies governing schools has a separate and independent existence : School Boards have no power over Endowed Gover- nors , except in so far as they have representation on them, nor has the University any relation to the School Board. On certain bodies of governors the University is represented, but that is the sole link, so far as statute law goes, between the University and the rest of the educational system. Voluntary Governors of Elementary Schools are independent of School Boards carrying on similar work in the area; they are, indeed, competitors with them. Simi- larly Proprietary Schools compete in the Second- ary field with Public (Higher Class) Schools managed by School Boards as well as with En- dowed Schools. The competition is now less felt than it once was, because the Proprietary Schools are more expensive than the other classes mentioned , and cater for a different class 5* 68 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. of the community. Those that did compete with Higher Class Public Schools twenty or thirty years ago have now been killed out. Putting the facts in a slightly different form w T e h^ve : Elementary Education under School Boards and Voluntary Governors (Managers) ; Secondary Education under School Boards, Endowed Governors, [Proprietary Governors]; University Education under University Court and Senatus. The two links of connection are : (1) Ele- mentary and (so far) Secondary Education under School Boards ; (2) the slight bond between 1 University arid Endowed Governors. Let us glance now at the other authorities which do not manage schools, but merely ad- minister funds. County and Town Councils administer a fund popularly known as the Eesidue Grant, because it is , or was , a residue after certain other charges have been satisfied, and that for behoof, if so resolved, of Technical Instruction within the 1 University professors used often to be found as members of School Boards : at present there are very few instances. GOVERNING BODIES AND FUNDS. 69 meaning of the Acts. The fund was established under the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act, 1890, and has varied in amount from about 40,000 or under per annum up to 70,000 or 80,000. It may be devoted alternatively in whole or in part to the relief of rates, and an appreciable, but unhappily not a diminishing, proportion of it has been hitherto so applied. There is a leakage of one-fourth to one-third of the fund in this way. The Councils sometimes apportion it directly, after the disposal of it has been considered by the Finance Committee ; or a special Technical Instruction Committee is appointed for the pur- pose of administering it. In other cases the amount is handed over to the Secondary Edu- cation Committee for administration. The last method constitutes a step in advance by simpli- fying the machinery and co-ordinating the work of two analogous authorities. It would appear that about one-third of the grant is at present thus handed over. Secondary Education Committees are elected in counties, half by the County Council and half by the chairmen of School Boards. In 70 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. burghs an equal number of members are elected by Town Council and School Board, but not quite half the whole Committee ; there are generally additional members representing special interests, such as Endowed Schools, etc. The Secondary Committee may, in the county, be indefinitely increased in membership when Local Authorities (County and Burgh) transfer to it the administration of the Kesidue Grant in the way just referred to. The num- ber may in this case rise to thirty or over, but ordinarily does not exceed half that figure. The Secondary Education Committees exist for the purpose of administering a fund known as the Equivalent Grant, so called because it was the grant made to Scotland as the equiva- lent of the Imperial Grant to England for the relief of fees in the Elementary Schools. The whole fund is 60,000 per annum, but a first claim on it is the inspection and examination of Secondary Schools, which absorbs 3,000 to 4,000 of it. It was provided by the Educa- tion and Local Taxation Account (Scotland) Act, 1892, so that the entrance of Secondary Education Committees on the field is slightly GOVERNING BODIES AND FUNDS. 71 more recent than the advent of the County and Town Council. The Committee of Council, which is the Government department, dealing with Educa- tion in Scotland, controls the Government sub- sidies throughout the whole range of Element- ary and Secondary Education. In addition to this general control it has a special fund which it distributes directly to the Higher Class Schools in slump sums varying from 300 to 750 per annum. In certain cases it gives further grants to Secondary Schools ; the Higher Class Schools, which in one capacity are Grammar Schools, may become Science Schools and draw large grants from Govern- ment as such. The Government Department thus exercises a share in the control of all grants, while some of the grants it distributes itself directly. If we look at the position of a typical Ele- mentary and a typical Secondary School we shall see the practical working of the thing. An Elementary School, i.e. , Public, is governed, that is, controlled and managed, by a School Board. It draws its income partly from local 72 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. and partly from imperial sources. The former consists of the school rate, the latter of Govern- ment grants. Fees formerly belonged to the first, now they belong to the second, for, in addition to the ordinary annual grant, each school has a " grant in relief of fees," school fees having (as a rule) been abolished in the Elementary School. Accounting is a com- paratively simple matter. There are several items that go to make up the annual grant, calculated under various articles of the Code and certified by the Government Inspector, who sees that the conditions have been duly fulfilled ; but the calculation is not a very diffi- cult one to make, and, although there is a good deal of detail, most of it may be regarded as the unavoidable attendant of a system which is elaborate and which has to be adapted to meet varying circumstances in curriculum, staffing and efficiency. When we turn to the Secondary School we find the case much different. It is governed, again in the case of a Public School, by a School Board. It derives its income, as be- fore, from local and from imperial sources ; but GOVEKNING BODIES AND FUNDS. 73 there is no consolidation of the grants with accompanying conditions in either case. The local revenue consists of (a) fees, (6) rates, (c) grant from County or Burgh Committee on Secondary Education, (d) grant from the County or Town Council, if it can be persuaded to allocate to the purpose a portion of the Resi- due Grant, (e) grant from Government as a Secondary School, (/) grant from Government as a Science School. There may be, in ad- dition, endowments, common good and other sources of income, but they are negligible here, as they usually entail no conditions, or only nominal ones. Now, of course, grants are not given unconditionally ; every authority, local or imperial, claims to dictate its own terms. They may be onerous or they may be easy, but the school has to submit to them or to lose the grant. The Government enforces its condi- tions by inspection and by examination. The Secondary School has in this way far too many masters. It has to serve the School Board, as representative alike of parents and ratepayers, the Burgh or County Committee, the TOWTI or County Council, the Committee of Council on 74 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Education. The success of the school depends to far too great an extent on its grant-earning power. The course that leads to this is neither dignified nor educationally profitable. The teacher's business is to teach. His teaching, with the necessary organisation and communication with his constituency, is more than enough to tax his utmost powers. When he is, in addition, distracted by having imposed on him the duty, which of right belongs to the governing body, of financing the school, his position is far from enviable. There is also the distinct educational loss entailed in waste of time over examinations and inspections necessary to secure various grants. Eecently the informa- tion came to hand, in quite another connection, that in one of the most important of our Secon- dary Schools no less than thirteen school days during the year were taken up by examinations ! This is in addition to school examinations, which may be presumed to occupy a week or so every quarter. But to return to our authorities. None of all those mentioned represents the teacher's true objective. The University is the real goal of the Secondary School. All the GOVEKNING BODIES AND FUNDS. 75 literary and a good deal of the scientific instruc- tion take their tone and standard from the University. Entrance to the University is pre- dominantly the aim the Secondary School and its pupils have before them. The chief value of the Leaving Certificate is that it is an equi- valent to the preliminary examination in Arts, Science and Medicine. If, through any evil chance, the Universities resolved no longer to accept it as such, it would at one stroke be deprived of more than half its value. It is just here, as it seems, that the crux of the " Education Question " is to be found. If Elementary Education alone were concerned one would hesitate to advocate any upturning or an overthrow of the status quo. But with Secondary Education the case is wholly differ- ent. Here things have been drifting since 1872, until we have reached an impasse. The situa- tion has become impossible. No one in par- ticular is to blame. The course of events could not be foreseen , and human wisdom could hardly have anticipated the difficulties. On the con- trary, a good deal of credit is due to those who secured funds for Higher Education, even 76 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. though they were at the moment unable to secure the proper machinery for administering them. The Scotch Education Department, too, has shown commendable persistence in its re- gard for the interests of the Secondary Schools and in obtaining the means of, in some degree, recruiting their finances. But we have now come to a point where we must reconsider the position. We have probably sufficient funds available, or, at any rate, the means of obtain- ing them, and it remains to deliberate as to the best means of employing these. Meantime it must be repeated that the situation is an intolerable one. The Secondary School has to serve the School Board, the Secondary Education Committee, the Town or County Council, the Scotch Education Depart- ment, the University five separate masters, each of which has its own ideas of Education, its own particular predilections. If this motley team cannot be driven successfully, the finances of the school suffer, and with them the efficiency of the education. If their claims can be satis- fied, probably it is not greatly to the gain of Education. GOVEKNING BODIES AND FUNDS. 77 The numbers of persons actually engaged in the administration of Education are consider- able. There are 970 School Boards, 33 County Committees and 6 Burgh Committees, 33 County Councils and 205 Burgh Councils, be- sides the Committee of Council and the four Universities. Here we have no fewer than 1,247 local public bodies concerned with the management of Education in Scotland. The membership of the School Boards amounts to upwards of 5,600, of County and Burgh Com- mittees to 400 : these two alone, which are ex- clusively educational bodies, give a gross total of 6,000, but no doubt there are many persons counted twice, most of the members of County and Burgh Committees being also members of School Boards. In any case there can hardly be less than 5,000 persons, exclusive of officials, engaged in the administration of Education in Scotland, being more than 1 to every 1,000 of the population. This takes no account as such of County and Burgh Councils, whose members number several thousand more, probably em- bracing in part some of the foregoing, nor of Endowed School governors, who ought certainly 78 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. to be included : governors of Voluntary and Pro- prietary Schools may be ruled out of " public " administration. The net result, then, is that there is a whole army of educational administra- tors in the country ; the schools are over-ruled , and it would be almost too much to expect that even such a well-educated country as Scotland could produce 5,000 to 10,000 educational " experts," and that, wholly exclusive of her professional teachers. Some of the inferences will be dealt with at a later point, but meantime our aim is to ascertain and fairly to state the facts. There is just a word to be added on so-called Technical Instruction. The importance of Technical Instruction hardly needs at this time of day to be insisted on ; it is axiomatic, and partly from this fact, and partly for its sake, Secondary Education, which includes Technical, has come to be regarded as a great desideratum. Knowledge has increased in every direction, and expert knowledge has become increasingly essential in every sphere of activity. Between Secondary and Technical there should be no contrast or opposition. " Technical " refers OF GOVEENING BODIES AND I rather to the purpose and character of the instruction , w r hile ' ' Secondary ' ' refers to the grade or standard. Technical Instruction, from its nature, can hardly belong to the Elementary stage. The highest kind of it belongs to the University College, or University stage, which is beyond our consideration. Hence the school stages of Technical Instruction all belong to the Secondary stage, and are to be understood as embraced within the latter term. Secondary and Technical have a common meeting ground in Modern Languages, Mathematical and Phy- sical Science, etc., and sometimes the term ' Technical ' ' is expanded so as to embrace pure Secondary subjects. As is well known , the grant specially set apart for Technical Instruction, the Eesidue Grant, is much more precarious than any of the others. Its application to Education depends on an annual resolution of the County or Burgh Council. The total amount so devoted has risen in recent years through the rise in the amount of the grant, but the proportion has actually fallen, seeming to indicate a want of enterprise and alertness to the requirements of 80 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. the time, if not retrogression in the cause of Technical Instruction. In certain cases small jealousies have prevented the co-operation of Burgh Council and School Board, the former refusing to hand over a share of its grant for educational purposes because the School Board has the power to raise money by a rate if it require it ! No good educational work can be done, at any rate the best cannot be done, unless there is some sort of security of grants and assurance of permanence in the policy in- augurated. This under present conditions there cannot be. The case may be put shortly thus : Ele- mentary Education is fairly well organised, and in many respects highly efficient ; if it stood alone, then, so far as mere administrative grounds are concerned, legislative change would require stronger justification than any that has yet appeared. In the field of Secondary Education chaos reigns supreme. Multiplicity of agency is aggravated by insecurity of resources. There are several unrelated bodies all operating on their own lines, with consequent overlapping, GOVEKNING BODIES AND FUNDS. 81 antagonism, confusion. There is lacking pro- per co-ordination of Secondary to Elementary below, and to University above. Nothing short of legislation can clear up the situation. There is a real " Education Question ". The assump- tion that Parliament must come to the rescue is justified. Homer expresses our local di- lemma OVK ayadbv iro\vKotpaviri els Kotpavos e. CHAPTEK III. BELATIONS OF ELEMENTAEY AND SECONDAKY EDUCATION. THE question then arises on what lines legis- lation is to proceed. How is order to be evolved from the chaos? How is the present waste of energy and of resources to be checked? How is the maximum of efficiency to be secured for the Secondary School? for that is the main desideratum at the moment. In Education, of all things, it has constantly to be remembered that machinery and apparatus and statistics are not an objective. We may have all these to perfection, and yet the Educa- tion may be lacking in the vitality and inspira- tion which alone render it of value. The means are not to be mistaken for the end. Every- thing exists for the sake of the school, of the education itself, to wit, the pupils and the teacher. Let it then be understood that our 82 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 83 systems of administration have this for their first aim, to give the teacher and his pupils a better chance. Efficiency comes first, and that by a long way, though economy and simplicity are elements that should not be overlooked. Another remark to be made at the outset is this : Secondary Education does not stand by itself. Experience has shown us more and more clearly that no hard and fast line can be drawn between Secondary and Elementary. Hence the discussion of the reorganisation of Secondary Education involves Elementary at the same time. We cannot agree to rule the Elementary School, arid we might add the University, out of our count, and proceed to elaborate a system suitable for Secondary Education alone. In fact, the greatest difficulty of all is to manage the transition from the Primary to the Secondary stage, and to find the most profitable employ- ment for that transitional stage represented by the years twelve to fourteen, which the two stages of instruction have in common. Second- ary then involves Primary. It will be generally conceded that in educa- tional administration in a country like this there 6* 84 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. must be at least two bodies concerned, a central and a local. So long as Government gives large subsidies to Education, it must have a means of ascertaining that they are being usefully employed, and that the conditions are being observed on which they have been given. On the other hand, if rates are levied locally there must be a local body to assess them and to take the oversight of their application, as well as to maintain that touch between the school and its constituency which is a prime condition of healthy activity. Between the two governing bodies there will be, or ought to be, the closest touch and the most harmonious co-operation in all that relates to the welfare of the school. It is important that our ideas should be per- fectly clear on this subject. Governing bodies are not of the essence of Education at all ; at best they are a necessary evil. Education re- quires for 'its full efficiency only two persons the pupil and the teacher. The ideal is when the latter has a perfectly free hand always assuming that he is competent to use his free- dom aright and an unoccupied mind. The task of educating a single pupil, not to say a ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 85 class of pupils, is sufficient to tax to the utmost the powers of the ablest and most skilful of men or women. Everything that tends to in- terfere with the teacher's prime function is so far a hindrance and a drawback. The necessity for machinery , governing bodies and the like, arises from the complexity of the state of society in which the teacher has to carry on his work. It would be better if we could altogether dispense with it. But the situation is too complicated for this, and especi- ally is this the case since the State has entered the field. We no longer possess the simple elements of teacher and pupil, or teacher and class, with remuneration directly made by the latter to the former. Classes are organised into schools, schools into systems of schools, the relation of school to school has to be deter- mined, the revenues of the school have to be provided, managed and controlled, the teacher it would appear cannot be trusted even within his own sphere, he is enjoined what he must teach, and strict oversight is exercised to see that in substance and in method his teaching conform to the standard. All this means edu- 86 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. cational waste and loss. In every large school the most experienced and practical teacher does not teach at all as a regular duty ; he manages, organises, helps to finance. The goal of the teacher is a headmastership, where he practi- cally ceases to be one who teaches ! This I point out, not in order to condemn, for it is probably in large measure unavoidable. But surely it is highly necessary that the machinery should not be mistaken for the pro- duct of it. It is the product we are anxious about ; it is for its sake that the machinery exists. Plainly the educator cannot do two things at once. So much time and energy bestowed upon mere management means so much time and energy withdrawn from pro- ductive teaching ; nothing short of necessity justifies the withdrawal. Every true teacher wishes to teach. He should have a free hand for the purpose and the assurance that if he do the work well he shall not have to devote his spare hours to the problem whether he is to live or starve. If this view is correct, the inference regard- ing administration is that it should be reduced ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 87 to the simplest elements consistent with the conditions under which we live, and that there should be no avoidable interference of adminis- tration with teaching. In the old days a school was managed, say by the Burgh, and to it alone it w r as responsible. Nowadays the same school is managed by the School Board. But while the Burgh had practically exclusive powers, the School Board has only limited ones. The management is vested in the Board, but a con- siderable part of the funds comes from the Government, which imposes its conditions, or from the County or Burgh Council, which im- poses its conditions ; and above and beyond this the virtual control of the higher work is with the unauthorised government, the University, which in turn imposes its conditions. If school- keeping were a game , this hide-and-seek process would be all very well, it might be even highly diverting. When it has to do with such a serious matter as the equipment of our youth for the moral and material battle of life, the matter becomes one of grim sober earnest. The real problem is not construction of machinery, 88 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. but lies behind in the efficiency, the vitality, the very existence of the school itself. How, then, is the school to be managed to the utmost profit of its pupils? First, it would seem that the simplest management is the best ; that is to say, each school should be wholly and entirely under the management of a single body, sufficiently provided with funds, to which it shall be responsible for its working through- out. How this is to be done is the difficulty, one of several difficulties it muet be admitted. For immediately such questions arise as these : How are the interests of the two bodies which meantime provide the funds, the Government and the locality, to be reconciled? Are Second- ary Schools and Elementary Schools to be subject to the same authority? What is the position of Endowed Schools to be? And there are many subsidiary points besides to be settled. Of these questions the most important appears to me to be that connected with the locality the local governing body. The reason is that this more nearly affects the life and work of the school than does any other. The Govern- ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 89 ment is far away ; it may threaten and thunder, but it is only an echo that reaches the remote corners of the land. The schools do not greatly care what the Government thinks or says, pro- vided the grants come all right. No Govern- ment Department can make itself felt as a living force, as the public opinion of a district and personal contact of governors and teachers can and do. The local body has the patronage, too, and this produces a very marked effect, some believe a much too marked effect in numerous cases. The influence of a strong Government Department is very great, and may be very beneficial, but it does not tell directly on the school in a positive way as the influence of a local body does. Schools will avoid loss of grant, they will endeavour to earn the " highest grant," they will seek to have favourable " re- ports " as conducive to this. But the tone and quality of the teaching are derived from the locality. It is unfortunate that different autho- rities should ever judge by different standards and speak with different voices, but, if they do, the preference will gravitate toward that ruling power which lies closer at hand, and all the 90 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. more certainly if it exercise the patronage in appointments. Besides the power exercised through rates and patronage, the local body, as representing the parents of pupils, is calculated to do much to stimulate and encourage the teacher's effort and to co-operate with him in the difficult and critical duties of discipline and moral control. Further, the educational wants of the district are through it brought home to the school ; the teacher is kept in touch with changing require- ments, the governing body mediates between him and the public, asserting his interests, defending his procedure, preventing the forcing of his hands through rash and ill-considered innovation, and at the same time keeping him up to the standard of current needs and not suffering him to lag behind in the educational race. All this and a great deal more an efficient local body can do. Again, one hardly needs to allude to the fact, once adverted to already, that throughout Scot- land local patriotism is a highly-developed sen- timent. Each locality, each city, and still more each village and each parish, has the greatest ELEMENTAEY AND SECONDAKY EDUCATION. 91 pride in its own institutions and its own pro- ducts ; it follows with the utmost interest and satisfaction the career of its sons who have gone forth to win fame and fortune in war, in commerce, in literature, in affairs. This is closely connected w 7 ith the schools, which are rightly regarded as instrumental, more than any other agency, in producing such results. The management of its schools enlists the local patriotism to an extent that few things do ; if it acts on the schools, it reacts as a powerful leavening influence on the whole community. A distinct loss is suffered if anything is done to impair the bond. The matter is not so much one of obtaining power as of assuming respon- sibility ; the locality should be held responsible for the welfare of its school, and so much power granted to it that its duty may be fully dis- charged. Whatever faults may be incidental to such a system, and however incomplete it may be in itself, it cannot be dispensed with, it is the most necessary part of the whole machinery. Such a conclusion is forced upon any one who has regard either to the past history or the present conditions of Scotch Education. 92 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. There are two distinct grades of school, and if each school is to have a local governing body with large powers, we are confronted with a question as to the relation of the government of the two grades. Is there to be one govern- ing body for Elementary Education and a different one for Secondary? and, if so, how are they to be related to one another? At first sight it must be allowed that there is a strong case for two bodies. It might, for example, be urged that Elementary Education is for the many, Secondary for the few ; the former compulsory , the latter optional ; the one provided by the community, the other by the individual; the one a national concern, the other a private concern. Elementary Schools must be brought to the doors of the people , they must be scattered thickly all over the land. Pupils must find their own way to the Second- ary Schools, which should be at convenient centres, but cannot be within reach of all. Elementary Schools are popular institutions, schools of the people, to be managed by the people ; Secondary Schools are at best only semi-popular, hardly that even, to be managed ELEMENTAEY AND SECONDABY EDUCATION. 93 by the select few who are interested in them, and must be prepared to show their interest by paying for them. Arguments of this kind contain a measure of truth which imparts plausibility to them, but they will be found to rest on a radical mis- conception. Secondary Schools and be It always borne in mind that ' ' Secondary ' ' covers and includes " Technical " are a national concern and as much a popular concern as Elementary ones. They are as vital to national interests as any other class of schools. Nothing but harm comes of looking upon Education as divisible into parts, each part an interest of a separate class of the community. If that was ever true in Scotland, which may be doubted, it is not true now. The Secondary School is, to be sure, the school of the few, and must always be so, and the University is the school of the still fewer. But this does not prevent their being national institutions. The few do not belong to any particular class or section of the community : they are drawn alike, if not in equal numbers, from all classes. They are the few not of birth or rank, but the few of 94 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. talent and capacity, the destined leaders in every branch of the nation's work, whom it is worth the nation's while to train to the utmost. The gradations of rank in Scotland, as re- lated to Education, do not present any great extremes. We may leave out of the count the nobility and gentry, who are not as a rule edu- cated in our public institutions at all. All the rest of the population may be roughly divided into middle class and lower class. The extreme difference is not great, it may be taken as that between a successful professional man and a humble industrial worker. The students from both classes meet on a common basis in Second- ary School and University. As many of the best pupils are, perhaps, drawn from the one class as from the other. The country is thoroughly democratic in its education ; the advent of free education and the extension of subventions in the form of scholarships, bur- saries, free places, railway fares, etc., have tended to make it increasingly so. Probably the con- jecture is not far from the truth that there is a keener appreciation of the benefits of Higher Education in the better class "work- ELEMENTAEY AND SECONDAEY EDUCATION. 95 ing man " than in a great many of the com- mercial class; as for the professional class, it is but natural that they should set high store by it, as they usually do. The contention is baseless then which would separate Elementary and Secondary on grounds of their applicability to different ranks or classes of the community. Secondary has within its limits an equal claim with Elementary on pub- lic resources, imperial and local. There is a great deal to be said even for making Second- ary Education as free to the pupil as Ele- mentary is; but in this question, besides educational considerations, there are involved elements of policy which it would be apart from our purpose to discuss here. The position is sufficiently secure if it is admitted that Secondary has a full claim on the community, whether it choose or require to exercise the claim to the fullest extent or not. There is absolutely no ground for separating Elementary Schools from Secondary in respect of manage- ment which can have for its support supposed interests of different classes of the community. The case rests here merely on the function of 96 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. the Secondary School as a Day School ; but when we include the sphere of its activity in respect to more strictly Technical Instruction imparted in the Evening School, which will be discussed at some length in our concluding chapter, it is enormously strengthened. The Continuation School, which is three parts Secondary, is becoming as necessary a portion of our educational system as the Elementary School itself. Would that it were as Universal in its application to our youth. The other chief argument is that Elementary Schools are many, Secondary few. This is true, and, as a matter of fact, for every one pupil regularly pursuing a Secondary course there are ten, or perhaps fifteen, pursuing an Elementary. Every parent is interested in the latter, only a tithe of parents in the former. We shall here, however, distinguish between actual and potential interest, for every parent possesses the latter. But otherwise the facts must be allowed their due weight. The Ele- mentary School supplies a small area, a small portion of the population, it comes close to every home and family ; the Secondary School ELEMENTAEY AND SECONDAEY EDUCATION. 97 is rather remote, it serves a large area, a large number of the population. But another element here emerges which does not seem ever to have received the pro- minence which it deserves, or, indeed, to have received any separate , distinct recognition ; that is, the distribution of population. There may be occasion subsequently to dwell on this, but it first finds a place when we consider the distribution of the schools of various kinds. In the large towns of Scotland, like other large towns, we have the population crowded into small spaces ; the actual rate varies from over 30,000 per square mile in the large Burghs of Lanarkshire to 15,000 in Aberdeen, where the natural boundaries afforded by two rivers suggested, some years ago, an extension of municipal limits considerably beyond the area built on. The average might be put at fully 25,000. In rural areas there are great varieties, but the maximum seems to be in Kenfrew- shire, where, apart from the large Burghs, it is slightly over 350 per square mile. In Lan- arkshire it is about 320, while in Forfarshire, exclusive of Dundee, it sinks to 141, and in 7 98 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Aberdeenshire, outside the city, to 77 per square mile. In these four counties the average dis- tribution, including all towns, is respectively 1,123, 1,523, 325, 154. The results might be tabulated thus : Distribution of population per square mile. In towns. Rural portions. Average. Benf rewshire ^ . 28,623 355 1,123 Lanarkshire . 31,977 323 1,523 Forfarshire . 28,780 (Dundee) 141 325 Aberdeenshire . 15,663 (Aberdeen) 77 154 These facts are of the utmost importance. They show that when we come to deal with the location of the Secondary School we have two sets of conditions to deal with, and virtu- ally two separate problems. The difference between urban and rural forces itself on the attention at every step ; yet there has hardly ever been any attempt to differentiate them, except in remote parts of the Highlands. One fact more must, however, be reckoned, that is, the means of communication. Distri- bution is not quite fairly represented by resi- J No doubt similar results hold all over the counties of Scotland. I have worked them out only for Midlothian in addition to the foregoing. They are Edinburgh and Leith, 21,904 ; rural portions, 271 ; average, 1,335. ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 99 dence, and especially for purposes of Secondary Education. In most of the central parts of Scotland, and to some extent elsewhere in connection with the large cities, there are sub- urban railway and tramway services which bring large portions of the suburban area within easy reach of the city to those who can afford it. Thus Edinburgh and Glasgow tap large sources of supply of pupils within a radius of fifteen to twenty miles, and to a less extent Dundee and Aberdeen do the same. Through steam and electricity the urban becomes more urban, and by contrast the rural more rural. With this modification, then, we must regard the problem of Education, especially as it re- lates to the Secondary School and its govern- ing body as separate and distinct in town and in county. In the one the population within a radius, say, of two miles a walking distance is to be counted by the hundred thousand, in the other by the hundred. Eailway com- munication aids the one, bad roads hinder the other. This has an important bearing on local ad- ministration, and here we may advert for a 7* 100 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. moment to the educational relation of Ele- mentary and Secondary as bearing on this. To certain pupils, the majority, elementary instruction is an end in itself ; it is all the day school education they can hope to get : school days are over at the age of fourteen. To cer- tain other pupils, however, the select minority, the aristocracy of intellect, it is but the first stage in an extended course. No distinct line can be drawn between the two classes, nor can a clearly marked division be established where the Elementary course of a pupil who is to continue his studies passes into the Secondary. The Elementary School, in its compulsory stage, trenches on the sphere of the Secondary ; the Secondary, on the other hand, desires to secure its pupils long before the age of fourteen. The transitional period is at present set down as twelve to fourteen, it might be a little earlier ; it has given rise to the greatest practical difficulties in the curriculum of the Elementary School in recent years, " et adhuc sub judice Us est ". The difficulty is familiar to all concerned in any way with the management of Elementary Schools. There is a certain necessary curricu- ELEMENTAKY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 101 mm, popularly known as "standard" work, which every pupil has to take, about the merits of which there is no question. It occupies the average pupil up to about the age of twelve. Of the pupils over twelve there are two classes : the many, who are to quit school at fourteen ; the few, who are to continue at studies till the age of sixteen, or it may be further. Are the educational requirements of the two classes identical, or ought a separate curriculum to be provided for either? Not seldom the special aptitude shown during the transition period determines the prolongation of the study. If a Secondary course is to be taken up, the sooner after twelve it is done the better ; even twelve is late enough. The Secondary School wishes to catch its pupils young ; naturally the Ele- mentary School wishes to retain them as long as it can. Transplanting is dangerous, and especially so unless there is to be time given to obtain a firm root in the new soil. Better allow pupils to remain till fourteen at the Elementary School than remove them to the Secondary if they are to leave it at fourteen . Better get the pupils to Secondary studies at 102 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. twelve if they are to take a moderately com- plete Secondary course. The practical solu- tion has not yet been found, but this at least is certain, that the difficulty will be enormously aggravated if there are independent, and to some extent rival, bodies managing the two sets of schools. On this ground the argument for a single governing body becomes of the very strongest. There remains now to consider whether the element of distance ought to be allowed pre- dominant weight, or how it stands in regard to educational efficiency, grading and co-opera- tion. The Elementary School is the popular school and should be in touch with the people. Very good ; ergo it must be subject to popular control, it must be managed by the people. We shall see by-and-by what this may mean. The Secondary School is remote from the people in a " centre," it does not concern the people so very much, it may be managed by any far-away body that will take the trouble and that will provide the means. So the argument shapes itself. I have endeavoured to show that this idea of ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 103 popular and non-popular schools is a delusion. The local community, we have seen, must have the management of its schools if the most is to be made of them. But what justification is there for separating the grades of schools? The community cannot be allowed to shirk the responsibility of managing and maintaining its Secondary Schools any more than its Elemen- tary : they are just as much a national concern as the other. That they are not compulsory may be a compliment to the general intelli- gence of the nation, which may be expected to recognise their value and place, but is no ground for their neglect. But to return. In seeking a solution of the problem of management we have still to see what conclusion is warranted by the facts re- garding the local position of Secondary Schools in town and county respectively. In town the location presents no difficulty whatever. The Secondary School is, to all intents and purposes, as near the homes of the pupils as the Ele- mentary. A pupil of fifteen years of age will have no greater difficulty in finding his way to the Secondary School distant, say, a couple of 104 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. miles than the child of eight or ten in tra- versing a fourth of the distance, all the more as the latter has to make the journey twice a day, the former usually only once. The Secondary pupil has increased power of loco- motion which in part removes the difficulty of reaching a school somewhat more remote than would be suitable for children of more tender years. A large town can easily maintain one Secondary School, probably more than one ; it can easily provide a complete graded course of training up to the University independently of any external body. The governing body, too, in a city can be in equally close touch with all grades of Education. Distance presents no obstacle. The Burgh or Grammar School, or College or Institute, or Technical School is quite as easy of access as the Elementary Schools, and there are in the local body which manages Elementary Educa- tion, no less fully than there would be in a separate authority, the local touch and local interest which are so desirable to ensure a solid basis for the school and to maintain activity and efficiency in its work. ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 105 On the negative side there seems no valid objection to the single management of Elemen- tary and Secondary in Burghs. But we can go a step further and urge an important positive reason. In cities the relation of schools to one another in respect to grading is specially important. Unless all are under one manage- ment adjustment is rendered difficult, if not impossible. At best the transition between Ele- mentary and Secondary is hazardous and criti- cal. If the schools of either grade are divorced in management the difficulty is so aggravated as to become an actual bar to progress. Con- fining ourselves for the moment to the Burghs we are forced to the conclusion that any separa- tion in management is incompatible with the highest results in efficiency. The two bodies, if there are two, will be in part ignorant of each other's policy and action ; judging from experience each will be jealous of its rights and privileges ; it will be fortunate if they are not to some extent in actual antagonism. On three main grounds we conclude that in Burghs Elementary and Secondary ought to be under the same management : 106 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. (a) The recognition of the national character of Secondary Education is thus ensured, and its claim on public support is firmly established through the association of the common interests of Education in common management. (b) There is no other method by which pro- per grading of schools arid the classes in them can be secured. (c) It tends to simplification and consequent ease and economy of management, and obviates risk of overlapping and injurious competition. We may add as the satisfying of a desirable condition, though perhaps hardly a ground, that, if the governing body is, as is assumed, a popularly elected one, the arrangement pre- serves the desirable contact and sympathy between school and governing body, which is a source of strength and of success. Uniformity would suggest that a similar arrangement should hold in the rural area, but analogy does not quite settle the question. Sacrifice to mechanical uniformity is unjusti- fiable where conditions vary so widely as to render a uniform system inapplicable. Un- doubtedly there is a wide difference in the ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 107 circumstances in the latter case, and it must be matter for deliberation whether they will be fully met by a plan which suits the urban area. Mutatis mutandis two of the grounds urged above apply with equal force. Simpli- fication of management and due recognition of the equal claims of Secondary with Elementary Education will be no less forcible reasons in country than in town. But grading stands in a somewhat different position, while the condition about distance presents great diffi- culty. If we take purely rural areas in Scotland we shall find no Secondary Schools at all. Even if we include village communities, i.e., places with a population not exceeding 2,000, we shall, with one exception, find the same state of matters. But evidently, in order to find a unit of population for a Secondary School, we must go much higher than a population of 2,000 it is difficult to say how- much higher or where the line between rural and urban for educational purposes should be drawn. The two categories of rural and village as defined above embrace about 30 per cent, of the whole popu- 108 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. lation of Scotland ; but for reasons which we need not here discuss we might with much greater truth roughly estimate the population as about equally divided between urban and rural, and reckon 50 per cent, as rural. In the wholly rural areas it would appear that the management of Secondary Schools is simplicity itself ! there are no such schools. But this is not an end of the matter : there is Secondary Education though there are not Secondary Schools. There are Secondary de- partments, and, as has been seen, there is a great deal of the Secondary work done in the Elementary School itself. 1 It is somewhat curious to find that Secondary and higher instruction seems to be most sought after where the facilities for it are least. The average percentage of the population , aged f our- lu The connection between the Parochial and Burgh Schools and the University is therefore an essential element in our scheme of national education. The only way in which this essential element can be preserved, is by insisting that the teachers in every Burgh or Secondary School, and many of the Parochial Schools, should be capable of instructing their pupils, not only in the subjects common to all Primary Schools, but in the elements of Latin, Mathematics and Greek" (Report of Argyll Commission, vol. iii., p. 10). ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 109 teen to twenty, 1 in receipt of instruction is 10*24. The distribution, however, shows con- siderable variation, for while the south-western district (Renfrew, Ayr, Lanark) gives only 7 '90 per cent., the north-western (Boss and Cro- marty, Inverness) rises to 22 '11. The highest individual county is Eoss and Cromarty, with 22'87 per cent., and the adjacent county of Sutherland comes close to it with 22*16. These, with Inverness and Caithness, are the only counties with over 20 per cent. That is to say, the great manufacturing and industrial south-western division, with a total population of 1,862,775, furnishes 18,003 pupils of Second- ary Education ; while the rural north-western division, with a population of only 166,554, furnishes to Higher Education no fewer than 4,430 pupils : with a population of one-eleventh it supplies one-fourth as many students of Higher Education. These are only typical instances, for a similar state of matters holds all through. The causes 1 These are the Eegistrar's figures in the census return for 1901 ; fourteen to eighteen would have suited the purposes of Secondary Education better. 110 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. are quite explicable, but they do not detract from the importance of the fact, which is that the Higher Education is relatively a much more pressing question in the rural than in the urban portions of the country. In a busy commercial and industrial community there is abundance of remunerative work, even for boys or girls : there are many outlets and avenues of promotion open to enterprising youth. In the remote pastoral and agricultural districts there is no such opportunity. The main, often the one, outlet is Education through the School to the University, through the University to the arena of life. Secondary Education is thus not only a more difficult matter to deal with in rural areas, but it is of comparatively much greater importance to the inhabitants than in towns. All this surely bears closely on the question of the relation of the management of Element- ary and Secondary Education. In the rural area the latter is highly important. It cannot be dispensed with, and, as separate schools cannot be provided, it must be carried on along with the former in the same institutions, by ELEMENTAEY AND SECONDABY EDUCATION. Ill the same teachers. From the nature of the case pupils cannot be transferred at a certain age from one school to another from a rural to a central one except in the few cases of selected pupils of comparatively mature age, say sixteen or thereby, who may be so sent with bursaries. It may be at once granted that a great central school with a specialised cur- riculum, specialists as teachers, and full equip- ment of laboratories and workshops , will impart a much more efficient course of Secondary training, especially in the various branches of science, than can the rural or village school, with at best a Secondary department. There may, it is true, be found some compensations in the smaller school and in the less complete apparatus. But neither of these facts is quite the point. The point is that the whole rural population interested in Secondary Education cannot be transferred bodily to centres. They cannot be taken to the education, the education must be brought to them. There is another reason which militates against central schools in rural areas which, even if in part sentimental, requires to be taken 112 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. into account. The Scotch are a domestic people. Family life is dear to them. Much store is set by home influence. The family is not to be lightly broken up ; when members leave it care has to be exercised that the influences to which they are exposed shall not be prejudicial to character. As often as not circumstances do not enable parents to make proper arrange- ments for board and oversight when children are obliged to reside away from the home. After a certain age children must in any case learn to look out for themselves, and here a careful upbringing ensures the development of moral qualities which are a safeguard against idleness and temptation at the period when parental restraint is of necessity removed. But the matter of age is the vital one. A boy of sixteen or seventeen may, perhaps, be able to fight his own battle, but not so one of twelve or even fourteen. Hence it becomes of great importance that pupils should be kept as long as possible at their local schools ; that is , as long as a suitable curriculum can be provided and sufficient stimulus imparted. Their re- moval should be delayed as long as with safety ELEMENTARY AND SECONDAEY EDUCATION. 113 can be done. After all, moral risk is a much more serious matter than some shortcoming from ideal educational conditions. Knox saw this clearly, and the first " frute and com- moditie " of the system he sought to establish was , ' ' the youth-head and tender children shall be nourished and brought up in virtue, in pre- sence of their friends ; by whose good attend- ance many inconveniences may be avoided, in the which the youth commonly falls, either by too much liberty, which they have in strange and unknown places, while they cannot rule themselves ; or else for lack of good attendance and of such necessities as their tender age re- quireth ". The Parish School was a growth of the circumstances and necessities of the country, and the same conditions still hold to a con- siderable extent. The country still requires schools of this type, whether with or without modifications we need not here inquire. Along with this there will be schools of a more ad- vanced character : a distinct Secondary depart- ment will be developed where the numbers of pupils admit of it. These, again, will lead up 8 114 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. to conveniently placed central schools, fully equipped and manned for Secondary Educa- tion. All these must be in relation to one another. In many of the more remote schools Elementary and Secondary must to a certain extent, and up to a certain stage, go on to- gether : it will pass the wit of man to separate them in fact or in management. A similar state of matters will prevail with the more fully developed Secondary department. The school to which it is attached will still be predomin- antly an Elementary School, and as such must be to some extent managed by the authority for Elementary Education. If another body is to be introduced there must be some scheme of joint-management. Only when we come to centres with distinctively Secondary Schools could we have a distinct management with a definite sphere clearly separated from the Ele- mentary School. It is argued that if the central school, which draws its pupils from a wide area, be managed by a body representative of that area, i.e., dis- trict or county authority, the authority will not be in that close touch with the Elementary ELEMENTARY AND SECOND AEY EDUCATION. 115 School which is desirable for the healthy activity of the latter. The parents of pupils of the Elementary School will not be so fully repre- sented that the bonds between school and com- munity shall be firmly cemented and their effective co-operation secured. Of course, it might happen, and often would happen, that the centre was a burgh with an education authority of its own, in which case pupils would pass completely out of the rural conditions of which we have been speaking. But assuming that there are cases, as there certainly are, where the centre would not be sufficiently populous to have a separate autho- rity, which is the type that concerns us in this connection, a real difficulty here arises, and probably there is no solution which will fully meet it. The requirements of Elementary and Secondary are, in this particular case, partly in- consistent with one another. On the one hand you require close personal interest and contact between constituency and school ; on the other you require an authority, free from local pre- ferences and prejudices, which will take a fair view of the total requirement of a wide area 8* 116 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. and will place its Secondary School or Schools at the natural and convenient points, which will not regard the clamour of each unit which regards its own locality as the one and only natural centre, but will judge impartially in view of all the facts of the case, which, indeed, it alone will be able fully to appreciate. Ex- tent of area, sparseness of population, difficulty of communication introduce elements unknown in the city : no method of management is wholly free from objection. The two chief methods suggested, presumably the only two possible, are (a) separate authori- ties for Elementary and Secondary ; (b) one authority for both. At these we will glance separately, (a) The first ensures local interest. It keeps the wants and wishes of the com- munity in full view of the school. Public opinion is brought to bear on education. The community is made to feel the responsibility of the burden of education. Direct represen- tation is given on the governing body to those who have to defray the cost of the education, in so far as this is a local charge. On the other hand, no continuity of educa- ELEMENTAEY AND SECONDAKY EDUCATION. 117 tional effort is secured : the path from the Elementary School leads nowhere. Secondary Education is left in great measure out of its count. There is no co-operation of authority with authority, not perhaps from any dis- inclination to co-operate, but because of the inherent difficulty of united harmonious action among the ten or twenty or thirty authorities for Elementary Education operating within the district which might support a single Secondary School. The divided control of Elementary Education may be quite good for it, and would satisfy us if there was nothing to come after. But it altogether fails to provide for Secondary Education, and not only so, but renders complete provision for it impossible, unless the separate authority for Secondary Education have some control over the bodies administering Ele- mentary Schools. Such an arrangement, how- ever, is precluded by the assumption of the independence of each authority in its own sphere. The local dilemma seems insoluble. In fact, the only method of procuring efficient Secondary management with two co-ordinate authorities is to render one subject to the other ! Truly a reductio ad absurdum. 118 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. (6) The single authority is thus the only practicable means for Secondary Education ; but for Elementary it is in some respects not ideal. It does not come sufficiently close to each Elementary School ; public opinion loses something of its force ; the taxpayer has not the same interest in the school as when he can make his voice heard and his influence felt in the smaller local body. All this is worth con- sidering ; a balance must be struck between advantages and disadvantages. The question really is, to which of the alternatives are the objections less numerous and less fatal? Our view will be coloured a good deal by the amount of importance we attach to Elementary and to Secondary respectively. Too much stress may easily be laid on the element of local interest. There does not seem any reason why in the larger body it should be destroyed or even materially suffer. Each unit of area, say the parish, cannot, under a system of single management, have, as it at present has on the School Board, five or more representatives on a joint-authority for a district, but it will have representation, and ELEMENTARY AND SECONDAEY EDUCATION. 119 ought to have adequate representation. No ratepayer will be precluded from raising his voice if he feel aggrieved, or expressing through his representative his complaints against the established order. There is no reason why an authority, representative of a large area, should not be in close touch with all the educational in- terests of the area. No difficulty is experienced in cities where the interests, though locally, of course, much less extended, are as diverse, and where the constituency is, when counted by heads, far more numerous. A careful scheme of representation is required for the wider area, and some adjustment of rating areas, but there is no inherent disability in a single authority over a comparatively large area exercising due super- vision and making its influence felt throughout all its borders. The example of the County Council in local government is a case quite in point : the wideness of the area is no barrier to close touch with the constituency. The difficulties incident to a dual administra- tion are in themselves so great, even where each is thoroughly efficient within its own sphere, as to require strong justification. Then 120 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. there is the great additional expense of main- taining separate administrations. The risk of friction and the possibility of deadlock, if the authorities are invested with co-equal powers, all tell in the same direction strongly against dual control. If we have two authorities the one will have simply Elementary Education and nothing more ; the other must have certain powers over sections arid departments of Ele- mentary Schools, which must continue to do Secondary work, and will regulate this work so as to make it part of the system up to which it leads; the Elementary authority must, from the nature of the case, become to some extent the subordinate. If we have one authority there is simplicity, there is economy two stages of Education, in themselves inseparable in actual working in the schools of a rural area, are combined into one harmonious whole in which neither is neg- lected and neither is unduly pampered. Order and efficiency and system become possible. The one weak point, the close local touch, may be remedied by efficient representation or by other means to be indicated in the sequel. ELEMENTAEY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION. 121 Although much more might be said upon the question of single versus dual control, it may be thought by some that the matter has been excessively elaborated even as it is. Un- doubtedly the prevalent feeling is strongly in favour of a single governing body, and the opinion rests on solid grounds. It is not so much that it fulfils all the desirable conditions as that it presents far fewer difficulties than the other method, and is, indeed, the only one that gives any assurance of our attaining a moderately simple and, at the same time, popular and efficient system of administration. For Secondary Education it is the sole hope of salvation. We will now proceed to examine the con- stitution of the proposed body, and here the first question will naturally be whether we possess the groundwork for the reorganisation. Is the School Board in fact fitted to be the new authority? Or, failing that, can the Burgh or County Committee supply the required basis? CHAPTEE IV. THE SCHOOL BOAED. ONE principle of educational reform, as of all legislative interference, is that there be the minimum of change necessary to effect the pur- pose in view. Historical continuity should, as far as possible, be preserved, traditions should be respected, the stages in the evolution should arise by natural sequence each from its ante- cedent. Only when a building has become utterly useless must it be demolished to make room for a new one. Eenewal and reconstruc- tion are safer and more economical than a new erection, especially if the old foundation has been securely laid. This we shall apply to the case in hand. The desire is not to ' ' clean the slate ' ' and to establish a brand-new ideal system, which is a very easy matter on paper but to modify existing * forms to suit the altered conditions 122 THE SCHOOL BOAED, 123 and new demands, and to preserve rather than to destroy the old. Accordingly, we must examine existing agencies for educational ad- ministration to see whether they are capable of reform in the direction required before we think of abolishing them and replacing them by new ones. The loss involved in the estab- lishment of a system w r holly new is so great as to justify toleration even of some defects in the old. The first and chief existing agency is, of course, the School Board. The present genera- tion is so familiar with this body that it regards it as part of the long established order of things like the Parish School itself. But it is by no, means so. Any one of forty-five or fifty years of age, especially if engaged in scholastic pur- suits or interested in educational progress, has the whole history of the School Board spread out before his mental vision. The School Board is almost a youthful body, not much more than thirty years of age. Yet we are not quite sure about it, whether it is in the vigour of manhood or the decadence of senility. Much debate has taken place regarding its work. Has it been a 124 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. success or a failure? Is it to be abolished or rejuvenated? People who ought to be able to judge return the most diverse answers to these questions. Other causes than intelligent zeal for Education have often much to do with the answer ; but even without any prejudice or malice it is possible quite truthfully to render varying accounts of the School Board system. For what do we mean by School Board ? On what School Board or kind of School Board is judgment passed? Is it of the petty body we speak which represents an area with 100 in- habitants, administering for Elementary Edu- cation alone a revenue of 150 or less per annum? or of the great bodies, educational parliaments, entrusted with educational inter- ests, through all the various grades, of hun- dreds of thousands of inhabitants, with funds counted annually also by hundreds of thousands of pounds? There are School Boards and School Boards. Between the extremes there are all degrees of variation : bodies of varying number from five to fifteen ; bodies of varying capacity through all grades of efficiency and inefficiency ; bodies dignified and bodies un- THE SCHOOL BOAED. 125 dignified, competent and incompetent. When one man speaks of School Board management he has in his eye one type ; when another speaks of it he has regard possibly to a totally different type. In truth, no compendious statement will include all School Boards, and no com- pendious judgment will fairly characterise them all. There are good, even excellent, School Boards ; there are bad , very bad fortunately a small minority School Boards ; and there are indifferent School Boards. And of what system, with such enormous diversities in size and character, and with such wide ramifica- tions, could not something similar be said? Attempts to eulogise or to condemn School Boards en masse seem founded on a miscon- ception of the facts. Good institutions may be turned by inefficient agents to the very worst uses. That the membership of School Boards here and there has been of an indifferent stamp, that individual Boards have been unenlightened and occasionally oppressive, means little more than that educational bodies are composed of weak mortals, that they are human institutions subject to human failings and limitations. 126 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Criticism of the School Board to be effective should point to something different from this ; it should prove, if it can, that in the very nature and constitution of the body there are inherent defects which prevent it from ever becoming efficient for its purpose, and should point out the way in which these defects have shown themselves evils in actual working. The School Board rests on the theory of direct representation of those who have to pay for Education on the governing body that manages and controls it. The School Board is, to all intents and purposes, a rating body, although persons have been found, with a show of verbal accuracy, coupled with essential false- hood, to deny this. As a rating body it is, and ought to be, responsible to the ratepayers. This is one valuable principle, and should not lightly be infringed. There is nothing, how- ever, sacred or inviolable about it; it is one of political expediency, and there is a still greater principle, viz., efficiency. If the two should ever conflict the former would have to give way. But, meantime, be it allowed that popular control, with popular responsibility THE SCHOOL BOAKD. 127 and popular interest, is in itself a thing to be carefully conserved. But the control is much less in this particu- lar case than it looks in theory. In the first place, the School Board has to carry out rules and regulations laid down for it by a higher authority. In numerous instances it merely registers and executes the decrees emanating from an invisible hand at headquarters. Its only real duty in such cases is to make an occasional appointment the duty of all others for which a popular body is least fitted. But, in the second place, there is a fatal flaw in the method of election. A popular system is supposed to represent the people, the will of the majority of the people. The cumulative vote, by which School Boards are elected, is a care- fully devised plan for the representation of the minority. Every section of the people obtains representation , but the general sense of the com- munity cannot find expression through it. Again and again candidates with a greater number of individual supporters have been defeated because cliques or sects " plumped " for their own men. Citizens commanding general respect refuse 128 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. to come forward under these conditions. A method of election which makes the blind zeal of a sectary an equivalent at the poll as be- tween one individual candidate and another to the reasoned convictions of fifteen sober citizens does not require much argument to condemn it. It is difficult to realise the extent of the mischief done by the cumulative vote. Its influence, together with the insignificance of the duties to be performed by the average School Board, seem to be the chief means of accounting for the great decline of popular in- terest in School Board matters and the great dearth of suitable candidates. Another feature in the mode of election should be noted in this connection. All members demit office at the end of every three years. The result is prejudicial in two ways : first, it prevents the continuity of existence and policy essential to systematic administration ; second , while it may lead to a fervour of popular interest for a few weeks at the triennial election, it leaves much too long a gap between the periods of interest. After three years people have for- gotten what the old issues were. There is VERS1TY ) J \i^FORt4^X THE SCHOOL BOARD. 129 not the steady, continuous pressure of public opinion, nor are there the renewed opportunities of discussing educational questions which an annual election of a third part of the members would afford. Something of the apathy that has of late fallen on School Board elections may perhaps be traced to this cause. With large School Boards there may be another reason partly conflicting with one of the preceding, the great call on one's time made by numerous meetings and much detail of business. School Boards are entrusted with matters of supreme interest, but it is not in- consistent with this that their powders regarding them are confined within narrow limits. This might be illustrated at length from the routine of any Burgh School Board office. The total effect of these, and it may be other, causes has been to render the theory of the School Board as a popular representative body in great measure nugatory. Admitting the value of the principle, we say that the present School Board system does not carry it out, and, apart from all other considerations, needs reform in its machinery to give effect to the 9 130 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. principle it professes to embody. Of all the attendant disabilities the cumulative vote is the worst. The School Board has held a brief for Ele- mentary Education which has been a main reason why it has been regarded in many quarters as incompetent to manage the Higher Education. The inference may be larger than the premises warrant, but there can be little doubt of the fact. More than one cause was probably at work in leading the School Boards in the first instance to neglect the higher in favour of the lower. They doubted of their statutory powers, with what amount of justi- fication the legal experts must inform us. Elementary Education was a larger affair. It was, in 1872, more clamant, and it was re- garded as the proper and peculiar business of a popular body. The statement hardly needs qualification that till quite recently the School Board has not recognised the popular and national character of Higher Education. Ele- mentary was regarded as a fair charge on the rates ; Secondary was not. 1 There were grants 1 An. illustration may be cited not more than twelve or fifteen years old. According to an old arrangement certain THE SCHOOL BOAED. 131 to be earned for Elementary Education by efficient administration. Secondary earned no- thing it was a source of expense. In justice, too, it must be added that there were a great many drawbacks with which the School Boards had to contend. Their hands were full in the first years, they were not specially charged with the oversight of Second- ary Education, and, as a matter of fact, about half the P.ublic Secondary Schools of the country were not under their management at all, but were Endowed Schools. Too much should riot be made of the apathy of the earlier days of School Boards in the matter of Secondary Schools. In more recent years, when the position and pow r ers of the Boards have been of the masters of an old Secondary School "participated " in the profits of the school under certain conditions. Through a variety of circumstances the profits had been reduced to nearly vanishing point. The School Board was in the habit of making payments to account during the year, and remit- ting the balance at the end of the year. On the occasion in question it sent a communication to the participating masters toward the end of the session to say that the payments made to account during the three preceding quarters exceeded the profits ; there was nothing for the fourth quarter, but the Board would probably not ask the balance overpaid to be refunded ! . It should be added that the Board proved rather better than its word. 9* 132 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. better understood, a good deal has been done to condone for it, and to redeem the character of the Boards , where they have had resources to draw upon, as managers of higher class schools. Such language, however, applies only to Burghs. The schools scheduled under the Act of 1872 as Higher Class Public Schools, thence- forth to be managed by School Boards instead of Burghs, numbered only thirty. The vast majority of School Boards had no distinct Secondary Schools in their charge, as has al- ready appeared. So far as can be judged from the facts of the case and the course of history, the Burgh School Board has not proved itself incapable of managing Secondary Education. Within its limits it has done fairly well. With extended powers and more direct responsibility for Higher Education it would no doubt do still better. The abolition of cumulative voting would do something to encourage more influen- tial citizens to take an interest in the manage- ment of Education, and this would be to the gain of Higher Education in particular. There are also possible extensions of membership and of powers, to which specific reference will be THE SCHOOL BOAED. 133 subsequently made, which would enhance the dignity and power of the Boards and add greatly to public confidence and to efficiency. The conclusion forced upon an impartial observer is that, if the question concerned Burghs merely, there would be little reason to propose the abolition of School Boards. We have seen that Elementary and Secondary can- not be separated in management : for the former we require a body elected chiefly by popular vote. So far as the history of School Boards goes there does not seem any reason why such a body should not manage Secondary Educa- tion efficiently also, always provided that the cumulative vote be abolished, that the powers of Boards are enlarged and defined, and that special interests, to be hereafter alluded to, receive due recognition and representation. Burgh School Boards have on the whole done their duty well by Elementary Education. They have immensely improved the conditions under which the pupils work ; they have raised the position of the teacher ; they have managed in a wonderful way to get the children to attend school ; they have worked the conscience 134 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. clause in a charitable spirit and have avoided causes of friction ; they have shown a lively interest in the moral well-being of the schools, and have exercised, as fairly as perhaps could have been expected, the invidious patronage of appointments and the adjustment of salaries. They have not done everything, but they have shown themselves open to conviction and ready to advance. There has been light and shade, as was unavoidable. There have been cranks among the members, bickerings and wrang- ling, overlooking of merit among teachers, pro- motion of the wrong man, jealousy sometimes. But all this has been the exception and not the rule. The great School Boards have done good service to Elementary Education ; they are capable of doing good service to Secondary if they are fairly saddled with the responsibility and otherwise allowed a free hand. With the small School Boards the case is much different. 1 It would be quite easy to ] Any attempt to draw a hard and fast line between " and " small " would immediately raise issues which are ir- relevant to the matter in ha -;d. The type of "small" in every sense of the word is a remote rural parish where there are ministers of rival sects on the Board leading a government THE SCHOOL BOAED. 135 condemn the School Board system root and branch if the worst kind of small Board were taken as a fair sample of the whole. There would appear to be a large amount of justice in the verdict. And, indeed, there are so many School Boards that a good number of instances might be cited in support of any particular sectional judgment that might be thrust upon public notice. There are in all 970 School Boards in Scotland. If "large" is taken to mean representative of upwards of 10,000 inhabitants, there are some 65 large School Boards, nearly one-third of them being in Lanarkshire alone. If, on the other hand, " small " is interpreted with reference to a population under 1,000, there are upwards of 380 such Boards : between the limits 1,000 and 10,000 lie the remaining half or more of the total number of Boards. One must evidently be very cautious in applying to the whole in- ductions formed regarding the score or two of Boards, whether large or small, with whose of three andean opposition of two respectively, and not in- frequently exchanging places as the result of the triennial election. 136 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. inner working one may be more or less familiar. Now, with these qualifications, what are we to say of small Boards? The first and most obvious remark is that the conditions under which a small School Board has to discharge its functions are such that it can never be an efficient body. This is a matter altogether apart from the personnel of the Board. There may be the most excellent educationists, the most admirable administra- tors among its members, but what can they do? Their whole function is of the most limited character. They have to determine the salaries of two or three teachers ; this being done, they draw upon the Government for grants of various kinds on the results of an inspection with which they have little to do. The balance they assess, or requisition, which amounts to the same thing. Occasionally alterations have to be made on the fabric of the school or schoolhouse. But the Board's judg- ment on these is not final. The pettiest detail has to be approved and sanctioned by a Govern- ment Department. From time to Ttime, at varying intervals, an appointment of a head or THE SCHOOL BOAED. 137 assistant teacher has to be made. This is th^ one opportunity for exercising discernment, and the one piece of real power left. It is generally an invidious and somewhat thankless task, and no one would voluntarily undertake it. The prevalent opinion of those most directly interested, and with largest experience of its working, is not very enthusiastic in favour of the exercise of patronage by small Boards. Thus the small rural School Board has little or nothing to do. Within its limits it may be prudent in its management and straightfor- ward in its patronage, or it may not. There are still parishes in Scotland where the ecclesi- astical test is as real as anywhere in the world, though it is carefully masked. The first question asked is not regarding the educational qualifications, but regarding the denomina- tional creed of the candidate. Even when the question is not formulated, the more or less unconscious bias of a leading member or members is so distinct that the best candidate may be deterred altogether from entering the field. This state of things, it is to be hoped, is not now very common. It certainly seems 138 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. to be decreasing. But that it exists there can be little doubt. The existence of training col- leges attached to denominations of the Church is likely to keep up the sentiment, whether or not as an operative force. Denominational institutions of any kind are an anachronism in a national system. 1 It is alleged that there are School Boards which, through lack of work, have to find ao outlet for their energy in undue interference in the domain of the teacher. In any case, where the educational area and interests are so limited, the teacher is of necessity the cyno- sure of all parochial eyes. He may succeed in becoming the hero of the parish, even in these School Board days. But he may also become its bete noire. Unhappy the lot of him who, from whatever cause , renders himself obnoxious to even a single member of the Board. He is henceforth doomed to .troubled days. He may be able to rely on the prevalent public opinion which supports him, but that is not 1 This remark has, of course, no reference whatever to the scholastic side of the Training Colleges. I am fully aware of the large amount of admirable work done by them and of the skill and devotion of the members of their staffs. THE SCHOOL BOARD. 139 enough. One man can destroy his peace of mind. The teacher is, and ought to be, a man of sensibility. He feels keenly aspersions and criticisms, and chafes under them however unjust they are. He has too much personal dignity and self-respect to allow him to descend to self-defence, much more to mutual recrimina- tion. So he eats his heart in silence. Of all things the teacher esteems it an inestimable boon to enjoy freedom from interference when he is doing his work honestly and to the best of his power. It is enough that he must satisfy a Government test in respect of efficiency. But when each School Board member and each taxpayer of the little area claims the right to intermeddle, the position becomes intoler- able. On the whole, School Boards have been forbearing rather than otherwise. Possibly as many cases could be cited where manifest or suspected incompetency has been condoned and defended as where merit has been unrecognised and kept under. Neither one nor other would prove the suitability of the small School Board for its work. But, apart from this, one gets the impression that teachers instinctively shrink 140 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. from a position in which they may be exposed to this sort of treatment. Indeed, it is a weak- ness incidental to any popular system of edu- cational management, and only here specially prominent, that it exposes the teacher to un- intelligent arid even malignant criticism from all and sundry. Men are actually deterred from entering the profession at all by this cause. If the teacher's full claim upon his governors were stated, it would include much more than this negative tolerance. He is en- titled to look for sympathy, consideration, defence, co-operation, if the best is to be done for the rising generation. Any infringement of his power at once shows itself in his loss of position and influence within the school. In connection with this it must be remem- bered that small School Boards have no career to offer to a competent teacher. He ends where he began. Promotion under such a Board is to be had by quitting its service. Prom the teacher's point of view this is one of the greatest objections to small areas and small School Boards. The large area, like the Burgh, would afford a chance of promotion; as it is, when a THE SCHOOL BOAED. 141 good appointment falls vacant in a small area, length of faithful service under another small Board counts for nothing. It may be regarded as a positive drawback. The candidates are drawn from say a dozen of small Boards. The man, or woman, who has served ten years is not preferred to the one who has served five. The latter is the younger and more vigorous, and has not got into a groove, is more likely to adapt himself to the new position and gets it. But not only is the small Board, from its very constitution, an indifferent educational instrument, but it is also wasteful. Each Board has to maintain a separate organisation, with a machinery of officials and correspondence, small alike with great. Even though the duties of the compulsory officer may in the rural dis- tricts be overtaken without separate machinery, there must at least be clerk and treasurer, and official correspondence goes on with' the central department from the small Board as from the large one. There is here an enor- mous waste. Besides the public funds required for the maintenance of the innumerable local agencies, the central department is congested 142 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. through a multitude of details better dealt with locally. It has to conduct separate correspon- dence on multifarious subjects with nearly a thousand local bodies, when far greater effi- ciency might be secured by one tithe of the number. Just look at the extremes : 387 small Boards represent an aggregate population of not more than one-half of that under the single great School Board of Glasgow : yet they are all School Boards, treated by law as if there were some parity of conditions among them. Lastly, we corne to the relations of Elemen- tary and Secondary in the rural area. All that has been said of the small Board up to this point applies only to Elementary. If we now go a step further and agree to make Elementary and Secondary Education one affair in manage- ment, the small School Board is an absolute impossibility. This need hardly be further ela- borated at this point. The unit of Secondary administration must be a large one, i.e., from the point of view of population : the present unit of Elementary Education is in many cases (i.e., the 40 per cent, represented by the 387 School Boards referred to) miserably small. THE SCHOOL BOARD. 143 The outlook of the small School Board is narrow, parochial ; the outlook for Secondary Education must be wide and comprehensive. The small School Board finds it difficult to do the best for Elementary ; Secondary is quite beyond its horizon. And, be it marked, that this is no charge against School Board members, but against a system which puts them in a false and helpless position. Many small School Boards have done all that they could, much more than they were bound to do, both for Elementary and for Secondary, but they cannot perform impossibilities, and an impossibility it would be for them to deal with Secondary Education as it requires to be dealt with. The conclusion we come to is that, where the area is sufficiently large, the School Board is susceptible of such modification as to render it a suitable governing body for all grades of education up to the University. Where the area is not sufficiently large, the system will not answer. The area of a large city will do excellently well ; the area of a small rural parish is far from the best for Elementary Education, 144 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. for Secondary it is quite impossible. Small School Boards must be replaced by bodies which shall retain their best features, but shall repre- sent a population somewhat analogous to that of the Burgh. In other w r ords, the anomalies of the present School Board system must be removed ; all must be assimilated to the type which, from its constitution and resources, can alone be an efficient administrative body. The policy is not to be one of abolition of the School Board, but reconstruction on new lines, the modification being very small in the case of large Boards and very considerable in the case of small. Sentiment might even be propiti- ated by the retention of the name as that of the renovated body. The only alternative is separate bodies for Elementary and Secondary, with School Boards reconstituted for the former, which few would regard as a solution of the Education question, or even as a palliation of the present evils. CHAPTEK V. BURGH AND COUNTY COUNCILS AND COMMITTEES. WITHIN the last dozen years or so a new agency has been in the field, the Burgh and the County as such, on which a few w r ords must be said. We have agreed that historical continuity should be maintained, so far as possible, that a reconstruction involving smallest change is best. We have cursorily examined the School Board and reached certain conclusions regard- ing it. We must now see what is to be made of the Burgh and County agencies, whether they are to be swept away or whether they can be embraced in a new system and be built into the reconstructed fabric. We will first consider the case of the Burgh. Here there are the Town Council administering , either for Technical Instruction or relief of rates , the Residue Grant , and the Burgh Committee on 10 145 146 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Secondary Education with its Equivalent Grant for distribution among the Secondary Schools. The Town Councils of Scotland have not in any case set up a separate agency for the ad- ministration of the Residue Grant, and this, it may be remarked in passing, differentiates the case of the Scotch Burghs from that of the English cities and County Burghs, many of which possess active and powerful agencies of this kind. Nor have the Scotch Burghs adopted any uniform method of administration. They have usually availed themselves of educational agencies already in existence, and have made grants to various institutions Schools, Tech- nical Colleges, Schools of Domestic Economy, Libraries, etc., within their area; but they have shown an aloofness from the School Board and a jealousy of the other rating body in their area which have prevented to some extent the consolidation of educational resources and their operation through a single channel. The Town Councils have withal never been indifferent to educational interests, and most of them still possess certain rights and powers in regard to it. But the truth must be allowed BUEGH AND COUNTY COUNCILS. 147 that municipal authorities in large cities have far too many other interests to attend to with- out Education. The municipalisation of various public utilities, which is increasing by leaps and bounds, will render it more and more impos- sible in future. Municipal finances become a source of anxiety to thoughtful public men, and Town Councils cannot now be expected to finance in any effective way or to manage Edu- cation. Their benevolent interest should be enlisted and maintained ; but , apart from this . they must be relieved, among other things, of the responsibility of distributing the Kesidue Grant, which will have to be entrusted to the new Burgh governing body for Education. It will be subject for deliberation whether the Councils shall, to begin with, have some sepa- rate representation on these bodies as an ac- knowledgment of their contribution toward the oause of Education. The other body in the Burgh is the Burgh Committee, which distributes the Equivalent Grant for Secondary Education. It is con- fined to the very large Burghs, which for this purpose are six in number. The limits within 10* 148 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. which the Burgh Committee has been allowed to operate have shorn it of power. It receives its grants from the Government Department, it has merely to distribute them, and its scheme of distribution has to be sanctioned, and certain of its grants , it may be , " specially sanctioned ' ' by that Department. A comparison of the schemes of the six Burgh Committees shows that the bulk of the grant is handed over to Secondary Schools or departments already in existence, with the management of which the Committee has no concern. The grant is made either simpliciter or with an attached con- dition as to the reservation of a certain number of free places for deserving pupils. In one or two cases the benefit to poor scholars takes the form of bursaries, and there are likewise moderate allowances for travelling expenses, books, apparatus, etc. The chief point to be observed is that the Burgh Committee has found its area covered by the School Board or Endowed School Governors, and has wisely refrained from attempting to interfere with their manage- ment of schools. But a further fact is of im- portance, viz., that even in the largest Burghs an appreciable proportion of the grant goes to BURGH AND COUNTY COUNCILS. 149 schools not distinctly Secondary, i.e., to ad- vanced departments of Public Schools. This is largely the case in Govan and Leith, and to a less extent in Glasgow and Dundee. Another proof this, if further proof were needed, of the inextricable blending of Elementary and Secondary in actual practice in our educational institutions. In the Burgh one finds little encouragement in the sphere either of Technical or of purely Secondary Education for supplanting the School Board by the Town Council or Burgh Com- mittee, so far as past experience can be our guide in educational reorganisation. The Town Council has already far too much on hand to allow it to deal either directly or indirectly with the administration of Education. Its members are probably quite as competent to do so as School Board members, but there is a limit to the time that they can devote to public business, and that limit has already been reached, if not passed. To hand over Education to the Town Councils would be to render the municipal machinery still more top-heavy, and simply to court failure. The matter is not one of fitness 150 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. or unfitness of persons to manage Education, but of the over-pressure of public representa- tives who already have in hand sufficient duties to tax to the utmost the administrative and financial skill of the very ablest citizens. The Burgh Committee has no distinct locus standi at present. It has no school to manage, and has had no opportunity of showing its capacity in this direction. It is a composite body made up from members of Town Council, School Board, etc. Assuming for the moment that the School Board were to be replaced by a body constituted on the lines of the Burgh Committee, we should find some difficulty in supplying what is meantime the School Board element on that Committee, and some sort of election would be necessary for the purpose. If the School Board is to be abolished in the Burgh, its place must be taken, not by the Burgh Committee, but by the Town Council with additional members, the former being the predominant partner. For other reasons, which have already appeared, this alternative is also inadmissible. The Town Council cannot un- dertake educational administration, its hands BURGH AND COUNTY COUNCILS. 151 being already more than full. The Burgh Com- mittee could not be constituted on its present lines without some kind of election, unless the principle of representation is to be dropped altogether. For this, as for other reasons, there would be no justification for superseding the School Board by a hybrid body open to numerous theoretical and practical objections. Let us turn now to consider the parallel County administration. Here we have County Council and County Committee on Secondary Education, analogous so far to the Burgh management. But there are important differ- ences between the two, differences so great as to constitute a new set of conditions and a new situation. The County Council presents a parallel to the Town Council in its method of representative election. In the one case the parish, or some fraction or combination of it, in the other case the ward forms the unit of representation. The Council is an assembly of parish or ward repre- sentatives, as the case may be. But here the analogy almost ends. The nature of the duties to be discharged by either body is determined 152 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. by the character of the area to be administered. At certain points they touch, in certain spheres they overlap ; but in general they are as differ- ent as country and town themselves are. For example, the lighting of a city is a very im- portant piece of municipal work; it does not exist in the county. Drainage and water supply are by the county devolved upon special dis- tricts, which have all the details to carry out, the Council exercising only a general super- vision and control over the outlay. The Town Council has this as a constant duty engrossing much of its time and thought. So, in a score of different ways, the contrast might be pointed. For our purpose, however, the question is rather one of the time required than of the character of the work; for the members of the Councils, whether County or Town, may be assumed to be quite as competent to manage Education as are the vast majority of School Board members. So, if the number and the length of meetings are any criterion , then there is no analogy what- ever between the County Council and the Town Council. The former has normally only four or five meetings in the year, the latter in BURGH AND COUNTY COUNCILS. 153 large Burghs, of which alone we treat five times that number. A similar state of matters exists in Committee work, though the contrast is perhaps less marked. The consequence ?s that, while there is almost a congestion of business in the Town Council, the duties of the County Council impose much less of a tax upon the time of its members. No direct in- ference need be founded on this regarding the suitability of the County Council to undertake the charge of Education. More positive evi- dence might be required of this. But, at any rate, there are here possibilities and antecedent conditions which do not exist in the case of the Burgh. As a matter of fact the rural area, possess- ing few institutions for Higher Education, was singularly lacking in agencies for promoting Technical Instruction when the Kesidue Grant came into the hands of the County Council. The Town Council could, with a show of justifi- cation, distribute its grant to existing institu- tions to enable them to carry on their work more efficiently and to extend it ; but the County Council had to create almost anew the agency. 154 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. In many cases, therefore, in counties as con- trasted with cities, a Technical Instruction Committee was appointed for the purpose, and went to work in co-operation with local School Boards throughout the counties in establishing centres of instruction, or in developing a nu- cleus where it already existed. In some cases these Committees contented themselves with merely distributing the grant under certain con- ditions, in others a semi-independent machinery was established. Where the latter course was adopted, the results have been of a very en- couraging and satisfactory character. Despite the precarious character of the grant, whose destination depended on an annual vote of the County Council, despite its fluctuating amount, which rendered difficult the maintenance of stated agencies, despite the want of co-opera- tion from County Burghs , and , in face of apathy and indifference in many quarters, an approxi- mation to system and method has now been secured in these cases, and a distinct loss to Education would be sustained if any accident were to put an end to what is meantime in full operation. The taunt that the Eesidue Grant BUEGH AND COUNTY COUNCILS. 155 has been squandered by Town and County Councils may apply in some cases, even where it has been distributed under lax conditions for pur- poses of Technical Instruction. Where it has been systematically administered the criticism is altogether pointless. The Counties of Aber- deen, Ayr, Fife, Lanark, which from an early period took the matter in hand systematically, have shown what County management can ac- complish, even working under many drawbacks : they can render an account of their steward- ship of the Residue Grant of which they have no reason to be ashamed. There are several other counties now fast making up the leeway lost in the earlier stages. The County Committees on Secondary Edu- cation, as distinct from Technical Instruction Committees, as such, and apart from their administration of the Eesidue Grant, stand on pretty much the same basis as the Burgh Com- mittees. They have not had a great deal of power or liberty of action. Their discretion, such as it is, is always liable to be interfered with by the Government Department, and there is a cumbrous process of annual approval of their 156 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. schemes ' ' which hampers their action a good deal. Possibly the control exercised over them may in some instances be a good thing. General lines of distribution require to be laid down, and care must be taken that they are adhered to. But, whatever the merits of the arrange ment, the fact has been that County Committees are always tinkering at their schemes, and it has been difficult for them to lay down for them- selves broad lines of policy wdth any assurance of permanence. This has told more in the case of County than of Burgh. In the latter Second- ary Education is better organised to begin with, the condition of the higher institutions has been more stable less subject to modification. In the former the Elementary School has bulked more largely, and the Committee's regu- lations have had to keep pace with the shifting conditions of its grants and its curriculum of higher work. There has been no co-ordination of the different agencies at work in the field. The Government Department regulates the action of School Boards; it also, but by a different instrument, regulates the action of Committees. Committees, again, and Boards are in contact, BURGH AND COUNTY COUNCILS. 157 and find it difficult to adjust and render moder- ately permanent their relations. There are difficulties inherent in the dual control of Sec- ondary Education which only some simplifica- tion of machinery can remove. Our present position has arisen through piecemeal partial treatment by Parliament of grants and sub- sidies, and it is only by the intervention of Parliament that the situation can be cleared up. The County Committee has thus had little chance of showing what it is capable of, nor can it be expected to do much more under present conditions. There has never been dis- tinct recognition of the radical difference of conditions in town and country. Until this is had, and until the conditions of rural Secondary Education are better understood and more fully appreciated, the County Committee will fall short of what it might do. Meantime its administration presents analo- gies to the Burgh Committee procedure, along with certain differences. For example, grants are made to central institutions, more or less purely Secondary, on some nominal condition of efficiency. Naturally the Secondary Depart- 158 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. ment of the Elementary School comes in for a larger share of attention than in cities. Then, too, bursaries and scholarships, as was to be expected, bulk more largely. So railway fares are frequently provided to enable pupils in the enjoyment of free places or of bursaries to attend a central school. A method which has been found extremely useful in the case of the smaller schools is that of making capitation al- lowances for pupils attaining a certain standard or passing a certain examination. The method is not in itself free from objection, in fact, it is not, on general grounds, a desirable way of distributing educational grants, but there is a good deal to be said for it under special circum- stances in remote rural districts. No other seems to satisfy the claims of justice so well and to act as such a direct stimulus, but in any case it should be used sparingly. The general effect of the work of County Committees has been beneficial because it has made considerable sums of money available for the purpose of Higher Education. But the sum is in itself still insufficient, the liberty in its administration too restricted, and the basis BURGH AND COUNTY COUNCILS. 159 of the Committee's existence too insecure to test fairly the possibilities of such a system. The County Committees have perhaps suc- ceeded, as far as it was possible for them to succeed, which is not making a very extrava- gant claim on their behalf. One further fact may be adduced in evidence of their possibilities. In certain cases the County Committee has taken the place of the County Council's Technical Instruction Com- mittee by having the charge of the Residue Grant entrusted to it. Some curtailment of liberty might appear to be involved, as it renders the " scheme " of Technical Instruction liable to an annual sanction from the Government De- partment. A wise forbearance has, however, been exercised by the central body in this re- spect, and, so far as Technical Instruction is concerned, the County Committee practically enjoys all the freedom it inherited from the County Council. In the case of two of the counties mentioned above the present manage- ment of Technical Instruction is vested in the County Committee. County government of Education has, in such instances, justified itself. 160 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. It has had opportunities in regard to Technical Instruction which Burgh government did not possess. Where a serious attempt has been made to grapple with the subject, there has not appeared any insuperable difficulty in covering the wider area. The touch between the County Committee and its constituents is perhaps not quite so close as between the School Board and its constituents, all the more as the Committee is, from its method of election, representative only in the second degree. This is an objec- tion, but not insurmountable. In the first place, even at present the constituency can be reached and affected through the local School Boards, with which the Committee is in close and constant touch. And in the second place, reconstituted County authorities would in great measure consist of direct representatives, as will appear hereafter. Besides, under any system of administering a wide area, devolution of cer- tain duties would take place, just as is the case at present in other spheres of County adminis- tration. If there are no proved disadvantages of County BUBGH AND COUNTY COUNCILS. 161 management of Education, there is left a strong presumption in its favour, for it is possessed of manifest advantages fully admitted by all. The only pity is that there has not been hitherto a fuller opportunity of testing its capacities, for all its work has been accomplished under severe handicap and in face 'of adverse circumstances. That it has done so well is an earnest of how much better it can do. The difference in the conditions of the urban and rural areas, and in their administration, admits a possibility of an efficient educational body constituted on the lines of the present County Committees, even though a similar arrangement would not work so well in Burghs, or rather is not called for there. The ex- perience of a decade is enough to convince us that we could procure excellent administrative bodies in this way. But we are not yet quite justified in concluding that this is, in view of all the circumstances, the best body. There remain some other aspects of the question to be examined. 11 CHAPTER VI. THE TEACHER THE UNIVERSITY ENDOWMENTS. BEFORE summing up the general directions in which our conclusions on local area and manage- ment point, we must say a word or two on three related matters the teacher, the Uni- versity and endowments. They are introduced here because they seem to require specific men- tion in a scheme of educational reorganisation. With the exception of the pupil, the teacher is the most important person connected with Education. That is a truism, and yet its sig- nificance is habitually ignored. The teacher is too often looked upon as a more or less selfish person, with class interests not always identical, or even compatible, with general interests. Of course, in a sense, and to a degree, this is so, but it is much the smaller part of the question. The larger and more important part is that the interests of the community are inseparably 162 TEACHEE UNIVERSITY ENDOWMENTS. 163 bound up with those of the teacher qud teacher. Everything done to improve the training, the status, the influence of the teacher, is done to improve the education of the community. Edu- cation and the teacher cannot be separated. Teaching is one and the same process in its various grades. The age and strength of the pupil condition the teacher's method, but with this qualification, the same attitude of mind is required at all stages. The teacher who is to exercise his office beneficially must have the confidence and respect both of his pupils and of the community. This applies alike to the Elementary School teacher and the University professor. In the interests of the State the teacher's office must be a dignified one, authoritative and commanding respect. Kemuneration need not be lavish, but it must be adequate. The pro- fession must be made attractive to the very best intellects equally with medicine and law. The teacher's position must be so secured that he exercise his legitimate influence and autho- rity, that his mind be free from worries as to ways and means, and that he may be secured 11* 164 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. from interference in the discharge of duties which he alone understands. Neither the State nor the public has a right to prescribe how he is to teach, any more than it has a right to insist upon a lawyer adopting a certain line of defence of his client, or a doctor treating his patient to a particular regimen of diet or a par- ticular course of physic. The State has a right to see that his qualifications are suitable, that his credentials are genuine, that the conditions under which he carries on his work are appro- priate. It has also a right to exercise over- sight over his procedure, and to test in every lawful way the results of his teaching. But within his professional sphere the teacher must be supreme. The adjustment of the bounds of the domain of the teacher and of the State will always be matter of discussion and arrangement. No hard and fast rule can be laid down ; the principle is as stated, and must be applied in a rational and equitable way. The teacher has hitherto had several grounds of complaint. Questions of remuneration and provision for old age may be omitted, not because they TEACHEK UNIVEKSITY ENDOWMENTS. 165 are unimportant, but because they are only semi-educational, and because they will right themselves if other things are put right. The grounds referred to are such as these rather : he is treated as if he had interests separate from the pupils, the school and the governors of the school ; his curriculum is laid down for him without his being consulted as to its suitability or practicability ; the conditions of work are prescribed from above, and it is an accident if he has any say regarding them. He is, in fact, treated as if he were a mere tool and servant, incompetent to deal with the matters lying within his own sphere. At best he belongs to a trade, not to a profession. Teachers, no doubt, are sometimes unreason- able, sometimes perhaps unduly sensitive as to their rights and privileges. The extreme to- ward which they gravitate is equally to be deprecated. Governing bodies have their rights too, and the teacher cannot have everything at his nod and beck. In many cases the teacher has nothing to complain of, so far at least as local management is concerned. He is con- sulted on all occasions when expert advice is 166 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. required, his wishes are regarded, his suscepti- bilities respected. But in as many, or more, cases he is ignored, he has to turn out work to order according to regulation pattern, and is made to feel that it matters little whether he put soul and heart into his efforts or no. But in any case he is not, as he ought to be, en- titled to be consulted. His admission to counsel is ex gratia, dependent on the sympathy and good feeling of his governors rather than on a legal right. Now, the teacher claims, and rightly so, that he knows his own business better than out- siders do, that expert knowledge does not con- sist in the mere administration of school funds and architectural adornment of the school fab- ric ; he, not the administrator, is the expert, and entitled to be consulted on all subjects connected with the process of imparting in- struction. Unless he is so consulted, the com- munity suffers loss, the best is not done for the rising generation. The profession demands that as such it shall have a right to a voice in the management of Education in so far, at any rate, as it relates to the curriculum and to TEACHEE UNIVEESITY ENDOWMENTS. 167 actual teaching. Directly, the demand is in the interests of Education, as it supplies a missing element without which the educational council is not complete. Indirectly, it is so, inasmuch as it enhances the dignity of the teacher's office and attracts better men and women to the profession ; for whatever is good for the teacher is good for educational interests. No very definite form has been given to the professional demand to be regarded as experts and to be entitled to a voice in the control of at least some of the educational arrangements, and it must be admitted that the concession of it is not altogether free from difficulty. The general desire of the teacher is to have direct representation on the new governing body. It is not unreasonable, and it ought to be con- ceded, but the practical method of carrying it out has not yet been specified. Granted that the representation of teaching is an essential portion of a complete scheme, how is practi- cal effect to be given to the principle? For instance, unless a teacher actually in service is chosen as representative, the professional view of current questions is not brought as a 168 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. contribution to the common stock. If such a delegate, however, is selected, his attend- ance at meetings, requisite for effective action, must involve considerable absences from school work, with, perhaps, some further loss of time and distraction of thought. If an emeritus member of the profession or other external representative is selected, there may be some diminution of the close touch with the actual exigencies of the classroom which may ren- der the representation less effective. Then, who are to be the electors, what grades of teacher are to be represented, and from which particular grade is the representation to come Primary or Secondary, headmaster or assistant? With the general aim of the movement one must be in full sympathy ; but a more definite scheme of representation than aYiy yet proposed must be elaborated if a practical issue is to be secured. The University is usually considered as an institution apart from the lower stages of Edu- cation. It shows a benevolent interest in the subject at times, but its own hands are mean- time so full that attention is absorbed by TEACHEE UNIVERSITY ENDOWMENTS. 169 internal concerns. The contact with actual educational management, as has already been noted, is of the slightest, consisting of occasional membership of a School Board and seats on the boards of management of certain trusts and endowments. All the rest is merely private individual effort by University teachers and officials. Now, if we are to have the fullest efficiency of educational machinery this state of things must be amended. If Primary and Secondary Education are inseparable, Second- ary and University are likewise inseparable. The Secondary School opens into the vestibule of the University. The typical scholar of the Secondary School has the University as his goal ; the University regulates in great measure the higher work of the Secondary School. It has been made a frequent charge against the University that it is indifferent to, or ignorant of, the actual conditions of work in the schools, that it prescribes a programme for entrants without being sufficiently alive to the burden it imposes on the schools or the limitations of pupils who have not yet reached the maturity of their powers. It is even contended that 170 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. present requirements are doing much to stunt intellectual growth at the early stage, and is thus defeating its own object. Without endorsing the truth of these charges, we are quite safe to say that on general grounds there should be close contact between the Uni- versity and the schools, much closer than there is at present. The gain would be mutual. The University would know more about the state of Education in the schools, and in particular about the feasibility of satisfactorily overtaking its own prescription of entrance work. On the other hand, the presence of University repre- sentatives would add force and dignity to edu- cational counsels, it would be an inspiration to teacher and pupil alike ; while , on general grounds, the example of professional men of the highest attainments and eminence taking part in public administration would be fraught with good : the State has need of such. Just as in the foregoing instance of teachers, there are practical difficulties in the way of a complete scheme of University representation on local educational bodies. To have repre- sentation on well-nigh a thousand School Boards TEACHEB UNIVERSITY ENDOWMENTS. 171 is a sheer impossibility. But if managing bodies are reduced to a reasonable number, say forty to fifty, this difficulty will largely disappear. Even thus there might be difficulty at certain times of the year, during the sessions of Uni- versity classes, in members of Senatus acting as representatives on any boards save those in the University town or in its immediate neigh- bourhood. A little adjustment would, however, enable the University to maintain effective touch, through direct representation, with prob- ably two-thirds of the number of local bodies mentioned. In the rest local graduates could be chosen , and there would be a further gain here to the University itself, as the contact of the Uni- versity with its graduates would be maintained more closely, and, again, more culture and administrative ability would thus be available for the public service. But such a scheme in- volves some measure of sacrifice. The Univer- sities must throw themselves heartily into it if their co-operation is to be of real value. The sacrifice is not too great to be expected, and the gain all round would be far more than sufficient to warrant it. 172 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. No comprehensive scheme of reorganisation can ignore existing educational endowments. A system of administration worthy of the name must establish relations with them. It goes without saying that co-ordination is only half accomplished if, at least in the domain of Second- ary Education, two parallel independent bodies of educational governors are left, each working along its own lines, and possibly in actual opposition to the other. Some modus vivendi must be devised as between the public govern- ing body administering Education and the semi- public body administering endowed schools or other educational trusts. This question is beset with difficulties, and there may be a feeling in some quarters that it need not and should not be raised in an acute form at present. Admittedly, many of the En- dowed Schools have done excellent work ; there are powerful corporations interested in them - let well alone. This is plausible, but not con- vincing. For, though there be such institutions, there are numerous cases where the endowments do not suffice for present requirements, even if they find the most beneficial application. Lord TEACHEE UNIVERSITY ENDOWMENTS. 173 Balfonr's Commission went into the circum- stances of these endowments very thoroughly, and devised careful schemes for their manage- ment, but the Commission could not foresee, much less control, the course of events, which, in the interval of nearly twenty years, has in- troduced Free Education and an alteration in the compulsory stage of school attendance, and has imparted a new meaning and significance to Education as a national concern, a very essen- tial of national existence. It might be haz- ardous to attempt to generalise about the condition of endowments at the moment, but it is notorious that in many cases the terms of the schemes are no longer applicable to the altered circumstances. The machinery of courts of justice may deal with individual cases, but a legislative measure is required in order to rectify the whole position and co-ordinate the government of endowments with the public agencies. There are several, perhaps many, cases, too, those to wit in which the endow- ments are insufficient, and Endowed Schools are languishing for lack of funds, where the aid of the Treasury and of the rates would be gladly 174 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. purchased by the devolution of powers of man- agement to a public body. Scotland owes much to the generous liberality of educational benefactors, both in the past and in the present. Nothing should be done either to discourage their action or to defeat their aims. Mortifications for a special object should not lightly be diverted to a different one. But the limit is reached when the former object has already been attained, either by means of, or independently of, the endowment. Much more is this so when the lapse of time has rendered the former object obstructive of, or prejudicial to, the interests of Education. The dead hand cannot be allowed to paralyse the living. One can imagine gifts which attached conditions might render actually injurious to Education. We gratefully receive educational foundations, and will endeavour loyally to carry out the pious founders' wishes, but these must be com- patible with enlightened educational policy. If they are otherwise, w y e must either decline the gift, or, if that is now beyond our power, we shall modify its conditions so as to render it. beneficial and so as to make a part of our main scheme. TEACHEE UNIVEESITY ENDOWMENTS. 175 There is a very large sum of money at the moment annually accruing from endowments for Education outside the University, with which alone we are here concerned. Part of it is usefully employed, part of it is not. Trusts are maintained for the administration of small amounts, how many it would be difficult to say. 1 Each trust does its best to carry out its objects, but sometimes this is not an easy matter. There is no method at present available by which the efforts of the trust, and say the School Board, can be generally correlated. Ke- organisation must provide some such means. That is the general principle. The special means to be employed in indi- vidual cases will evidently give rise to difference of opinion and debate. The heroic method would be to sweep away at one stroke all edu- cational trusts and endowed governors, and to hand over their funds to the new public govern- ing bodies in their respective districts to be 1 Lord Balfour's Commission issued 379 schemes dealing with 821 endowments ; as the total amount was about 200,000 (annually), that would give an average of less than 250 for each. This is another proof of the vast number of educational administrators and the urgent need of a great reduction in their number. 176 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. administered by them in terms of the old schemes, either without modification or with certain additional powers of a specific charac- ter. This might be resented as an extreme measure, and the proposal, if actually made in a Bill brought before Parliament, would prob- ably defeat its own object. It is not so much wrong as it is premature. That is the goal we wish to reach, but we are uncertain whether it is, under present circumstances, practicable. Special governors, at any rate in the case of an institution, possibly fulfil better the objects of the trust than a popularly elected body would. They have a special interest and pride in it, they are inspired by its traditions, they repre- sent corporations, they are most in sympathy with the founders' objects. Then, again, a new public body will have many things to attend to, its attention will be fully occupied during the first years without meddling with endow- ments. Any enactment on the subject should, therefore, be of a permissive and not of a com- pulsory character at first. There may be cases where the latter would be justifiable, the natural and expedient course. But the discretion of the TEACHER UNIVERSITY ENDOWMENTS. 177 interested bodies may be trusted. It would be sufficient to give powers whereby Endowed Educational Trusts, of whatever kind, might divest themselves of their powers, duties and responsibilities, and hand them over to the public Educational authority, the funds being still ear-marked for their original purpose. While this might be sufficient with trusts administering funds, whether for maintenance or education of scholars, for bursaries or scholar- ships, or for grants to schools or teachers, some- thing further would require to be done in the case of endowed institutions. Meantime more effective representation might be on them to the new Local Authority for Education than has been possessed by the School Board, say three or four members nominated by the authority as assessors to the endowed governors. But eventually the conditions would be the exact converse of this ; the educational authority would take over the management of the endowed institution, receiving for a time an accession to its membership of three or four representatives of the original governors. These are only suggestions, and better methods may perhaps 12 178 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. be devised of giving effect to the general prin- ciple, which is that the popular governing body should be fully cognisant of all educational matters and educational policy within its area, and should be able to exercise its influence therein ; while in the fulness of the time when everything was ripe for it , it should itself assume full administrative powers throughout the whole range of Education outside the University. Of course, as soon as the endowed institution came under public management, it would have the same right as other institutions to draw upon rates and other public sources of revenue. Proprietary and Private Schools of approved efficiency, if they so desired, might be treated in the same w T ay as endowed institutions. The reorganisation of an educational system, if it is to be comprehensive and to answer the purposes required of it, must inter multa alia provide (a) representation of teachers ; (b) re- presentation of Universities ; (c) eventual ab- sorption of educational endowments, CHAPTER VII. THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY. HAVING now discussed the conditions we are in a position to indicate more precisely the nature and constitution of the new educational autho- rity. Before, however, venturing to state my conclusions on the subject, I should like to set down some of the leading principles that have appeared in our discussion or that seem to be applicable to educational reform. The first principle is efficiency. Unless this is secured change has hardly justified itself. The best supply of administrative talent must be secured, the fullest expert knowledge of educational and related matters. Every other consideration must yield to efficiency. The second principle is, the system must be popular : by which is meant that it must be a system managed by the people, for the people, 12 * 179 180 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. appealing to public interest and imposing pub- lic responsibility. There is nothing inviolate about the principle. It is simply the most direct means of securing our object efficiency. Should it be found that bodies popularly elected do not tap the full supply of educational talent, then we shall have no scruple in adding members chosen by some different method or representa- tive of other interests than those which can make themselves felt at a popular election. The special reason why the system must be popular is that it administers public funds to- ward which it must itself contribute by rates. It would be both wanton and ineffective to entrust to nominated bodies powers of imposing rates, even to a modified extent. It is undesir- able to adopt any plan but that of direct repre- sentation, at least for the great majority of the members. In other words, the body must, if possible, be largely an ad hoc body. Other principles, which will apply to all re- form, are specially applicable to the present state of matters and must be emphasised. There should be as little change as is com- patible with our main object. The educational THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOKITY. 181 traditions must be preserved which enshrine the genius of the nation. Then the system should be simple. We do not always realise that educational legis- lation has to be interpreted and worked out by people who are otherwise unacquainted to any great extent with law. Education Acts are read in their obvious sense by teachers and others interested, and are not expounded by lawyers to whom complication of terms and of provisions can hardly be regarded as a drawback. If our new system is to be successful it must be made plain and unmistakable as well as simple. Then it should be economical; and, lastly, it should be so comprehensive as to embrace every interest and include eventually every agency in the field. If two principles seem to conflict, the less important must yield to the more important. Uniformity would be a recommendation if it could be secured. Were it not that there is a general demand for specific proposals, one would shrink from adding to what has been said even the sem- blance of such a thing. But, undoubtedly. 182 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. while many agree as to principles, they find great difficulty in the application of them to the confused and confusing situation. If I ven- ture upon a personal opinion it is not because I am convinced that the scheme suggested is complete and perfect, or that I am unaware of the objections to which any scheme what- ever is open. But rather the position is that general principles are of little use unless it can be shown that they are applicable to the case in point, and in what particular way they are applicable. It is perfectly certain that no scheme can fully satisfy all the conditions. The choice must be at most between the good and the better : we cannot reach the best. The line to be taken is the one of least resistance. The plan open to fewest objections will carry the day ; the solution will be a compromise. In regard to area reasons have been given for a large unit as the only one practicable for Secondary Education. Large is to be under- stood of population in the first place, and only where the population is sparse will it apply also to superficial extent. We must in considerable measure differentiate between urban and rural ; THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY. 183 but the city for the one and the county for ths other seem the areas least open to fatal objection. This is a very vital point, and, as it has formed the subject of much debate, a little discussion may be bestowed upon it. Burghs are already well known as units of educational administration ; counties are to some extent so known, while they are firmly estab- lished for all other purposes, judicial and ad- ministrative. In selecting these we are making very little change ; we are using areas already familiar, which have proved themselves emin- ently suitable. About Burghs there is practically no difference of opinion. In Counties, however, there are three possible alternatives, all which have re- ceived notice. These are (a) the Parish, (b) the District (of a County) , and (c) a new grouping of Parishes suggested as intermediate between the Parish and the County, in fact, a remodelled District of a County designed with a special view to educational needs. (a) The Parish has antiquity on its side : it has always been associated with Education, and has taken a pride in its schools, which have been 184 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. closely connected with its ecclesiastical charac- ter and organisation. Though anything like clericalism is to be deprecated , still the influence of the Church in Education is not to be lightly regarded or put aside. On the ground of the past record the Parish would have a strong claim for consideration. But the objections to it on the score of size and resources are quite fatal. The educational possibilities of the Parish have been fully exhausted. For Elementary Educa- tion it might serve, though, even for it, it leaves much to be desired. But when we think of Secondary it is out of the question. Those most fully conversant with it are the readiest to admit that it must be abandoned. The confession is made with regret, for sentiment dies hard. (b) The District naturally suggests itself as intermediate between the very small area, the Parish, and the very large, the County. By the District is, of course, meant the subdivision of the County introduced universally by the Local Government Act of 1889 for the administration of Eoads and Public Health. Most counties were at that time thought too large to be ad- ministered as a whole for the above purposes, THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOEITY. 185 and provision was accordingly made for a subdivision of them where this had not already been effected. The District has the merit of being neither excessively large nor excessively small, and when it is added that for purposes of management of Eoads and Public Health it has worked very well, the most has been said that can be said for it. The first and great objection to it, which may perhaps be thought a sufficient one, is that as at present constituted County Districts are, as a matter of fact, in a large num- ber of cases wholly unsuited to educational purposes. There is no uniform number of Dis- tricts in each County. Some Counties are not divided at all. In those that are divided the number of the Districts varies from two to eight. Then Burghs, of which there are a couple of hundred in all, are not included in the Districts as at present constituted. It is perhaps scarcely a fair objection to urge that the Districts are of very different sizes, for under no system can an approximation to uniformity in this respect be secured. But it is pertinent to remark that a large number of the Districts have a population 186 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. of under 10,000, and are thus much too small for an administrative unit. For Secondary Educa- tion the District would be a degree, but only a degree, better than the Parish, for there are some Parishes at present larger in population than many of the present Districts : for Ele- mentary Education it would be less suitable than the Parish. The adoption of it would sacrifice the merits of the Parish system without securing the benefits of a system suitable for Higher Edu- cation, which is the very ground and motive for change at all. It is safer not to move at all than to stop half way. The stricture is not, however, of quite uni- versal application. For example, the District would probably answer, say in Lanarkshire, with its enormous population and its small num- ber of Districts, the three well-known Wards. It might also do in Eenfrewshire with its two Districts, and possibly in one or two other cases, all which, especially the first-named, are more or less exceptional : even in these instances con- siderable readjustment would be required in order to bring into the District the numerous Burghs, large and small, which have meantime THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY. 187 a separate existence, with a Public Health administration of their own. But in the vast majority of the Scotch Counties the District is unsuitable alike in respect of size and of arrange- ment ; the divisions are much too small , and they do not divide the Counties in a way that would be convenient for educational purposes. To this must be added that the Districts are a quite recent growth, without experience or traditions in respect of Education. The Dis- trict seems first to have come into existence in connection with Eoad administration , and I can find no earlier trace of it than the early sixties, when it was introduced into Aberdeenshire. It was adopted by other Counties for the same purpose, but it was not till 1889 that its adop- tion became general, and the boundaries of the existing and of the new Districts were adjusted by a small commission appointed for this and similar purposes. Even as it is, some eight Counties are not divided at all, the County and the District being here co-extensive. Districts and in this respect they differ from Counties have never had any educational machinery, and they possess no ready means of 188 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. establishing it, and, so far as appears, no desire to undertake duties in connection with it. If they were entrusted with it, the circumstances under which they would be compelled to work would go far to prevent their success. Their areas are too small for the whole of the grades of Education up to advanced Secondary ; constant differences of opinion must arise between Dis- trict and District as to the position and support of central schools ; instead of one strong body a large County would have as many as six , seven , or even eight weak bodies. There would be dis- sipation of energy and resources, and the work would not be so well done. The countervailing advantage of closer touch with the body of the constituency can hardly be urged, at least under present conditions, w r hen the nucleus of the District Committee consists of members of the County Council for the electoral divisions within the District area. Whatever touch is main- tained by members in one capacity, i.e., as District members, necessarily applies in the other also as County members. The remainder of the members of the District Committee are representatives of Parish Councils, and they THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOEITY. 189 have no other direct relation to County govern- ment. A word may be added on the comparative number of Counties and Districts. Adminis- tration of Education by Counties would give 33 governing bodies, apart from Burghs ; by County Districts it would give 107, including 8 Counties not divided at all into Districts. There would require very strong justification for increasing the number to such an extent. If 33 tan do the work equally well, we shall not employ three times that number, for otherwise the prin- ciples of economy and simplicity would both be violated. (c) There remains a third alternative, a new subdivision of Counties, or a grouping of Parishes so as to secure the best area for educational pur- poses. There would be a good deal to be said for this if we were dealing with a new country with no established system in existence, and were able to adapt our arrangements for terri- torial divisions to suit an educational scheme. If one was asked to work out the matter on paper merely, it might figure out thus : there are in Scotland 4,500,000 inhabitants ; one educational 190 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. representative to every 10,000 of the population would answer all requirements, giving 450 re- presentatives in all. So many wholly efficient administrators might be hoped for. Distributed in bodies of 10 each they would go to constitute 45 local authorities, each of which would have charge of some 600 to 700 square miles of terri- tory . That would be excellent , but it is Utopian . We have a history ; the traditions of bygone ages fetter us sometimes, if they at other times in- spire us. We cannot blot out the record of the past and start afresh. We have Counties and Parishes in existence and full operation, and this makes all the difference. A new grouping of divisions, a new sub- division of areas a fresh departure possesses attractions for many. Confessedly no system will be perfect which elects to abide by present divisions. The question then arises whether we should not boldly adopt a system, that will answer our requirements. The balance must be held fairly between the gains and the losses of such a course. After all the pros and cons are weighed, there will, one would fancy, be little hesitation in saying that we cannot afford to break abruptly THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY. 191 with the past. Our policy is to be continuous, and so likewise must be the forms with which it is bound up, always provided, however, they have not become unsuitable for the purpose for which they were originally designed. A wholly new division of areas could not justify itself by any benefits likely to accrue from it. It may even be questioned whether it is possible. But to the extent to which it is possible the new grouping must reduce itself to this : a new combination of Parishes, whether for electoral or administrative purposes, and a new grouping of Burghs in relation to the landward portions of the Parish or District to which they belong. This , which is not a very startling proposal after all, has the merit of utilising the material to hand. Nor does there seeni any reason why it should not be adopted where circumstances are proved to justify it. Otherwise we shall adhere to existing divisions , which are bound up with all our local government, as well as all our educa- tional history, and possess the further advan- tage of being familiar to all. The adoption of a new grouping of areas is not to be ruled out if it can justify itself. But it is hard to see how it 192 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. could justify itself, even to the extent to which it is possible, in regard to Secondary Education. For it the County is as good an area as can be got. For Elementary Education the new group- ing has more to say for itself. There is no reason why several Parishes should not be asso- ciated for the management of their Elementary Schools ; but as this new combination would not yet be a sufficient area for Secondary Education, the management in these new groups , if they are adopted, would still require to be under the con- trol of the County body. We are again forced back on the conclusion that the body for Second- ary Education must rule the situation, and the County (and Burgh) body is the only suitable one for it. Assuming then that in the main we shall ad- here to Burghs and to Counties as the new areas , we are met by the question what Burghs are to be entitled to separate administration? There are in all over 200 Burghs of various kinds, but most of them are far too small to undertake the burden of separate administration, besides that the mere number is so excessive as to put this out of the question. It is difficult to say offhand THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY. 193 where the line should be drawn ; the line when drawn should be as little arbitrary as possible. Population is not altogether a safe guide, for equal populations have often very varying requirements and produce very unequal edu- cational results. For example, one town is residential, another manufacturing; one is the County town of venerable antiquity, another a recent growth , destined it may be to decay when the material of its present industry is worked out. As a matter of fact, there are in Scotland 40 towns of over 10,000 inhabitants, 28 of them being over 15,000, 23 over 20,000 (including Dumbarton, which in 1901 had 19,985 inhabi- tants), 15 over 30,000, nine over 50,000. I should be inclined to give separate local authori- ties only to the last nine; first, because 50,000 seems the smallest number that would be suf- ficient to justify or even permit the establish- ment of a system of graded schools; second, because it is undesirable to multiply authorities ; and, thirdly, because there is a large gap be- tween the to\vns actually lowest in this group (54,000) and highest in the next (37,000), the difference being in no other case anything like 13 194 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. so marked. By the division at 50,000 no town could feel that it had a grievance in being de- barred privileges granted to another of very little larger size. The additions to the class, too, would be rather infrequent. All the other Burghs would be included in the County area in which they are situated, but would receive separate representation on the County body, say one member for every 10,000 inhabitants. When one has found that the County must be the unit, the difficulties are not yet over. One's eyes cannot be shut to the fact that the Counties are exceedingly diverse one from another, and that exactly the same treatment and scheme of representation may not suit all. Our Counties vary in size, the population is very unequally distributed, the pursuits and habits of life of the people differ in different parts. It will hardly be matter of surprise if some correspond- ing modifications are required in our scheme of administration. Lanarkshire, as has been said, is altogether exceptional, containing, exclusive of the Burghs of over 50,000, nearly half a million of inhabitants, as compared with the population of under 50,000, which no fewer THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOBITY. 195 than seventeen Counties possess, including two which are under 10,000. The limits of the class must be rather elastic which is to admit such extremes. Still there is a good deal that a County of even 30,000 or 40,000 has in com- mon with one of three or four times that popu- lation, and there seems no insuperable objection to dealing with them on the same basis. Pos- sibly it might be well to allow r combination in a few instances, if the localities interested desired it, so that the smaller might enjoy to some extent the stability of the larger, to which it would stand closely related. There are four Counties with populations of under 20,000, Kin- ross, Nairn, Peebles, Bute, the first two being under 10,000. They are as exceptional at the lower end of the scale as Lanarkshire at the upper end. It does not appear that these Counties meantime experience any exceptional difficulties in their ordinary County administra- tion. The next smallest of the Counties in population is Sutherland, and we have already seen what an important contribution it makes to the material of Higher Education. Its popu- lation is 21,440, but if Secondary Education 13* 196 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. alone were concerned it would have a stronger claim to a separate authority than some Counties with double the number of inhabitants, and then, of course, its vast territorial extent, fifth among the Counties, is an important factor. These facts are cited with a view to showing the detailed operation of a County scheme, not that there can be the slightest doubt of the rank of Sutherland among the County authorities, or that the complete independence of even the smallest County should be infringed unless by its own choice and to gain a higher educational end. Once we have a unit of sufficient size, it matters little how high the number rises : the minimum, not the maximum, fixes the limit. For reasons that have already appeared the limit may safely be fixed much lower in the rural than in the urban area : one-half of the number fixed for the Burgh might be regarded as perfectly satisfactory, all things considered. And if we come down even to 20,000 we should still have a sufficient unit when the extent of the territory is taken into account. With the exceptions mentioned there is only one County (Selkirk) , Ts < * THE NEW EDUCATIONAL which falls below 25,000, and that by a very little. There are two of 28,000, and all the others are over 30,000. The highest limit, excluding Lanarkshire, reaches 200,000 and upwards in one or two cases. Thus, with a very little adjustment, a County scheme of administration would suit admirably all the purposes in view. It would be efficient, and is, indeed, the only efficient method if we are to have but one educational body in full control of all grades of Education. This is attested by w r hat the Counties have already been able to do in face of adverse circumstances, and by the general efficiency of County government in other departments where it possesses the complete- confidence of the constituencies. It is in other respects least open to fatal objections arising from the nature of the case. It would be in line with the evolution both of Education and of local government : it would involve compara- tively slight change. It would be comprehensive and it would be economical. Lastly, it would be a popular and representative system, as will more fully appear in a little. The scheme outlined presents in its general 198 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. features a close parallel in Burgh and in County, but the element of distance in locality of centre from circumference presents difficulties in the latter case which cannot be ignored. How is the Elementary School to be kept in close touch with its administrators, and through them with the constituency which it serves the parents of the pupils under such a scheme? This is the most serious consideration in connection with the scheme and must be fairly faced. In order to its elucidation we must enter, into some detail, and particularly in regard to the method of election of the County body. The case hardly arises in the Burghs, and, therefore, their cir- cumstances need not at the moment be par- ticularised. The County body is ex hypothesi to have the control of all the education within its bounds, and, consequently, must be a rating body. The principle of no taxation without representation should therefore be observed. There seems no escape from the conclusion that an authority which is to impose rates on the people should be directly amenable to the people and respon- sible to the electorate for its stewardship of their interests. THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOEITY. 199 This conclusion is one which cannot be wholly acceptable to those who think chiefly of Second- ary Education. Undoubtedly a number of those persons best suited to administer Higher Educa- tion have hitherto not been willing to come forward in order to commit themselves to the chances of a popular election , which entails , as a rule, 'some loss of dignity, a great sacrifice of time and energy, and the risk of ' ' base repulse " . It is generally thought that a body representative only in the second degree , chosen by a popularly elected body either from its own members or from outsiders, is theoretically a more suitable body than the other. This may be so : the pre- sent Burgh and County Committees prove con- clusively that efficient administrators may be had without resort to direct popular representation. But there is something more than this. Facts may easily be overlooked which are of the essence of the situation. Even for Secondary Education the body must be a rating body. There is, perhaps, no insuperable objection to rating which for Secondary Education will be of small amount at most being done through the County Council by a body whose members 200 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. are predominantly drawn from it. The Coun- cil, being the popularly elected body, can at least exercise a check upon the expenditure, and can direct its representatives as to the economical discharge of their duties; it could, in extreme cases, refuse to rate in accordance with the requisition of the educational autho- rity. But it is to be feared that, as a rule, there could be little effective control without undue interference in the sphere of a body which ought in its own department to be untrammelled and independent. But besides, the educational authority is not exclusively for Secondary Education. It has control of Elementary as well, for which pur- pose it must be in direct touch with the elec- torate. The people must be kept interested in the education of the people , the common people must be held responsible for the interests of the common school an additional reason why popu- lar representation must be introduced. Further, it would be a loss all along the line to have educational questions and concerns mixed up with general questions relating to other branches of County government, as must hap- THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOEITY. 201 pen if they all come under review together at a County Council election. Secondary Edu- cation would come off very badly indeed if this were to be so. Education, taken in its entirety, is a sufficiently large subject to justify a separate election : there is good reason to believe that an enlargement of areas, together with the abolition of cumulative voting, would enable the community to draw upon the very best class of representative available. There will have to be added members, few in number, but sufficient to ensure special representation for Secondary Education. But, in the main, a national system to be successful must be frankly democratic. It should leave no ground for re- vision within a few years of its inauguration. All our thought and energies will be required in the performance of actual educational work, and none can be spared for debate as to how it is to be done. The authority, then, which is to be a County one, must also be directly representative, an ad hoc body; this may be unpalatable to many educationists, but if the facts shut us up to it we must accept it and make the best of it. 202 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. There is, however, something more to be decided the electoral division. This is one of the practical difficulties that may be readily overlooked if we simply speak of a County authority, as if all Counties were pretty much the same, and ignore the fact adduced above that there are great diversities among them so great that some may even doubt whether a uniform system will meet all conditions. For the County Council the electoral unit is the Parish. Sometimes a large Parish is sub- divided, at other times two or more small Parishes are combined. A similar system may quite well be adopted for an educational autho- rity, but with some variety in details, especially in the matter of the combination of Parishes. An efficient educational body cannot be very large, as will readily appear for a variety of reasons. The County Council is much too numerous to serve as an educational body. It varies from about 20 to 60 members , in four cases it is less than the former, and in one higher than the latter. Fifteen, the number of our larger School Boards at present, is, for educational purposes, an excellent number for a large area THE NEW EDUCATIONAL ATJTHOKITY. 203 but in only one case is the County Council as small as this, and, of course, in one of the small Counties. The number of Parishes forming School Board areas is still larger than that of electoral divisions for County Councils, and the extremes are more widely apart : 6 is the lower limit, 92 the upper. The practical problem is very considerable of getting a fair popular representation, say of Aberdeenshire, with its 91 School Board areas, exclusive of the city ; Perthshire with its 79 ; Fifeshire with its 69 ; and Forfarshire with its 60, with due provision for Burghs as well, and without unduly increasing in size the represen- tative body. The County District might be employed as electoral division, but would not be very satis- factory. It is too large for the purpose ; in most cases it would require to have more members than one, and it would certainly seem better to have portions of the Districts electing separate members than a whole District appointing two or three. In other words, the Parish had better be taken as the basis of the unit, and combina- tions of Parishes, not subdivisions of a District, 204 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. formed for electoral purposes just as for the County Council. The simplest plan seems to be to re-group, for the purpose of electing the educational authority, the present County Coun- cil electoral divisions or, failing that, the Parishes composing them which could be done without any great difficulty. There would , then , be a complete analogy to the established system, save that, at least in the larger Counties, three or four County Council electoral divisions would be combined for the purpose of electing the edu- cational authority. Such would be the general lines, but the detailed elaboration of the scheme of representation for each County would require careful consideration of all special circumstances and institutions and of the relation of Burghal and landward areas to one another. An election of one-third of the members should take place every year, the members retiring by a fixed rotation. There would be complete paral- lelism between the city ward and the County electoral division, whether or not in the former case the members of the educational authority were elected by wards or by the whole city. The County body as thus conceived would THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOEITY. 205 consist of say, at most, 15 to 18 members, elec- ted by the County electoral divisions ; Burgh representatives, where there were Burghs of 10,000 inhabitants or over 5 or 6 at most as a rule ; one representative from the University ; one from the teaching profession. Where Burghs are large and numerous the represen- tation of rural areas would be found to be correspondingly small, so that in no case would the whole body exceed 20 to 21. The Univer- sity and teaching representatives would be such a small proportion that it would be hardly neces- sary to exclude them specifically from rating powers, bat this could be done if so desired. In small Counties the body would not be nearly so numerous as in large Counties, but probably should not be less than 9 to 11, even though the electoral area had to be reduced to a corres- ponding degree. Our representative system would then stand : in Burghs, 15 members, elected preferably by the city as a whole, one added member from the University and one added from the teaching profession ; there would be a further possible addition for the management of Endowments 206 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. and Endowed Institutions. As the Burghs would have to hand over to the new Board the Kesidue Grant, it might be well to allow the Town Council a special representation, say of three members on the first Board, so as to secure continuity of administration of the grant in so far as already ear-marked for educational pur- poses, and otherwise to satisfy the claims of the municipal authorities. In Counties the method would be, as already sketched, on all fours with the Burghs, with the exception that due weight would be given to altered circumstances in re- spect of distance, by the formation of electoral divisions, each of which would return one mem- \ ber ; if their number could be made a multiple of three it would render easy the working of retirement by rotation after the first occasion of election. The County Council might, in return for its Residue Grant, be allowed a special representation of three members on the first Board. The Burghs contained in the County area, which would also hand over their share of the Eesidue Grant, would have their distinct representation in any case. In Burghs the management of schools and THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOBITY. 207 the method of rating would present no diffi- culty : the present system would be maintained with little alteration. In Counties it would be considerably different. The new body would be without experience in the actual management of schools, and it would have to deal with rating problems that do not arise in the cities. To many of those interesting themselves in the so-called Education Question the chief concern is in this direction. The financial aspect is always so important in this country that we must see our way clearly through it, and now all the more as it is mixed up with the question of management which has of late given rise to such heart-burnings in England. It must, I think, be conceded that a central County body cannot be in close touch with all the schools over an area of 2,000 or 3,000 square miles, the extent of our large Counties. There- fore , some scheme of devolution of management must be devised if the system is to work efficiently. But the problem presents no in- superable difficulty. A somewhat analogous arrangement already exists under our present system in large cities in School Committees 208 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. and visitors, and in rural areas in Combination Schools. One of two or three methods might be adopted. A Committee of Management could be formed either for the schools of each Parish or the schools of the combination of Parishes forming an electoral division, the latter by preference. The member for the division would, of course, form the first element in the Committees or Committee , as the case might be , and associated with him would be representa- tives of the Parishes , two or three in the former case, one from each in the latter case. As Parishes already possess representative bodies in the Parish Councils , the natural course would be to allow the Parish Council to choose one of its number as the Parish representative to act on the management of the schools. This would enlist the interest of another public body, and would tend to make its membership more attrac- tive. The duties of Parish Council are not so onerous that an excessive burden would be im- posed if it were asked to assist to this extent in educational management. The manage- ment would consist of a body of three or four if for a single Parish, five or six if for an elec- THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY. 209 toral group of closely united Parishes : the latter would give the strongest and most efficient as well as the most economical body. In County Burghs the Committee of Management would be constituted on parallel lines, the nucleus being the Burgh representatives on the central body, the added members being from Parish, and perhaps Town, Council. Separate accounts would, in any case, be kept for each school, and so could be made up with the greatest ease for each Parish, the Parish being retained as the rating area for Ele- mentary Education. The School Eate, i.e., for Elementary Education, would be requisi- tioned or suggested by the Committee of Man- agement, whose arrangements, together with the circumstances, resources and endowments of the Parish would condition its amount ; the assessment of it would be actually made by the County body, which would thus exercise a general supervision and control. A Parish ought to have the benefit of its endowments, for example, and a premium should be put upon skilful management ; but, on the other hand, the desire to economise could not with safety be 14 210 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. carried too far, else the school would suffer. The County authority would act as a check in both directions upon local extravagance, if there is any reason to apprehend it, and upon niggardly cheese-paring or starving of the schools. The rate for Elementary Education would remain a parochial rate. In other departments it is extremely difficult to draw r the line between the functions of the County and the local authority respectively. The County authority must possess full con- trol over all the grades of Education within its bound, but its actual management would be confined to schools predominantly Secondary, including Endowed Schools which elected to come under it. Under Secondary is included Technical Instruction of all kinds outside the University. Probably even in connection with the Elementary Schools it might have to retain some limited measure of management : it would, for instance , require to appoint and regulate the movements and services of specialist teachers of various subjects in which the ordinary teacher cannot be expected to be an expert, and which meantime small School Boards cannot afford THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY. 211 to provide for, such as Experimental Science, Drawing in its higher developments, Music, Agriculture, if it is to have a place in the rural school; branches of Domestic Economy, such as Cookery, not to mention Manual Instruction and Physical Training. Teachers of this kind might also be available to some extent for Evening Classes, where they would discharge a Secondary function. And, generally speak- ing, where Secondary Education entered into the Elementary School, there the County body would require to reserve its rights. With exceptions of this kind the powers of management delegated to the local Education authorities, Parish Committees, or whatever they might be called, should be wide and generous. They may safely be so if the County body has always the supreme control , with power to overrule them, or, in case of emergency, itself to assume management of an Elementary School for a time. The matter on which it is most difficult to reconcile all interests is that of the ap- pointment of teachers : a fair compromise is perhaps the most that can be looked for here. 14* 212 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. On the one hand there would be the County view, on the other, the Parish. There is prob- ably no real conflict of interest, indeed, it is hard to see how there could be. The best appointment for the County must also be the best for the Parish, and conversely. But the County has the wider outlook, and is familiar with the special aptitudes and qualifications of a large number of teachers directly or indirectly in its service. It desires to encourage its teachers by timely promotion. When a headmastership falls vacant it will know whether it possesses the person exactly suited to fill it or not. There will be in the County more valuable and im- portant positions to fill, and less valuable and important ones from which teachers may be raised. A grievance meantime is that promotion is not only slow, but that it is uncertain. A great number of promising teachers elect to take service under large Burgh Boards just because these have a graded system of promotion, and a teacher can get on under them. There will be a very great gain to the profession, and therefore to the community, if a similar system can be in- troduced all over. Indeed , there is hardly a more THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOEITY. 213 vital point in the whole system than this, for the profession must be made as attractive as possible to the best intellects, and a man must have an assurance of some measure of recognition if he is to cast his lot in the field of Education. There must be openings for promotion for the teacher in rural areas as well as in urban ; at present it is only in the latter case that numerous appointments are available, and can be arranged in a graded scale. Length of service alone is never a valid claim to promotion , but it becomes so when other things are equal ; in any case faithful and meritorious service must not be overlooked. Nor should every vacancy involve an undignified canvass for appointment with all that it implies. How is this to be secured? How is the knowledge which the County autho- rity possesses of its teachers to be rendered avail- able to localities? How are schools to be in some measure graded so as to allow of pro- motion? and how, at the same time, is parochial autonomy to be preserved? If the local Com- mittee is deprived of patronage of appointments , it is shorn of a considerable measure of its influence. If, however, it is allowed a free 214 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. hand, it may defeat any comprehensive scheme which is of such importance to the profession of teaching, and through it to the wider County interests. In general the local Committee might be allowed to make appointments as well as to dispense with the services of teachers in the few cases where the latter course might be necessary , but in both instances subject to the approval of the County body. In the latter case a teacher who felt he had a good case could appeal to the County authority : the consciousness that there was such an appeal would inter alia render a local Committee extremely careful in dealing with teachers considered unsatisfactory. In fact, the operation of the right of appeal would pro- bably work out in such a way that a local Com- mittee would first consult the County body and assure itself of its approval before venturing on an extreme step. The scope of the County work might even afford an opening in some other sphere to a teacher who found himself in uncongenial or incompatible surroundings. This is as large a degree of fixity of tenure as any teacher ought to desire. THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHOKITY. 2l5 With actual appointments the approval of the County body should include the right to nominate certain members of the leet for an appointment, or even the whole leet, the final selection being with the local Committee : or the converse method might be adopted, the local Committee nominating the leet and the final selection resting with the County body, which, from its constitution, would have the power to go outside the leet altogether an extreme measure of very rare occurrence, and to be justified only by the strongest reasons. The presence of a representative of the locality on the County body, and of the County body on the local Committee, would form a connecting- link and bond of sympathy which ought to pre- vent friction. The general aim would be to leave appointments to the local body, and this would be modified only to the extent to which it is necessary to secure due recognition and timely promotion to efficient teachers within the purview of the County body, who are un- known, it may be, to the local Committee :>f Management. The aim of both would be to procure and to enco urage the best teachers . The 216 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. larger body would have its hands too full to interfere unduly with local liberty of choice, its tendency might indeed rather be in the opposite direction. The appointments referred to are those of headmasters or mistresses. Assistants would be appointed by an analogous method, where the local Committee and headmaster would take the place of the County body and the local Com- mittee respectively. The management of Secondary Schools and Higher Institutions, as well as their control, would be vested in the County body itself. If all the available funds were consolidated and administered with the economy that would then be possible, there would be comparatively little call for imposing rates. If a rate were neces- sary it would in Counties be a separate rate, a County rate, as distinct from a parochial rate for Elementary purposes ; it would be imposed by the County body, and, probably as a matter of convenience, collected along with other school rates and the poor rate ; if excessive generosity were apprehended the amount of it might be limited by statute to a penny or two in the THE NEW EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITY. 217 pound, but as the remedy would be in the hands of the electorate, to which the educational autho- rity would be directly responsible, even this is hardly necessary. In Burghs possessing a sepa- rate educational authority the general school rate would include such provision as might be necessary for Secondary purposes. Here, again, is a condition differentiating the rural and the urban area. Such a scheme would give some 40 to 45 powerful local authorities, controlling in a sys- tematic way the whole educational machinery and themselves in closest touch with the people. 1 Most of them would have a number of subor- dinate bodies aiding them in the management of the Elementary Schools, also in close and in- timate relations to the people. These would vary from ten or twelve up to perhaps eighteen in all in the extreme case, if the method by electoral divisions rather than single Parishes were adopted. All interests w r ould be repre- sented in due degree, all advice available. The teacher's just demands would be conceded with- of the small Counties would hardly require any devolution : they could manage all their schools as well as control them. 218 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. out any undue preponderance being given them to the detriment of more general interests. The University representative would ensure both the best expert opinion and that union of school with what the school leads to, the want of which is so acutely felt as things now are. There would be a rational system of administration, and it would be popular, economical and in line with the past history of educational effort, and thus efficient in the highest degree. CHAPTEK VIII. THE CENTRAL AUTHORITY. THERE is also provision to be made for a central Government authority. This it is not necessary to discuss at any great length : once the local authority is satisfactorily provided, the other will fall into its natural and proper place without great effort. The theory of a Government De- partment is that it acts as the representative of Parliament in seeing that the decrees of Parlia- ment are faithfully carried out, and that the conditions on which grants are made are fairly observed. It may have to frame bye-laws and regulations of various kinds, and its regulative function may beneficially extend even beyond that point to a general harmonising and co- ordinating of local effort. All strictly legislative action must proceed from Parliament, to whose behests both central and local authority alike must conform. In a subject like Education 219 220 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. every detail cannot be laid down in Acts of Parliament, a good deal of discretion must be allowed to the bodies charged with their ad- ministration. Wisdom lies in making a fair balance of the relative powers entrusted to different bodies ; spheres of duty should be assigned to each as definitely as possible, and neither should encroach upon the other. Within its own sphere each should be supreme. A central body can be of the greatest service to a local body, in co-ordinating action, in afford- ing information drawn from a comparative view of the whole field of action, in giving advice when it is sought, and in preventing waste and overlapping. But a central body cannot, with any satisfaction or advantage, deal with the details of administration. These must be left to local bodies ; the broad lines of policy must be the matter chiefly in the eye of a Government Department, while the lines themselves must be laid down by Parliament. It has been suggested that in the present instance there should be some body mediating between local and central authority, a consulta- tive council or ,committee of experts, whose THE CENTEAL AUTHOEITY. 221 counsel should be sought in all important cases, and which would be a mouthpiece of Scotch educational opinion and a guarantee against ill-considered action by a badly-informed or unwise Government Department. A good deal might be said on general grounds for a council of this kind, which is being tried in England, and all the more if there were to be, as the pre- sent parochial School Board system implies, a thousand different bodies uttering as many dif- ferent voices throughout the length and breadth of the land. But, with a comparatively small number of local bodies, the necessity would in great measure disappear. Through the local bodies themselves public opinion could be focused, and a Council, if it might be thought by some to be a check on the central body, would be no less a barrier in the path of the local body. By general consent a body of the kind contem- plated is to be merely consultative. As such it might do as much harm as good. It could only talk and could not act. It would be irre- sponsible, for apparently the design is that it should be nominated, not elected, not represen- tative of any constituency, not amenable to the 222 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. people or to public opinion. It is, in fact, the pis aller : a well-balanced representative system of local management renders it superfluous. Experts can still be consulted if required by whichever authority, local or central. There is only one kind of consultative or Advisory Board possible, that is one representative of the new local Burgh and County authorities. A small body, say six or eight, chosen by the local authorities for a definite term of office, and, being a real exponent of the wishes and experience of these authorities, would, if it were resolved to establish such, supply a link binding more closely the centre with the whole circumference. All expert opinion would al- ready be represented on the local authorities, so that the Advisory Board would be la creme de la creme, and a truly representative body. But a nominated and, so far, irresponsible Board would be alike indefensible in theory and unsatisfactory, if not mischievous, in practice. A proper division of spheres of duty would assign to a central department all matters re- lating to the conduct of examination and inspec- tion, for the most part the training of teachers, THE CENTEAL AUTHORITY. 223 also the disbursement of moneys after Parlia- mentary regulations had been complied with, and, in general, matters in which the mediation is required of a body midway between Parlia- ment and the local authority. It will be fatal to the usefulness of either local or central body if its freedom of action is hampered by the other or its responsibility removed from it. There are only one or two points where the risk of conflict is considerable. One of these is the curriculum of the schools , which demands a word in passing. Theoretically the curricu- lum is at present subject to the approval annu- ally of Parliament, but it is well known that this approval is purely theoretical. Documents of this kind have to be " laid on " the table of the House of Commons. This has in recent years been interpreted by the officials of the House to mean that they are not to be discussed or in any way brought under the cognisance of members of Parliament. It would seem in- conceivable, if it were not fact, that the plain and obvious sense of the regulation should be flagrantly defeated, and the process assimilated to oviposition ! A great deal has been done 224 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. by the central department singlehanded to im- prove the curriculum and raise the standard of attainment .in the schools in recent years. One gratefully recognises the enterprise shown in this direction, the ready admission of new ideas, the embodiment in the curriculum of changes likely to prove advantageous, a thoroughly pro- gressive policy. But it is difficult without full discussion , such as Parliament affords , and with- out a full hearing of all interests involved, and particularly of the difficulties of the school in keeping pace with the renovated curriculum, to make the most of the situation. No single point of view enables us to see the whole cir- cumference. Discussion and argument are required if only to convince, and to prove that the changes are inevitable, and in the light of all the circumstances the most desirable course. It may be also that in the course of the dis- cussion some improvements may be evolved. Parliament, too, used to provide a safety-valve for reducing the excessive pressure. Now the exit is closed and explosions are threatened in consequence ! Failing this Parliamentary supervision, the THE CENTKAL AUTHORITY. 225 restoration of which in any effective form is unlikely, some means should be devised by which all views regarding the curriculum en- titled to expression should be heard. The initia- tive must continue to come from the central Government Department, but the suggestion may be hazarded that in future all changes in the curriculum other than of details should in the first instance be of a permissive character, and should be finally adopted only after passing through a probationary stage and being sub- jected to experimental tests. Even prior to issue they might with advantage be subject of con- sideration not merely by the most experienced members of the inspectorate, but also by local authorities, or representatives of them, in such assembly as has already been suggested as the only possible form of an Advisory Board. Im- provements that might be effected, even in the preliminary stages , would be economical of time and effort. Another suggestion is that the time has now come when a forward step should be made in regard to one important branch of examination work undertaken by the central department, 15 226 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Not the least of the services rendered by that department to Secondary Education has been the institution and development of the examina- tion for Leaving Certificates. The test pro- vided by them is a severe one, and just on that account the results are universally recognised as of high value. Eunning on parallel lines along a considerable portion of its course is another examination to which the schools are subject the so-called Preliminary Examination which gives entrance to the Scotch Universities. But with separate bodies of examiners there are differences in the requirements of the examina- tions, and fluctuations, to some extent, in the standards. The consequence is that too heavy a task is imposed upon the Secondary Schools in satisfying the claims of both. The Secondary curriculum is at present greatly overloaded, partly through multiplicity of examinations, including those mentioned and those for bur- saries of various kinds ; partly through an eager desire to conform to all conditions that will secure increased grants. The result is most unfortunate, and is fast becoming a ground for serious alarm. There is in our Secondary THE CENTEAL AUTHOEITY. 227 Schools a large amount of over-pressure. Our boys and girls are subjected to a dull routine of tedious school hours, and still more tedious home lessons, which renders the name and thought of school and school- work odious. Nor is it confined to the last school years when youths of seventeen or eighteen can make a short spurt without serious damage. But from fifteen, fourteen, and even thirteen or earlier, the young gladiators are got into training. Those who pass through the curriculum of some at least of our Secondary Schools do so at imminent risk to their mental capacity and their later development. . The teacher is never a quite free agent, but the time has come when he must put down his foot and absolutely refuse to identify himself with the current over- pressure. Anything that will ease the position will be a gain. A step for which we are ripe is the amalgamation of the Leaving Certificate ex- amination with the Preliminary examination. The former is wider than the latter, just as the curriculum of the separate departments of the Secondary School covers more ground than the 15* 228 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. University entrance requires. But no obstacle presents itself here. Our higher Technical In- stitutions carry on the study of the subjects of the scientific and modern sides of the Secondary School. The Leaving Certificate examination, being taken as the basis of the combined ex- amination, would on its one side admit to the University proper, on its other to the Technical or Commercial School, the modern extension of University study and the counterpart in many respects of its subjects and methods. Some adjustments would no doubt be necessary, but neither many nor great. Meantime we have the anomaly of a school Leaving Certificate, i.e. , on the lines of the older culture, which does not give full admission to the University, the hardship being of a kind which bears with par- ticular severity on women. A little consulta- tion would easily remove it and otherwise bring the requirements of the two examinations into complete harmony. The University would be a distinct gainer, and that without any sacrifice of the independence which it must be a first object with it to maintain. The schools would be relieved from at least one of the too numerous THE CENTEAL AUTHORITY. 229 claims made upon them; even a little relief would be welcome, though it would still leave the burden an excessive one. According to the view here set forth the cen- tral department would not undergo any very great change of constitution. Alteration would be in the direction of denning more clearly its sphere of action, not in interfering with its freedom of action within its own sphere. We require a strong, vigorous, enterprising and in- telligent department, and we have the materials of it at hand. A good deal has been heard of late of a pro- posal to remove the headquarters of Scotch Education to Scotland, to settle them say in Edinburgh. The scheme is attractive, though, by the way, Perth may be suggested as a more central and, for other reasons, more suitable position. Sentiment goes for a good deal, and it is on the side of the change, but it might be safer to balance the pros and cons and put senti- ment aside in the first instance. The " pros " are accessibility, amenability to Scotch public opinion , and the alleged analogy of certain other departments of public business, all this tending 230 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. to remove the authority from a single centre and distribute it over the area interested : the objective is summed up in the word "decen- tralisation ". The ' ' cons ' ' are the loss in effective touch with the Treasury, the separation from related Government offices and members of Parliament, if not from Parliament itself, the provincialisa- tion, as many 1 hold it, of Scotch Education, and after all the problematical nature of the gain. Decentralisation is highly necessary if it is thought that the central authority engrosses too much of the power. But surely this is better accomplished by strengthening the locali- ties, full provision for which we have made, than by strangling the central body. The cen- tral body must be an efficient body, and have at its command all the appliances for making it so. Transplanting would be a dangerous experiment, and a strong case must be made out to justify it. The centre of the national life, the heart of things, is in the metropolis, and we cannot alter the fact. It is as true for Scotland as for England. By removing the 1 This is not a personal view. THE CENTRAL AUTHORITY. 231 central department from it we should be thought to lower its status. The more equal distribu- tion of power in educational administration can be secured without it, and, that being secured, the chief argument falls to the ground. On many grounds one would welcome the change ; but I for one am unable to see that the sacrifice would be justified by any countervailing advan- tage. What we do require is a Scotch ^office, of the Government Department, which might well be in Edinburgh, or as well in Glasgow ; or, if mere convenience of locality is concerned , better still in Perth, at which a responsible official of the Department could be found at certain stated periods, say two or three days every month, for consultation with local authorities and others concerned with educational matters. To this might be added a sort of itinerant circuit, by which a stated official visit should be paid, say once a year, to the chief centres of educational activity the University towns, together with Dumfries, Inverness and Perth and oppor- tunity afforded of bringing together the various branches of the administration, and of supply- ing first-hand evidence, advice and direction on 232 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. topics of current interest. This would enable the Department to maintain closer touch with Scotch opinion. It would, at the same time, not be in any way an infringement of the in- fluential position which we desire it to enjoy, but, on the contrary, would greatly enhance its authority and extend its influence. CHAPTEE IX. ANALOGIES BETWEEN SCOTLAND AND ENGLAND. t A QUESTION frequently put is Is the principle of the English Education Act of 1902 to be applied to Scotland ? l The question lends itself to misunderstanding, or even to misrepresenta- tion. It is not one that can be answered by a simple affirmative or negative : the answer is, indeed, both yes and no. For there is no one principle that covers all the enactments of the Act in question. Further, behind the question is another and a deeper one Can we with advan- tage or with safety adopt, wholesale, methods foreign to our genius and history, however admirable they may be in themselves, and how- ever well adapted for the purposes they serve in other countries where circumstances are 1 1 have no intention of discussing the policy of the English Act as a whole, which is a matter altogether apart from my purpose. I refer to it only by way of illustration, and to prevent misunderstanding. 233 OF THE IIMIWCPCITY 1 234 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. greatly different ? The remark applies all round , to industry as to Education, in Education >~o curriculum and methods of organisation , as well as to systems of government and local adminis- tration : we should be ready to welcome im- provements whatever their origin England, France, Germany, America. Bftt we must be extremely careful lest we mistake the form for the substance, the husk for the kernel. The principle which a foreign usage embodies, if a good one, should be apprehended as such, sepa- rated from forms which are not essential to it, and wrought into the forms which -we have by laborious process ourselves evolved as those best suited to our own conditions. On these lines should be our answer to the inquiry regarding the system of the English Act. We have wrought out our own scheme quite independently : if our principles are sound it matters little whether they are in the English Act or not. On the other hand, if the Act for England contains other principles which we have overlooked , and which seem to be in them- selves commendable, we shall have no scruple in availing ourselves of them. In other words, ANALOGIES : SCOTLAND AND ENGLAND. 235 the adoption of them in the English Act will neither condemn our principles, if they are in themselves right, nor consecrate them, if they are wrong. We have no concern with the English Act as such. It is a matter of in- difference whether our system finds its counter- part there or whether it does not : it must stand or fall by its own merits. Now, coming to facts, we undoubtedly find in the English Act inter alia the recognition of the County area as the unit, and also Boards or Committees of Management with power dele- gated by the County authority, ideas which have appeared in our scheme. So far the answer then is yes, we shall adopt principles- part of them of the Act for England. But if we look more closely we shall find that this is only half the truth, or less. While we have adopted the County area, like England, unlike it we are to have a directly-elected, a popular body : while we have Committees of Manage- ment like England, still, as these too are to be representative, elected directly or indirectly, responsible to the people and not nominated, the answer is here an emphatic no. The 236 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. essence of the English system of management is nomination let us not say denomination ! of ours, representation. As a matter of fact, we could hardly have an exact parallel to the English system, even if we deliberately set ourselves to introduce it, for we have not the antecedent conditions which render it possible. Scotland was fortunate enough to secure at the Eeformation, three and a half centuries ago, at least a large measure of eman- cipation of Education from ecclesiastical control. The co-operation of preacher and teacher ought to be fruitful of good, and the efforts of the Scotch Churches on behalf of Education are deserving of our warmest gratitude ; but that is quite a different matter from clerical control of the schools, the exploitation of Education for sectarian purposes. With the overthrow of the Komish Church in Scotland, the divorce of Church and school in the matter of control, as well as of teaching, was in large measure effected, and we have pro- fited educationally by the separation of functions and duties. If it be thought that the Churches had in part regained control, and that in 1868 ANALOGIES : SCOTLAND AND ENGLAND. 237 there was a good deal of clericalism in our Education, the Act of 1872 may surely be re- garded as completely severing the bond. Eng- land is only now passing through that stage of divorce of Church and school. The separa- tion has been made in an imperfect way as yet. It was perhaps too much to expect that it should be effected completely at the first attempt. Whatever one's sympathies may have been, it was not difficult to foresee that a transition stage like the present could not be a permanent solution of the question. The teaching of his- tory is unmistakable, so far as the control of Education is concerned : it has everywhere passed from the hands of the Church. But the question of the relation of religious to secular teaching is another matter, and still awaits final solution. None of the current expedients is more than moderately satisfactory, hardly more than a makeshift. Speaking then of the national system of Scot- land we find no contemporary parallel in it to the state of things existing till recently in Eng- land, where some half of all the Elementary Schools, 12,000 or more in all, have been under 238 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Church management. There is, therefore, no possibility of the most debatable feature of the English Act appearing in the management of our Public Elementary Schools. We have, in any event , to discriminate between one foreign prin- ciple and another ; we introduce a principle of the English Act, not because it is English, but because it has been found to suit our require- ments. If we can get the best we want, it is a matter of indifference in what other code of laws it has appeared, or whether it has ever received legislative sanction at all. But some one may remind us that there are Voluntary Schools in Scotland too, and their case must be considered. There are such schools, but they form a small part of the whole ; there is a fraction of Koman Catholic Schools (6 per cent.) and a handful of Episcopal (2'1 per cent.), which are the only two requiring special notice. The dimensions of the question are small, insignificant as compared with Eng- land. It is undesirable to raise a discussion of the whole religious question again, and there will be a general disposition to extend as large a measure of charity as possible to those who hold ANALOGIES: SCOTLAND AND ENGLAND. 239 the particular form of their belief so dear that they are willing to make sacrifices for it. Strict justice might no doubt insist that all schools should conform to the same conditions if they are to enjoy benefits from the public exchequer. Something less than justice in this sense will answer our case better. The majority in Scot- land is large enough and strong enough to be able to afford to be generous. Only thus may it be hoped that the Voluntary Schools will eventually find themselves able to come fully under the public system. Possibly the pressure of the teachers in them may do as much as any- thing to hasten this ; for, under an efficient State system, the denominational teacher will stand at a very serious disadvantage, and it may pos- sibly be found so difficult to maintain the supply of efficient teachers that the attempt will have to be abandoned. Meantime the suggestion is that the deno- minational schools should not be interfered with, but should be left under their present manage- ment, unless they should elect voluntarily to come under public management. So long as the secular teaching is efficient the schools 240 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. should be free from molestation : as soon as they chose to come under public management they would be entitled to assistance from the rates, but not till then. This is a via media between the threat of exclusion from all public grants unless public management is accepted, and the other extreme of full enjoyment of public grants without any public control. The religious question so called does not require to be raised at all in connection with the reorgan- isation of the management of Education in Scotland. If unfortunately it be made pro- minent, it will be to the detriment of the real matters of importance. The present question is a secular one, to be settled by educationists and legislators, not by religious sectaries. Nor is the further and larger question of religious instruction in the school, and its re- lation to the moral function of the school, raised by the modifications of control and manage- ment proposed, and therefore it does not require to be here discussed. It is in itself, of course, one of the most important of all educational questions, whether regard is had to the interests of the Church or merely to the claims of citizen- ship. CHAPTEK X. SOME ASPECTS OF THE WORK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHORITY. THE work of the renovated local authority will be a very important one. Any attempt to dis- cuss it exhaustively would involve a review of the whole educational outlook. This lies out- side our purpose, but there are one or two features of it on which a few words may be said. The financial side of the present system will continue with little alteration in the administra- tion of Elementary Education. But consider- able alteration will be required in order to con- solidate the grants for Higher Education and to provide further funds. The present Residue Grant and Equivalent Grant, that now ad- ministered by Burgh and County Committees, will be combined and handed over to the new authorities. To this will be added the balance of the grant for Secondary Schools, under the 16 241 242 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. Local Taxation Account (Scotland) Act, 1898, available after the cost of inspection, examina- tion for Leaving Certificates, and perhaps Higher Agricultural Education has been de- frayed, these being entitled to a prior claim. Still further there is the recent Equivalent Grant (1902), amounting, it is understood, to over 200,000, which has provisionally been distributed among School Boards for aiding in the staffing of Elementary Schools. This grant is the equivalent of the sum given to England under the Education Act of 1902, and it would appear only fair that a portion of it be allocated to Higher Education in Scotland. The simplest plan would be to hand it all over to the local authorities, ear-marking a proportion of it, which ought to be a generous one, for Higher Educa- tion. These four grants would be " pooled " and distributed, in accordance with the needs and circumstances of localities, among the local authorities to be administered by them accord- ing to lines laid down by Parliament , and under the supervision of the central department. An equitable method of distribution is not very readily reached, for there are several different WOEK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHORITY. 243 principles that operate, and each of them must be taken into account. First there is population. Equal populations, it may be thought, require equal educational advantages ; there may be expected on the whole to be the same proportion of children requiring Secondary Education in town and in country, in Glasgow as in Argyllshire, in Midlothian as in Inverness-shire. As a matter of fact, we find the number differing very considerably, as has been pointed out. The north, too, for example, supplies a larger proportion than the south. Population, as a basis of distribution, may be a priori just, but it is certainly in- sufficient. Another principle is that of valuation. It is argued that the value of property in a certain district is a measure of the contribution which that district makes for public purposes, includ- ing the amount that it has indirectly paid to the imperial revenue, from which the Government grants are derived. It regulates also the rate which is the local contribution to Education in supplement of the imperial subvention. There- fore it ought to regulate the amount of that sub- 16* 244 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. vention itself. This is right so far, but it bears very hardly on poor and populous districts where, on the assumption of equal portions of the popu- lation taking Secondary Education, there are larger numbers to be educated and smaller re- sources upon which to draw, both local and imperial. If the strong are to help the weak, the rigidity of the principle must be tempered by the application of the previous one. Thirdly, there is the distribution of popula- tion, with the means of communication, which must be taken into account. No safe inference can, it seems, be drawn universally from the nature of a district as urban or rural regarding the number of pupils pursuing Secondary Educa- tion ; for while it has been seen that Lanarkshire and Sutherlandshire present a marked contrast in this respect, yet if the pastoral and agricultural Counties of the South be taken , we find that the percentage there is very low, in one or two cases even lower than in Lanarkshire. The actual facts must be examined and weighed. The variations are extremely puzzling, and we can hardly attempt here to explain them. But, quite apart from this, it is evident that the WOEK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHORITY. 245 matter of distribution of population is a most important one in considering fair provision for Secondary Education. This affects Elementary Education to a very small extent, for although there may be considerable distances for children to go to attend schools in the rural districts , it is only in a few of the most remote districts that the Public School is inaccessible. There is ground for making special provision even for Elemen- tary Education in remote, sparsely -populated regions, but it is with Secondary Education that the drawback of distance is chiefly felt. The truth of the statement is self-evident, that it is more difficult for a country pupil than for a town pupil to get Secondary Education. It costs him more, and it costs the local authority more in bursaries, travelling expenses, etc. Actual distance, too, is not all. The means of communication, which is closely related to the distribution of population, counts for a great deal. A school six miles distant, with no rail- way, car, or even humble 'bus, is farther away than one at twenty miles' distance with a good railway service. Thus it is that, in the dis- tribution of grants, the character of the district 246 SHOKT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. as rural or urban, and as well or ill supplied with means of communication, and no less the distri- bution of population must be taken into careful account. The difference is not wholly one of town versus country, for many Counties are almost as favourably situated as Burghs in respect to facilities for Secondary Education : County differs greatly from County. The facts require to be looked into separately ; an equit- able distribution of imperial grants will seek to afford means for giving equality of oppor- tunity to all pupils, whether their residence be near or remote from central schools. The peculiar needs of the districts and the institutions actually in existence, or urgently required, must also be within the purview, and may furnish a fourth principle of distribution. In not a few instances it happens that a large Secondary School in a centre serves a much wider area than its own, including, it may be, different Counties, or Counties outside the Burghs in which it stands. This also must be taken account of in the allocation of imperial aid. This fact may operate in favour of urban as against rural areas. It would be better to adjust such claims by giving a higher imperial WOBK OF THE NEW LOCAL A grant than leave it to the voluntary co-operatkm of a number of local authorities, for the latter always find so much to do with their grants within their areas that they are indisposed to bestow them on strangers. At the same time joint action between two authorities, or among several, is a desirable thing in itself, and should, of course, be provided for. The consolidation of grants, including any endowments that may come in, and the equit- able distribution of the imperial aid, are prime necessities in the actual working of the new system, while the grading and equipment of schools will also bulk largely in the initial stages of administration. Without entering further into such matters, we may call attention to another side of the work which has not yet been mentioned. Hitherto we have spoken as if the day schools constituted the whole problem. But, of course, this is far from being the case. The problem of educational administration is not solved when Primary and Secondary Schools are provided, equipped and efficiently staffed. Hardly half has yet been done. There is the great field of the Evening School, the Continuation work, 248 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. to be dealt with. Only those closely connected with Evening School work know how much has been already effected by it, and how far its influence already extends. Much more is it the case that the nation has not yet come even in sight of its full possibilities. Reference has already been made to the striking disparity in the percentages of those receiving education between five and fourteen and fourteen and twenty, viz., 92'85 and 10*24 per cent, respectively. Restricting the age by cutting off the last two years we find a some- what more favourable percentage : of those aged fourteen to eighteen there are 14 ' 3 receiving education. We have no difficulty in under- standing the Registrar-General's remark that after the age of fourteen " there is a rapid fall in the number of those receiving education ". It is stated by the same authority that the pupils referred to " are at college or elsewhere adding to their knowledge"; but, so far as appears, " elsewhere " does not include the Evening School ; for while the total number in receipt of education, as understood by the census, between the ages of fourteen and WOEK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHOEITY. 249 twenty is 56,464, there are 47,002 in aver- age attendance at Evening Schools, and 8,478 over the age of fourteen on the school roll of the higher class Public and Endowed Schools, which would in themselves almost make up the census numbers, apart from the thousands in the Elementary Schools with higher depart- ments, Technical Schools, Colleges and Uni- versities. It is a pity that the return is not more explicit on the subject, but we may, perhaps, take it that the census figures do not include many of the Evening School students, an-1 that we should be pretty safe to add the Evening School numbers to the others, and to say that meantime something like one-fifth of the pupils over fourteen are receiving education of some kind or other. ' Even thus the figures afford food for reflection. Here is the broad fact : we educate our youth up to fourteen- - and we are thankful that we can do even so much ; after fourteen we turn a large proportion of them adrift. They are immature in mind, as in body , still susceptible to influences for good or for evil . We leave the work of education barely half done, we allow the seed sown to perish for 250 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. lack of favourable conditions of growth, the snares of the world choke it and it becomes unfruitful. Much of the good done by the Day School is speedily undone, the useful lessons are unlearned in vicious practice ; when the restraint of the school is removed the recoil is greater than if there had been no restraint at all. Many local authorities have already realised the seriousness of the problem , perhaps as much on the industrial as on the moral side. The Government Department has also realised it, and has elaborated a plan for encouraging to the utmost all efforts in this direction, and for giving liberal financial aid. It is a great matter that we have 50,000 in our Evening Schools, and the work grows apace. But one has also to reflect that the whole number of young people between the ages of fourteen and eighteen is 372,000, and that there must be tens, if not hundreds, of thousands that are meantime out- side the Evening School and that ought to be inside. Here is a problem that will tax to the utmost the energies of all educational adminis- trators old and new. How the question is to be finally solved only WOEK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHOEITY. 251 time can tell. But even a clear apprehension of it as a problem will help us forward. The compulsory school age cannot be further raised : all are agreed as to that. How shall we deal with pupils just emancipated as they believe from the Elementary School? Much is being done to lay hold of them and to induce them to continue their education voluntarily, but it seems to be the general opinion that there is, in a majority of cases, a biennium of lapse during which the pupils cannot be kept hold of. Between fourteen and sixteen is a period of leakage ; after the latter age more serious thought arises, the claims of the industry be- come more pressing, study is resumed and the better-class pupils make excellent students. But so much has been lost in the interval that when the student returns to study in the Evening School, at the age of sixteen, or later, as it frequently is, he has first of all to lay a new foundation for his Technical Instruction. He has forgotten what he was familiar with at four- teen, his habit of mind is out of sympathy with study, and a great effort is entailed in bringing himself up to the required standard. A good 252 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. deal of this might be avoided and better results obtained if there could be continuity of effort without a gap, and the Elementary School trans- ferred its pupils direct to the Evening School. No inference of the kind supplied by teachers of Continuation Classes could be gathered from the census returns ; the latter, looked at in detail, go simply to show that each successive- year after fourteen more than half the pupils of the previous year fall away ; 83 per cent, of the population of that age are in attendance at fourteen, at fifteen it has dropped to 35 per cent., and so on year by year, till, at the age of twenty, it has almost reached vanishing-point, viz., 6 per cent. The averages for the periods of years fourteen to twenty and fourteen to eighteen are, as already stated, 10*24 and 14*3 per cent, respectively. It is interesting to observe that throughout the years after four- teen the number of girls greatly preponderates, being, in the latter years, fully two to one that of the boys. The statistics of the higher class schools are of too special a nature to afford a safe ground for a general inference, but, taken WOEK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHOEITY. 253 year by year, they point distinctly in the same direction as the census figures. The drastic method of reform would be to apply compulsion after fourteen, and eventually up to eighteen, for the Continuation School, just as is now done up to fourteen for the Ele- mentary School. It may have to come to this, but we are hardly ripe for it, nor are we quite certain that it is necessary. Other means have not yet been exhausted. In no case probably could more than a half, if even so many, of those aged fourteen to eighteen be expected to be found in the Evening Schools. Besides which it would be much better for the community to solve the problem for itself without invoking the compulsory officer. Another fact to be taken account of is that the problem presses unequally in different districts ; in some it is clamant, in others it is well-nigh solved. Little proof is required of the value of the Evening School, but we must try to realise more fully its enormous importance and the vital nature of the problem with which it has to deal. By Evening Schools is to be understood every agency outside the Day School, from the revision 254 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. of Elementary subjects, supposed to be already mastered during the compulsory stage, up to the highest attainments of the Technical Col- lege, Whitworth Scholarships and the like, not excluding University evening courses and lec- tures. The subject presents various sides, and the starting-point is the age of fourteen, to which the Public School now conducts the child. The first aspect that presents itself is the physical one. Much has been said of late about physical deterioration, and it is all too true. But it is an error to think that the Elementary School can solve it. It can do a good deal, but it is not here master of the situation any more than at other points. 1 The boy or girl of four- teen is very unformed in body. The develop- ment may have been quite satisfactory up to that point : the teacher may have done his part well. There may be a sound bodily frame and 1 1 do not mean to imply that the present physical training of the Elementary School is incapable of improvement, for a great deal remains to be done by way of providing facilities for out-door recreations in large towns : to cite only one illus- tration, our public playgrounds are very inadequate in many instances. But I assume that we are alive to the necessities of children during the compulsory school period and have the means of supplying them. WOKK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHOEITY. 255 an average amount of health and vigour - 1 But at fourteen the boy goes into an office or a work- shop, the girl to an office or a mill. Physical training absolutely ceases as a regular part of the daily routine, save perhaps for the Saturday afternoon and such occasions as can be snatched when exemption from work and atmospheric conditions combine to render outdoor pastimes possible. The better-class boy or girl manages to get along, the home does a good deal for them. But with others the hours of labour are so long, and the physical strain so severe, that little energy is left for regular gymnastic or athletic exercise, such as the developing body at that time specially requires. During the period of attendance at the Ele- mentary School every effort must be made to give the body a fair start, for without it a sound frame cannot be subsequently built up. But, on the other hand, it is surely plain that the work is but half done at fourteen, and that 1 Reference on the whole subject should be made to the recent Report of the Royal Commission on Physical Training (Scotland), presided over by the Earl of Mansfield, especially pp. 8, 9, 15-21, 35-38. According to the view I have expressed, the Report might have laid somewhat more stress on the agencies subsequent to the Elementary School. 256 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. regular physical training is in the highest de- gree necessary during the critical years that follow, not only in the interest of a sound body, but in the interest of the moral nature at the dawn of manhood. The duty of attending to physical development has now been recognised as a national one. It has not been decided exactly through what agency provision is to be made for it, but some considerable part of it must fall within the scope of the Continuation work of the new local Education authorities : it is a task which fully faces them. On the other aspects of the problem with which they have to deal, the intellectual and the moral, it would be easy to dilate. But the considerations that operate are sufficiently obvious to present themselves to any one who will reflect on the matter. The intellectual side has been pressed home by the necessity of improved industrial and commercial train- ing. Much excellent work is being done to make good the present defects in this side of our training. But much has still to be done, operations require to be extended to include all subjects and all workers employed in connection WOEK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHORITY. 257 with them. A most admirable step has been taken by our Government Department in asso- ciating with the present Education authorities the representatives of the employers of labour and the workers themselves in the various crafts of the localities. This brings us face to face with the real crux of present-day Education ; the heart of the matter, as a practical concern affecting the life of the nation, lies in the attitude of the constituency, i.e., the nation itself, toward it. Systems of administration are mere machinery, Education is a process of mind affecting mind. We are interested in schemes of educational reform, not that they are an end in themselves, but because they give the affecting mind a better chance of bringing its influence to bear. But it is impossible for the teacher or the administrator to do anything unless the pupil is convinced of the need of instruction. This is just where we have failed in the past. Nearly forty years ago it was pointed out by a Eoyal Commis- sion that in Scotland Education was regarded as a means to an end : where a practical end is not well in view 7 , Education is little regarded as 17 258 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. mere culture, as a means of development and of self-realisation. It is a compliment to the shrewdness of the nation, and the desire to rise in position and influence, but it is somewhat at the expense of higher aims. One is not pre- pared to say whether the same state of feeling as existed forty years ago still holds, and one might hesitate to give expression to the opinion at all did it rest on less sure evidence. But it is pertinent to our subject to remark that if the horizon of the individual is bounded by his own ambitions, and his personal knowledge of what is necessary for their realisation, the person of narrow views is likely to make a very poor choice of means. The manufacturer, the employer of labour thinks he knows what ' ' pays ' ' . He is often mistaken. How much more the youth of sixteen, or the boy of fourteen, who discovers only too late that he has missed his chance and cannot recover it ! The moral is that we re- quire, in consultation with educational experts, the best representatives of industry, trade and commerce in every branch, employers and em- ployed alike, so that a wider and sounder view of our requirements may lead to a more efficient WORK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHORITY. 259 provision for them. The youth must be guided at a time when they are of necessity unable to grasp the complex conditions that regulate the industry in which they are engaged. They must be induced, in the extreme forced to take up subjects of study that may not seem immedi- ately to " pay," but that will in the long run pay to the full in every respect. It is of the very essence of successful educational activity that employers in town and country alike, and employed no less, should co-operate in the work. We may hope that there are sufficient numbers of them whose outlook is comprehensive enough and keen enough to render their counsels not only safe but valuable. Any suggestion that conditions of industries should be modified, or that hours of labour should be shortened in the interests of educational facilities, has usually met with scant courtesy, or at best with a non possumus. Many things, however, at first sight deemed impossible, have gradually come to be regarded with less sus- picion and have finally become practicable. It is not necessary to make any specific suggestion with respect to such modifications, but this may 17* 260 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. safely be said in general terms, that time must be found for the due training of our young men and women, both bodily and mental, after the period when they enter on their industrial life. If the conditions meantime do not leave sufficient energy and leisure for the purpose, they must be altered. No system which con- verts young people into machines, and which renders regular training of body and mind im- practicable, can be pursued without ultimate detriment to national interests of the highest kind. On the moral aspect there is no room to speak at any length, all the more as it ought to form a part in the discussion of a question we have agreed to omit the religious question in the school and its bearing upon moral training. If it is true that the boy of fourteen or youth of sixteen is incompetent to judge regarding the conditions of his industrial career, and there- fore requires direction, it is of still greater moment that he should receive guidance re- garding all those great moral issues of which he is very imperfectly cognisant, and whose decision is almost forced on him at this period. WORK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHORITY. 261 This much is of special importance : the duties of man as citizen are very different at the be- ginning of the twentieth century from what they were at the beginning of the nineteenth. The good man may be wholly good, and the dutiful dutiful in every relation, but he requires to be instructed as to the nature of his duties and the method of discharging them. Now, the citizen of this free country is placed in circum- stances in which none of his predecessors stood. He has privileges unknown to them, but cor- responding to his privileges there are duties which he has to learn and to discharge. The privileges he readily remembers, the responsi- bilities he forgets. The meaning of citizenship is only now being realised by the oldest, and must be taught to the young. It need hardly be said that the enhanced significance of citizenship has arisen through the series of Eeform Acts, from 1832 onwards, which has converted our Government from a monarchical or oligarchic one into a democratic. With the franchise comes a new set of duties re quiring for their proper discharge special know- ledge, special preparation, and even a measure 262 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. of special natural aptitude. A nation that has evolved a system of free institutions and a demo- cratic form of constitution may be presumed to possess qualities that are likely to turn the boon to good account. But the inheritance is a source of anxiety and is not without its risks. A new generation may abuse and squander the fruit of the struggles and sufferings of its pre- decessors. Education has to face the conditions of citizenship which it finds around it. In a past age, while political power was in the hands of a few, it might well afford to neglect or despise the mass of the people. The model pupil of the eighteenth century was a ' ' young gentleman ' ' . Even philosophers did not conceive of Education as a right of man, due as much to the humblest as to the highest. Such an iconoclast as Eous- seau a democrat, almost a revolutionary- occupies in this respect exactly the same position as his immediate predecessor, the aristocratic Locke. But the nineteenth century produced great changes. With the spread of democracy came an altered view and position of Education. To a democratic community Education is a neces- WOEK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHOEITY. 26B sity. An uneducated democracy is a constant menace both to itself and to other nations. The model pupil, the unit of Education, is now the pupil of the Public School. To democracy Education stands related as at once cause and effect. An educated community will speedily assert its claim to a share in the political power : conversely, the extension of political power to the community in general involves the education of the political " masters ". The rights and duties of citizenship form in themselves a very wide subject, including constitutional history, theories and systems of government, history of institutions, the jus- ticiary, political economy, geography, etc. And it may be added that, even when all is accom- plished that instruction can effect , political duty is one of those things best learned by doing. No amount of theoretical instruction would in itself be sufficient to train our citizens unless there were also practice in the exercise of politi- cal privileges. But this is a different statement from one that would assert that the exercise can be profitable or wise without preliminary instruction. Plainly the function of the Ele- 264 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. raentary School is very limited in this direction. Citizen Readers and the like are very well in their way. A good deal may be learned about the concrete forms of government at the early stage. But at fourteen a boy has no clear con- ception of the meaning of citizenship any more than of the conditions of his future employment. It would be altogether absurd to expect him to have it. The question then comes to be whether he shall be formally instructed in the rights and duties of the position which he is to occupy as a citizen, or allowed to pick these up from the usages prevalent around him, the public opinion of his fellows, and such informal instruction as he can glean from the newspapers, magazines and current literature of the public library. The period of life fourteen to twenty-one is that dur- ing which most of the foundations of this know- ledge will be laid. Things would not be so bad if all young men would during this period avail themselves of the sources of information re- ferred to. But only a very few of them do so : when an election has to be decided the votes are cast in many cases with a very hazy idea of the issues involved, and with more than a dash WORK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHORITY. 265 of what appears to be the line of self-interest regulating the decision. There is still another respect in which the means of instruction during the period of youth are very defective : there is little or no prepara- tion for the duties of parenthood. Half a cen- tury ago this defect was pressed home by Mr. Herbert Spencer in language which is still largely appreciable. There is some scruple or delicacy felt in tack- ling this subject, but it forces itself on us. We cannot afford to rely on tradition, which is often unenlightened, or instinct, which is frequently mistaken and in any case inadequate. A mother's instinct may lead her to sacrifice her- self for the life of her child, but it is no unerring guide as to the means of supporting and pro- tecting its life whether with food or physic. The principle holds both in physical matters and no less in matters relating to moral training. It is not so prominent in respect to purely intel- lectual training, but the influence of the mothers of great men upon their development shows that even here it is not a negligible factor : perhaps 266 SHOET STUDIES IN EDUCATION. it is a mistake to separate intellectual and moral at all. The lesson to be enforced is this that the period of youth, in man and woman, is the sphere of the Continuation or Evening School in all its ramifications. There is a field here for educational effort, the possibilities of which are not yet adequately recognised. On the moral side it includes citizenship and parenthood, for each of which it is of the very last importance that stated specific instruction be provided. The function of the educational authority of the future, whatever it be, must be to survey and cultivate this field throughout its length and breadth. On the physical side it must pro- vide for the continuation of the training and development of the body begun in the Elemen- tary School. On the more strictly intellectual side the present system of Technical Instruction must be continued and extended, more subjects and more students all subjects and all students must be brought within its scope. On the moral or quasi-moral side the claims of citizen- ship and of parenthood must receive more distinct recognition. Here is a work which will WORK OF THE NEW LOCAL AUTHORITY. 267 call for the best talent in organisation and in instruction no less than in administration. The local authority and the teacher will not prove inadequate to the task if they are allowed scope in dealing with it. A cognate subject is that of the training of teachers, which many regard as likely to fall within the management of the new local autho- rity. The subject is one which would require a monograph to itself, and which we will not attempt to treat here. The extension of the field of Education, as well as the increase of knowledge in every branch of study, will neces- sarily imply a largely increased demand on all institutions for the training of teachers. To this must be added that the day of the untrained teacher, of whatever grade, is past : Secondary no less than Elementary teachers must study the principles of the profession. All the agencies at present employed may be utilised, and there is room for extension, and perhaps necessity of some co-ordination. The question need not specifically be dealt with under a legislative measure of reform of local educational adminis- tration. If the scheme finally adopted require 268 SHORT STUDIES IN EDUCATION. the co-operation of the local authorities, pro- vision can be made for it at the proper time. But there would be little gain in complicating unrelated questions of local government with a difficult question like that of the training of teachers, which lies chiefly within the sphere of experts. An extended scheme for the pro- fessional training of teachers will ere long re- quire to be devised by the Government Depart- ment in concert with the institutions specially interested in it. What its final form may be it is hazardous to say, but if the assistance of the local authority be invoked it will not be found wanting. 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