Sheldon & Company's T College. 1 vol. 12mo. The aim of this volume is to pet forth, more fully than has hitherto been done, the doctrine that virtue, in its elementary form, consists in benevo- lence, and that all forms of virtuous action are modifications of this principle. After presenting this view of obligation, the author takes up the question* of Practical Erliirs. Government and Personal Rights ^nd Duties, and treats them in their relation to Benevolence, aiming at a solution of the problems of right and wrong upon this simple principle. '.TKt of i*i2 ctor? sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of price. Sheldon & Company's Text-flocks. OLNEY'S HIGHER MATHEMATICS. Olney's Introduction to Algebra Olney's Complete School Algebra Olney's Key to lo. ivith extra examples. . . Olney's Book of Test Examples in Algebra Olney's University Algebra Olney's Key to do. Olney's Elements Geom. & Trigonom. (Sch. Ed.) Olney's Elements of Geometry. Separate Olney's Elements of Trigonometry. Separate.. Olney's Elements of Geometry and Trigonom- etry. (Univ. Ed., with Tables of Logarithms ) Olney's Elemenls of Geometry and Trigonom- etry. (University Edition, without Tables.) Olney's Tables of Logarithms. (Flexible covers.). Olney's General Geometry and Calculus The universal favor with which these books have been received by educators in all parts of the country, leads the publishers to think that they have supplied a felt want in our educational ap- pliances. There is one feature which characterizes this series, so unique, and yet so eminently practical, that we feel desirous of calling special attention to it. . It is The facility with which the books can be used for classes of all grades, and in schools of the widest diversity of purpose. Each volume in the series is so constructed that it may be used with equal ease by the youngest and least disciplined who should i be pursuing its theme, and by those who in more mature years and with more ample preparation enter upon the study. Any of the above sent by mail, post-paid, on receipt of price. A VOCABULARY OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES, (INCLUDING THE VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY, MENTAL, MORAL, AND METAPHYSICAL, BY WILLIAM FLEMING, D. D., PROF. OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW, FROM THE SECOND EDITION, 1860 : AND THE THIRD, 1876, EDITED BY HENRY CALDERWOOD, LL. D.) BY CHARLES P. KRAUTH, S. T. D., LL. D., VICE-PROVOST OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. NEW YORK: SHELDON & COMPANY. 1878. 041 Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, so clas- sified and arranged as to facilitate the expression of ideas, and assist in literary composition. By PETER MARK ROGET. Re- vised and Edited, with a List of Foreign Words defined in Eng- lish, and other Additions, by BARNAS SEARS, D. D., late Pres. of Brown University. A new American from the last London edition, with important Additions, Corrections, and Improve- ments. History of Ancient and Modern Philosophy. By Prof. JOSEPH HAVEN; E). I). , ;:;.;; ; The preparation of 't^ife, drorjc^ian p&r^aKeJ' with the studies which filled the life of the author, and its conrpletion^an^ revision for publica- tion was his last-work.; ; .i *****,! I !*."' ,' ' '. 1 I* I / I I ! ! -i -\* Long's Classical Atlas. Constructed by WILLIAM HUGHES, and Edited by GEORGE LONG, with a Sketch of Classical Geog- raphy. With fifty-two Maps, and an Index of Places. This Atlas will be an invaluable aid to the student of Ancient History, as well as the Bible student. One volume, quarto. " Now that we are so well supplied with classical dictionaries, it is highly desirable that we should have an atlas worthy to accompany them. Butler's Atlas has been very useful, but the time has now come for some improvement upon it ; and in the volume before us is to be found all that can be desired." Lon don Athenaeum. COPYRIGHTED, 1877, BY SHELDON & Co. u" EpictetVS. * Nomina si nescis, perit et oognitio rerum." " He has been at a great feast of languages, and stolen the scraps. 0! they have lived long in the alms-basket of words." Love's Labour's Lost, Act T., Sc. 1. " If we knew the original of all the words we meet with, we should thereby be very much helped to know the ideas they were first applied to, and made to stand for." Locke. ' In a language like ours, so many words of which are derived from other languages, there are few modes of instruction more useful or more amusing than that of accus- toming young people to seek the etymology or primary meaning of the words they use. There are cases in which more knowledge, of more value, may be conveyed by the history of a word than by the history of a campaign." Coleridge's Aids to Reflection, Aphor. 12. " In words contemplated singly, there are boundless stores of moral and historic truth." Trench on Study of Words, 12mo., Lond., 1853. "Jock Ashler, the stane-mason that ca's himsel' an arkiteck there's nae living for new words in this new warld neither, and that's anither vex to auld folks such as me." Quoth Meg Dods (St. JRonan's Well, chap. 2). "A good dictionary is the best metaphysical treatise." " Etymology, in a moderate degree, is not only useful, as assisting the memory, 'out highly instructive and pleasing. But if pushed so far as to refer all words to a few primary elements, it loses all its value. It is like pursuing heraldry up to the first pair of mankind." Copkston's Remains, p. 101. iii M78825 CONTENTS. PAGE PREFACE TO THE VOCABULARY OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES, BY CHARLES P. KRAUTH vii INTRODUCTION TO FLEMING'S VOCABULARY, BY CHARLES P. KRAUTH xii PREFACES TO FLEMING xix ABBREVIATIONS xxiv VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY, BY WILLIAM FLEMING... 1-560 VOCABULARY OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES, BY CHARLES P. KRAUTH 561-934 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE FROM TENNEMANN, CONTINUED FROM 1851 TO 1877, BY CHARLES P. KRAUTH 935-958 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS AND PROPER NAMES, BY CHARLES P. KRAUTH 959-1031 SYNTHETICAL TABLE OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES, BY CHARLES P. KRAUTH 1032-1044 PREFACE. I, IN this volume the reader has TWO WORKS by two writers. These works are closely related, yet are distinct. Together, they form a unit of plan. To Dr. Fleming belongs The Vocabulary of Philosophy, which, with the posthumous additions from his pen, and the definitions by Dr. Calderwood in the edition of 1876, is given entire in this new American edition, and in this alone. The last English edition omits much valuable matter of the second edition, probably to keep the size of the book within certain limits. This edition of Fleming is therefore the only complete exhibition of his labors. All the ADDITIONS made by the American editor to the former editions of Fleming are retained in this edition, but in a greatly improved form. II. The "Vocabulary of the Philosophical Sciences" has, in general, with respect to the work it accompanies, two character- istics : i. It is SUPPLEMENTAL to Fleming, and to the American edi- tor's edition of Fleming. 1. ADDITIONS have been made to the CHRONOLOGY, bringing it down to June, 1877, the latest chronology of events and litera- ture being far more full than the earlier, as information in regard to what is latest is least accessible. 2. The SYNTHETICAL TABLE is greatly enlarged, so as to cover completely the Philosophical Sciences, in their classifica- tion, terminology, and history. It now presents a methodologi- cal survey of all the most important terms, and of the great vii yiii PREFACE. schools and great names in the entire philosophical world, from the beginning to the present. 3. Other additions have been brought into their PROPER PLACE, so that the arrangement of the new volume, even after its great enlargement, is more simple and convenient than that of the old. . The Synthetical Table is placed at the END of the book. b. The " German Philosophers of the most recent Era " is put in its proper place in the Synthetical Table. c. The Vocabulary of German Terms, from MorelPs Tenne- mann, is presented in alphabetical order in the new Vocabu- lary. d. The Index of Terms is put in its alphabetical places in the new Vocabulary. Every term which Fleming has, is marked with a star (*). What is found under five heads, in five places, in the old, is drawn together under three in the new, so that the reader knows more easily where to find what he wants, and has fewer places to turn to for it. 4. An endeavor has been made to remedy defects in Fleming's plan and execution. New terms have been introduced, and new citations have been made. In this Fleming himself and Calder- wood have borne part. Calderwood has introduced new terms, and has given definitions to them, and to a number of the old terms. Fleming's manuscripts have been drawn on for new matter. All the new matter in the Third London edition is incorporated in this. ii. The " Vocabulary of the Philosophical Sciences " is, how- ever, in important respects, INDEPENDENT of Fleming. The plan is greatly enlarged. There are entirely new departments in it; and others, in which Fleming has little, are presented with fulness. 1. The reader is not left to INFER the meaning of a term from a mass of discursive citation, but DEFINITIONS ARE GIVEN. PREFACE. IX The CITATIONS are such as either directly define, or illustrate the definition. 2. The number of the more ELEMENTARY TERMS has been increased, with a view to the difficulties encountered by the learner. 3. The illustrations of the ANCIENT Philosophy, the basis of till real thinking, have been multiplied; additions have been made to the terms of the MEDIAEVAL Philosophy, which still lives in the thinking and phrase of all the Occidental systems, and forms the very staple of some of the most widely received of them. The GREEK and LATIN terminology is presented both in its alphabetical place, where it is still retained in common use, and in its parallelism with English words. The FRENCH, with its terminology, the BRITISH and AMERI- CAN philosophical literature have been more largely drawn on. The most important terms of the ORIENTAL systems have also been introduced. 4. HISTORICAL MATERIALS, illustrative of the rise, growth, and fluctuations of meaning are furnished in the case of terms which need such a treatment. 5. The more important PHRASES and COMBINATIONS of terms, and the GENERIC TERMS which mark the particular systems, are given. 6. The most noticeable weakness of Prof. Fleming's work is in GERMAN PHILOSOPHY, that philosophy which at this hour is exciting beyond any other the attention of the thinking world. In the "Vocabulary of the Philosophical Sciences," the most important distinctive terms of German philosophy are given in German at their alphabetical place. Its peculiarities in con- nection with these and with the common terms are illustrated in translations from the greatest German philosophers, especially from the time of Kant to the later and latest dates. The views of a number of writers of great distinction are introduced, in this volume, to the English reader for the first time. The X PREFACE. citations are carefully selected with reference to their direct value in DEFINING words and things, and winnowed from what is irrelevant to that aim. 7. Nothing in the same compass is of more service than care- fully arranged TABULAR VIEWS. In these, this work will be found very rich. In the same line of usefulness are OUTLINES of the great epoch-making works, and of these there is a num- ber. The various parts of the philosophical sciences and of their literature are CLASSIFIED. 8. The BIBLIOGRAPHICAL references are copious. The work is an INDEX in some cases almost a CONCORDANCE of much of the most important philosophical literature. 9. The whole character of the work is OBJECTIVE. It is designed to furnish impartial information in regard to all schools of thought. It is not meant, except as simple statements of truth may tend either way, for the defence of any system, how- ever good, or the exposure of any system, however bad ; but for the definition of the terms, general and particular, of all systems. 10. Its aim, in brief, is to furnish an INDISPENSABLE to the learner, a CONVENIENCE to the scholar. III. The NECESSARY LIMITATIONS involved in the plan of the work must not be forgotten by the reader. 1. It is a VOCABULARY, NOT AN ENCYCLOPEDIA. Its object is to define terms. This indeed often involves the history of terms and illustrations of their use. The definition of the word cannot be separated from the definition of the thing. A great deal, therefore, of the most important MATTER of Philosophy is involved in the plan, but only as it is connected with DEFI- NITION. 2. It is essential to facility in use, and to moderateness in price, that its BULK should not be excessive. The author has endeav- ored to keep the book from undue dimensions, not by omitting anything which he thought should be in it, but by careful avoid- PREFACE. XI ance of superfluous matter; by economizing in space ; by select- ing a smaller type, where it could be employed with advantage ; and by using the initial of the word defined where it recurs in the article. IV. THE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of the Author are due to Professor Robert Ellis Thompson, the Librarian of the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania: first, for the judicious selection of philo- sophical works made by him for the Library ; and secondly, for the facilities rendered by him in the use of that Library, and of his own, as well as for varied information derived from his large and thoughtful reading. The Author's thanks are also due to the Philadelphia Library, and to its courteous and intelligent librarians. For letters of sympathy with his work, and of friendly and useful suggestion, he is indebted to Profes- sors Thos. G. Apple, P. E. Chase, T. S. Doolittle, and E. V. Gerhart ; to Presidents J. W. Nevin, S. S. Sprecher, and M. Valentine; to Hon. W. T. Harris, editor of the Journal of Speculative Philosophy, and to Hon. Furman Sheppard, who, known to the world as one of our most distinguished jurists, is also one of our ripest philosophical scholars and thinkers. V, THE SOURCES AND AIDS which have been employed by the writer will be found fully indicated at the particular articles. Having a working acquaintance with the languages which are the main repositories of philosophical thought, he hopes that the book will bring with it evidence that the rich stores within his reach have not been regarded ungratefully nor used care- lessly. .CHARLES P. KRAUTH. PHILADELPHIA, June 23, 1877. INTRODUCTION BY THE EDITOR. IT will, we think, be conceded by all who are familiar with philosophical writings, that there has never been gathered in our language in that department a fund of thought and of in- formation which within as small a compass presents more that is valuable than we find in tht Vocabulary of Philosophy by Professor Fleming. Jean Paul tells us that he never took up a book, the title of which excited extraordinary anticipa- tion, without finding that he was destined to disappointment. It inay safely be affirmed, on the other hand, that where the modesty of a title is unfeigned, the book, if it disappoint us at all,'disappoints us agreeably. Of this class is the Vocabulary of Philosophy. It is much more than the title promises, for it illustrates the matter of philosophy as well as its terms. It gives incidentally a great deal of the history of philosophy, and notices its literature on the leading subjects. It is to a large extent made up of the very words of the most distinguished philosophical writers, and thus becomes a guide to 'heir opinions and to the most important portions of their works. Professor Fleming has not laboured single-handed, but has in this way drawn into his service, as co-workers, many of the greatest xii INTRODUCTION. xiii minds of all lands and of all time. It is true everywhere, and especially in the philosophical sciences, that the knowledge of words is, to a large extent, the knowledge of things. To grasp the full meaning of a term, we must ofttimes not only have a definition of it, but we must trace its history and to know its history, we must know the views of the men who employed it, and the circumstances under which those views were formed and expressed ; for the history of words is the history of the world. A Vocabulary with this large aim would be in fact a dictionary or Cyclopaedia of subjects and of au- thors. A Vocabulary, on the other hand, in the strictest sense, would simply give us terms and a definition of them. Professor Fleming's book is midway between these classes. It rises as far above the second class, as from its compactness and the na- ture of its design it necessarily comes short of the first. In the Preface to the Second Edition, however, a conditional promise is given that he may attempt such a work as the first would be. We hope that the author may be encouraged to carry out his purpose, and that in conjunction with the best philosophical thinkers in our language, he may give us what is so much needed a Cyclopsedial Dictionary of the Philoso- phical Sciences, and of their literature and history. The Editor, at the request of the Publishers, consented to make the eifort to render the Vocabulary of Philosophy still more useful, so far as the very brief time of the passage of the work through the press would allow him. To have made addi- tions to the text of a living author he would have considered an unwarranted liberty; and, apart from this consideration, such additions are really not needed, nor would they be con- sistent with the plan and purpose of the book, to both which compactness is indispensable. To have made the book a large xiv INTRODUCTION. and expensive one would have destroyed one of its distinctive aims. He directed his main efforts, therefore, to what he considers the proper functions of an editor, to the bringing more com- pletely within the reach of the reader the treasures offered by the author. He has aimed at the accomplishment of this end in the present case in the following way : I. He has thrown into the margin, where the eye readily catches them, when they are needed, the citations which, in the English edition, encumber and disfigure the text. II. He has added a Vocabulary of some of the principal terms used by German philosophers. III. He has given, from Tennemann's Manual, a Chronolo- gical Table of the History of Philosophy, enlarged somewhat in its closing part, and brought down to the year 1860 ; and with this has been connected a classification, by schools, of the latest German philosophers. It IB in matters connected with German philosophy that Professor Fleming seems least at home. He is evidently do- pendent upon translators and critics for his knowledge of them; and of translations from the German, especially in this depart- ment, we may use the reply which Canova made when Na- poleon, as an inducement to the artist to reside in the French Capital, proposed to transfer the works of Art from Rome to Paris : " When you remove all that can be removed, there will remain infinitely more than all you have taken away." IV. The largest measure of labour has been bestowed upon the Bibliographical Index. Though this is so arranged as to form an Index to the Vocabulary, it has nevertheless an inde- pendent value. It gives every name quoted or alluded to in the Vocabulary, and these embrace all the names of the most im- INTRODUCTION. XV portance in Philosophy. In the Index, as a general thing, the names of the authors are given in full, the dates of their birth and death, or of the period in which they flourished are added, together with the titles of their works, not only of those cited in the Vocabulary, but in many cases of others that are most important, with the dates either of their composition or of the best editions, and in many cases the dates of both. The re- ference is not by the page but by the subject under which they are quoted, so that the Index shows the topics of the works catalogued, and thus presents a special vocabulary of the terms of the leading authors. By turning, for instance, to the arti- cles Aristotle, Plato, Hamilton, or Leibnitz, the reader will find himself able to examine consecutively the views of those great leaders in the AVorld of Philosophical Science. Some of the most important philosophical works are destitute of an Index. Hamilton's Reid, for example, has none. The Vocabulary, with its Bibliographical additions, becomes to some extent an Index to such works. In preparing this Index with its Bibliographical feature, which, with all its imperfections, is, so far as the Editor knows, the only one of its kind, he has sometimes found all the sources within his reach, inadequate. It is based first of all upon an actual inspection of the works, where this was practi- cable. The facilities for this have been furnished by his own library, by the Philadelphia Library, and by the bookstores of the city. In this department he found the stock of his Pub- lishers rich and well selected, and he acknowledges the facilities which they kindly gave to his labours by the unrestricted use of the whole. There still remained, however, a large number of works, for an ability to notice which he is indebted to various valuable books of reference. Among these might be mentionei First, the works in which the Bibliography of Philosophy ig Xvi INTRODUCTION. treated as a part of general Bibliography. The best English, American, French, and German CYCLOPEDIAS present more or less largely such materials. The works in BIBLIOGRAPHY, and in LITERARY HISTORY, Watt, Brunei, Ebert, Grsesse, Darling, also furnish valuable matter. The best general BIOGRAPHIES arc also necessarily bibliographical, and special attention has been given to this department in the admirable work edited by lloefer, and now in process of publication by the Didots. 1 In ENGLISH and AMERICAN Bibliography, the Editor has had the best works of reference at hand, including the various Catalogues to the latest dates. Although all of them have been in various degrees necessary in the preparation of the [ndex, yet in a large proportion of cases the work of Mr. Alli- bone, as far as it is completed, is, for English and American authors, imtar omnium, and sometimes much more, for it largely embodies matter not before in print. On many names it will always remain the primary source of information. Though the minute testing, letter by letter, most of all in a specialty like that of Philosophy, is one which very few works of a general character will at all endure, we have found, to a sur- prising extent, in this comprehensive work, what we searched it for, and we could not but feel a grateful regret in parting company with it in the very middle of the vast forest of the noblest Literature of the modern World. For the French and German Literature he has also had access to the best sources. 2 1 Nouvelle Biographic Ge"ne"rale depuis les temps les plus recules jusqu'fc nos Jours. 1857. Thirty-one vols. have appeared. * For the French, among others, La France Literaire, with its continuation under the title La Literature Frangaise Contemporaine. 16 vols. 18271857. Bossange. Bibliographic :ie la France. 18501860. Reinwald, Catalogue Annuel, 1859-60. For the German, Georgi, Heinsius, Kayser, and the semi- snnunl Catalogues INTRODUCTION. XVH The works in which the Bibliography of Philosophy is a SPECIALTY are comparatively few. Among them may be enu- merated the best DICTIONARIES of Philosophy ; Walch, Krug, the Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques, and Furtmaier : l and the HISTORIES of Philosophy, which give its literature, among which, as valuable in this aspect, and easy of access, may be mentioned Tennemann's Manual and Blakey's History of the Philosophy of Mind. The books devoted EXCLUSIVELY to the Bibliography of Philosophy are of course very few. The Editor would mention those only which he has on his own shelves. These are the Psychological Library of GRAESSE/ in which he presents in alphabetical order the titles of the most im- portant works of ancient and of modern times relating to the soul, and to the doctrine of immortality; the Bibliographical Manual of German Philosophical Literature from the middle of the XVIIIth Century to the present day, by ERSCH S and GEISSLER; the Philosophical Literature of Germany, from A. D. 1400 to the present time, by GUMPOSCH*; and the Phi- losophical Library of LADRANGE, 5 which is a useful list of the best works of this class in French, original and translated. V. The final labours of the Editor have been devoted to the preparation of the SYNTHETICAL TABLES which follow this Introduction. The utility of these tables will, we think, at once strike the reader. The First Part forms a skeleton of the Philosophical Sciences ; the Second Part presents an outline of their history. It will be perceived that all these additions, which have increased the size of the book by 110 pages, have ' Philosophisches Real-Lexicon. 4 vols. 8vo, 1853-1855. 1 Bibliotheca Psyohologica. Leipzig. 1845. 8 Bibliographisches Handbuch. Dritte Auflage. Leipz. 1850. 4 Die Philosoph. Literatur der Deutschen. Tlegensburg, 1851. 5 Librairio Philosophique. Paris, 1856. XVlii INTRODUCTION. a certain internal unity, and are designed to co-operate in pro- ducing a common result. Very far more than in the ratio in which they have enlarged the work, the Editor believes, they have added to its value as a Manual. The student will find such bibliographical aid as he needs in beginning to form an acquaintance with philosophical literature. The Vocabulary, without undergoing a change in what its author has done, has to some extent become a Compendious Dictionary of Philoso- phy. Its leading articles, as indeed those of any work which arranges philosophical matter alphabetically, can, by the aid of the first part of the Synthetical Tables, be read in the order of nature. The general character and succession of the philo- sophical schools of all times are briefly presented in the second past. The Chronology of the History of Philosophy used in conjunction with the Bibliographical Index will enable the student, to some extent, to trace, by the aid of the Vocabulary, the theories and views of philosophers in the order of time. The work might indeed, in its present shape, be used advan- tageously, not merely as an indispensable aid in easily reaching the meaning of other works, but as a text-book for the syste- matic study of the Elements of Philosophy, It is a thread for the hand of the student who is entering that labyrinth which, beyond all the structures of man, proves the majesty of the mind, and the invincible character of some of its limitations. PHILADELPHIA, August 10, 1860. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. THE aim of the following work, as its title indicates, is humble. It is not proposed to attempt an adequate illustration of the difficult and important topics denoted or suggested by the several vocables which are successively explained. All that is intended is, to assist the student towards a right understand- ing of the language of philosophy, and a right apprehension of the questions in discussing which that language has been employed. Instead of affixing a positive or precise significa- tion to the vocables and phrases, it has been thought better to furnish the student with the means of doing so for himself by showing whence they are derived, or of what they are com- pounded, and how they have been employed. In like manner, the quotations and references have not been selected with the view of supporting any particular system of philosophy, but rather with the view of leading to free inquiry, extended read- ing, and careful reflection, as the surest means of arriving at true and sound conclusions. In our Scottish Universities, the study of philosophy is entered upon by those who, in respect of maturity of years and intellect, and in respect of previous preparation and attain- xix XX PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. ment, differ widely from one another. To many, a help like the present may not be necessary. To others, the Author has reason to think it may be useful. Indeed, it was the felt want of some such help, in the discharge of professional duty, which prompted the attempt to supply it. The labor has been greater than the result can indicate or m asure. But, should THE VOCABULARY assist the young student by directing "him what to read, and how to understand what he reads, in philosophy, the labourer shall have received the hire for which he wrought, THE COLLEGE, GLASGOW, November, 1856. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THE VOCABULARY or PHILOSOPHY was originally prepared for the use of a Class of students who give attendance on a lengthened course of Lectures on Moral Philosophy. The words and phrases selected for explanation, were chiefly such as were actually employed in the Lectures, or such as the students were likely to meet with in the course of their read- ing. Of the words and phrases of the German Philosophy, only such were introduced as had found their way into com- mon use. THE VOCABULARY having been found useful, beyond the limits for which it was originally intended, a Second Edition has speedily been called for. Useful suggestions have sponta- neously been made to the Author by persons with whom he was previously unacquainted ; and, among others, by Mr. Hay- wood, the Translator of the Criticism of the Pure Reason. Mr. Morell, who was formerly a student at this University, and who is now so well known by his valuable contributions to Philosophy, had the kindness to go over the contents of THE VOCABULARY, and to furnish a list of such additional words and phrases as might be introduced with advantage. The like xxi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. good office was rendered by Dr. M'Cosh, the distinguished Pro- fessor of Logic and Metaphysics in Queen's College, Belfast; and the Author has done what he could to make this Edition more complete and useful. The quotations have, in some in- stances, been shortened; and, without much increasing the size of the work, many additional words and phrases, from the different departments of Philosophy, have been introduced. It still retains the name and form of a VOCABULARY, in the hope that it may prove useful in our higher Academies and Colleges. But, should suitable encouragement and co-operation be obtained, it is in contemplation, by extending the plan and enlarging the articles, to claim for the work a higher title, by trying to make it instrumental in rendering to Philosophy among ourselves, a service similar to what has been rendered to Philosophy in France, by the publication of the Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques. THE COLLEGE, GLASGOW, February, 1858. PREFATORY NOTE BY THE EDITOR (To THE THIRD LONDON EDITION). THE fact that the Vocabulary of Philosophy by the late Pro- fessor Fleming soon passed through two editions, shows that it has supplied a want felt by those entering upon philosophic study. Recognizing this, I have willingly responded to the request to edit a new issue of the work. My purpose has been to retain the book as nearly as possible in the form in which it came from the hands of Professor Fleming. Occasionally I have withdrawn some quotations, when their number seemed too large. Additional manuscript, left by Professor Fleming, has been carefully examined, and some part of the new matter has been introduced. Vocables have been inserted, the absence of which left a blank in a Vocabulary of Philosophy. In only one thing have I thought it needful to depart from Professor Fleming's plan. I have ventured to introduce defini- tions of the leading vocables. These definitions constitute the new feature in the edition now published, and are enclosed within brackets, to indicate the portions for which I must be held responsible. H. CALDERWOOD. UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, llth September, 1876. xxiii ABBKEVIATIONS. B. W. Baumeister: Philosophia Definitiva. Definition es Philosoph- icse ex Systemate Wolfii. (Ed. Septima) 1746. C. (Ch.) Chauvini Stephani : Lexicon Philosophicum (2d ed.), 1713. C. D. A. (D. A. C.) Complement du Dictionnaire de PAcademie Fran- caise, 1847. C. F. V. Calderwood, Henry : Fleming's Vocabulary, Third ed., 1876. Ch. Chauvin. See C. D. A. C. See C. D. A. D. P. S. Diclionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques . . . sous la direction de M. Ad. Franck, 2d ed., 1875. Fu. Furtmair, Max: Philosophisclies Eeal-Lexikon, 4 vols., 1853-1855. F. V. 3. Additions to the Third edition of Fleming's Vocabulary, from his manuscript. K. Krug, Wilhelm Traugott: Allgemeines Handworterbuch der Phi- losophischen Wissenschaften, 2d ed., 5 vols., 1832-1838. L. Lossius, Johann Christian: Neues Philosophisches Eeal-Lexikon, 4 vols., 1803-1805. L. J. Latham, Robert Gordon : Dictionary of the English Language, founded on that of Dr. Samuel Johnson, as edited by Dr. H. J. Todd, 1866-1870. L. S. L. Liddell, -Henry George: and Scott, Robert: A Greek-English Lexicon, 6th ed., 1869. M. T. M. MoreWs Tennemann's Manual (Kantian and other metaphy- sical terms), 1852. S. S. D. Smith, C. J. : Synonyms Discriminated, 1871 W. Wolf, Christian. See B. W. * indicates that there is an article on the word in Fleming. xxiv THE VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ABDUCTION" (abductio, drfaycoy>J, a leading away) is a kind of syllogism in which it is plain that the major extreme is con- tained in the middle ; but it is not apparent that the middle is included in the minor extreme, although this is equally credible or more so than the conclusion. From this, therefore, that its major proposition is plain, it approaches to demonstration ; but it is not yet demonstration, since its assumption or minor pro- position is not evident. But the assumption is not evident because it is not immediate, but requires proof to make the do- monstration complete. For example All whom God absolves are free from sin. But God absolves all who are in Christ. Therefore all who are in Christ are free from sin. In thia apagogic syllogism the major proposition is self-evident; but the assumption is not plain till another proposition proving it is introduced, namely, God condemns sin in them by the mission of his Son. This mode of reasoning is called abduc- tion, because it withdraws us from the conclusion to the proof of a proposition concealed or not expressed. It is described by Aristotle. 1 ABILITY and INABILITY (NATURAL and MORAL). Ability (Nat.) is power to do certain acts, in consequence of being possessed of the requisite means, and being unrestrained in their exercise ; thus we say ability to walk, the power of seeing, &c. Inability (Nat.) is the opposite of this ; as when we say of a blind man, he is unable to see ; or when an object is too dis- tant, we say we are unable to see it. 1 Prior. Analyt., lib. ii., cap. 26. 2 B (1) 2 \ ;^ i^ t VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. yjjs the disposition to use rightly the powers and 1 ^opportunities which God has given ; as when it is written, "It is a joy to the just to do judgment." Inability (Mor.) is the want of a right disposition ; as in those of whom it is written, " They have eyes full of adultery, and cannot cease from sin." " If there is anything besides want of inclination which prevents a man from performing a par- ticular act, he is said to be naturally unable to do it. If unwillingness is the only obstacle in the way, he is said to be morally unable. That which prevents a man from doing as he will, is natural inability. That which prevents him from doing as he ought, is moral inability." l ABSCISSIO INFINITI is a phrase applied by some logical writers to a series of arguments used in any inquiry in which we go on excluding, one by one, certain suppositions, or certain classes of things, from that whose real nature we are seeking to ascertain. Thus, certain symptoms, suppose, exclude " small-pox ; " that is, prove this not to be the patient's dis- order; other symptoms, suppose, exclude "scarlatina" &c., and so one may proceed by gradually narrowing the range of possible suppositions." 2 ABSOLUTE (absolutum, from db and solvo, to free or loose from) signifies what is free from restriction or limit. " We must know what is to be meant by absolute or absolute- ness ; whereof I find two main significations. First, absolute signifieth |?er/ec, and absoluteness, perfection; hence we have in Latin this expression Perfectum est omnibus numeris absol- utum. And in our vulgar language we say a thing is absolutely good when it is perfectly good. Next, absolute signifieth fret from tie or bond, which in Greek is artote*.v/j.evov." s 1. As meaning what is complete or perfect in itself, as a man, a tree, it is opposed to what is relative. 2. As meaning what is free from restriction, it is opposed to what exists secundum quid. The soul of man is immortal absolutely ; man is immortal only as to his soul. 1 Day, On tJie Will. pp. 96, 97. Whately, Log. b. ii., ch. iii., s. 4, and ch. v., e. 1, subs. 7. Knox, Hist, of Reform., Pref. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. d ABSOLUTE 3. As meaning what is underived, it denotes self-existence, and is predicable only of the First Cause. 4. It signifies not only what is free from external cause, but also free from condition. Absolute, Unconditioned, Infinite. " The Absolute, taking its etymological sense, may be explained as that which is free from all necessary relation ; which exists in and by itself, and does not require the prior or simultaneous existence of any- thing else. The Unconditioned, in like manner, is that which is subject to no law or condition of being ; which exists, there- fore, in and by itself, and does not imply the prior or simul- taneous existence of anything else. The Absolute and Uncon- ditioned are also identical with the Real ; for relation is but a phenomenon, implying and depending on the prior existence of things related ; while the true Real is unrelated. Such a science as metaphysics, which has in all ages been proclaimed as the science of the Absolute, the Unconditioned, and the Real, according to Kant, must be unattainable by man ; for all know- ledge is consciousness, and all consciousness implies a relation between the subject or person conscious, and the object or thing of which he is conscious. An object of consciousness cannot be Absolute ; for consciousness depends on the laws of the con- scious mind, its existence as such implies an act of conscious- ness, and consciousness is a relation. It cannot be the Uncon- ditioned; for consciousness depends on the laws of the con- scious mind, and these are conditions. It cannot be the Real ; for the laws of our consciousness can only give us things as they appear to us, and do not tell us what they are in themselves." ' "Mr. Calderwood defines the Absolute, which he rightly identifies with the Infinite, as ' that which is free from all ne- cessary relation :' ' it may exist in relation, provided that re- lation be not a necessary condition of its existence. Hence he holds that the Absolute may exist in the relation of conscious- ness, and in that relation be apprehended, though imperfectly, by man. On this theory we have two absolutes : the Absolute as it exists out of consciousness, and the Absolute as it is known in consciousness. Mr. Calderwood rests his theory on the lj Lecture on Philosophy of Kant, p. 25. 4 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ABSOLUTE assumption that these two are one. How is this idi ntity to be ascertained ? How do I know that the absolute is my absolute? I cannot compare them ; for comparison is a relation, and the first Absolute exists out of relation. Again, to compare them, I must be in and out of consciousness at the same time ; fol the first Absolute is never in consciousness, and the second is never out of it. Again, the Absolute as known is an object of consciousness; and an object of consciousness as such, cannot exist, save in relation. But the true Absolute, by its definition, can exist out of relation ; therefore the Absolute as known is not the true Absolute. Mr. Calderwood's Absolute in conscious- ness is only the Relative under a false name." * According to Sir William Hamilton, 2 " The Unconditioned denotes the genus of which the Infinite and the Absolute are the species." As to our knowledge or conception of the Absolute, there are different opinions. 1. According to Sir William Hamilton, " The mind can conceive, and consequently can know, only the limited, and the conditionally limited. The unconditionally unlimited, or the Infinite, the unconditionally limited, or the Absolute, cannot positively be construed to the mind ; they can be conceived at all only by thinking away, or abstraction of those very conditions under which thought itself is realized ; consequently the notion of the Unconditioned is only negative negative of the conceivable itself." 2. According to Kant, the Absolute or Unconditioned is not an object of knowledge; but its notion as a regulative princi- ple of the mind itself, is more than a mere negation of the conditioned. 3. According to Schelling, it is cognizable, but not con- ceivable ; it can be known by a sinking back into identity with the Absolute, but is incomprehensible by consciousness and reflection, which are only of the Relative and the Different* 4. According to Cousin, it is cognizable and conceivable by consciousness fjad reflection, under relation, difference, and plurality. Instead of saying that God is Absolute and Infinity 1 Manuel, Lecture on Philosophy of Kant, p. 38. Discussion^ p. 12. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. ABSOLUTE Krause, and his admirer, Tiberghien, ascribe to him Seit6 (selbheit) and Totality. Totality or the Infinite manifests itself everywhere in nature. Nature is made up of wholes, and all these constitute one whole. In spirit everything manifests itself under the character of spontaneity or seite. Spirit always is what it is by its own individual efforts. All philosophy aims at a knowledge of the Absolute under different phases. In psychology, the fundamental question is, have we ideas that are a priori and absolute? in logic, is human knowledge absolute ? in ethics, is the moral law abso- lute rectitude? and in metaphysics, what is the ultimate ground of all existence or absolute being? 2 V. INFINITE, UNCONDITIONED, HEAL. ABSTINENCE (abs teneo, to hold from or off) "is whereby a man refraineth from anything which he may lawfully take." 8 Abstinence is voluntarily refraining from things which nature, and especially physical nature, needs or delights in, for a moral or religious end. It corresponds to the 'An^ou of the precept of Epictetus, 'Avs%ov xat, arte%ov ; Sustine el abstine. The Stoics inculcated abstinence in order to make the soul more independent of the body and the things belong- ing to the body. Christian abstinence is founded in humility and self-mortification. V. ASCETICISM. ABSTRACT, ABSTRACTION (dbstractw, from abs traho, to draw away from. It is also called separatio and resolutio}. Dobrisch observes that the term abstraction is used some- times in a psychological, sometimes in a logical sense. In the former we are said to abstract the attention from certain distinctive features of objects presented (abstrahere \mentem\ a dijferentiis). In the latter, we are said to abstract certain portions of a given concept from the remainder (abstrahere differentias) * Abstraction (Psychological), says Mr. Stewart, 6 " is the power of considering certain qualities or attributes of an object apart 1 Essai des Connaissances Humaines, pp. 738, 745. See Edinburgh Review for October, 1829; Sir William Hamilton (Discussions) Tiberghien (Essai des Connaissances Humaines). 3 Elyot, Qvoernour, b. iii., o. 16. ' Mansel, Prolegom. Log,, note, p. 20 Elements of the Philosophy of Human Mind, chap. IT. 2* B VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ABSTRACTION from the rest ; or, as I would rather choose to define it, tht power which the understanding has of separating the combina- tions which are presented to it." Perhaps it may be more correctly regarded as a process rather than & power as a/u?ic- tion rather than a faculty. Dr. Reid has called it 1 " an opera- tion of the understanding. It consists in the resolving or ana- lyzing a subject (object) into its known attributes, and giving a name to each attribute, which shall signify that attribute and nothing more." Attributes are not presented to us singly in nature, but in the concrete, or growing together, and it is by abstraction that we consider them separately. In looking at a tree we may perceive simultaneously its trunk, and its branches, and its leaves, and its fruit ; or we may contemplate any one of these to the exclusion of all the rest ; and when we do so it is by the operation of mind which has been called abstraction. It implies an exercise of will as well as of under- standing ; for there must be the determination and effort to fix the energy of the mind on the attribute specially con- templated. The chemist really separates into their elements those bodies which are submitted to his analysis. The psychologist does the same thing mentally. Hence abstraction has been dis- tinguished as real and mental. But as the object presented to the psychologist may be an object of sense or an object of thought, the process of abstraction may be either real or mental. He may pluck off a branch from a tree, or a leaf from a branch, in order to consider the sensation or percep- tion which is occasioned in him. And in contemplating mind, he may think of its capacity of feeling without think- ing of its power of activity, or of the faculty of memory apart from any or all of the other faculties with which it is allied. Abstraction (Logical), "As we have described it," says Mr. Thomson, 2 " would include three separate acts ; first, an ac* of comparison, which brings several intuitions together; next, one of refection, which seeks for some marks which they all possess, and by which they may be combined into one group ; and last, one of generalization, which forms the new general 1 InteO, Powers, essay Y., chap. 3. Outline of the Laws of Thought, p. 107. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 7 ABSTRACTION notion or conception. Kant, however, confines the name oi abstraction to the last of the three ; ott ers apply it to the second. It is not of much consequence whether we enlarge or narrow the meaning of the word, so lot g as we see the various steps of the process. The word means a drawing away of the common marks from all the distinctive maiks which the single objects have." " The process," says Dr. Whately, 1 " by which the mind arrives at the notions expressed by ' common' (or in popular language, ' general') terms is properly called * generalization/ though it is usually (and truly) said to be the business of abstraction ; for generalization is one of the purposes to which abstraction is applied. When we draw off and contemplate separately any part of an object presented to the mind, disre- garding the rest of it, we are said to abstract that part of it. Thus, a person might, when a rose was before his eye or his mind, make the scent a distinct object of attention, laying aside all thought of the colour, form, &c. ; and thus, even though it were the only rose he had ever met with, he would be employing the faculty of abstraction ; but if, in contem- plating several objects, and finding that they agree in certain points, we abstract the circumstances of agreement, disregard- ing the differences, and give to all and each of these objects a name applicable to them in respect of this agreement, f. e., a common name, as ' rose / or, again, if we give a name to some attribute wherein they agree, as * fragrance/ or ' redness/ we are then said to ' generalize/ Abstraction, therefore, does not necessarily imply generalization, though generalization implies abstraction." In opposition to this, see Thomson. 2 "A person who had never seen but one rose," says Mr. Stewart, 3 " might yet have been able to consider its colour apart from its other qualities ; and, therefore, there may be such a thing as an idea which is at once abstract and particu- lar. After having perceived this quality as belonging to a variety of individuals, we can consider it without reference to any of them, and thus form the notion of redness or whiteness * Log., book i., sect. 6. a Outline, of the Laws of Thought, part i., sect 24. Addenda to vol. i., Phil, of Hum. Mind. 8 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. ABSTRACTION in general, which may be called a general abstract idea. Th words abstract and general, therefore, when applied to ideas, ai'e as completely distinct from each other as any two words to be found in the language. It is indeed true, that the for- mation of every general notion presupposes abstraction, but it is surely improper, on this account, to call a general term an abstract term, or a general idea an abstract idea." Mr. John S. Mill also censures severely ' the practice of applying the expression " abstract name" to all names which are the result of abstraction or generalization, and consequently to all general names, instead of confining it to the names of attributes. He uses the term abstract as opposed to concrete, By an abstract name he means the name of an attribute by a concrete name the name of an object. The sea is a concrete name. Saltness is an abstract name. Some abstract names are general names, such as colour ; but rose-colour, a name obtained by abstraction, is not a general name. V By abstract terms, which should be carefully distinguished from general names, I mean those which do not designate any object or event, or any class of objects or events, but an attri- bute or quality belonging to them ; and which are capable of standing grammatically detached, without being joined to other terms : such as, the words roundness, swiftness, length, innocence, equity, health, whiteness." 2 "When the notion derived from the view taken of any object," says Dr. Whately, 8 " is expressed with a reference to, or as in conjunction with, the object that furnished the notion, it is expressed by a concrete term, as ' foolish' or ' fool ;' when without any such reference, by an abstract term, as ' folly/ " And he adds in a note, "It is unfortunate that some writers have introduced the fashion of calling all common terms ab- stract terms." F. TERM. A French philosopher has expressed himself on this point k the following effect : " In every class, genus, or species, there are two things which may be conceived distinctly, the objects united in the class, and the characters which serve to unite them. Log., vol. i., 2d edition, p. 35. * S. Bailey, Letters on Phil. Human Mind. p. 195, Log., book ii., chap. 5, sect. 1. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 9 ABSTRACTION- Hence it follows, that under every term which represents that ideal whole which we call genus, under the term ' bird/ for ex- ample, there are two different ideas, the idea of the number of the objects united, and the idea of the common characters; this is what is called the extension and the comprehension of general terms. Sometimes there is a word to denote the ex- tension, and another word to denote the comprehension; as ' mortals ' and ' mortality/ And this has led some philosophers to say that there are general ideas which are concrete and gene- ral ideas which are abstract the latter referring only to the qualities which are common, and the former to the qualities and to the objects which possess them." " The mind," says Mr. Locke, 1 " makes particular ideas re- ceived from particular objects to become general, which is done by considering them as they are in the mind such ap- pearances, separate from all other existences, and the circum- stances of real existence, as time, place, or any other concomi- tant ideas. This is called abstraction, whereby ideas taken from particular beings, become general representatives of all of the same kind ; and their names general names, applicable to whatever exists conformable to such abstract ideas." 2 In reference to this, Bishop Berkeley has said, 3 " I own my- self able to abstract ideas, in one sense, as when I consider some particular parts or qualities separated from others, with which, though they are united in some object, yet it is possi- ble they may really exist without them. But I deny that I can abstract one from another, or conceive separately those qualities which it is impossible should exist separately ; or that I can frame a general notion by abstracting from particu- lars, as aforesaid, which two last are the proper acceptation of abstraction." "It seems to me," says Mr. Hume, 4 "not impossible to avoid these absurdities and contradictions, 6 if it be admitted that there are no such things as abstract in general ideas, properly speaking, but that all general ideas are in reality 1 Essay on Hum. Under., book ii., chap. 11, sect. 9. 1 See also book iv., chap. 7, sect. 9. 3 Principles of Hum. Know., Introd., sect. 10. 4 Essays, p. 371, n. c. edit., 1758. See hia Essay on Sceptical Philosophy, 10 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ABSTRACTION- particular ones attached to a general term which recalls, upor occasion, other particular ones that resemble in certain cir cumstances the idea present to the mind. Thus, when the term ' horse ' is pronounced, we immediately figure to our- selves the idea of a black or white animal of a particular size or figure ; but as that term is also used to be applied to ani- mils of other colours, figures, and sizes, their ideas, though net actually present to the imagination, are easily recalled, and our reasoning and conclusion proceed in the same way as if they were actually present." In reference to the views of Berkeley and Hume which are supported by S. Bailey in Letters on Phil. Hum. Mind, see Dr. Reid. 1 The Rev. Sidney Smith 2 mentions an essay on Abstraction by Dumarsais, and calls it an admirable abridgment of Locke'a Essay. V. COMMON, CONCRETE, GENERALIZATION. ABSTRACTIVE (KNOWLEDGE) and INTUITIVE. The knowledge of the Deity has been distinguished into ab- stractive and intuitive, or knowledge of simple intelligence and knowledge of vision, or immediate beholding. By the former mode of knowing, God knows all things possible, whether they are actually to happen or not. By the latter He knows things future as if they were actually beheld or envisaged by him. 8 ABSURD (ab surdo, a reply from a deaf man who has not heard what he replies to, or, according to Vossius, that which should be heard with deaf ears) properly means that which is logi- cally contradictory ; as, a triangle with four sides. What is contrary to experience merely cannot be called absurd, for ex- perience extends only to facts and laws which we know ; but there may be facts and laws which we have not observed and do not know, and facts and laws not actually manifested may yet be possible. V. ARGUMENT (INDIRECT). ACADEMICS. "There are some philosophers who have made denying their profession, and who have even established on that foundation the whole of their philosophy ; and amongst these philosophers, some are satisfied with denying certainty, admit- 1 Tntell. Powers, essay v., chap. 6. Lectures on Mvr. Phil., lect. iii. 8 Baronius, Metaphys^ sect. 12, dispnt. ii. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 11 ACADEMICS ting at the same time probability, and these are the New Acad- emics ; the others, who are the Pyrrhonists, have denied even this probability, and have maintained that all things are equally certain and uncertain." ' The Academic school embraces a period of four ages, from Plato to Antiochus. Some admit three Academies first, that of Plato, 388 B.C. ; middle, that of Arcesilas, 244 B.C. ; new, that of Carneades and Clitomachus, 160 B.C. To these some add a fourth, that of Philon and Charmides, and a fifth, that of Antiochus. But Plato, and his true disciples, Speusippus and Xenocrates, should not be classed with these semi-sceptics, whose characteristic doctrine was to rtiOavov, or the probable. 1 ACADEMY. Academus or Hecademus left to the inhabitants of Athens a piece of ground for a promenade, Hipparchus, son of Piristratus enclosed it with walls, Cimon, son of Miltiades, planted it with trees. Plato assembled his disciples in it, hence they were called Academics. 3 ACATALEPSY (a, privative ; and xatdtyfys, comprehensio, in- comprehensibility) is the term employed by Bacon 4 to denote the doctrine held by the ancient academics and sceptics that human knowledge never amounts to certainty, but only to pro- bability. " Their chief error/' says Bacon, " lay in this, that they falsely charged the perceptions of the senses ; by doing which they tore up the sciences by the root. But the senses, though they may often either deceive or fail us, yet can afford a sufficient basis for real science." Hence he says, 6 " We do not meditate or propose acatalepsy, but eucatalepsy, for we do not derogate from sense, but help it, and we do not despise the understanding, but direct it." Arcesilas, chief of the second Academy, taught that we know nothing with certainty, in opposition to the dogmatism of the Stoics, who taught xa-tdhvjtys, or the possibility of seizing the truth. All Sceptics and Pyrrhonians were called Acataleptics. V. ACADEMICS. ACCIDENT (accido, to happen) is a modification or quality which Port. Roy. Log., part iv., chap. 1. See Foucher (Dissertatio de Phil. Academ., 12, Paris, 1692); Gerlach (Commentate Exhibens de Probabilitate I>isputationes, 4 to, Goett.) 3 Biograph. Univers. * Adv. of Learning, Moffet's trans., p. 140. Nowum Organum, b. i., aphor. 126. 12 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ACCIDENT- does not essentially belong to a thing, nor form one of its con- stituent and invariable attributes; as motion in relation to matter, or heat to iron. The scholastic definition of it is e?is entis, or ens in alio, while substance was defined to be ens per se. " Accident, in its widest technical sense (equivalent to attri* bute), is anything that is attributed to another, and can only be conceived as belonging to some substance (in which sense it is opposed to substance) ; in its narrower and more properly logical sense, it is a predicable which may be present or ab- sent, the essence of the species remaining the same ; as for a man to be ' walking/ or ' a native of Paris/ Of these two ex- amples, the former is what logicians call a separable accident, because it may be separated from the individual (e. g., he may sit down) ; the latter is an inseparable accident, being not separable from the individual (i. e., he who is a native of Paris can never be otherwise) ; from the individual, I say, because every accident must be separable from the species, else it would be a property." 1 V. SUBSTANCE, PHENOMENON. ACCIDENTAL. Aristotle 2 says, "Suppose that in digging a trench to plant a tree you found a treasure, that is accident, for the one is neither the effect nor the consequent of the other ; and it is not ordinarily that in planting a tree you find a treasure. If, then, a thing happen to any being, even with the circumstances of place and time, but which has no cause to determine its being, either actually, or in such a place, that thing is an accident. An accident, then, has no cause deter- minate, but only fortuitous ; but a fortuitous cause is undeter- mined. Accident is also that which exists in an object with- out being one of the characters distinctive of its essence; such is the property of a triangle that its three angles are equal to two right angles. Such accidents may be eternal ; accidents properly so called are not." A phenomenon may be constant, inherent in the nature of things, and in that sense essential, as the sparkling of the diamond in light, or the sinking of a stone in the water ; but an accident, according to Aristotle, is that which neithei occurs necessarily nor ordinarily. V. CHANCE. 1 Whately, Log., book ii., chap, fc gect 4, and index. 2 Metajphys., lib. iv., eap. 80, VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 13 ACOSMIST (a, priv., and xoapos, world). " Spinoza did not deny the existence of God ; he denied the existence of the world ; he was consequently an acosmist, and not an atheist." * " It has of late been a favourite criticism of Spinoza to say with Hegel, that his system is not atheism but acosmism ; and this is true in a speculative point of view. But if I allow of no God distinct from the aggregate of the universe, myself in- cluded, what object have I of worship? Or if, according to the later manifestations of Pantheism, the Divine mind is but the sum total of every finite consciousness, my own included, what religious relation between God and man, is compatible with the theory? And, accordingly, the Pantheism of Hegel has found its natural development in the atheism of Feuerbach." a ACROAMATICAL (from axpoao,uat, to hear). "Aristotle was wont to divide his lectures and readings into Acroamatical and Exoterical ; some of them contained only choice matter, and they were read privately to a select auditory ; others contained but ordinary stuff, and were promiscuously, and in public, ex- posed to the hearing of all that would." 3 V. EXOTERIC. " In the life of Aristotle, by Mr. Blakesley, 4 it has been shown, we think most satisfactorily, that the acroamatic trea- tises of Aristotle differed from the exoteric, not in the ab- struseness or mysteriousness of their subject-matter, but in this, that the one formed part of a course or system, while the other were casual discussions or lectures on a particular thesis." 6 Some of the early Fathers adopted a similar distinction, in giving instructions to the Catechumens, beginners (fta*' fooj, according to sound viva voce instruction), and the Teleioi (finished, or thoroughly instructed, from *&o;, an end). This corresponds to the difference between the written law and the traditions of the elders. Plutarch 8 and Aulus Gellius 7 maintain that the acroamadc works had natural philosophy and logic for their subject 1 Lewes, Biograph. Hist, of Philosoph., p. 1. 3 Mansel, Prolegom. Log., p. 279, note. * Hales, Golden Remains (on John xviii. 36). 4 Published in the Encydop. Metrop. Mar. and Met. Phil., by Maurice, note, p. 165. 6 In Alexand. L. xx., e. 4. 14 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ACROAMATICAL whereas the exoteric treated of rhetoric, ethics, and politic* Sfrrabo, 1 Cicero,' and Ammonius Herm, 3 maintain that the} were distinguished, not by difference of subject, but of form the acroamatic being discourses, the exoteric dialogues. Sim plicius 4 thus characterizes the acroamatic in contradistinction to the exoteric works, ''distinguished by pregnant brevity, closeness of thought, and quickness of transitions," from his more expanded, more perspicuous, and more popular pro- ductions.* ACT, in Metaphysics and in Logic, is opposed to power. Power is simply a faculty or property of anything, as gravity of bodies. Act is the exercise or manifestation of a power or property, the realization of a fact, as the falling of a heavy body. We cannot conclude from power to act; a posse ad actvm; but from act to power the conclusion is good. Ab actu ad posse valet illatio. An act is Immanent or Transient. An immanent act has no effect on anything out of the agent. Sensation is an immanent act of the senses, cognition of the intellect. A tran- sient act produces an operation or result out of and beyond the agent. The act of writing and of building are transient acts they begin with the agent, but produce results which may affect others. An act of the will is Elicit or Imperate. An elicit act of will is an act produced immediately by the will, and contained within it, as velle and nolle, to determine to do or not to do. An elicit act of will is either volition, which has reference to an end or ultimate object, or election, which has reference to means. V. VOLITION, ELECTION. An imperate act of will is a movement of body or mind following on a determination of will, as running after or run- ning away, attending or not attending. Also an act done by others, when we order or forbid them to do, encourage or dis- suade, assist or prevent. ACTION. " The word action is properly applied to those exertions L. 13, p. 608. Ad Atticum., 13, 19. * Ad Categor. Aristot. Ad Categor. in Proem. Buhle has a Commentatio de Libris Arist, Exot. et Acroam., in bin edit, of the vroiki of Aristotle, 6 vols., SYO., Deux Fonts, 1791, pp. 142, 143. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 15 ACTION which are consequent on volition, whether the exertion be made on external objects, or be confined to our mental opera- tions. Thus we say the mind is active when engaged in study." J It is by the presence of will and intention that an action is distinguished from an event. The intention is one thing; the effect is another ; the two together constitute the action. ACTION and ACT are not synonymous. 1. Act does not neces- sarily imply an external result, action does. We may speak of repentance as an act, we could not call it an action. 2. An act must be individual ; we may speak of a course of action, Lastly, act, when qualified, is oftener, though not universally coupled with another substantive: action always by an adjective preceding it. We say a kind action, not an act of kindness. A kind act might be admissible, though not usual, but an action of kindness is not used, though an action of greal- kind- ness might be. Deed is synonymous with act. "Act (actum) is a thing done; action (actio] is doing: act, therefore, is an incident ; an action, a process or habit ; a vir- tuous act; a course of virtuous action." 2 Actions, in Morals, are distinguished, according to the manner of their being called forth, into spontaneous or instinctive, voluntary or reflective, and free or deliberate ; according to the faculty from which they proceed, into physical, intellectual, and moral ; and according to the nature of the action and character of the agent, into right and wrong, virtuous or vicious, praiseworthy or blameworthy. An action is said to be materially right, when, without regard to the end or the intention of the agent, the action is in conformity with some moral law or rule. An action is said to be formally right, when the end or the intention of the agent is right, and the action is not materially iwong. For a man to give his goods to feed the poor is materially right, eveu though he should not have charity or brotherly love, but when he has charity or brotherly love, and throws even a mite into the treasury of the poor, the action is formally right, although, in effect, it may fall short of that which is only materially right. Stewart, Outlines, Ko. 111. Taylor, Synonym*. 16 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY ACTIVE. That which causes change is active; that which is changed is passive. 1 ACTIVITY. V. WILL. ACTUAL (quod est in actu) is opposed to potential. Before a thing is, it has a capacity of becoming. A rough stone is a statue potentially ; when chiselled, actually. " The relation of the potential to the actual Aristotle exhibits by the relation of the unfinished to the finished work; of the unemployed carpenter to the one at work upon his building ; of the individual asleep to him awake. Potentially the seed- corn is the tree, but the grown-up tree is it actually; the poten- tial philosopher is he who is not at this moment philosophiz- ing ; even before the battle the better general is the potential conqueror; in fact everything is potentially which possesses a principle of motion, of development, or of change; and which, if unhindered by anything external, will be of itself. Actuality or entelechy, on the other hand, indicates the perfect art, the end as gained, the completely actual (the grown-up tree, e. g., is the entelechy of the seed-corn), that activity in which the act and the completeness of the act fall together, e. g., to see, to think where he sees and he has seen, he thinks and he has thought (the acting and the completeness of the act), are one and the same, while in these activities which involve a beco- ming, e.g., to learn, to go, to become well, the two are separated/' 2 Actual is also opposed to virtual. The oak' is shut up in the acorn virtually. Actual is also opposed to real. My will, though really ex- isting as a faculty, only begins to have an actual existence from the time that I will anything. V. REAL, VIRTUAL. ACTUS PRIMUS (in scholastic philosophy) est rei esse, or actus quidditativus. ACTUS SECUNDUS est rei operari, or actus entitativus. ADAGE (ad agendum aptum) a practical saying, fit for use, a rule of action. "From the Latin adagium, a saying handed down from antiquity, comes the English adage, which denotes an antique proverb." 8 On the disagreement and similitude be- tween adagies, apophthegms, and moral rVw^at, see Erasmus. 1 Taylor, Elements of Thought. 3 Schwegler, Hist, of Phil., p. 123. Taylor, Synonym*. * In the Prolegomena to his jldaffia. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 17 ADJURATION (from ad-jnro, to put upon oath). " Our Saviour, when the high priest adjured him by the living God, made n*. scruple of replying upon that adjuration." l ADMIRATION, " We shall find that admiration is as superioi to surprise and wonder, simply considered, as knowledge is superior to ignorance ; for its appropriate signification is that act of the mind by which we discover, approve, and enjoy some unusual species of excellence/' 2 ADORATION. To adore (from the Latin ad oro], signifies, to carry to the mouth ; as in order to kiss one's hand, the hand is carried to the mouth ; but it also includes in this action a sense of veneration or worship. " If I beheld the sun when it shined, or the moon walking in brightness, and my mouth liad kissed my hand, this also were iniquity." 8 As an act of wor- ship, adoration is due only to God. But the form of kissing the hand to mortals was also used in the East. Pharaoh speaking to Joseph says, "According to thy word shall all my people kiss " that is, in token of veneration to your order. 4 ADSCITITIOTIS (from ad-scisco, to seek after), that which is added or assumed. "You apply to your hypothesis of an adscititious spirit, what he (Philo) says concerning this rtvevpn 6elov, divine spirit or soul, infused into man by God's breath- ing." 6 /ESTHETICS (ateOfiw, perception or feeling). "That science which refers the first principles in the arts to sensation and sentiment, as distinguished from mere instruction and utility." The science of the beautiful and the philosophy of the fine arts. Various theories have been entertained as to the idea of. the beautiful, by Plato, Plotinus, and Augustine. In modern times, the term aesthetics was first used in a scientific sense by A. Baumgarten, a disciple of Christian Wolf. In his ^Esthetiea,* he considered the idea of the beautiful aa an indistinct perception or feeling accompanying the moral ideas. Mendelsshon and others identified the idea of thd beautiful with the idea of the good. Shaftesbury and Hutche* 1 Clarke, Works, vol. ii., ser. 125. Cogan, On the Passions, part 1., c. 2. Job xxxi. 26, 27. 4 Gen. xli. 40, margin. Clarke, Letter to Dodwell. 2 vols., 8vo, Frankf., 1750-8, 3* c 18 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. AESTHETICS son regarded the two ideas as intimately connected. At th close of the eighteenth century, aesthetics was scientifically developed in Germany by Kant, and has been zealously pro- secuted by Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. 1 F. BEAUTY, IDEAL (BEAU). AETIOLOGY (otfta, cause ; Aoyoj, discourse), is coming into use, by Dr. Whewell and others, to denote that department of Phi- losophy which inquires into causes. AFFECTION, " There are various principles of action in man which have persons for their immediate object, and imply, in their very nature, our being well or ill affected to some person, or at least to some animated being. Such principles I shall call by the general name of affections, whether they dispose us to do good or hurt to others." 2 They are usually distinguished into benevolent, as esteem, gratitude, friendship; and malevolent, as hatred, envy, jeal- ousy, revenge. This term is applied to all the modes of the sensibility, or to all states of mind in which we are purely passive. By Des- cartes 3 it is employed to denote some degree of love. F. LOVE, SENSIBILITY. AFFINITY is a relation contracted by, or resulting from, mar- riage; in contradistinction to consanguinity, or relation by blood. F. CONSANGUINITY. AFFIRMATION (xcwo$>cwi$) is the attributing of one thing to an- other, or the admitting simply that something exists. A mental affirmation is a judgment ; when expressed it becomes a propositioa. F. JUDGMENT, PROPOSITION. In Law, affirmation is opposed to oath. There are certain separatists, who, from having scruples as to the lawfulness of oath-taking, are allowed to make a solemn affirmation that what they say is true ; and if they make a false affirmation they are liable to the penalties of perjury. 1 Besides the writings of these philosophers, consult Cours tfEsthdique, par Ph. D toiron, 8vo, Paris, 1842 ; The Philosophy of the Btautiful, hy John G. MacVicar, D.D Edin., 1855; Reid, Jntett. Pow., essay viii., ch. 4. * Reid, Act. Pow., essay iii., part ii., chap. 3-6, * Traite d& Passions, art. 83. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 19 AFFIRMATION " To affirm is a solitary, to confirm is an assisted assevera tion. A man affirms what he declares solemnly ; he confirm* what he aids another to prove." ' A FORTIORI. V. ARGUMENT (INDIRECT). AGENT (ago, to act), one who, that which, acts. " Nor car, I think that anybody has such an idea of chance as to make it an agent, or really existing and acting cause of anything, and much less sure of all things." 2 AGNOIOLOGY (xoyo? *jj$ dyvoi'aj, the theory of true ignorance), is a section of Philosophy intermediate between Epistomology and Ontology. " Absolute Being may be that which we are ignorant of. We must, therefore, examine and fix what igno- rance is, what we are, and can be ignorant of." 3 ALCHEMY or ALCHYMY (al, the article, and ^a, what is poured, according to Vossius), is that branch of chemistry which proposed to transmute metals into gold, to find the panacea or universal remedy, &c. 4 V. HERMETIC PHILOSOPHY, ROSICRUCIAN. ALLEGORY (aM,o dyopfvtn/, to say another thing), says Quin- tilian, exhibits one thing in words and another in meaning. "An Allegory is a continued metaphor. It consists in repre- senting one subject (object) by another analogous to it; the subject thus represented is not formally mentioned, but we are left to discover it by reflection ; and this furnishes a \ery pleasant exercise to our faculties. A metaphor explains itself by the words which are connected with it in their proper and natural meaning. When I say, * Wallace was a thunderbolt of war/ ' In peace Fingal was the gale of spring/ the thunder- bolt of war and the gale of spring are sufficiently explained by the mention of Wallace and Fingal. But an allegory may be allowed to stand more unconnected with the literal meaning ; the interpretation is not so directly pointed out, but is left to our own discovery. " When the Jewish nation is represented under th<) notion of a vine or a vineyard, as is done in the Psalms and the Pro- 1 Taylor, Synonyms. Wollaston, Relig. of Nat., 8, 5. Ferrier, Inst. of Metaphys., p. 48. Louis Figuier, L'Alchemie et Les Alchemizes, Paris, 1850 20 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. ALLEGORY phets, you have a fine example of an Allegory" ! F. META PHOB, MYTH. AMBITION (from ambio, to go about seeking place or power), is the desire of power, which is regarded as one of the pri mary or original desires of human nature. 2 AMPHIBOLOGY (t|3o?ua, ambiguity), is to use a proposi- tion which presents not an obscure, but a doubtful or doubla sense. It is enumerated among the sophisms by Aristotle, who distinguishes it from equivocatio, opwv/jita,, by which he understands ambiguity in terms taken separately. V. FALLACY. AMPHIBOLY is applied by Kant to that kind of amphibology which is natural, and consists in confounding pure notions of the understanding with objects of experience, and attributing to the one characters and qualities which belong to the other ; as when we make identity, which is a notion d priori, a real quality of phenomena, or objects which experience makes known to us. V. ANTINOMY, PROPOSITION. ANALOGUE (dmxoyoj, proportionate). "By an Analogue is meant an organ in one animal having the same function as a different organ in a different animal. The difference between Homologue and Analogue may be illustrated by the wing of a bird and that of a butterfly ; as the two totally differ in ana- tomical structure, they cannot be said to be homologous, but they are analogous in function, since they both serve for flight." 8 In Logic a term is analogous whose single signification ap- plies with equal propriety to more than one object as the leg of the table, the leg of the animal. 4 ANALOGY (dvaxoyttt, proportion), has been defined, " The simi- larity of ratios or relations." " But in popular language we extend the word to resemblances of things as well as rela- tions. Employed as an argument, analogy depends upon the canon, the same attributes may be assigned to distinct, but similar things, provided they can be shown to accompany the 1 Irving, English Composition, p. 289. * See Reid, Act. Pow., essay Hi., part 2, chap 2 ; Stewart, Act. Paw., book i., chap. % |ect. 4. M'Cosh, Typical Farrnt, p. 25. Whately, Log., b. iii., $ 10. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY 21 ANALOGY points of resemblance in the things, and not the points of difference." " Analogy does not mean the similarity of two things, but the similarity, or sameness of two relations. There must be more than two things to give rise to two relations ; there must be at least three, and in most cases there &refour. Thus A may be like B, but there is no analogy between A and B : it is an abuse of the word to speak so, and it leads to much con- fusion of thought. If A has the same relation to B which C has to D, then there is an analogy. If the first relation be well known, it may serve to explain the second, which is less known ; and the transfer of name from one of the terms in the relation best known to its corresponding term in the other, causes no confusion, but on the contrary tends to remind us of the similarity that exists in these relations, and so assists the mind instead of misleading it."" " Analogy implies a difference in sort, and not merely in degree ; and it is the sameness of the end with the difference of the means which constitutes analogy. No one could say the lungs of a man were analogous to the Jungs of a monkey, but any one might say that the gills of a fish and the spira- cula of insects are analogous to lungs." 8 Between one man and another, as belonging to the same genus, there is identity. Between a flint and a flower, as belonging to different genera, there is diversity. Between the seasons of the year and the periods of human life, or be- tween the repose of an animal and the sleep of a plant, when we think wherein they agree, without forgetting wherein they differ, there is analogy. " When some course of events seems to follow the same order with another, so that we may imagine them to be influ- enced by similar causes, we say there is an analogy between them. And when we infer that a certain event will take place in some other case of a similar nature, we are said to reason from analogy; as when we suppose that the stars, like the sun, are surrounded with planets, which derive from them Thomson, Outlines of Laws of Thought, p. 363, 1st. edit. Coplestone, Four Discourses, p. 122, 8vo, London, 1821. Coleridge, Physiology of Life, p. 64. 22 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ANALOGY- light and heat. The word analogy is employed with strict propriety only in those cases where there is supposed to be a sameness in the causes of similar effects. When thei e is a mere similarity in effects or appearances, the word resemblance should be used. Resemblances may be well adduced in illus~ tration of an argument ; but then they should be proposed merely as similes, or metaphors, not as analogies. 1 " The meaning of analogy is resemblance (?), and hence all reasoning from one case to others resembling it might be termed analogical ; but the word is usually confined to cases where the resemblance is of a slight or indirect kind. "We do not say that a man reasons from analogy when he infers that a stone projected into the air will fall to the ground. The cir- cumstances are so essentially similar to those which have been experienced a thousand times, that we call the cases identical, not analogical. But when Sir Isaac Newton, reflecting on the tendency of bodies at the surface of the earth to the centre, inferred that the moon had the same tendency, his reasoning, in the first instance, was analogical. " By some writers the term has been restricted to the resem- blance of relations ; thus knowledge is said to bear the same relation to the mind as light to the eye to enlighten it. But although the term is very properly applied to this class of re- semblances, I think it is not generally confined to them ; it is commonly used with more latitude, except, indeed, in mathe- matics, when it is employed to designate the identity of ratios." 2 " As analogy is the resemblance of ratios (or relations), two things may be connected by analogy, though they have in themselves no resemblance ; thus as a sweet taste gratifies the palate, so does a sweet sound gratify the ear, and hence the same word, ' sweet,' is applied to both, though no flavour can resemble a sound in itself. To bear this in mind would serve to guard us against two very common errors in the interpreta- tion of the analogical language of Scripture : 1. The error of supposing the things themselves to be similar, from theii bearing similar relation to other things; 2. The still more 1 Taylor, Elements of Thought. * Sam. Bailey, Discmrses, p. 181, 8vo, London, 1852. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 23 ANALOGY- common error of supposing the analogy to extend farther than it does, or to be more complete than it really is, from not con sidering in what the analogy in each case consists." f "Analogy is a Greek word used by mathematicians to signify a similitude of proportions. For instance, when we observe that two is to six as three is to nine, this similitude OP equality of proportion is termed analogy. And although proportion strictly signifies the habitude or relation of one quantity to another, yet, in a looser and translated sense, it hath been applied to signify every other habitude, and consequently the term analogy, all similitude of relations or habitudes whatsoever. Hence the schoolmen tell us there is analogy between intellect and sight ; forasmuch as intellect is to the mind what sight is to the body : and that he who governs the state is analogous to him who steers a ship. Hence a prince is analogically styled a pilot, being to the state as a pilot is to his vessel. 2 For the further clearing of this point, it is to be observed, that a twofold analogy is distinguished by the schoolmen, metapho- rical and proper. Of the first kind there are frequent instances in Holy Scripture, attributing human parts and passions to God. When He is represented as having a finger, an eye, or an ear ; when .He is said to repent, to be angry, or grieved, every one sees the analogy is merely metaphorical; because these parts and passions, taken in the proper sig- nification, must in every degree necessarily, and from the formal nature of the thing, include imperfection. When, therefore, it is said the finger of God appears in this or that event, men of common sense mean no more, but that it is as truly ascribed to God, as the works wrought by human fingers are to man ; and so of the rest. But the case is differ- ent when wisdom and knowledge are attributed to God. Passions and senses, as such, imply defect; but in knowledge simply, or as such, there is no defect. Knowledge, therefore, in the proper formal meaning of the word, may be attributed to God proportionally, that is, preserving a proportion to the infinite nature of God. We may say, therefore, that as God is infinitely above man, so is the knowledge of God infinitely Whately. Vide Cajetan, de Norn. Analog., c. iii. 24 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ANALOGY- above the knowledge of man, and this is what Cajetan calls analogia proprie facia. And after the same analogy we must understand all those attributes to belong to the Deity, which in themselves simply, and as such, denote perfection." l Analogy and Metaphor. Metaphor, in general, is a substitution of the idea or conception of one thing with the term belonging to it, to stand for another thing, on account of an appearing simili- tude only, without any real resemblance and true correspon- dency between the things compared ; as when the Psalmist describes the verdure and fruitfulness of valleys by laughing and singing. Analogy, in general, is the substituting the idea or conception of one thing to stand for and represent another, on account of a true resemblance and correspondent reality in the very nature of the things compared. It is defined by Aris- totle 'lao-tys tov Xoyou, an equality or parity of reason, though, in strictness and truth, the parity of reasoning is rather built on the similitude, and analogy, and consequent to them, than the same thing with them. " The ground and foundation of Metaphor consists only in an appearing or imaginary resemblance and correspondency ; as when God is said to have hands, and eyes, and ears. But the foundation of analogy is an actual similitude and a real correspondency in the very nature of things ; which lays a foundation for a parity of reason even between things different in nature and kind ; as when God is said to have knowledge, power, and goodness. "Metaphor is altogether arbitrary, and the result merely of imagination, it is rather a figure of speech than a real simili- tude and comparison of things ; and, therefore, is properly of consideration in rhetoric and poetry. But analogy being built on the very nature of things themselves, is a necessary and useful method of conception and reasoning ; and, therefore, of consideration in Physics and Metaphysics." 2 " I am not of the mind of those speculators who seem as- sured that all states have the same period of infancy, man- hood, and decrepitude that are found in individuals. Parallels * Berkeley, Min. Philosoph., Dialog. 4. * Brown, Divine Analogy, p. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 25 ANALOGY- of this sort rather furnish similitudes to illustrate or to adorn, than supply analogies from whence to reason. The objects which are attempted to be forced into an analogy are not found in the same classes of existence. Individuals are phy- sical beings commonwealths are not physical, but moral essences." 1 Many fallacies become current through false metaphorical analogies. See an example of false analogy 7 ' in the supposed likeness between the decay of vegetables and of living crea- tures. Analogy and Example, Analogy is not unfrequently used to mean mere similarity. But its specific meaning is similarity of relations, and in this consists the difference between the argu- ment by example and that by analogy, that in the one we argue from mere similarity, from similarity of relations in the other. In the one we argue from Pisistratus to Dionysius, who resembles him ; in the other, from the relation of induc- tion to demonstration, to the corresponding relation of the example to the enthymeme? Analogy and Experience. "Experience is not the mere collec- tion of observations ; it is the methodical reduction of them to their principles . . . Analogy supposes this, but it goes a step farther. Experience is mere analysis. Analogy involves also a synthesis. It is applied to cases in which some difference of circumstances is supposed ; as, for instance, in arguing from the formation of particular parts of one class of animals to the correspondence in another, the different nature, habits, circumstances, of the one class, are considered and allowed for, in extending the given observation. 4 In the Schools, what was termed the analogy of faith, 6 was showing that the truth of one scripture is not repugnant to the truth of another, or of the whole. "Analogia vero est, cum veritas unius scripturse ostenditur veritati alterius non repugnare." 6 In Logic, three modes of reasoning are called analogical. 1 Burke, Letters on Regicide Peace, b. iv. a Butler, Analogy, part i., chap. 7. Karslake, Aids to Log., vol. ii., p. 74. * Hampden, Introd. Mor. Phil., lect. v See Rom. xii. 6. Thorn. Aquinas, Summ. Theolog., pars prim a, (jusest. i., art. 10. 4 26 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ANALOGY 1. From effect to cause, or from cause to effect. 2. From means to ends, or from ends to means. 3. From mere resem- blance or concomitance. Condillac 1 has shown how these modes of reasoning all concur to prove that the human beings around us, who are formed like ourselves (analogy of resem* blance], who act as we act (analogy of cause], who have the same organs (analogy of means], should be in all respects like ourselves, and have the same faculties. Analogy and Induction. " There are two requisites in order to every analogical argument: 1. That the two or several par- ticulars concerned in the argument should be known to agree in some one point; for otherwise they could not be referable to any one class, and there would consequently be no basis to the subsequent inference drawn in the conclusion. 2. That the conclusion must be modified by a reference to the circum- stances of the particular to which we argue. For herein con- sists the essential distinction between an analogical and an in- ductive argument." 2 ANALYSIS and SYNTHESIS (avd *vco, cvv, tCe^t, resolutio, compositio], or decomposition and recomposition. Objects of sense and of thought are presented to us in a complex state, but we can only, or at least best, understand what is simple. Among the varied objects of a landscape, I behold a tree, I separate it from the other objects, I examine separately its different parts trunk, branches, leaves, &c., and then reunit- ing them into one whole I form a notion of the tree. The first part of this process is analysis, the second is synthesis. If this must be done with an individual, it is more necessary with the infinitude of objects which surround us, to evolve the one out of many, to recall the multitude to unity. We compare objects with one another to see wherein they agree ; we next, by a synthetical process, infer a general law, or generalize the coin- cident qualities, and perform an act of induction which is purely a synthetical process, though commonly called analytical. Thus, from our experience that bodies attract within certain limits, 1 Art. de Raisonner. a Hampden, Essay on Phil. Evid. of CJiristianity, pp. 60-64. See Locfce, On Hum. Un derstand., book iv., chap. 16, sect. 12 ; Beattie's Essay on Truth, part i., chap. 2, sect J Stewart's Elements, vol. ii., chap. 4, .sect. 4 ; Stewart's Essays, v., c. 3. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 27 ANALYSIS we infer that all bodies gravitate towards each other. The . antecedent here only says that certain bodies gravitate^ the consequent says all bodies gravitate. They are brought to- gether by the mental insertion of a third proposition, which is, " that nj.ture is uniform/' This is not the product of induc- tion, but antecedent to all induction. The statement fully ex- pressed is, this and that body, which we know, gravitate, but nature is uniform ; this and that body represent all bodies all bodies gravitate. It is 1&e mind which connects these things, and the process is synthetical. This is the one universal method in all philosophy, and different schools have differed only in the way of employing it. Method is the following of one thing through another. Order is the following of one thing after another. Analysis is real, as when a chemist sepa- rates two substances. Logical, as when we consider the pro- perties of the sides and angles of a triangle separately, though we cannot think of a triangle without sides and angles. For an explanation of the processes of analysis and synthesis, see Stewart. 1 The instruments of analysis are observation and experiment; of synthesis, dejinition and classification. Take down a watch, analysis; put it up, synthesis* " Hac analysi licebit, ex rebus compositis ratiocinatione col- ligere simplices; ex motibus, vires moventes; et in universum, ex effectis causas ; ex causique particularibus generates; donee ad generalissimas tandem sit deventitm." 3 Analysis is decomposing what is compound to detect its ele- ments. Objects may be compound, as consisting of several distinct parts united, or of several properties equally distinct. In the former view, analysis will divide the object into its parts, and present them to us successively, and then the rela- tions by which they are united. In the second case, analysis will separate the distinct properties, and show the relations of every kind which may be between them. 4 Analysis is the resolving into its constituent elements of e * Elements, part ii., chap. 4. Lord Brougham, Prdimin. Discourse, part i., sect. 7. Newton, Optices, 2d edit., p. 413. 4 Sardaillac, Etudes Element, torn, i., pp. 8, 9. 28 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ANALYSIS compound heterogeneous substance. Thus, water can b analyzed into oxygen and hydrogen, atmospheric air into these and azote. 1 Abstraction is analysis, since it is decomposition, but what distinguishes it is that it is exercised upon qualities which by themselves have no real existence. Classification is synthesis. Induction rests upon analysis. Deduction is a synthetical pro- cess. Demonstration includes both. ANALYTICS (Ti 'Awxwtxo) is the title which in the second century was given, and which has since continued to be applied, to a portion of the Organon or Logic of Aristotle. This portion consists of two distinct parts ; the First Ana- lytics, which teaches how to reduce the syllogism to its diverse figures and most simple elements, and the Posterior Ana- lytics, which lays down the rules and conditions of demon- stration in general. It was in imitation of this title that Kant gave the name of Transcendental Analytic to that part of the Criticism of Pure Reason which reduces the faculty of knowing to its elements. ANGELOLOGY (oyysXoj, a messenger; Jioyoj, discourse), is the doctrine of Angels. V. PNEUMATOLOGY. ANIMA MTJNDI (soul of the world.) Animism is the doctrine of the anima mundi as held by Stahl. The hypothesis of a force, immaterial, but inseparable from matter, and giving to matter its form and movement, is coeval with the birth of philosophy. Pythagoras obscurely acknowledged such a force, but held that there was an infinitely perfect being above it. From Pythag- oras it passed into the system of Plato, who could not conceive how pure spirit, the seat of eternal ideas, could act directly upon matter. He thought also that the world would be more perfect if endowed with life. The soul of the world was the source of all life, sensibility, and movement. The school of Alexandria adhered to the views of Plato, and recognized in- telligence and Deity as above the anima mundi, which in the system of the Stoics usurped the place of God, and even His name; while Straton of Lampsacus called it nature. The hypothesis of the anima mundi was not entertained by the 1 Peemans, Introd. ad Philosoph., p. 75, 12mo, Lovan., 1840. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 29 ANIMA MITNDI scholastic philosophers. But it reappeared under the name of Archceus, in the systems of Cornelius Agrippa, Paracelsus, and Van Helmont ; while Henry More recognized a principium hylarchicum, and Cudworth a plastic nature, as the universal agent of physical phenomena, the cause of all forms of organ- ization, and the spring of all the movements of matter. About the same time, some German divines, as Amos Comenius, and John Bayer, attempted to rest a similar opinion on Genesis i. 2, and maintained that the spirit which moved on the face of the waters still gives life to all nature. 1 The doctrine of the anima mundi, as held by the Stoics and Stratonicians, is closely allied to pantheism ; while according to others this soul of the universe is altogether intermediate between the Creator and His works. 2 ANTECEDENT (antecedo, to go before). "And the antecedent shall you fynde as true when you rede over my letter as him- self can not say nay, but that the consecusyon is formal." 8 In a relation, whether logical or metaphysical, the first term is the antecedent, the second the consequent. Thus in the re- lation of causality the cause is the antecedent) and the effect the consequent. In Logic, antecedent is the former of two propositions, in a species of reasoning, which, without the intervention of any middle proposition, leads directly to a fair conclusion ; and this conclusion is termed the consequent. Thus, I reflect, therefore I exist. I reflect, is the antecedent therefore I exist, is the consequent* Antecedent is that part of a conditional proposition on which the other depends. 8 In Grammar the word to which the relative refers is called the antecedent ; as, "God whom we worship," where God is the antecedent, to which whom the relative refers. ANTHROPOLOGY (ai/0prtoj and ?u>yoj, the science of man). Among naturalists it means the natural history of the human * Buddeus, Elem. Phil., pars 3, cap. 6, sect. 11, 12, at seq. * See Plato, Timceus, 29 D. 30 c. Schelliug, De VAme de Monde, 8vo, Hamb., 1808 * Sir T. More's Works, p. 1115. 4 Euler, Lettert to a German Princess. Whately, Log., b. ii., chap. 4, \ Q. 4* 30 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ANTHROPOLOeY- species. According to Dr. Latham, 1 anthropology determines the relations of man to the other mammalia ; ethnology, the relations of the different varieties of mankind to each other, p. 559. The German philosophers since the time of Kant have used it to designate all the sciences which in any point of view relate to man soul and body individual and species facts of history and phenomena of consciousness the abso- lute rules of morality as well as interests material, and chang- ing ; so that works under the general title of anthropology treat of very different topics. "Anthropology is the science of man in all his natural vari- ations. It deals with the mental peculiarities which belong specifically to different races, ages, sexes, and temperaments, together with the results which follow immediately from them in their application to human life. Under psychology, on the other hand, we include nothing but what is common to all mankind, and forms an essential part of human nature. The one, accordingly, may be termed the science of mental varia- bles ; the other, the science of mental constants"* In an anonymous work entitled Anthropologie Abstracted, 9 Anthropology is divided into Psychology and Anatomy. ANTHROPOMORPHISM (av0pw7to ? , man; /topfj}, form). "It was the opinion of the Anthropomorphites that God had all the parts of a man, and that we are, in this sense, made according to his image." 4 Melito, of Sardis, was the first Christian writer who ascribed body to Deity. The ascribing of bodily parts or members to Deity is too gross a delusion to call for refutation. It is wit- tily exposed by Cicero. 6 But there is a spiritual anthropo- morphism, sometimes also called ajithropopathy, which ascribes to him the acts, passions, sentiments, and proceedings of human nature. " We ought not to imagine that God is clothed with a hu man body, as the Anthropomorphites asserted, under colour that that figure was the most perfect of any." 6 1 Nat. Hist, of Varieties of Man, Lond., 1830. Morell, Psychology, pp. 1, 2. 8?o, Lond., 1655. 4 More, Def. of Cabbala, c. 1. De Nat. Dear., lib. i., cap. 27. Malebranche, Search after Truth, book iii., chap. 9. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SI ANTHROPOMORPHISM Hume applies the name to those who think the mind of God is like the mind of man. " When it is asked, what cause produces order in the ideaa of the Supreme Being, can any other reason be assigned by you Anthropomorphites, than that it is a rational faculty, and that such is the nature of Deity." * ANTICIPATION (anticipatio, 7tpd^4/cj), is a term which was first used by Epicurus to denote a general notion which en- ables us to conceive beforehand of an object which had not yet come under the cognizance of the senses. But these gene- ral notions being formed by abstraction from a multitude of particular notions, were all originally owing to sensation, or mere generalizations a posteriori. Buhle 2 gives the following account: "The impressions which objects make on the senses, leave in the mind traces which enable us to recognize these objects when they present themselves anew, or to com- pare them with others, or to distinguish them. When we see an animal for the first time, the impression made on the senses leaves a trace which serves as a type. If we afterwards see the same animal, we refer the impression to the type already existing in the mind. This type and the relation of the new impression to it, constituted what Epicurus called the antici- pation of an idea. It was by this anticipation that we could determine the identity, the resemblance or the difference of objects actually before us, and those formerly observed. " The language of Cicero 3 seems to indicate that by Epicurus the term rtpox^tj was extended to what is supersensual, and included what is now called knowledge d priori. " Quce est enim gens, aut quod genus hominum, quod non habeat, sine doc- trina, anticipationem quandam Deorum ? quam apellat ftpoktflw Epicurus, id est, anteceptam animo rei quandam informationem, sine qua nee intelligi quidquam, nee quceri, nee dispulari potest." And according to Diogenes Laertius, 4 the Stoics defined rtpdx^tj to mean " a natural concept on of the uni- yersal." It would appear, however, that this definition was 1 Dialogues on Nat. Relig., parts iv . v. Hist, de la Phil, Mod., torn, i., pp. 87, 88. De Nat. Deor., lib. i., cap. 16. 4 Lib. Tii., sect. 51, 53, 64. 32 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ANTICIPATION not adopted by all. And Sir "William Hamilton has said : " It is not to be supposed that the xoivai EITOUU, tyvaixai rtpoto^eis, of the Stoics, far less of the Epicureans, were more than generalizations a posteriori. Yet this is a mistake, into which, among many others, Lipsius and Leibnitz have fallen in regard to the former."* Anticipation of Nature is a phrase employed by Lord Bacon * to denote a hasty and illicit generalization, as opposed to a due and gradual generalization, which he called an Interpretation of Nature." ANTINOMY (oW i, against ; vopos, law), the opposition of one law or rule to another law or rule. "If He once willed adultery should be sinful, all his omni- potence will not allow Him to will the allowance that His holiest people might, as it were, by His own antinomy or counter statute, live unreproved in the same fact as He Him- self esteemed it, according to our common explainers." 4 According to Kant, it means that natural contradiction which results from the law of reason, when, passing the limits of experience, we seek to know the absolute. Then, we do not attain the idea of the absolute, or we overstep the limits of our faculties, which reach only to phenomena. If the world be regarded not as a phenomenon or sum of phenomena, but as an absolute tiling in itself, the following Antinomies or counter-statements, equally capable of being supported by arguments, arise : Thesis. I. Antithesis. The world has an origin in time, and ' The world has no beginning and is quoad space shut up in boundaries, no bounds. II. Every compound substance in the No composite consists of simple world consists of simple parts; and parts ; and there exists nowhat simple there is nothing but the simple, or in the world. that which is compounded from it. * Reid's Works, note A, p. 774. * See Manuductio ad Stoicam Phil, lib. ii., dissert. 11 ; and Leibnitz, Nouveaux E l Clang., 1658. J4 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ANTIPATHY A blind and instinctive movement, which, without anj appreciable reason, makes us averse to the company or char- acter of some persons at first sight. An involuntary dislike or aversion entertained by an animate being to some sensible object. A man may have an antipathy to particular smells or tastes, a turkey cock or bull to the colour red, a horse to the smell of raw flesh. Some are natural, others are acquired, as a surfeit of any food gives antipathy. Some are founded on sensation, others on sentiment. 1 V. SYMPATHY. A PARTE ANTE, and A PARTE POST These two expres- sions, borrowed from the scholastic philosophy, refer to eter- nity ; of which man can only conceive as consisting of two parts ; the one without limits in the past, a parte ante ; and the other without limits in the future, a parte post. Both are predicable of Deity; only the latter of the human soul. V. ETERNITY. APATHY (a, privative; and rta0o$, passion). The absence of passion. " What is called by the Stoics apathy, or dispassion ; by the Sceptics indisturbance, dtfapatta ; by the Molinists, quietism ; by common men, peace of conscience : seem all to mean but great tranquillity of mind." 2 As the passions are the springs of most of our actions, a state of apathy has come to signify a sort of moral inertia the absence of all activity or energy. According to the Stoics, apathy meant the extinction of the passions by the ascendancy of reason. " By the perfect apathy which that philosophy (the Stoical) prescribes to us, by endeavouring not merely to moderate but to eradicate, all our private, partial, and selfish affev^ tions, by suffering us to feel for whatever can befall our- selves, our friends, our country, not even the sympathetic and reduced passions of the impartial spectator, it endea- vours to render us altogether indifferent and unconcerned in the success or miscarriage of everything which nature has prescribed to us as the proper business and occupation of oui lives." 1 Locke, On Hum. Understand., book ii., chap. 33, sect. 7, 8. * Sir W. Temple, Of Gardening. a Smith, Theory q/" Moral Sentiments, part rii., sect. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 35 APATHY- " In general, experience will show, that as the wants of natural appetite to food supposes and proceeds from some natural disease ; so the apathy the Stoics talk of, as much supposes or is accompanied with something amiss in the moraJ character, in that which is the health of the mind." 1 In lazy apathy let Stoics boast Their virtue fix'd; 'tis fix'd as in a frost ; Contracted all, retiring to the breast; But strength of mind is exercise, not rest." POPE. 8 APHORISM, determinate position, from d^opb'fu, to bo nd, or limit; whence our horizon. "In order to get the full sense of a word, we should first present to our minds the visual image that forms its primary meaning. Draw lines of dif- ferent colours round the different counties of England, and then cut out each separately, as in the common play-map* that children take to pieces and put together, so that each dis- trict can be contemplated apart from the rest, as a whole in itself. This twofold act of circumscribing and detaching, when it is exerted by the mind on subjects of reflection and reason, is to aphorise, and the result an aphorism." 3 A precise, sententious saying ; e. g., "It is always safe to learn from our enemies, seldom safe to instruct even our friends." Like Hippocrates, Boerhaave has written a book entitled Aphorisms, containing medical maxims, not treated argumenta- tively, but laid down as certain truths. In civil law aphorisms are also used. The three ancient commentators upon Hippocrates, viz., Theophilus, Meletius, and Stephanus, have given the same definition of an aphorism, i.e., "a succinct saying, compre- hending a complete statement," or a saying poor in expres- * ' ' .. ,i -i ... i I. -i. I, , . , M a Butler, Sermon v. * Niemeierus (Job. Barth.), Dissert, de. Stoicorum A-ndSeia. Ac. 4to, Helmst, 1679. Becnius, Dispp., libb. 3, AndGsta Sapientis Stoici. 4to, Copenhag., 1693. tfischerus (John Hen.), Diss. de Stoicis avadeiasfalso suspectis. 4to, Leiri., 1716. Quadius Disputatio tritum ittud Staicorum paradoxon irtpi rij? anaBiias expendtnt ito, Sedini, 1720. Meiners, Melanges, torn. ., p. 130. Coleridge, Aids to Reflection, vol. i., p. 16, edit. 1848. 36 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. APHORISM sion, but rich in sentiment. The first aphorism of Hip^o crates is, " Life is short, and the art is long ; the occasion fleeting ; experience fallacious, and judgment difficult. The physician must not only be prepared to do what is right him- self, but also to make the patient, the attendants, and exter- nals, co-operate." " The first and most ancient inquirers into truth were wont to throw their knowledge into aphorisms, or short, scattered, unmethodical sentences." ' Heraclitus is known by his aphorisms, which are amonw the most brilliant of those " Jewels, five words long, That on the stretched fore-finger of all time, Sparkle for ever." Among the most famous are, War is father of all things, i. e., all things are evolved by antagonistic force. No man can bathe twice in the same stream, i. e+, all things are in perpetual flux. APODEICTIC, APODEICTICAL (faMxwiu, to show). " The argumentation is from a similitude, therefore not apo- dictick, or of evident demonstration." 2 This term was borrowed by Kant from Aristotle. 3 He made a distinction between propositions which admitted of contra- diction or dialectic discussion, and such as were the basis or result of demonstration. Kant wished to introduce an analo- gous distinction between our judgments, and to give the name of apodeictic to such as were above all contradiction. APOLOGUE (drtoxoyoj, fdbula), "a novel story, contrived to teach some moral truth." Johnson. " It would be a high relief to hear an apologue or fable well told, and with such humour as to need no sententious moral at the end to make the application." 4 It is essential to an apologue that the circumstances told in it should be fictitious. 1 Nov. Organ., book i., sect. 86. And the Nawm Organum itself is written in jphorisms. * Robinson, Eudoxa, p, 23. Analyt. Prior., lib. i., cap. 1. Shaftesbury, vol. iii., Miscell. 4, c. 1. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY 87 APOLOGUE The difference between a parable and an apologue is, that the former being drawn from human life requires probability in the narration ; whereas the apologue being taken from inani- mate things or the inferior animals, is not confined strictly to probability. The fables of J&sop are apologues. For an admirable instance of the Xoyoj or apologue, see Coleridge's Friend, where the case of the seizure of the Danish fleet by the English is represented in this form. APOLOGY (dmokoyta, a defence made in a court of justice). We have a work of Xenophon, entitled the Apology of Socrates, and another with the same title by Plato. The term was adopted by the Christian fathers, and applied to their writings in defence of Christianity, and in answer to its opponents. About the year 125, Quadratus and Aristides presented Apolo- gies to the Emperor Hadrian when on a visit to Athens. Ter- tullian addressed his Apologetic to the magistrates of Rome, the Emperor Severus being then absent. APOPHTHEGM (drto^fyyojwu, to speak out plainly). A short and pithy speech or saying of some celebrated man ; as that of Augustus, Festina lente. " In a numerous collection of our Saviour's apophthegms, there is not to be found one example of sophistry." * The Lacedaemonians used much this mode of speaking. Plutarch has a collection entitled the Apophthegms of Kings and Generals, many of which are anecdotes ; and also another entitled Laconica. Drusius (Joan. Prof. Heb. Lugd. Bat.) published in 1612, a collection of Hebrew and Arabic Apoph- thegms. Erasmus has a collection of Apophthegms? "Of Blackmore's (Sir Richard) attainments in the ancien; tongues, it may be sufficient to say that in his prose, he has confounded an aphorism with an apophthegm." 3 In Guesses at Truth, 4 the saying of Demosthenes, "that action was the first, second, and third essential of eloquence " is called an apophthegm. * Paley, Evidences, part ii., c. 2. a 12mo, Basil, 1558. 8 Macaulay, On Addison, p. 11. 4 2d series, 1848. 58 VOCABULARY OP PH.'LOSOPHT. APPERCEPTION (Self-consciousness). "By apperception he (Leibnitz) understands that degree of perception which re- flects as it were upon itself; by which we are conscious of our own existence, and conscious of our perceptions, by which we can reflect upon the operation of our own minds, and can comprehend abstract truths." l " By apperception the Leibnitzio-Wolfians meant the act by which the mind is conscious immediately of the representa- tive object, and through it, mediately of the remote object represented." 2 Apperception according to Kant is consciousness of one's self, or the simple representation of the I. If a subject capable of representations possesses such, it, besides, always connects with these representations that it (the subject) has them. This second representation, that I, the representing subject, has these representations, is called the consciousness of myself, or the apperception. This representation is simple, and is an effect of the understanding, which thereby connects all the diversity of a representation in a single representation, or, according to Kant's mode of expression, produces a syn- thesis." 9 " The term consciousness denotes a state, apperception an act of the ego ; and from this alone the superiority of the latter is apparent." 4 " Cousin maintains that the soul possesses a mode of spon- taneous thought, into which volition and reflection, and there- fore personality, do not enter, and which gives her an intui- tion of the absolute. For this he has appropriated the name apperception, explaining it also as a true inspiration, and hold- ing therefore, that inspirations come to man, not by the special volitions of God, as commonly believed, but fall to reason in its own right, thus constituting a scientific organ of discovery "' APPETITE. " The word appetihis, from which that of appetite is derived, is applied by the Romans and the Latinists to de- sires in general, whether they primarily relate to the body or not, and with obvious propriety ; for the primitive signification 1 Reid, Intell. Pow., essay ii., c. 15. Sir Will. Hamilton, Reid's Works, note D*, sect 1. Haywood, Critick of Pure Reason, p. 592. 4 Meiklejohn, Criticism of Pure Reason, note. p. 81. Mac Vicar, Enquiry into Human Nature, 8vo, Edln., 1853, p. 21CL VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY". 30 APPETITE is the seeking after whatever may conduce either to gratifica- tion or happiness. Thus Cicero observes, ' Motus animoram duplices sunt; alteri, cogitationis ; alteri, appetitus. Cogitatio in vero exquirendo maxime versatur; appetitus impellitad agen- dum.' By two powers of action being thus placed in contrast with each other, and the one applied t: thought simply, it is obvious that the other comprehends every species of desire, whether of a mental or corporeal nature. Metaphysicians also, who have written in the Latin language, use the word appetitus in the same latitude." ! In modern use, appetites refer to corporeal wants, each of which creates its correspondent desire. But desire proper re- fers to mental objects. " The word appetite, in common language, often means hunger, and sometimes figuratively any strong desire." 2 As our perceptions are external, which are common to us with the brutes ; and internal, which are proper to us as rational beings so appetite is sensitive and rational. The sen- sitive appetite was distinguished into the irascible and the concupisciple. 8 Appetite and Instinct. "Appetites have been called instinc tive, because they seek their own gratification without the aid of reason, and often in spite of it. They are common to man with the brute ; but they differ at least in one important respect from those instincts of the lower animals which are usually contrasted with human reason. The objects towards which they are directed are prized for their own sake ; they are sought as ends, while instinct teaches brutes to do many things which are needed only as means for the attainment of some ulterior purpose. Thus instinct enables a spider to en- trap his prey, while appetite only leads him to devour it when in his possession. " Instinct is an impulse conceived without instruction, and prior to all experience, to perform certain acts, which are not needed for the immediate gratification of the agent, which, in fact, are often opposed to it, and are useful only as means foi Cogan, On the Passions, vol. i., p. 15. Beattie, Mar. Science, part i., c. 1. Reid, Act. Pow., essay iii.; Stewart, Act. P ministrari. 4 Atheists are confounded with Pantheists; such as Xeno phanes among the ancients, or Spinoza and Schelling among * Cudworth, Intell. Syst., p. 111. Leelerc, Hist, des Systemes des Ancien Athtes. In Bibliotheque Choisie. Shaftesbury, Inquiry Concerning Virtue, book i., part L, sect. 2, 4 Hutcheson, Metaphys., pars 3, c. 1. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 55 ATHEISM - the moderns, who, instead of denying God, absorb everything into Him, and are rather Acosmists. Atheism has been distinguished from Antitheism; and the former has been supposed to imply merely the non-recognition of God, while the latter asserts His non-existence. This dis- tinction is founded on the difference between unbelief and dis- belief, 1 and its validity is admitted in so far as it discriminates merely between sceptical and dogmatic atheism. 2 11 The verdict of the atheist on the doctrine of a God, is only that it is not proven. It is not that it is disproven. He is but an atheist. He is not an antitheist." 3 ATOM, ATOMISM (a, priv. ; and tip, to cut, that which cannot be cut or divided is an atom). " Now, I say, as Ecphantus and Archelaus asserted the cor- poreal world to be made of atoms, yet notwithstanding, held an incorporeal deity, distinct from the same as the first prin- ciple of activity in it, so in like manner did all other ancient atomists generally before Democritus join theology and incor- porealism with their atomical physiology." 4 Leucippus considered the basis of all bodies to consist of extremely fine particles, differing in form and nature, which he supposed to be dispersed throughout space, and to which the followers of Epicurus first gave the name of atoms. To these atoms he attributed a rectilinear motion, in consequence of which, such as are homogeneous united, whilst the lighter were dispersed throughout space. The doctrine of atomism did not take its rise in Greece, but in the East. It is found in the Indian philosophy. Kanada, the author of the system, admitted an infinite intelligence distinct from the world. But he could not believe matter to be infinitely divisible, as in this case a grain of sand would be equal to a mountain, both being infinite. Matter consists, then, of ultimate indivisible atoms, which are indestructible and eternal. Empedocles and Anaxagoras did not exclude mind or spirit from the universe. Leucippus and Democritus did. Epicurus added nothing to their doctrine. Lucretius gave to it the graces of poetry. i Chalmers, Nat. Theol., !., 58. * Buchanan, Faith in God, vol. 1, p. 396 Chalmers, ut supra. * Cudworth, InteJl. Syst., p. 26. 66 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. ATOM In all its forms, explaining the universe by chance or neces- sity, it tends to materialism or atheism, although Gassendi has attempted to reconcile it with a belief in God. 1 F. MOLECULE. ATTENTION (attendo, to stretch towards). "When we see, hear, or think of anything, and feel a desirfl to know more of it, we keep the mind fixed upon the object ; this effort of the mind, produced by the desire of knowledge, is called attention."* Attention is the voluntary directing of the energy of the mind towards an object or an act. It has been said by Sir H. Holland, 3 that " The phrase of direction of consciousness might often be advantageously substituted for it." It implies Will as distinct from Intelligence and Sensibility. It is the volun- tary direction of the intelligence and activity. Condillac con- founded it with a sensation of which we were passively con- scious, all other sensations being as if they were noi> Laro- miguiere regarded it as a faculty, and as the primary faculty of the understanding, which gives birth to all the rest. But we may do an act with attention as well as contemplate an object with attention. And we may attend to a feeling as well as to a cognition. According to De Tracy, 4 it is a state of mind rather than a faculty. It is to be acquired and improved by habit. We may learn to be attentive as we learn to walk and to write. According to Dr. Reid, 6 " Attention is a voluntary act; it requires an active exertion to begin and to continue it ; and it may be continued as long as we will; but consciousness is involuntary, and of no continuance, changing with every thought." Attention to external things is observation. Attention to the subjects of our own consciousness is reflection. Attention and abstraction are the same process, it has been said, viewed in different relations. They are the positive and negative poles of the same act. The one evolves the other. Attention is the abstraction of the mind from all things else, and fixing it upon one object ; and abstraction is the fixing thf mind upon one object to the exclusion of others. * Stewart, Act. Pow., vol. ii., last edit., 369. Taylor, Elements of Thought ' Mental Physiol., p. 14. * Ideologie, c. 11. Intell. Pmu., essay i., cb. 6. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 5t ATTENTION Attention and Thought. " By thought is here meant the volun tary reproduction in our minds of those states of consciousness, to which, as to his best and most authentic documents, the teacher of moral or religious truth refers us. In attention, we keep the mind passive ; in thought, we rouse it into activity. In the former, we submit to an impression we keep the mind steady, in order to receive the stamp. In the latter, we seek to imitate the artist, Avhile we ourselves make a copy or dupli- cate of his work. We may learn arithmetic or the elements of geometry, by continued attention alone ; but self-knowledge, or an insight into the laws and constitution of the human mind, and the grounds of religion and true morality, in addi- tion to the effort of attention, requires the energy of thought." 1 ATTRIBUTE (attribuo, to apportion, to ascribe), is anything that can be predicated of another. " Heaven delights To pardon erring man ; sweet mercy seems Its darling attribute, which limits justice." Dryden, All for Love. "Attributes are usually distributed under the three heads of quality, quantity, and relation." 1 In the Schools, the definition, the genus, the proprium, and the accident, were called dialectic attributes ; because, accord- ing to Aristotle, 8 these were the four points of view in which any subject of philosophical discussion should be viewed. "A predicate, the exact limits of which are not determined, cannot be used to define and determine a subject. It may be called an attribute, and conveys not the whole nature of the subject, but some one quality belonging to it. 'Metals are heavy,' ' some snakes are venomous,' are judgments in which this kind of predicable occurs. 4 Attributes (real or metaphysical) are always real qualities, essential and inherent, not only in the nature, but even in the substance of things. "By this word attribute," said Descartes (in his letter to Regius), "is meant something which is Coleridge, Aids to Reflection, vol. i., p. 4. Mill., Log., 2d edit., vol. i., p. 83. Topic, lib. i., c. 6. Thomson, Outline of Laws of Thought, 2d edit., p. 161. 58 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ATTRIBUTE immovable and inseparable from the essence of its subject, at that which constitutes it, and which is thus opposed to mode." Thus unity, identity, and activity, are attributes of the soul ; for I cannot deny them, without, at the same time, denying the existence of the soul itself. Sensibility, liberty, and intel- ligence, are but faculties. In God there is nothing but attri- butes, because in God everything is absolute, involved in the substance and unity of the necessary being. In Deo non pro- prie modos aut qualitates, sed attributa tantum dicimus esse. 1 In man the essential mark is reason attribute, capacity of learning mode, actual learning quality, relatively to another more or less learned. 2 V. QUALITY, MODE. AUTHENTIC, "A genuine book is that which was written by the person whose name it bears, as the author of it. An authentic book is that which relates matters of fact as they really happened. A book may be genuine without being authentic ; and a book may be authentic without being genuine. The books written by Richardson and Fielding are genuine books, though the histories of Clarissa and Tom Jones are fables. . . . Anson's voyage may be considered as an authentic book, it probably containing a true narrative of the principal events recorded in it ; but it is not a genuine book, having not been written by Walters, to whom it is ascribed, but by Robins." 3 In jurisprudence, those laws or acts are called authentic which are promulgated by the proper public officer, and ac- companied with the conditions requisite to give them faith and force. AUTHORITY (The principle of). " The principle of adopting the belief of others, on a matter of opinion, without reference to the particular grounds on which the belief may rest." 4 V. CONSENT. Authority (The argument from). It is an argument for the truth of an opinion that it has been embraced by all men. in 1 Descartes, Princip. Philosoph., i., p. 57. 8 Peemans, Introd. ad Philosoph., p. 6. Bp. Watson, Apology for the Bible, p. 38. 4 Sir G. C. Lewis, On Authority in Matters of Opinion, p. 6. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 59 AUTHORITY- all ages, and in all nations. Quod semper, ubique, et db om* nibus, are the marks of universality, according to Vincentius Lirinensis. " This word is sometimes employed in its primary sense, when we refer to any one's example, testimony, or judgment; as when, e.g., we speak of correcting a reading in some book on the authority of an ancient MS., or giving a statement of some fact on the authority of such and such his- torians, &c. In this sense the word answers pretty nearly to the Latin auctoritas. It is a claim to deference. " Sometimes, again, it is employed as equivalent to potestas, power, as when we speak of the authority of a magistrate. This is a claim to obedience" l Una in re consentio omnium gentium lex natures putanda est? Multum dare solemus prcesumptioni omnium Jiominum: Apud nos veritatis argument um est, aliquid omnibus mdevi? AUTOCRASY (avtoj, self; and xpatsa, to have power). "The Divine will is absolute, it is its own reason, it is both the pro- ducer and the ground of all its acts. It moves not by the external impulse or inclination of objects, but determines itself by an absolute autocrasy." 4 " God extends his dominion even to man's will, that great seat of freedom, that with a kind of autocrasy and supremacy within itself, commands its own actions, laughs at all compul- sion, scorns restraint, and defies the bondage of human laws or external obligations/' 5 V. AUTONOMY. AUTOMATON (avto/uafov, that which moves of itself.) Automatic. "The difference between an animal and an auto- matic statue consists in this, that in the animal we trace the mechanism to a certain point, and then we are stopped, either the mechanism becoming too subtile for our discernment, or something else beside the known laws of mechanism taking place ; whereas, in the automaton, for the comparatively few motions of which it is capable, we trace the mechanism throughout." ' Automatic motions are those muscular actions which are Whately, Log., Appendix 1 , a Cicero, i., Tuscul. Seneca, Epist. cxyii. * South, vol. vii., ser. x. South, vol. i, ser. vii. Paley, Nat. Theol, c. 3. 60 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. AUTOMATON not dependent on the mind, and which are either persistent^ or take place periodically with a regular rhythm, and are dependent on normal causes seated in the nerves or central organs of the nervous system. " Movements influenced simply by sensation, and not at all by the will, are automatic, such as winking." ' Leibnitz 2 has said, " anima humana est spirituale qiioddam automaton." In a note on this passage, Bilfinger is quoted aa saying that automaton is derived from avi-oj and /ua or /watfw, to seek or desire. The soul is a being desiring of itself, whose changes are desired by itself; whereas the common interpretation of the word is self-moving. The soul, in strict propriety, may be called self-desiring, or desiring changes of itself, as having the principle of change in itself; whereas machines are improperly called self-moving, or self-desiring, or willing. " By the compound word avtopatov (otav avto ^d^v ysvrji'a.t,) Aristotle expresses nature effecting either more or less than the specific ends or purposes to which her respective opera- tions invariably tend." 3 Nature operating xata cru^jSfjS^xdf, and producing effects not in her intention, is called avt6/j.a*ov or chance, and art operating xa?a avpptfyxos, and producing effects not in her intention, is called tv%q, fortune. Thus, chance or fortune cannot have any existence independently of intention or design. Automatism is one of the theories as to the activity of matter. 4 AUTONOMY (ofaoj vo/toj, a law itself). In the philosophy of Kant, autonomy is ascribed to the reason in all matters of morality. The meaning is, that reason is sovereign, and the laws which it imposes oji the will are universal and absolute. Man, as possessed of reason, is his own lawgiver. In this, according to Kant, consists the true character and tKe only possible proof of liberty. The term heteronomy is applied bj him to those laws which are imposed upon us by nature, or the violence done to us by our passions and our wants or de- sires. V. AUTOCRASY. 1 Morell, Psychology, p. 99. a Tom> j , p- 156- Nat. Auseult., lib ii., cap. 6; Gillies, Analysis of Aristotle's Works, chap. 2, not* 4 See Stewart, Aet. Pow., vol. ii., pp. 378, 379 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 61 AUTOTHEISTS (av*6< eeo$). Autotheistce qui nulla alia entia prceter se agnoscunt. 1 AXIOM (dtuo^a, from dftow, to think worthy), a position of worthy or authority. In science, that which is assumed aa the basis of demonstration. In mathematics, a self-evident proposition. Diogenes Laertius, 2 explains an axiom, according to Chry- sippus, as meaning a proposition asserting or denying some- thing. " It has received the name of axiom, d|uo|ua, because it is either maintained, a^toinfai, or repudiated." " There are a sort of propositions, which, under the name of maxims and axioms, have passed for principles of science." 3 " Philosophers give the name of axioms only to self-evident truths that are necessary, and are not limited to time and place, but must be true at all times and in all places." 4 Mr. Stewart 5 contends that axioms are elemental truths ne- cessary in reasoning, but not truths from which anything can be deduced. That all axioms are intuitive and self-evident truths, is, ac- cording to Mr. Tatham, 6 a fundamental mistake into which Mr. Locke, 7 and others, 8 have been betrayed, to the great injury of science. All axioms though not intuitive may, how- ever, be properly said to be self-evident; because, in their formation, reason judges by single comparisons without the help of a third idea or middle term ; so that they are not in- debted to any other for their evidence, but have it in them- selves ; and though inductively framed, they cannot be syllo- gistically proved.' This term was first applied by mathematicians to a certair number of propositions which are self-evident, and serve aa the basis of all their demonstrations. Aristotle 10 applied it to all self-evident principles, which are the grounds of all science. According to him they were all subordinate to the 1 Lacoudre, Instil. Philosoph., torn, ii., p. 120. a Life of Zeno, ch. 48. Locke, On Hum. Understand., book iv., ch. 7. 4 Reid, Intell. Pow., essay ii., chap. 20; see also Sir William Hamilton's editiot y Reid, note A, sect. 5. Elements, part ii., ch. 1. Chart and Scale of Truth, chap. 4. 1 Essay, b. iv., chap. 7, g 1. Ancient Metaphysics, vol. i., b. v., chap. 3, p. 389, and vol. ii.,p. 335. Ibid, chap. 7, eect. 1. " Analyt. Post,, lib. i., ehap. 2. 7 62 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. AXIOM - supreme condition of all demonstration, the principle of identity and contradiction. The Stoics, under the name of axioms, included every kind of general proposition, whether of necessary or contingent truth. In this sense the term is employed by Bacon, 1 who, not satisfied with submitting axioms to the test of experience, has distinguished several kinds of axioms, some more general than others. The Car- tesians, who wished to apply the methods of geometry to phi- losophy, have retained the Aristotelian use of the term. Kant has consecrated it to denote those principles which are the grounds of mathematical science, and which, according to him, are judgments absolutely independent of experience, of immediate evidence, and which have their origin n the pure intuition of time and space. BEAUTY. "All the objects we call beautiful agree in two things, which seem to concur in our sense of beauty. First, When they are perceived, or even imagined, they produce a certain agreeable emotion or feeling in the mind ; and, se- condly, This agreeable emotion is accompanied with an opinion or belief of their having some perfection or excellence belong- ing to them/' 2 Beauty is absolute, real, and ideal. The absolutely beautiful belongs to Deity. The really beautiful is presented to us in the objects of nature and the actions of human life. The ideally beautiful is aimed at by art. Plato identified the beautiful with the good, to xahbv xai dyafldi/. But, although the ideas of the beautiful, of the good, and of the true are related to each other, they are distinct. There may be truth and propriety or proportion in beauty and there is a beauty in what is good or right, and also in what is true. But still these ideas are distinct. Dr. Hutcheson 3 distinguishes beauty into "absolute; or that 1 Novum Organum, lib. i., aphor. 13, 17, 19, Ac. Reid, Intell. Pow., essay via., chap. 4. Inquiry Concerning Beauty, Ac. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. Od BEAUTY- beauty which we perceive in objects "without comparison td anything external, of which the object is supposed an imita- tion or picture ; such as that beauty, perceived from the works of nature ; and comparative or relative beauty, which we per- ceive in objects, commonly considered as imitations or resem- blances of something else." According to Hutcheson, 1 the general foundation or occasion of the ideas of beauty is " uni formity amidst variety." Berkeley, in his Alciphron, and Hume, in many parts of his works, make utility the foundation of beauty. But objects which are useful are not always beautiful, and objects which are beautiful are not always useful. That which is useful ia useful for some end ; that which is beautiful is beautiful in itself, and independent of the pleasure which it gives, or the end it may serve. On the question whether mental or material objects first give us feelings of beauty, see Stewart, 2 Smith, 3 and Alison. 4 Dr. Price 5 has some remarks on natural beauty. See also the article "Beauty" in the Encyclop. Brit., by Lord Jef- frey ; Kames, Elements of Criticism ; ' Burke On the Sublime and Beautiful; Knight's Enquiry into Principles of Taste; Sir Uvedale Price On the Picturesque, with Preface by Sir T. B. Lauder, 8vo, Edin., 1842; Stewart's Essays; 7 Crousaz, Trait^ de Beau; Andre, Essai sur le Beau. V. ESTHETICS, IDEAL. BEING (to ovtu$ ov, that which is, existence). " First, thou madest things which should have being with- out life ; then those which should have life and being; lastly, those which have being, life, and reason."* " This (being], applies to everything which exists in any way whether as substance or accident, whether actually or po- tentially, whether in the nature of things, or only in our notions ; for, even what we call entia rationis, or fictions of our minds, such as hippo-centaur, or mountain of gold, have a Inquiry, sect. 2= Act. Pow., vol. i., p. 27a Theory of Mor. Sert., part iv., chap. 1. * Essay on Taste. TR his Revieio of Principal Questions in Morals, sect. 2. Vol. i., chap. 3. * Part ii. Bishop Hall, (sntempl., " The Creation." 64 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. BEING - being; even negation or privation have an existence ; nay, ao cording to Aristotle, 1 we can say that nothing has a being. In short, whenever we can use the substantive verb is, there must be some kind of being."* According to some, 3 we can have no idea of nothing; ac- cording to others, 4 the knowledge of contraries being one, if we know what being is, we know what not being is. Being is either substance or accident. Substance is either matter or mind. Accident is divided by the other categories. V. ONTOLOGY. BELIEF (that which we live by, or according to, or lief, in Ger- man belieben, from lubet, that which pleases). " The first great instrument of changing our whole nature, is a firm belief, and a perfect assent to, and hearty entertain- ment of the promises of the gospel." 5 "Belief, assent, conviction, are words which I do not think admit of logical definition, because the operation of mind signified by them is perfectly simple, and of its own kind. Belief must have an object. For he who believes must be- lieve something, and that which he believes is the object of his belief. Belief is always expressed in language by a pro- position wherein something is affirmed or denied. BelieJ admits of all degrees, from the slightest iSuspicion to the full- est assurance. There are many operations of mind of which it is an essential ingredient, as consciousness, perception, re- membrance. We give the name of evidence to whatever is a ground of belief. What this evidence is, is more easily felt than described. The common occasions of life lead us to dis- tinguish evidence into different kinds ; such as the evidence of sense, of memory, of consciousness, of testimony, of axioms, and of reasoning. I am not able to find any common nature to which they may all be reduced. They seem to me to agree only in this, that they are all fitted by nature to produce belief in the human mind, some of them in the highest degree, 1 Metaphys., lib. iv., c.2. a Monboddo, Ancient Metaphys., book i., chap. 4 3 Diet, des Sciences Pkilosaph., art. " Etre." 4 bmart, Man. of Log., 1849, p. 130. Bp. Taylor, TO!, i., Ser. zi. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 65 BELIEF which we call certainty, others in Carious degrees according to circumstances." l " St. Austin accurately says, ' "We know what rests upon reason; we believe what rests upon authority.' But reason itself must rest at last upon authority ; for the original data of reason do not rest upon reason, but are necessarily accepted by reason on the authority of what is beyond itself. These data are, therefore, in rigid propriety, beliefs or trusts. Thus it is, that in the last resort, we must, perforce, philosophically admit, that belief is the primary condition of reason, and not reason the ultimate ground of belief. We are compelled to surrender the proud Intellige ut credas of Abelard, to content ourselves with the humble Crede ut intelliyas of Anselm." 2 V. FEELING, KNOWLEDGE, OPINION. S^ Guizot, Meditations, &c. Quel est le vrai sens du mot Foi, p. 135, 8vo, Paris, 1852. To believe is to admit a thing as true, on grounds sufficient, subjectively ; insufficient, objectively. 3 " The word believing has been variously and loosely em- ployed. It is frequently used to denote states of consciousness which have already their separate and appropriate appella- tions. Thus it is sometimes said, * I believe in my own exist- ence and the existence of an external world, I believe in the facts of nature, the axioms of geometry, the affections of my own mind/ as well as ' I believe in the testimony of witnesses, or in the evidence of historical documents/ " " Setting aside this loose application of the term, I propose to confine it, First, to the effect on the mind of the premises in what is termed probable reasoning, or what I have named contingent reasoning in a word, the premises of all reasoning, but that which is demonstrative ; and, Secondly, to the state of holding true when that state, far from being the effect of any premises discerned by the mind, is dissociated from all evi- dence." 4 " I propose to restrict the term belief to the assent to propo- sitions, and demarcate it from those inferences which are 1 Reid, Intell. Pnw., essay ii., chap. 20, and Inquiry, chap. 20, sect. 5. Sir Will. Hamilton, Reid's Works, note A, sect. 5. Kant, Orit. de la Rais. Prat., p. 11. Bailey, Letters on Philosoph. of Hum. Mind, 8vo, 1851, p. 75. (>6 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHT. BELIEF made in the presence of objects and have reference to them, I would say, we believe in the proposition ' Fire burns/ but know the fact that the paper about to be thrust into the flame will ignite." 1 BENEVOLENCE (benevolentia, well-wishing). "When our love or desire of good goes forth to others, it is termed good-will or benevolence." 2 Bishop Butler has said, 8 that " there are as real and the same kind of indications in human nature, that we were made for society and to do good to our fellow-creatures, as that we were intended to take care of our own life, and health, and private good." These principles in our nature by which we are prompted to seek and to secure our own good are compre- hended under the name of self-love, and those which lead ut to seek the good of others are comprehended under the name of benevolence. The term corresponding to this among the Greeks was (jHtai^pwrfta, among the writers of the New Testa- ment aydrtrj, and among the Romans humanitas. Under these terms are comprehended all those feelings and affections which lead us to increase the happiness and alleviate the sufferings of others, while the term self-love includes all those principles of our nature which prompt us to seek our own good. Ac- cording to some philosophers, our own good is the ultimate and only proper end of human actions, and when we do good to others it is done with a view to our own good. This ia what is called the selfish philosophy, which in modern times has been maintained by Hobbes, Mandeville, Rochefoucault, and others. The other view, which is stated above in tht words of Butler, has been strenuously defended by Cumber- land, Hutcheson, Adam Smith, and Reid. BLASPHEMY (fadjiHA, to hurt). " Bxaff^^iua properly denotes calumny, detraction, reproachful or abusive language, against whomsoever it be vented." 4 As commonly used, it means the wanton and irreverent use of language in reference to the Divine Being or to His worship 1 Lewes, Bingraph. Hist, of PhUosoph., p. 492. a Cogan, On the Passions, part i., chap. 2. 1 Sermon i., On Human Nature. Campbell, On tfie Gospels, Prelim. Dissert. lx., part li. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 67 BLASPHEMY- and service. 1 This is an offence against the lig t of nature, and was severely condemned by ancient ethical writers. Among the Jews, blasphemy was punished by death (Levit. xxiv. 14, 16). And by the laws of many Christian nations it has been prohibited under heavy penalties. So late as the end of the seventeenth century, a man suffered death at Edin- burgh for blasphemy. 2 Blasphemy differs from sacrilege, in that the former consists in using language, the latter in some overt act. BODY. "The primary ideas we have peculiar to body, as con- tradistinguished to spirit, are the cohesion of solid and con- sequently separable parts, and a power of communicating motion by impulse."* "Body is the external cause to which we ascribe our sen- sations." 4 Monboddo B distinguishes between matter and body, and calls body matter sensible, that is, with those qualities which make it perceptible to our senses. This leaves room for under- standing what is meant by a spiritual body, ow^a rtvevpatixov, of which we read 1 Cor. xv. 44. He also calls body, " matter with form," in contradistinction to " first matter," which is matter without form. Body is distinguished as physical, mathematical, and meta- physical. Physical body is incomplete or complete. Incomplete as in the material part of a living being; thus man is said to consist of body and mind, and life is something different from the bodily frame in animals and vegetables. Complete, when composed of matter and form, as all natural bodies are. Mattie- matical body is the threefold dimensions of length, breadth, and thickness. Metaphysical body is body as included under the predicament of substance, which it divides with spirit. - V. MATTER, MIND, SPIRIT. BONTJM, when given as one of the transcendental properties of being, means that God hath made all things in the best pos- J Augustine said, Jam vulgo blaspltemia non accipitur nisi mala verba de, Dt* tficerf.. a See Arnot, Orim. Trials. 1 Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., chap. 23. 4 Mill, Loffic, 2d edit., yol. i., p. 74. * Ancient Metaphys., book ii., chap, t 68 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. BONUM eible manner to answer the -wisest ends, or that no thing ig destitute of its essential properties, which metaphysicians call perfections. Perfections are distinguished into absolute and relative, the former making the nature to which they belong happy, and excluding all imperfection ; the latter belonging to inferior natures, and not excluding imperfection, but afford- ing help and relief under its effects. 1 Bontim Morale, or what is good, relatively to man, was distin- guished into bonum jucundum, or what is calculated to give pleasure, as music ; bonum utile, or what is advantageous, as wealth ; and bonum honestum, or what is right, as temperance. These may be separate or conjoined in human actions. Bonum Summum the chief good. This phrase was employed by ancient ethical philosophers to denote that in the prosecu- tion and attainment of which the progress, perfection, and happiness of human beings consist. The principal opinions concerning it are stated by Cicero in his treatise De Finibus. See also Augustin, De Summo Bono. Tucker, Light of Nature, has a chapter, 2 entitled " Ultimate Good,' 7 which he says is the right translation of summum bonum. According to Kant, " virtue is not the entire complete good as an object of desire to reasonable finite beings ; for, to have this character it should be accompanied by happiness, not as it appears to the interested eyes of our personality, which we conceive as an end of itself, but according to the impartial judgment of reason, which considers virtue in general, in the world, as an end in itself. Happiness and virtue, then, together constitute the possession of the sovereign good in an individual, but with this condition, that the happiness should be exactly proportioned to the morality (this constituting the value of the individual, and rendering him worthy of happi- ness). The sovereign good, consisting of these two elements, represents the entire or complete good, but virtue must be considered as the supreme good, because there can be no condition higher than virtue; whilst happiness, which is unquestionably always agreeable to its possessor, is not of 1 Butcheson, Metaphys., pars 1, cap. 3. ?7, of vol. i. VOCABULARY 0F PHILOSOPHY. 69 ^ BONUM- itself absolutely good, but supposes as a condition, a morally good conduct." BROCARD. " I make use of all the brocardics, or rules of in- terpreters ; that is, not only what is established regularly, in law, but what is concluded wise and reasonable by the best interpreters." * " To the Stoics and not to the Stagyrite, are we to refer the first announcement of the brocard In intellectu nihil est, quod non prius fuerit in sensu."* CjENESTHESIS, V. SENSATION, SENSUS COMMUNIS. CAPACITY. "Is it for that such outward ornament Was lavished on their sex, that inward gifts Were left for haste unfinish'd, judgment scant, Capacity not raised to apprehend, Or value, what is best In choice, but oftest to affect the wrong." Milton, Samson Agomstes. " The original power which the mind possesses of being taught, we call natural capacity; and this in some degree is common to all men. The superior facility of being taught, which some possess above the rest, we call genius. The first transition or advances from natural power, we call proficiency; and the end or completion of proficiency we call habit. If such habit be conversant about matter purely speculative, it is then called science; if it descend from speculation to practice, it is then called art; and if such practice be conversant in regulat- ing the passions and affections, it is then called moral virtue." 3 "From habit, necessarily results power or capacity (in Greek tiwapc?), which Aristotle has distinguished into two kinds. The first is the mere capacity of becoming anything. The second is the power or faculty of energizing, according to the habit when it is formed and acquired ; or, in other words, * Jeremy Taylor, Preface to Dudor Dubitantium. Sir Will. Hamilton, Rdtfs Works, note A, p, 772. Harris, Philosoph. Arranff., chap. 8. TO VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CAPACITY after the thing is become and actually exists, wl ich at first was only in the capacity of existing. This, Aristotle illus- trates by the example of a child, who is then only a general in power (sv dwa/tEt), that is, has the power of becoming a general, but when he has grown up and has become a general, then he has the power of the second kind, that is, the power of performing the office of a general." ! " There are powers which are acquired by use, exercise, or study, which are called habits. There must be something in the constitution of the mind necessary to our being able to acquire habits, and this is commonly called capacity." * Dr. Reid did not recognize the distinction of power as active or passive. But capacity is a passive power, or natural recep- tivity. A faculty is a power which we are conscious we can direct km irds an end. A capacity is rather a disposition or aptitude to receive certain modifications of our consciousness, in receiving which we are passive. But an original capacity, though at first passive, may be brought under the influence of will and attention, and when so exercised it corresponds to a mental power, and is no longer a pure receptivity. In sensa- tion, we are in the first instance passive, but our capacity of receiving sensations may be employed in various ways under the direction of will and attention, or personal activity. CARDINAL (The) Virtues, prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice, were so called from car do, a hinge ; because they were the hinges on which other virtues turned. Each one of them was a,fons et principium, from which other virtues took their rise. The four cardinal virtues are rather the necessary and es- sential conditions of virtue, than each individually a virtue. For no one can by itself be manifested as a virtue, without the other three. 8 This division of the virtues is as old as moral philosophy. It is found in the teaching of Socrates as recorded by Xenophon, with this difference, that svaefaia or regard to the Deity holds the place of prudence or knowledge, which, united to virtue, 1 Monboddo, Ancit.it Metaphys., b. i., chap. 4. * Reid, Intdl. Pmu., essay i., chap. 1. Thurot, De ? 'Entendement, torn, i., p. 162. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 71 CARDINAL forms true wisdom. Plato notices temperance, fortitude, and prudence, and in connection with or arising out of these, jus- tice, which he considered not as the single virtue of giving all their due, but as the perfection of human nature and of human society. The term justice had been employed in the same large sense by Pythagoras, and the corresponding term righteousness, is used in Scripture to signify not one virtue, but all the virtues. The four cardinal virtues are alluded to in the Apocrypha, Wisdom, viii. 7. The theological virtues are faith, hope, and charity ; which being added to the cardinal, make the number seven. " Justice, temperance, fortitude, and prudence, the old heads of the family of virtues, give us a division which fails alto- gether ; since the parts are not distinct, and the whole is not complete. The portions of morality so laid out, both overlap one another, or are undistinguishable ; and also leave parts of the subject which do not appear in the distribution at all." ' Clodius, De Virtutibus quas Cardinales Appellant, 4to, Leips., 1815. Plethon, De Quatuor Virtutibus Cardmalibus, 8vo, Basl., 1552. The cardinal or principal points of the compass are tho North, South, East, and West. The cardinal numbers are one, two, three, &c., in opposition to the ordinal, as first, second, third, &c. CASUISTRY is a department of ethics "the great object of which is to lay down rules or canons for directing us how to act wherever there is any room for doubt or hesitation/ 7 2 To casuistry, as ethical or moral, belongs the decision of what are called cases of conscience that is, cases in which we are under obligation, but which, from the special circum- stances attending, give rise to doubt whether or how far the obligation may be relaxed or dissolved such as the obliga- tion to keep a promise obtained by fraud, or extorted by force. "All that philosophy of right and wrong which has be- come famous or infamous under the name of Casuistry, had Whewell, Systemat. Mor., lect. '.v. * Stewart, Act. Port., b. iv., chap 5, sect. 4 72 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CASUISTRY its origin in the distinction between Mortal 1 and Venial Sin." 2 CATALEPSY (xatdtyfys, catalepsy). "The speculations of Berkeley and Boscovich on the non-existence of matter and of Kant and others on the arbitrariness of all our notions, are interested in, for they appear to be confuted by, the intuitions of cataleptics. The cataleptic apprehends or perceives directly the objects around her; but they are the same as. when real- ized through her senses. She notices no difference; size, form, colour, distance, are elements as real to her now as be- fore. In respect again to the future, she sees it, but not in the sense of the annihilation of time ; she foresees it ; it is the future present to her ; time she measures, present and future, with strange precision strange, yet an approximation, instead of this certainty, would have been more puzzling. " So that it appears that our notions of matter, force, and the like, and of the conditions of space and time, apart from which we can conceive nothing, are not figments to suit our human and temporary being, but elements of eternal truth/' 8 How far is the argument in the foregoing passage affected by the fact, that in sleep and in dreams we have sensations and perceptions in reference to objects which are not within the reach of the senses? The paradox of Berkeley may be confuted in two ways : First, by a reductio ad absurdum ; second, no single existence can effect any change or event, and a change or event of some kind there must be, in order to create those sensations or states of mind in which consciousness consists. There must, therefore, be something in existence foreign to ourselves, for no change, in other words, nothing which stands in the rela- tion of cause and effect, is conceivable, but what is the result of two existences acting upon each other. 4 CATEGOREMATIC (xcwtyyopew, to predicate). "A word is so called which may by itself be employed as a Term. Adverbs, This subject is fully and clearly discussed by Mr. Jowett. Epistles of St. vol. ii., pp. 351, 352. 2 Cambridge Essays, 1856, p. 6. 1 Mayo, On Papular Superstitions, p. 125, 8vo, 3d edit., Edin., 1851. 4 See Sir Gilbert Blane on Muscular Motim, p. 258, note. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY 73 CATEGOREMATIC- Propositions, &c., and also Nouns in any other case, besides the Nominative, are Syncategorematic, i. e., can only form part of a Term." CATEGORICAL. F. PROPOSITION. CATEGORY (xcwjyoplw, to predicate). " So again the distribution of things into certain tribes, which we call categories or predicaments, are but cautions against the confusion of definitions and divisions." 2 The categories are the highest classes to which all the objects of knowledge can be reduced, and in which they can be arranged in subordination and system. Philosophy seeks to know all things. But it is impossible to know all things individually. They are, therefore, arranged in classes, accord- ing to properties which are common to them. And when we know the definition of a class, we attain to a formal knowledge of all the individual objects of knowledge contained in that class. Every individual man we cannot know ; but if we know the definition of man, we know the nature of man, of which every individual of the species participates ; and in this sense we may be said to know all men. This attempt to render knowledge in some sense universal, has been made in all ages of philosophy, and has given rise to the categories which have appeared in various forms. They are to be found in the philosophy of Eastern nations, as a classification of things and of ideas. The categories of the followers of Pythagoras have been preserved by Aristotle in the first book of his Metaphysics. Those ascribed to Archytas are now regarded as apocryphal, and as having been fabricated about the beginning of the Christian era, to lower the reputation of Aristotle, whose categories are well known. They are ten in number, viz., ovoid, substance ; rtoaov, quantity ; itolov, quality ; ytpoj jtt, rela- tion ; itov, place; rtofs, time; xtia6ai,, situation; ?#, posses sion, or manner of holding ; rfotftj/, action ; and rfac^rw, suf- fering. The Mnemonic verses which contain them, are : Arbor sex servos ardore refrigerat utos Cras rure stabo, sed tunicatus ero.* 1 Whately, Log., b. ii., ch. 1, \ 3. a Bacon, Adv. of Learning, b. ii. A humorous illustration of the categories is given by Cornelius to his pupil Mar tinus Scriblerus. Calling up the coachman, he asked him what he had Been at th 8 74 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CATEGORY - The categories of Aristotle are both logical and metaphysical, and apply to things as well as to words. Regarded logically, they are reducible to two, substance and attribute. Regarded metaphysically, they are reducible to being and accident. The Stoics reduced them to four, viz., substance, quality, manner of being, and relation. Plotinus attempted a new system. But the categories of Aristotle were acquiesced in till the time of Bacon, who recommended observation rather than classifica- tion. Descartes arranged all things under two great catego- gies, the absolute and the relative. In the Port Royal Logic, seven categories are established. In more modern times the categories of Kant are well known. They are quantity, qual- ity, relation, and modality. But they are purely subjective, and give merely a classification of the conceptions or judg- ments of the understanding. In the history of philosophy, the categories have been successively a classification universal of things, of words, of ideas, or of forms of thought. And a complete theory of classification, or a complete system of cate- gories, is still a desideratum. 1 V. PREDICAMENT, UNIVERSAL. Sir William Hamilton, 2 gives a deduction and simplification of the categories of Aristotle. 3 Mr. Mill 4 gives the following classification of all nameable things : 1. Feelings or state of consciousness. 2. The minds which experience these feelings. 3. The bodies or external objects which excite certain of these feelings, together with the power or properties whereby they excite them. 4. The successions and co-existences, the likenesses and un- likenesses, between feelings or states of consciousness. bear-garden? The man answered that he had seen two men fight for a prize; one waa a fair man, a sergeant in the Guards; the other black, a butcher; the sergeant had red breeches, the butcher blue; they fought upon a stage about four o'clock, and the ser- geant wounded the butcher in the leg. Mark (quoth Cornelius) how the fellow runi through the predicaments men (stibstantia) two (quantitas) fair and black (qualitas) sergeant and butcher (ralatuf) wouuded the other (act-in t.t passin) fighting (situs}-* $tag % '.<&0 four o'clock (quando) blue and red breeches (habitus). 1 Monboddo, Origin of Lang., vol. i., p. 520, and Anc-'ent Metaphys., b. iii., chap. 1. Reid's Works, p. 687. " See also Discussions, pp. 26, 27, 2d edit Log., I iii., ult. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 75 CAUSALITY, CAUSATION, CAUSE. CAUSE. "He knew the cause of every maladie, Were it of cold, or hot, or moist, or drie." Chaucer, Prolog**, v. 421. " The general idea of cause is, that without which another thing called the effect, cannot be ; and it is divided by Aris- totle, 1 into four kinds, known by the name of the material, the formal, the efficient, and the final. The first is that of which anything is made. Thus brass or marble are the material causes of a statue ; earth, air, fire, and water, of all natural bodies. The formal cause is the form, idea, archetype, or pat- tern of a thing ; for all these words Aristotle uses to express it. Thus the idea of the artist is the formal cause of the statue ; and of all natural substances, if we do not suppose them the work of chance, the formal cause are the ideas of the Divine mind ; and this form concurring with the matter, pro- duces every work, whether of nature or art. The efficient cause is the principle of change or motion which prod ices the thing. In this sense the statuary is the cause of tl.e statue, and the God of nature the cause of all the works of nature. And lastly, the final cause is that for the sake of which any- thing is done. Thus the statuary makes the statue for pleasure or for profit ; and the works of nature are all for some good end." 2 Aristotle* says we may distinguish four kinds of causes. The first is the form proper to each thing. To *(, 371- HVOA. This is the quidditas of the schoolmen, the causa formalis. The second is the matter and the subject. 'H i&j? xai to wtoxeifLwar, causa materialis. The third is the principle of movement which produced the thing. 'Awy tr^ xwrfistof, causa efficiens. The fourth is the reason and good of all things ; for the end of all phenomena and of all movement is good. To ou fvexa xaJi to ayaOvv, causa finalis. The sufficient reason of Leibnitz, which he, like Aristotle, thought to be essentially good. Aristotle 4 says, " It is possible that one object may combine all the kinds of causes. Thus, in a house, the principle of * Metaphys., lib. v., cap. 2. 9 Monboddo, Ancient Metaphys., b. i., chap. 4. 8 In Metaphys., lib. i., cap. 3. 4 Ibid, lib. iii., cap. 2. 76 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CAUSE - movement is the art and the workmen, thefnal cause is the work, the matter the earth and stones, and the plan is the form." 1 In addition to these four causes, Dr. Gillies 2 says, "The model or exemplar was considered as a cause by the Pythago- reans and Platonists ; the former of whom maintained that all perceptible things were imitations of numbers; and the latter, that they owed their existence to the participation of ideas; but wherein either this imitation or this participation consisted, these philosophers, Aristotle observes, omitted to show." Seneca, 3 explains the common and Platonic divisions of causes ; and arraigns both, because he conceived that space, time, and motion, ought to be included. Sir W. Hamilton 4 says, " The exemplary cause was intro- duced by Plato ; and was not adopted by the schoolmen as a fifth cause in addition to Aristotle's four." It is noticed by Suarez and others. According to Derodon, 5 material and formal causes are in- ternal, and constitute the essence of a thing ; efficient, final, and exemplary causes are external, that is, out from or of the essence of a thing. The material cause is that, ex quo, anything is, or becomes. The formal cause is that, per quod. The efficient cause is that, a quo. The final cause is that, propler quod. And the exemplary cause is that, ad cujus imi- tationem res Jit. When the word cause is used without an adjective, it com monly means, active power, that which produces change, or efficient cause. Suarez, Rivius, and others, define a cause thus : Causam esse principium per se influens esse in aliud. Ens quod in se continet rationem, cur alterum existat, dicitur hujus causa. Wolfius. "A cause Ja that which, of itself, makes anything begin to be."* We conceive of a cause as existing and operating before th* effect which is produced. But, to the production of an effect, 1 gee also Nat. AuscuU, lib. ii., cap. 3, quoted by Harris, Concerning Art, p. 24. Analysis of Aristotle's Works, chap. 2, note, p. 100. Epist. 66 and 67. Reitfs WorJcs, p. 690, note. De Pratdicam., p. 114. Irons, Final Ctowses, p. 74. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 77 CAUSE more causes than one may be necessary. Hence it has been said by Mr. Karslake, 1 " The cause of a thing is that ante- cedent (or aggregate of antecedents), which is seen to have an intimate connection with the effect, viewed, if it be not itself a self-determining agent, in reference to self-acting power, whose agency it exhibits." And some, instead of the word cause, would prefer in many cases to use the word con-causes. " Though the antecedent is most strictly the cause of a thing being, as, e. g., the passage of the moon between the earth and the sun is the cause of an eclipse, yet the effect is that which commonly presents itself to us as the cause of our knowing it to be. Hence, by what seems to us a strange inversion of cause and effect, effect was said to be a cause, a causa cognoscendi, as distinguished from a causa essendi, the strict cause." z V. OCCASION. CAUSALITY and CAUSATION. " Now, if there be no spirit, matter must of necessity move itself, where you cannot imagine any activity or causality, but the bare essence of the matter, from whence the motion comes." 3 " Now, always God's word hath a causation with it. He said to him, Sit, that is, he made him sit, or as it is here ex- pressed, he made him sit with a mighty power." 4 Causality, in actu primo, is the energy or power in the cause 6 by which it produces its effect; as heat in the fire. Causality, in actu secundo, is causation or the operation of the power by which the cause is actually producing its effect. It is inflexus iile, a quo causa influit esse in ejfectum quce, dis- -Aids to the Study of Logic, vol. ii. 5 p. 43. Ibid, vol. ii., p. 38. 1 H. More, Immortality of the Soul, book L, chap. 6. 4 Goodwin, Works, vol. i., part i., p. 406. The idea of the reason is not to be confounded with that of causality. It is a mcrs elevated idea, because it applies to all orders of things, while causality extends only to things in time. It is true we speak sometimes of the eternal cause; but thus the idea of cause is synonymous with that of the reason. This idea of the reason expresses th relation of a being or thing to what is contained within it ; in other words, the reason expresses the rapport du contenant au contenu, or the reason is that whose essence en- closes the essence and existence of another thing. We thus arrive at the conception of all being contained in God, who is the supreme reason. Ahrens, Qours de Psychol^ torn, ii. F. REASON. 8* 78 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CAUSALITY tinguitur a parte rei, tarn a principio, quam a termino, sive al effectu ad quern tendit. " The changes of which I am conscious in the state of my own mind, and those which I perceive in the external universe, impress me with a conviction that some cause must have operated to produce them. There is an intui- tive judgment involving the simple idea of causation." 1 From the explanation of these terms, it appears that a cause is something which not only precedes, but has power to produce the effect. And when the effect has been produced, we say it is in consequence of the power in the cause having operated. The belief that every exchange implies a cause, or that every change is produced by the operation of some power, is re- garded by some as a primitive belief, and has been denomi- nated by the phrase, the* principle of causality. Hume, and others, however, have contended that we have no proper idea of cause as implying power to produce, nor of any necessary connection between the operation of this power and the pro- duction of the effect. All that we see or know is mere succession, antecedent and consequent; but having seen things in this relation, we associate them together, and imagining that there is some vinculum or connection between them, we call the one the cause, and the other the effect. Dr. Thomas Brown adopts this view with the modification that it is in cases where the antecedence and consequence is invariable 9 that we attain to the idea of cause. Experience, however, can only testify that the succession of one thing to 1 Stewart, Philosoph. Essays, 1., chap. 3. * Lord Bacon (Nov. Organ., book ii., sect. 14), says, "There are some things ultimate and incausable." 1 "A cause, in the fullest definition which it philosophically admits, may be said to be that which immediately precedes any change, and which, existing at any time in similar circumstances, has been always, and will be always, immediately followed by a similar change." Brown, Inquiry, p. 13. "Antecedency and subsequency are immaterial to the proper definition of cause and effect; on the contrary, although an object, in order to act as a cause, must be in being antecedently to such action; yet when it acts as a cause, its eifects are synchronous with that action and are included in it, which a close inspection into the nature of cause will prove. For effects are no more than the new qualities of newly formed objects. Each conjunction of bodies (now separately in existence, and of certain de- fined qualities), produces upon their union these new natures, whose qualities must necessarily be in and with them in the very moment of their formation." Essay on Cause and Effect, 8vo, Lond., 1824, p. 50. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 79 CATSALITY- another has, in so far as it has been observed, been unvaried, not that in the nature of things it is invariable. Mr. Locke 1 ascribes the origin of our idea of cause to our experience of the sensible changes which one body produces on another, aa fire upon wax. Our belief in an external world rests partly on the principle of causality. Our sensations are referred to external objects as their causes. Yet, the idea of power which is involved in that of cause, he traces to the consciousness of our possessing power in ourselves. This is the view taken of the origin of our idea of cause by Dr. Reid. 8 " In the strict philosophical sense, I take a cause to be that which has the relation to the effect which I have to my voluntary and de- liberate actions ; for I take this notion of a cause to be derived from the power I feel in myself to produce certain effects. In this sense we say that the Deity is the cause of the uni- verse." And at p. 81 he has said, " I see not how mankind could ever have acquired the conception of a cause, or of any relation beyond a mere conjunction in time and place between it and its effects, if they were not conscious of active exer- tions in themselves, by which effects are produced. Thia seems to me to be the origin of the idea, or conception of pro- duction." By origin, however, Dr. Reid must have meant occasion. At least he held that the principle of carnality, or the belief that every change implies the operation of a cause, is a natu- ral judgment, or a priori conviction, necessary and universal. But if the idea of a cause be empirical and grounded on experience, it iaay be difficult to show how a higher origin can be claimed for the principle of causality. Mr. Stewart has expressed himself in language equivalent to that of Dr. Reid. And Maine de Biran 3 thinks that the true origin of our idea of cause is to be found in the activity of the will, or in the consciousness that we are causes, or have in ourselves the power of producing change. Having found the idea of power within the sphere of consciousness, we, by a process 1 Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., chaps. 21 and 26. Correspondence of Dr. Jt?id, p. 77. 1 NouveUes Considerat. sur le Rapport du Physique d du Moral de I'Homme,?, Pas, 1S34, pp. 274, 290, 363, 402,. 80 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CAUSALITY- which he calls natural induction, project this idea into th.4 external world, and ascribe power to that which we call cause. According to Kant we have the idea of cause, and also the belief that every commencing phenomenon implies the ope- ration of a cause. But these are merely forms of our under- standing, subjective conditions of human thought. In con- formity with a pre-existing law of our intelligence, we arrange phenomena according to the relation of cause and effect. But we know not whether, independently of our form of thought, there be any reality corresponding to our idea of cause, or of productive power. The view that the idea of cause is furnished by the fact of our being conscious of pos- sessing power, meets the idealism of Kant, for what greater reality can be conceived than a fact of consciousness ? But if experience of external phenomena can be accepted as the origin (or rather as the occasion) of our notion of change, and if consciousness of internal phenomena can be accepted as the origin (or rather as the occasion) of our notion of power to produce change, the idea of a necessary and universal con- nection between change and the power which produces it, in other words, a belief in the principle of causality, can only be referred to the reason, the faculty which apprehends, not what is contingent and passing, but what is permanent and absolute. " Cousin's theory concerning the origin of idea of causality is, that the mind, when it perceives that the agent and the change vary in cases of personal agency (though here he is not very explicit), several times repeated; while the relation be- tween them, viz., the strict idea of personal causation, never varies, but is necessary ; that the mind abstracts the invariable and necessary element from the variable and contingent ele- ments of the fact, and thus arrives at the idea of causality." ' " CAUSATION is not an object of sense. The only experience we can have of it is in the consciousness we have of exerting some power in ordering our thoughts and actions. But this experience is surely too narrow a foundation for a general conclusion, that all things that have had or shall have a 1 Essay on Causality, By an Undergraduate, 18.H, p. 3. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 81 CAUSATION beginning must have a cause. This is to be admitted as a first or self-evident principle." ! But Locke has said, 2 " The idea of the beginning of motion we have only from reflection on what passes in ourselves, where we find by experience, that barely by willing it, barely by a thought of the mind, we can move the parts of our bodie3 which were before at rest." See Cousin.* See also on the various theories as to the ori- gin of our judgment of cause and effect, Sir Will. Hamilton. 4 CAUSES (Final, Doctrine of). When we see means independ- ent of each other conspiring to accomplish certain ends, we naturally conclude that the ends have been contemplated, and the means arranged by an intelligent agent ; and, from the nature of the ends and of the means, we infer the character or design of the agent. Thus, from the ends answered in creation being wise and good, we infer not only the existence of an Intelligent Creator, but also that He is a Being of infi- nite wisdom and goodness. This is commonly called the argument from design or from final causes. It was used by Socrates, 5 and found a place in the scholastic philosophy. But Lord Bacon has said, 6 that the inquiry into final causes is sterile. And Descartes maintained that we cannot know the designs of God in creating the universe, unless he reveal them to us. But Leibnitz, in maintaining the principle of sufficient reason, upheld the doctrine of final causes, and thought it equally applicable in physics and in metaphysics. It is true that in physical science we should prosecute our inquiries without any preconceived opinion as to the ends to be an- swered, and observe the phenomena as they occur, without forcing them into the service of an hypothesis. And it is against this error that the language of Bacon was directed. But when our contemplations of nature reveal to us innumera- ble adjustments and arrangements working out ends that are wise and good, it is natural to conclude that they have been designed by a cause sovereignly wise and good. Notwithstand 1 Reid, Intett. Paw., essay vi., chap. 6. Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., chap. 21, \ 4. 3 (Euvres, Prem. Ser., torn, i., cours 1817, and Hist, de Philosaph. Mod., s-V- 19. Discussions, App. 1. See Xenophon, De Aug. Scient., lib. iii., cap. 5. a 82 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY, CAUSES- lag the doubts as to the logical validity of this argument^ which Jiave been started by Kant, Coleridge, and others, it continues to be regarded as the most popular and impressive mode of proving the being and perfections of God. And the validity of it is implied in the universally admitted axiom of modern physiology, that there is no organ without its function. We say of some things in nature that they are useless. All we can truly say is, that we have not yet discovered their use. Everything has an end, to the attainment or accomplishment of which it continually tends. This is the form in which the doctrine of final causes was advocated by Aristotle. With him it was not so much an argument from design, as an argu- ment against chance. But if things do not attain their ends by chance it must be by design. Aristotle, it is true, was satisfied that ends were answered by tendencies in nature. But whence or why these tendencies in nature, but from an Intelligent Author of nature ? "If we are to judge from the explanations of the principle given by Aristotle, the notion of a final cause, as originally conceived, did not necessarily imply design. The theological sense to which it is now commonly restricted, has been derived from the place assigned to it in the scholastic philosophy ; though, indeed, the principle had been long before beautifully applied by Socrates and by the Stoics to establish the truth of a Divine Providence. Whenever, indeed, we observe the adjustment of means to an end, we seem irresistibly impelled to conclude that the whole is the effect of design. The pre- sent acceptation, therefore, of the doctrine of final causes, is undoubtedly a natural one. Still it is not a necessary con- struction of the doctrine. With Aristotle, accordingly, it is simply an inquiry into tendencies an investigation of any object or phenomenon, from considering the tvsxa, tov, the reason of it, in something else which follows it, and to which it naturally leads. "His theory of final causes is immediately opposed to a doctrine of chance, or spontaneous coincidence ; and must be icgarded as the denial of that, rather than as a positive asser- tion of design. He expressly distinguishes, indeed, between thought and nature. He ascribes to nature the same working VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 83 CAUSES in order to ends, which is commonly regarded us the attribute of thought alone. He insisted that there is no reason to suppose deliberation necessary in these workings of nature, since it is ' as if the art of shipbuilding were in the timber, or just as if a person should act as his own physician.'" * " The argument from final causes," says Dr. Reid, 2 "when reduced to a syllogism, has these two premises: First, that design and intelligence in the cause may, with certainty, be inferred from marks or signs of it in the effect. This we may call the major proposition of the argument. The second, which we call the minor proposition, is, that there are in fact the clearest marks of design and wisdom in the works of nature ; and the conclusion is, that the works of nature are the effects of a wise and intelligent cause. One must either assent to the conclusion, or deny one or other of the premises." Hampden, Introd. to Mor.*Phil.; z Irons, Doctrine of Final Causes, 8vo, Lond., 1856. The argument from design is pro- secuted by Paley, in Nat. Tkeol. ; in Bridyewater Treatises ; Burnett Prize Essays, &c. CAUSES (Occasional, Doctrine of). This phrase has been em- ployed by the Cartesians to explain the commerce or mode of communicating between mind and matter. The soul being a thinking substance, and extension being the essence of body, no intercourse can take place between them without the inter- vention of the First Cause. It is Deity himself, therefore, who, on the occasion of certain modifications in our minds, excites the corresponding movements of bo'dy ; and, on the occasion of certain changes in our body, awakens the corre- sponding feelings in the mind. This theory, which is involved in the philosophy of Descartes, was fully developed by Male- branche, Regis, and Geulinx. Laforge limited the theory to involuntary movements, and thus reconciled it in some degree to experience and common sense. Malebranche's doctrine is commonly called the " vision of all things in God" who is the " light or all our seeing." According to this theory, the admirable structure of tl I 1 Hampden, Introd. to Mar. Phil, lect. iv., p. US. Jntell. Pow., essay vi., chap. 6. Pp. 110-113. 84 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CAUSES body and its organs is useless ; as a dull mass would have answered the purpose equally well. CERTAINTY, CERTITUDE (Cerium (from cerno), proprte idem sit, quod decretum ac proinde jirmum. Vossius). " This way of certainty by the knowledge of our own ideas, goes a little farther than bare imagination ; and I believe it will appear that all the certainty of general truths a man has, lies in nothing else." ' " Certain, in its primary sense, is applied (according to its etymology, from cerno], to the state of a person's mind ; de- noting any one's full and complete conviction ; and generally, though not always, implying that there is sufficient ground for such conviction. It was thence easily transferred metonyinic- ally to the truths or events, respecting which this conviction is rationally entertained. And uncertain (as well as the sub- stantives and adverbs derived from these adjectives) follows the same rule. Thus we say, 'It is certain,' &c., meaning that we are sure ; whereas the fact may be uncertain and cer- tain to different individuals. From not attending to this, the words uncertain and contingent have been considered as denot- ing some quality in the things themselves and cJiance has been regarded as a real agent." 2 " Certainty is truth brought methodically to the humar intellect, that is, conducted from principle to principle, to a point which is evident in itself. It is the relation of truth to knowledge, of God to man, of ontology to psychology." 3 "In accurate reasoning, the word certain ought never to be used as merely synonymous with necessary. Physical events we call necessary, because of their depending oujixed causes, not on known causes ; when they depend also on known causes, they may be called certain. The variations of the weather arise from necessary andjixed causes, but they are proverbially uncertain." 4 When we affirm, without any doubt, the existence or non- existence of a being or phenomenon, the truth or falsity of a proposition, the state in which our mind is we call certainty * Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., book in., chap. 4. Whately, Log., Appendix 1. Tiberghien, Essai dts Connais. ffum. t p. 85. 1 Coplestone, Remains, 8vo, Lond., 1854, p. 98. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 85 CERTAINTY- and we say of the object of knowledge that it is evident or certain. According to the mode in which it is attained, certainty is immediate by sense and intuition, and mediate by reasoning and demonstration. According to the grounds on which it rests, it is called metaphysical, when we firmly adhere to truth which cannot be otherwise ; such as the first principles of natural law, or the difference between right and wrong. Physical, when we adhere to truth which cannot be otherwise, according to the laws of nature, but which may be by miracle ; as, fire will certainly burn although it did not burn the Hebrew youths (Dan., chap, iii.) Moral, when we adhere to truth which is in accordance with the common order of things, and the common judgment of men although it may be other- wise without a miracle. Moral certainty may amount to the highest degree of proba- bility, and to all practical purposes may be as influential as certainty. For it should be observed that probability and certainty are two states of mind, and not two modes of the reality. The reality is one and the same, but our knowledge of it may be probable or certain. Probability has more or less of doubt, and admits of degrees. Certainty excludes doubt, and admits neither of increase nor diminution. Certainty supposes an object to be known, a mind to know, and the result of a communication or relation being established between them which is knowledge ; and certain knowledge or certainty is the confidence with which the mind reposes in thf information of its faculties. Self-consciousness reveals with certainty the different states and operations of our own minds. The operations of memory may give us certainty as to the past. We cannot doubt the reality of what our senses clearly testify. Reason reveals to us first truths with intuitive cer- tainty. And by demonstration we ascend with certainty from one truth to another. For to use the words of Thomas Aqui- nas, 1 " Tune conclusions pro cerlo sciuntur, quando resolvuntur in principia, et ideo, quod aliquod per certitudinem sciatur, est ex lumine rationis divinitus interius indito, quo in nobis loquitur Sj non autem db liomine exterius docente, nisi quatenus zon* 1 De Veritate. ftft VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CERTAINTY clnsiones in principia resolvil, nos docens, ex quo fa men nos cer* titudinem non acciperemus, nisi in nobis esset certitudo princi- pioriim in quce conclusiones resolvuntur" "The criterion of tn.e knowledge is not to be looked for anywhere abroad without our own minds, neither in tin height above, nor in the depth beneath, but only in our kno^ ledge and conceptions themselves. For the entity of all theoretical truth is nothing else but clear intelligibility, and whatever is clearly conceived, is an entity and a truth ; but that which is false, Divine power itself cannot make it to be clearly and distinctly understood, because falsehood is a non- entity, and a clear conception is an entity ; and Omnipotence itself cannot make a non-entity to be an entity." * " The theories of certitude may be reduced to three classes. the first places the ground of certitude in reason; the second in authority; the third in evidence; including, under that term, both the external manifestations of truth, and the internal principles or laws of thought by which we are determined in "orming our judgments in regard to them." 2 "De ver itatis criteria frustra laborantur quidam : quum non alia reperienda sit prceter ipsam rationis facultatem, aut ment\ congenitam intelligendi vim."* Protagoras and Epicurus in ancient times, and Hobbes and the modern sensationalists, have made sense the measure and ground of certainty. Descartes and his followers founded it on self-consciousness, Cogito ergo sum; while others have received as certain only what is homologated by human reason in general. But certainty is not the peculiar characteristic of knowledge furnished by any one faculty, but is the common inheritance of any or all of our intellectual faculties when legitimately exercised within their respective spheres. When so exercised we cannot but accept the result as true and certain. But if we are thus naturally and necessarily determined to accept the knowledge furnished by our faculties, that know- ledge, according to Kant, cannot be proved to be absolute, 1 Cudworth, Eternal and Immutable Mor., book iv., chap. 5. Buchanan, Faith in God, vol ii., p. 304. Hutcheson, Metaphys., pan? .., cap. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 87 CERTAINTY- or a knowledge of things in themselves, and as they musi appear to all intelligent beings, but is merely relative, or a knowledge of things as they appear to us. Now, it is true that we cannot, as Kant has expressed it, objectify the sub- jective. Without rising out of human nature to the possession of a higher, we cannot sit in judgment on the faculties of that nature. But in admitting that our knowledge is relative) we are merely saying it is human. It is according to the measure of a man. It is attained by^human faculties, and must be relative, or bear proportion to the faculties by which it is attained. In like manner, the knowledge of angels may be called angelic, but this is not to call it uncertain. We may not know all that can be known of the objects of our know- ledge, but still, what we do know, we may know with cer- tainty. Human knowledge may admit of increase without being liable to be contradicted or overturned. We come to it by degrees, but the higher degree of knowledge to which we may ultimately attain, does not invalidate the lower degree of knowledge. It rests upon it and rises out of it, and the ground and encouragement of all inquiry is, that there is a truth and reality in things, which our faculties are fitted to apprehend. Their testimony we rejoice to believe. Faith in their trust- worthiness is spontaneous. Doubt concerning it is an after- thought. And scepticism as a creed is self-destructive. He who doubts is certain that he doubts. Omnis qui utrum sit teritas dub i tat, in se ipso habet verum, unde non dubitet. 1 Etiam qni negat veritatem esse ; concedit veritatem esse; si \nirn veritas non est, verum est, veritatem non esse. Thomas A.quin., Sum. Theol. ; Savary, Sur la Certitude, 8vo, Paris, 1847. V. EVIDENCE, CRITERION, KNOWLEDGE: CHANCE. Aristotle 2 says, "According to some, chance is a cause not manifest to human reasoning." Aoxft (jiev altia rj livjcn, a.^rfiov 8e dvflpwrtu'i; Storotqt. " Many things happen, besides what man intends or pur- poses ; and also some things happen different from what is aimed at by nature. We cannot call them natural things, or from nature, neither can we say that they are from humac 1 AugcstJn, bt, wa Religion* 88 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CHANCE- intention. They are what we call fortuitous events, and the cause which produces them is called chance. But they have all respect to some end intended by nature or by man. So that nothing can be more true than what Aristotle 1 says, that if there were no end intended, there could be no chance. "A man digs a piece of ground, to sow or plant it ; but, in digging, he finds a treasure. This is beside his intention, and therefore it is said to be by chance. " When a hanging wall falls upon a passenger and crushes him, the destination of nature was only, that the stones of the wall being no longer kept together by the cement, should fall to the ground, according to their natural movement ; so that the crushing of the man was something beside the purpose of nature, or rtapa <|>VMV." 2 As to Aristotle's views of fortune and chance, see Piccolo- mineus. 8 Chance is opposed to law in this sense, viz., that what hap- pens according to law may be predicted, and counted on. But everything has its own law and its proper cause ; and chance merely denotes that we know not the proper cause, nor the law according to which a phenomenon occurs. An event or series of events which seems to be the result neither of a necessity inherent in the nature of things, nor of a plan conceived by intelligence, is said to happen by chance. "It is not, I say, merely in a pious manner of expression, that the Scripture ascribes every event to the providence of God ; but it is strictly and philosophically true in nature and reason, that there is no such thing as chance or acci- dent ; it being evident that these words do not signify any- thing that is truly an agent or the cause of any event ; but they signify merely men's ignorance of the real and imme- diate cause." 4 '' If a die be thrown, we say it depends upon chance what side may turn up ; and, if we draw a prize in a lottery, we as- cribe our success to chance. We do not, however, mean that 1 Phys., lib. ii. * Monboddo, Ancient Metaphys., book ii., chap. 20. Philosoph. de Moribus, 1.583, p. 713. 4 Clarke, yol. L, Sermon xcviii. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 89 CHANCE - these effects were produced by no cause but only that we are ignorant of the cause that produced them." * In what sense we may say there is such a thing as chance, and in what sense not, see M'Cosh, 2 and Mill, Log? CHANGES (Theory of). "The theory of chances consists in re- ducing all events of the same kind to a certain number of cases equally possible, that is, such that we are equally undecided as to their existence ; and in determining the number of these cases which are favourable to the event of which the proba- bility is sought. The ratio of that number to the number of all the possible cases, is the measure of the probability ; which is thus a fraction, having for its numerator the number of cases favourable to the event, and for its denominator tho number of all the cases which are possible." 4 CHARITY (dyartj?), as one of the theological virtues, is a princi pie of prevailing love to God, prompting to seek his glory and the good of our fellow-men. Sometimes it is used as synonymous with brotherly love, or that principle of benevolence which leads us to promote, in all possible ways, the happiness of others. In a more restricted sense it means almsgiving, or relieving the wants of others by communication of our means and sub- stance. CHASTITY is the duty of restraining and governing the appetite of sex. It includes purity of thought, speech, and behaviour. Lascivious imaginings, and obscene conversation, as well as incontinent conduct, are contrary to the dutv of chastity. CHOICE. " The necessity of continually choosing one of the two, either to act or to forbear acting, is not inconsistent with or an argu- ment against liberty, but is itself the very essence of liberty." ' "For the principle of deliberate choice, Aristotle thought that the rational and irrational should concur, producing "orectic intellect," or "dianoetic appetite," of which he em- phatically says, "And this principle is man." 6 Mr. Locke says, "The will signifies nothing but a power of 1 Arthur, Discourses, p. 17. * Typical Forms, p. 40- B. iii., chap. 17. 4 Laplace, Essai Phil, sur Us Probability, 5th edit., p. 7. 8 Clarke, Demonstration, prop. 10. 6 catholic Philosophy, p. 46. 9* 90 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CHOICE ability to prefer or choose." And in another passage he " The word preferring seems best to express the act of volition ; yet it does not precisely, for though a man would prefer flying to walking, yet who can say he ever wills it?" By Jonathan Edwards, 1 choice and volition are completely identified; But, in popular language, choosing or preferring may mean 1. A conclusion of the understanding ; as when I say I prefer or choose peaches rather than plums ; /. e., I reckon them a bet- ter and safer fruit. 2. A state of inclination or sensibility ; as, I prefer or choose plums rather than pears ; that is, I like them better ; or 3. A determination of will ; as, I prefer or choose pears, meaning that, with the offer of other fruits, I take this. It is only in the latter sense that choice and volition are the same. 2 " Choice or preference, in the proper sense, is an act of the understanding ; but sometimes it is improperly put for volition, or the determination of the will in things where there is no judgment or preference ; thus, a man who owes me a shilling, lays down three or four equally good, and bids me take which I choose. I take one without any judgment or belief that there is any ground of preference ; this is merely an act of will, that is, a volition." 8 " To prefer is an act of the judgment ; and to choose is an act of the will. The one describes intellectual, and the other practical decision." 4 CHREMATISTICS (zpwa, goods), is the science of wealth, or as it is more commonly called, Political Economy, or that de- partment of social science which treats of the resources of a country, and of the best means of increasing them, and of diffusing them most beneficially among the inhabitants, re- garded as individuals, or as constituting a community. CIVILITY or COURTEOTJSNESS belongs to what have been called the lesser moralities. It springs from benevolence o* brotherly love, and manifests itself by kindness and consider- ation in manner and conversation towards others. It is distin 1 Essay on Freedom of Will, sect. 1. * See Tappan, Appeal to Consciousness, ch. 3, sect. 4, 5. Correspondence, of Dr. Reid, p. 79. 4 Taylor, Synonym*. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 91 CIVILITY guished into natural and conventional. It is opposed to rude- ness. Dr. Ferguson says civility avoids giving offence by ouf conversation or manner. Politeness seeks to please. 1 CLASSIFICATION (xtyw, classis, from xote'w, to call, a multi- tude called together). " Montesquieu observed very justly, that in their classifica- tion of the citizens, the great legislators of antiquity made the greatest display of their powers, and even soared above them- selves." 2 "A class consists of several things coming under a common description/' 8 " The sorting of a multitude of things into parcels, for the sake of knowing them better, and remembering them more easily, is classification. When we attempt to classify a multi- tude of things, we first observe some respects in which they differ from each other ; for we could not classify things that are entirely alike ; as for instance, a bushel of peas ; we then separate things that are not alike, and bring together thingi that are similar." 4 " In every act of classification, two steps must be taken ; certain marks are to be selected, the possession of which is to be the 5 title to admission into the class, and then all the objects that possess them are to be ascertained. When the marks selected are really important and connected closely with the nature and functions of the thing, the classification is said to be natural; where they are such as do not affect the nature of the objects materially, and belong in common to things the most different in their main properties, it is artificial." 9 The condition common to both modes of classification, is to comprehend everything and to suppose nothing. But the rules for a natural classification are more strict than for an artificial 1 Knox, Essays, No. 95. * Burke, On the French Revolution. 8 Whately, Log., b. i., g 3. * Taylor, Elements of Thought. * Abstraction, generalization, and definition, precede classification ; for if we wish to reduce to regularity the observations we have made, we must compare them, in order to unite them by their essential resemblances, and express their essence with all possi- ble precision. We might classify a library by dividing the books into history and philo tophy. History into ancient and modern; ancient, according to the people to whom it referred, and modern into general, particular, and individual, or memov . These divi ions and subdivisions might be called a classification. * Thomson, Outline, of Laws of Thought, 2d edit., p. 37T [)2 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CLASSIFICATION or arbitrary one. We may classify objects arbitrarily in anj point of view in which we are pleased to regard them. But a natural classification can only proceed according to the real nature and qualities of the objects. The advantages of classi- fication are to give a convenient form to our acquirements, and to enlarge our knowledge of the relations in which differ- ent objects stand to one another. A good classification should ' 1st, Rest on one principle or analogous principles. 2d, The principle or principles should be of a constant and permanent character. 3d, It should be natural, that is, even when artifi- cial, it should not be violent or forced. 4th, It should clearly and easily apply to all the objects classified. The principles on which classification rests are these : 1st, of Generalization ; 2d, of Specification ; and 3d, of Continuity, q.v. Classification proceeds upon observed resemblances. Gene ralization rests upon the principle, that the same or similar causes will produce similar effects. 1 COGNITION (cognosco, to know). According to Kant, cognition (Erkenntniss) is the determined reference of certain repre- sentations to an object, that is, that object in the conception whereof the diverse of a given intuition is united. Erkennt- niss vermogen is the cognition faculty, or the faculty of cog- nition. To cognize, is to refer a perception to an object by means of a conception. For cognizing, understanding is required. A dog knows his master, but he does not cognize him. Representing something to one's self (vorstellen) is the first degree of cognition; representing to one's self with consciousness (wahrnelimen), or perceiving, is the second ; knowing (kennen) something, or representing to one's self something in comparison with other things, as well in respect of identity as difference, is the third ; cognizing (erkennen) or knowing something with consciousness, the fourth ; understanding (verstanderi) cogniz- ing through the understanding by means of the conceptions, or conceiving something, the fifth ; cognizing something through reason or perspecting (einsehen], the sixth ; and comprehending something (begriefen), that is, cognizing it through reason d Mill, Log., b. L, ihap. 7, g 4; M'Cosh, Typical Forvus, b. Hi., chap. 1. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 93 COGNITION - priori in a degree sufficient for our purpose, the seventh. Foi all our comprehending is only relative, that is, sufficient for a certain purpose ; absolutely we do not comprehend anything. 1 COLLIGATION OF FACTS in Induction, is a phrase employed by Dr. Whewell to denote the binding together groups of facts by means of some suitable conception. The conception must be capable of explanation or definition, not indeed of adequate definition, since we shall have to alter our description of it from time to time with the advance of knowledge, but still capable of a precise and clear explanation Conceptions not wholly correct may serve for a time for the colligation of facts, and may guide us in researches which shall end in a more exact colligation As soon ^ facts occur which a conception is inadequate to explain, we unite it or replace it by a new one. 2 COMBINATION and CONNECTION of IDEAS are phrases to be found in Locke's Essay? in which he treats of what is more commonly called Association of Ideas, q. v. COMBINATION OF IDEAS. The phrase Association of Ideas seems to have been introduced by Locke. It stands as the title to one of the chapters in his Essay on the Human Under- standing. But in the body of the chapter he uses the phrase combination of ideas. These two phrases have reference to the two views which may be taken of the train of thought in the mind. In both, under ideas are comprehended all the various modes of consciousness. In treating of the association of ideas, the inquiry is as to the laws which regulate the suc- cession or order according to which one thought follows an- other. But, it has been observed, that the various modes of consciousness not only succeed in some kind of order, but that they incorporate themselves with one another so as to form permanent and almost indissoluble combinations. "When many impressions or ideas are operating in the mind together, there sometimes takes place a process, of a similar kind to chemical combination. When impressions have been so often experienced in conjunction, that each 1 Haywood, Orit. of Pure Reason, p. 393, 2d edit. Thomson, Outline of Laws of ThougM, 2d edit., p. 363. In book ii., chap. 33. 94 . VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. COMBINATION* of them calls up readily and instantaneously the 'deas of the flrhole group, these ideas sometimes melt and coalesce into one another, and appear not several ideas, but one in the same manner as when the seven prismatic colours are presented to the eye in rapid succession, the sensation produced is that of white. But, as in this last case, it is cor- rect to say, that the seven colours, when they rapidly follow one another, generate white, but not that they actually are white ; so it appears to me that the Complex Idea, formed by the blending together of several simple ones, should, when it really appears simple (that is, when the separate elements are not consciously distinguishable in it), be said to result from, or to be generated by, the simple ideas, not to consist of them. Our idea of an orange really consists of the simple ideas of a certain colour, a certain form, a certain taste, and smell, &c., because we can by interrogating our consciousness, perceive all these elements in the idea. But we cannot conceive, in so apparently simple a feeling as our perception of the shape of an object by the eye, all that multitude of ideas derived from other senses, without which, it is well ascertained, that no such visual perception would ever have had existence ; nor in our idea of extension can we discover these elementary ideas of resistance derived from our muscular frame, in which Dr. Brown has shown it to be highly probable that the idea origi- nates. These, therefore, are cases of mental chemistry, in which it is proper to say that the simple ideas generate, rather than that they compose the complex ones." ' Suppose, that, in eating an apple we had made use of a fruit knife ; a connection comes to be established in our minds between an apple and a fruit knife ; so that when the idea of the one is present, the idea of the other also will appear; and these two ideas are said to be associated in the way of com- bination. Or, the same kind of connection may be established between two feelings, or between a cognition and a feeling, or between a feeling and a volition, between any two or more mental movements. 1 Mill, Log., b, vi., ch. 4, 4. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 95 COMBINATION In cutting an apple, we may have wounded our finger ; and ; afterwards, the sight of an apple will raise a sense or feeling of the wound. Having eaten of honey, we have afterwards suffered pain; and, when honey is again presented, there will be a feeling of dislike, and a purpose to abstain from it. The association, which thus takes place between diflerent mental movements, is more than mere juxtaposition of separate things. It amounts to a perfect combination or fusion. And, as in matter, compounds have properties which are not mani- fested by any of the component parts, in their separate state, so it is in mind ; the result of various thoughts and feelings being fused into one whole, may be to produce a new princi- ple, with properties differing from the separate influence of each individual thought and feeling. In this way, many secondary and factitious principles of action are formed. COMMON SENSE is a phrase employed to denote that degree of intelligence, sagacity, and prudence, which is common to all men. " There is a certain degree of sense which is necessary to our being subjects of law and government, capable of manag- ing our own affairs and answerable for our conduct to others. This is called common sense, because it is common to all m?n with whom we can transact business. " The same degree of understanding which makes a man capable of acting with common prudence in life, makes him capable of discerning what is true and what is false in matters that are self-evident, and which he distinctly apprehends." ' " It is by the help of an innate power of distinction that we recognize the differences of things, as it is by a contrary power of composition that we recognize their identities. These powers, in some degree, are common to all minds ; and as they are the basis of our whole knowledge (which is, of neces- sity, either affirmative or negative), they may be said to con- stitute what we call common sense." * COMMON SENSE (The Philosophy of) is that philosophy which accepts the testimony of our faculties as trustworthy within * Reid, Intfll. Pbw., essay vi., ch. 2. * Harris, Philosoph. Arrange., chap. 9. 95 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. COMMON SENSE- their respective spheres, and rests all human km wledge os certain first truths or primitive beliefs, which are the consti- tutive elements or fundamental forms of our rational nature, and the regulating principles of our conduct. "As every ear not absolutely depraved is able to make some general distinctions of sound; and, in like manner, every eye, with respect to objects of vision; and as this general use of these faculties, by being diffused through all individuals, may be called common hearing and common vision, as opposed to those more accurate energies, peculiar only to artists ; sc fares it with respect to the intellect. There are truths or uni- versals of so obvious a kind, that every mind or intellect not absolutely depraved, without the least help of art, can hardly fail to recognize them. The recognition of these, or at least the ability to recognize them, is called vo\>$ xowos, common sense, as being a sense common to all except lunatics and idiots. "Further, as this power is called xotvos vov$, so the several propositions which are its proper objects, are called mpoXjj^atj, or pre-conceptions, as being previous to all other conceptions It is easy to gather from what has been said that those rtpojt^f tj must be general, as being formed by induction ; as also natural, by being common to all men, and previous to all instruction hence, therefore, their definition. A pre-con- ception is the natural apprehension of what is general or universal." ! A fundamental maxim of the Stoics was, that there is no- thing in the intellect which has not first been in the sense. They admitted, however, natural notions, which they called anticipations, and artificial notions formed in us by the under- standing. They also recognized notions which all men equally receive and understand. These cannot be opposed to one another ; they form what is called common sense* "A power of the mind which perceives truth, not by pro- gressive argumentation, but by an instinctive and instantaneous impulse ; derived neither from education nor from habit, but from nature ; acting independently upon our will, vrhenever 1 Harris, On Happiness, p. 46. Bouvier, Hist, de la PhUosoph., torn, i., p. 149, 8vo, Paris, 1844 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 97 COMMON SENSE - the object is presented, according to an established law ; and, therefore, not improperly called a sense, and acting in the same manner upon all mankind ; and, therefore, properly called common sense, the ultimate judge of truth." " Common sense," says Mons. Jaques, a (l is the unanimous sentiment of the whole human race, upon facts and questions which all may know and resolve or, more precisely, it is the ensemble (complement) of notions and opinions common to all men of all times and places, learned or ignorant, barbarous or civilized. Spontaneity, impersonality, and universality, are the characteristics of truths of common sense; and hence their truth and certainty. The moral law, human liberty, the existence of God, and immortality of the soul, are truths of common sense." On the nature and validity of the common sense philosophy, see Reid's Works hy Sir W. Hamilton ; & Oswald, Appeal to Common Sense; Beattie, Essay on Truth, &c. COMMON. -F. TERM. COMPACT (compingo, to bind close), is that by which or to which men bind or oblige themselves. It is a mutual agreement between two Or more persons to do or to refrain from doing something. F. PACT, CONTRACT. COMPARISON is the act of carrying the mind from one object to another, in order to discover some relation subsisting between them. It is a voluntary operation of the mind, and thus differs from the perception or intuition of relations, which does not always depend upon the will. The result of compari- son is knowledge, which the intellect apprehends, but the act is an exercise of attention voluntarily directing the energy of the mind to a class of objects or ideas. The theorems of ma- thematics are a series of judgments arrived at by comparison, or viewing different quantities and numbers in their relations. The result of comparison is a judgment. COMPASSION. F. SYMPATHY.' COMPLEX." That which consists of several different things, so put together as to form a whole, is called complex. Complex 1 Beattie, Essay on Truth, pp. 36-42. * Mem. de FAcadem., Soy. des Sciences Mor. et Ptil., ^m. i., p. 349, Pftns, 1841. 8 Appendix, note A. 10 H 08 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. COMPLEX- things are the subjects of analysis. The analysis of compfex notions is one of the first and most important exercises of the understanding." l COMPREHENSION means the act of comprehending or fully understanding any object or idea. V. APPREHENSION. For the sense in which it is used by the logicians, V. EXTENSION. COMPUNCTION (compnngo, to prick or sting), is the pricking or uneasy feeling of the conscience on account of something wrong being done. "All men are subject more or less to compunctions of conscience." Blair. "Stop up th' access and passage to remorse; That no compunctious visitings of nature Shake my fell purpose." Macbeth. CONCEIVING and APPREHENDING, or UNDERSTAND- ING, Dr. Reid begins his essay on Conception by saying, " Conceiving, imagining, apprehending, and understanding, having a notion of a thing, are common words used to express that operation of the understanding which the logicians call simple apprehension" In reference to this it has been remarked by Mr. Mansel, that "conception must be distinguished as well from mere imagination, as from a mere understanding of the meaning of words.* Combinations of attributes logically impossible, may be expressed in language perfectly intelligible. There is no difficulty in understanding the meaning of the phrase bilinear figure, or iron-gold. The language is intelligible, though the object is inconceivable. On the other hand, though all conception implies imagination, yet all imagination does not imply conception. To have a conception of a horse, I must not only know the meaning of the several attributes constituting the definition of the animal, but I must also be able to combine these attributes in a representative image, that is, to individualize them. This, however, is not mere imagination, it is imagination relatively to a concept. I not only see, as it were, the image with the mind's eye, but I also think of it as a horse, as possessing the attributes of a given 1 Taylor, Elements of Thought. a Prolegom. Log., p. 24. These have been confounded by Aldrich, and Reid, and others. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 99 CONCEIVING - concept, and called by the name expressive of them. But mere imagination is possible without any such relation. My mind may recall a sensible impression on whose constituent features I have never reflected, and relatively to which I have never formed a concept or applied a name. Imagination would be possible in a being without any power of distin- guishing or comparing his presentations ; it is compatible with oiir ignorance or forgetfulness of the existence of any presen- tations, save the one represented by the image. Conception, in its lowest degree, implies at least a comparison and distinc- tion of this from that. Conception proper thus holds an inter- mediate place between the intuitive and symbolical knowledge of Leibnitz, being a verification of the latter by reference to the former." " The words conception, concept, notion, should be limited to the thought of what cannot be represented in the imagination, as the thought suggested by a general term. The Leibnitzians call this symbolical, in contrast to intuitive knowledge. This is the sense in which conceptio and conceptus have been usu- ally and correctly employed." 1 V. KNOWLEDGE. CONCEPT, A, " is a collection of attributes, united by a sign, and representing a possible object of intuition." 3 It was used, or conceit as synonymous with it, by the older English writers. 8 Kant and his followers, while they reserve the word idea to denote the absolute products of the reason, and intuition to denote the particular notions which we derive from the senses, have applied the word concept (begriff} to notions which are general without being absolute. They say they are of three kinds, 1. Pure concepts, which borrow nothing from experi- ence ; as the notions of cause, time, and space. 2. Empirical concepts, which are altogether derived from experience ; as the notion of colour or pleasure. 3. Mixed concepts, composed of elements furnished partly by experience, and partly by the pure understanding. 4 1 Sir W. Hamilton, Reid's Works, p. 360, note. * Mansel, Prolegom. Log., p. 60 See Baynes, Essay on Analytic of Log. Forms, 8vo, Edin., 1850, pp. 5, 6; Sir W. HUM Dion, Reid's Works, p. 393. 4 See Schmid, Dictionnaire pour servir aux ecrits de Kant, 12mo, Jena, 1798. 100 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CONCEPT - A concept is clear, when its object, as a whole, can be dis- tinguished from any other ; it is distinct, when its several con- stituent parts can be distinguished from each other. The merit of first pointing out these characteristics of the logical perfection of thought is ascribed to Leibnitz. 1 CONCEPT, CONCEPTION (conceptus, concept = to notio or notion). "Conception consists in a conscious act of the under- standing, bringing any given object or impression into the same class with any number of other objects or impressions, by means of some character or characters common to them all. Concipimus, id est, capimus hoc cum illo we take hold of both at once, we comprehend a thing, when we have learnt to comprise it in a known class." 2 "Conception is the forming or bringing an image or idea into the mind by an effort of the will. It is distinguished from sensation and perception, produced by an object present to the senses ; and from imagination, which is the joining to- gether of ideas in new ways ; it is distinguished from memory, by not having the feeling of past time connected with the idea/' 3 According to Mr. Stewart, 4 conception is " that faculty, the business of which is to present us with an exact transcript of what we have felt or perceived," or that faculty, whose pro- vince it is " to enable us to form a notion of our past sensa- tions or of the objects of sense which we have formerly per- ceived." But what Mr. Stewart would thus assign to the faculty of conception belongs to imagination in its reproductive func- tion. Hence Sir Will. Hamilton has said, 5 " Mr. Stewart has be- stowed on the reproductive imagination the term conception , happily, we do not think ; as, both in grammatical propriety and by the older and correcter usage of philosopher? this term (or rather the product of this operation, concept] is convertible with general notion, or more correctly, notion simply, and in this sensf 1 See Meditationes de Cognitione, Veritate et Ideis Coleridge, Clmrch and State, Prelim. Rem., p. 4. Taylor. Elements of Thought. 4 Elements, vol. i., chap. 3. Discussions, p. 276. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 101 CONCEPTION- IS admirably rendered by the "begriff (which is, grasped up) of the Germans." According to Kant, cognition by conception (begriff) is a mode of cognizing an object, when I have not the same imme~ diately before me. If I see a tree before me, its vnmediate representation strikes upon the senses, and I have an intuition of it ; but if I represent to myself the tree by means of certain characteristics, which I seek for in the intuition of it, as, for example, the trunk, branches, and leaves, these characteristics are termed signs, and the complex of them is termed the content of the conception, and affords a mediate representation of the tree. The difference between pure and empirical con- ceptions does not concern the origin of either in time, or the mode whereby we come to the consciousness thereof, but the origin of the same, from the source and content. Hence an empirical conception is that which does not only arise by occa- sion of experience, but to which experience also furnishes the matter. A pure conception is that with which no sensation is mixed up. The conception of cause is a pure conception of this kind, since I have no sensible object which I would term Cause. 1 CONCEPTION and IMAGINATION." Properly and strictly to conceive is an act more purely intellectual than imagining, proceeding from a faculty superior to those of sense and fancy, or imagination, which are limited to corporeal things, and those determined, as all particulars must be, to this or that, place, time, manner, &c. When as that higher power in man, which we may call the mind, can form apprehensions of what is not material (viz., of spirits and the affections of bodies which fall not under sense), and also can frame general ideas or notions, or consider of things in a general way without attending to their particular limited circumstances, as when we think of length in a road, without observing its determin- ate measure." 2 "It is one thing to imagine and another thing to conceive. For do we conceive anything more clearly than our thought 1 Hay wood, Grit, of Pure Reason, p. 594 ; Haynes, Essay on Analyt. of I,og. Forms pp. 5, 6. 3 Oldfield, Essay on Season, p. 11. 102 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. when we think? And yet it is impossible to imagine a thought^ or to paint any image of it in the brain." ' " The distinction between conception and imagination is real, though it be too often overlooked and the words taken to be synonymous. I can conceive a thing that is impossible, but I cannot distinctly imagine a thing that is impossible. I can conceive a proposition or a demonstration, but I cannot imagine either. I can conceive understanding and will, virtue and vice, nnd other attributes of mind, but I cannot imagine them. In like manner, I can distinctly conceive universals, but I cannot imagine them." 2 Imagination has to do only with objects of sense, conception with objects of thought. The things which we imagine are represented to the mind as individuals, as some particular man, or some particular horse. The things of which we con- ceive are such as may be denoted by general terms, as man, horse. " The notions" (or conceptions] which the "mind forms from things offered to it, are either of single objects, as of 'this pain, that man, Westminster Abbey/ or of many objects taken together, as ' pain, man, abbey/ " Notions of single objects are called intuitions, as being such as the mind receives when it simply attends to or inspects (intuetur) the object. Notions formed from several objects are called conceptions, as being formed by the power which the mind has of taking things together (concipere, i. e., capere hoc cum illo}. "On inspecting two or more objects of the Tsame class, we begin to compare them with one another, and with those which are already reposited in our memory ; and we discover that they have some points of resemblance. All the houses, for example, which come in our way, however they may differ in height, length, position, convenience, duration, have some common points ; they are all covered buildings, and fit for the habitation of men. By attending to these points only, and abstracting them from all the rest, we arrive at a general notion of a house, that it is a covered building fit for human habitation ; and to this notion we attach a particular name 1 Port Ray. Log., part i., chap. 1. * Reid, Intell. Paw., essay iv. VOCABULAEY OF PHILOSOPHY. 103 CONCEPTION house, to remind us of the process we have gone through, and to record its results for use. The general notion so formed we call a conception; the common points we observed in the vari- ous objects are called marks or notes; and the process of observing them and forming one entire notion from them is termed abstraction." * CONCEPTION and IDEA." By conception is meant the simple view we have of the objects which are presented to our mind; as when, for instance, we think of the sun, the earth, a tree, a circle, a square, thought, being, without forming any determi- nate j udgment concerning them ; and the form through which we consider these things is called an idea." Port. Roy. Log. " The having an idea of a thing is, in common language, used in the same sense (as conceiving}, chiefly, I think," says Dr. Reid, " since Mr. Locke's time." " A conception is something derived from observation ; not so ideas, which meet with nothing exactly answering to them within the range of our experience. Thus ideas are d priori, conceptions are a posteriori; and it is only by means of the former that the latter are really possible. For the bare fact, taken by itself, falls short of the conception which may be described as the synthesis of the fact and the idea. Thus we have an idea of the universe, under which its different phe- nomena fall into place, and from which they take their mean- ing ; we have an idea of God as creator, from which we derive the power of conceiving that the impressions produced upon our minds, through the senses, result from really existing things ; we have an idea of the soul, which enables us to real- ize our own personal identity, by suggesting that a feeling, conceiving, thinking subject, exists as a substratum of every sensation, conception, thought." 2 " Every conception," says Coleridge, 8 " has its sole reality in its being referable to a thing or class of things, of which, or of the common characters of which, it is a reflection. An idea is a power, 6vi/af tion, and cosmology of the theory of the world." l COSMOLOGY, Rational. V. METAPHYSICS. CEANIOLOGY. V. PHRENOLOGY. CRANIOSCOPY. V. PHRENOLOGY, ORGAN, ORGANOLOGY. CREATION is the act by which God produced out of nothing all things that now exist. Unless we deny altogether the exist- ence of God, we must either believe in creation or accept one or other of the two hypotheses, which may be called theologi- cal dualism and pantheism. According to the former, there are two necessary and eternal beings, God and matter. Ac- cording to the latter, all beings are but modes or manifesta- tions of one eternal and necessary being. A belief in creation admits only the existence of one necessary and eternal being, who is at once substance and cause, intelligence and power, absolutely free and infinitely good. God and the universe are essentially distinct. God has self-consciousness, the universe has not and cannot have. 2 CREDULITY, or a disposition to believe what others tell us, is set down by Dr. Reid as an original principle implanted in us by the Supreme Being. And as the counterpart of this he reckons veracity or a propensity to speak truth and to use language so as to convey our real sentiments, to be also an original principle of human nature. 3 CRITERION (xpitftptw, from the Greek verb xprna, to judge), denotes in general, all means proper to judge. It has been distinguished into the criterion a quo, per quod, and secundum quod or the being who judges, as man ; the organ or faculty by which he judges, and the rule according to which he judges. Unless utter scepticism be maintained, man must be admitted capable of knowing what is true, " With regard to the criterion, 4 or organ of truth among the ancient philosophers, some advocated a simple and others 1 Taylor, Synonyms. * Diet, des Sciences Philosoph. ' Reid, Inquiry, chap. 6, g 24; and also Act. Pow., essay iii., pt. i., chap. 2; Stewarlj jet. Pow., vol. ii., p. 344; Priestley, Exam., p. 86; Brown, Lect. Ixxxiv. 4 Says Edw. Poste, M. A., Introd., p. 14, to trans, of Poster. Analyt. of Arislotk, VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY 123 CRITERION - a mixed criterion. The advocates of the former were di- vided into Sensationalists or Rationalists, as they advocated sense or reason ; the advocates of the latter advocated both sense and reason. Democritus and Leucippus were Sensation- alists ; Parmenides and the Pythagoreans were Rationalists ; Plato and Aristotle belonged to the mixed school. Among those who advocated reason as a criterion, there was an im- portant difference: some advocating the common reason, as Heraclitus and Anaxagoras ; others, the scientific reason, or the reason as cultivated and developed by education, as Par- menides, the Pythagoreans, Plato, and Aristotle. In the Re- public^ Plato prescribes a training calculated to prepare the reason for the perception of the higher truths. Aristotle re- quires education for the moral reason. The older Greeks used the word measure, instead of criterion; and Protagoras had said, that man was the measure of all truth. This Aristotle 8 interprets to mean that sense and reason are the organs of truth, and he accepts the doctrine, if limited to these faculties in a healthy and perfect condition. These names, then, can- not properly be ranked among the common sense philosophers, where they are placed by Sir William Hamilton. " When reason is said to be an organ of truth, we must in- clude, besides the intuitive, the syllogistic faculty. This is the instrument of the mediate or indirect apprehension of truth, as the other of immediate. The examination of these instruments, in order to discover their capabilities and right use, is Logic. This appears to be the reason why Aristotle gave the title of Organon to his Logic. So Epicurus called his the Canon or Criterion" The controversy on the Criterion is to be found at length in Sextus Empiricus. 3 Criterion is now used chiefly to denote the character which distinguishes truth from falsity. In this sense it corresponds with the ground of certitude. V. CERTITUDE. CRITICK, CRITICISM, CRITIQUE (German, critik), is the examination of the pure reason, and is called in Germany simply the critick or critik, xat' i^ojc^v. It is the science ol 7, sect. 9. Metaphys^ x. 2; xi. 6. Hypot., lib ii., cap. 5-7. 124 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CBITICK the pure faculty of reason, or the investigation of that whL',h reason is able to know or effect, independently of experience, and is opposed to dogmatism. Sir J. Mackintosh terms tha critical philosophy a self-reviewing philosophy. CUMULATIVE (The Argument). "The proof of a Divine agency is not a conclusion which lies at the end of a chain of reasoning, of which chain each instance of contrivance is only a link, and of which, if one link fail, the whole falls ; but it is an argument separately supplied by every separate example. An error in stating an example affects only that example. The argument is cumulative in the fullest sense of that term. The eye proves it without the ear, the ear without the eye. The proof in each example is complete ; for when the design of the part, and the conduciveness of its structure to that design is shown, the mind may set itself at rest ; no future consideration can detract anything from the force of the CUSTOM. "Let custom," says Locke, 2 "from the very child- hood, have joined figure and shape to the idea of God, and what absurdities will that mind be liable to about the Deity." Custom is the queen of the world. " Such precedents are numberless ; we draw Our right from custom; custom is a law As high as heaven, as wide as seas or land." Lansdown, Beauty and Law. A custom is not necessarily a usage. A custom is merely that which is often repeated ; a usage must be often repeated and of long standing. Hence we may speak of a " new cus- tom," but not of a " new usage." Custom had probably the same origin as "accost," to come near, and thence to be habitual. The root is the Latin costa, the side or rib. 8 " An aggregate of habits, either successive or contempora- neous, in different individuals, is denoted by the words custom, * Paley, Nat. Tfieol, chap. 6. * JEssay on Hum. Understand., book ii., chap, 33, 17 ; and book i.. chap. 4, 16. * Sec Kames, Elements of Criticism, chap. 14; Sir G. C. Lewis, On Politics, chap. 2t Mtfc VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 125 CUSTOM - usage, or practice. When many persons either a class of society, or the inhabitants of a district, or an' entire nation agree in a certain habit, they are said to have a custom or usage to that effect. " Customs may be of two kinds : First, There may be vol- untary customs customs which are adopted spontaneously by the people, and originate from their independent choice, such as the modes of salutation, dress, eating, travelling, &c., pre- valent in any country, and most of the items which constitute the manners of a people. Secondly, There are the customs which are the result of laws customs which have grown up in consequence of the action of the government upon the people. Thus, when successive judges in a court of justice have laid down certain rules of procedure, and the advocates pleading before the court have observed these rules, such is called the established practice of the court. The sum of the habits of the successive judges and practitioners constitute the practice of the court. The same may be said of a deliberative assembly or any other body, renewed by a perpetual succession of its members. In churches the equivalent name is rites and cere- monies." V. HABIT. Custom is a frequent repetition of the same act ; habit is the effect of such repetition : fashion is the custom of numbers ; usage is the habit of numbers. It is a good custom to rise early ; this will produce a habit of so doing ; and the example of a distinguished family may do much toward reviving the fashion, if not re-establishing the usage. 3 Usage has relation to space, and custom to time ; usage is more universal, and custom more ancient ; usage is what many people practise, and custom is what people have practised long. A vulgar usage; an old custom. 3 CYNIC. After the death of Socrates, some of his disciples, under Antisthenes, were accustomed to meet in the Cynosarges, one of the gymnasia of Athens, and hence they were called Cynics. According to others, the designation comes from xvw, 1 A similar distinction between mos and consuttudo is made by Macrobius, Saturn. HI, 8, commenting on Virgil, JEncid, 6, 601. He quotes Varro as stating that mos is thf unit, and consmtudo the results ig Aggregate. Taylor, Synonyms. 12* 126 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. CYNIC - a dog, because like the dog they were destitute of all mvdesty Antisthenes', Diogenes, and Crates were the first heads of the sect. Zeno, by checking and moderating their doctrines, gave birth to the sect of Stoics. 1 D^EMONIST. "To believe the governing mind, or minds, not absolutely and necessarily good, nor confined to what is best, but capable of acting according to mere will or fancy, is to be a Dcemonist."* DATA (the plural of datum given or granted). "Those facts from which an inference is drawn, are called data; for ex- ample, it has always been found that the inhabitants of tem- perate climates have excelled those of very hot or very cold climates in stature, strength, and intelligence: these facts are the data, from which it is inferred that excellence of body and mind depend, in some measure, upon the temperature of the climate/' 3 DEDUCTION (from deduco, to draw from, to cause to come out of), is the mental operation which consists in drawing a par- ticular truth from a general principle antecedently known. It is opposed to induction, which consists in rising from parti- cular truths to the determination of a general principle. Let it be proposed to prove that Peter is mortal ; I know that Peter is a man, and this enables me to say that all men are mortal; from which affirmation I deduce that Peter ia mortal. The syllogism is the form of deduction. Aristotle 4 has de- fined it to be " an enunciation in which certain assertions being made, by their being true, it follows necessarily, that another assertion different from the first is true also." Before we can deduce a particular truth we must be in poa- 1 Richterus, Dissertatio de Cynicis. Leips., 1701 ; Diogenes Laertius, lib. yi., c. 103. 2 Shaftesbury, Inquiry concerning Virtue, book i., pt. i., sect. 2. Taylor, Elements of Thought. * Prior. Analyt., lib. 1., cap. 1 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY, 127 DEDUCTION session of the general truth. This may be acquired intuitively, as every change implies a cause ; or inductively % the volume of gas is in the inverse ratio of the pressure. Deduction, when it uses the former kind of truths, is demon- stration or science. Truths drawn from the latter kind are contingent and relative, and admit of correction by increasing knowledge. The principle of deduction is, that things which agree with the same thing agree with one another. The principle of induction is, that in the same circumstances, and in the same substances, from the same causes the same effects will follow. The mathematical and metaphysical sciences are founded on deduction, the physical sciences rest on induction. 1 DE FACTO and DE JURE, In some instances the penalty attaches to the offender at the instant when the fact is com- mitted ; in others, not until he is convicted by law. In the former case he is guilty de facto, in the latter dejure. De facto is commonly used in the sense of actually or really, and dejure in the sense of rightfully or legally; as when it is said George II. was king of Great Britain de facto; but Charles Stuart was king dejure. DEFINITION (definio, to mark out limits). Est definitio, earum rerum, quce aunt ejus rei proprice, quam definire volumus, brevis et circumscripta qucedam explication " The simplest and most correct notion of a definition is, a proposition declaratory of the meaning of a word."* Definition signifies "laying down a boundary;" and is used in Logic to signify " an expression which explains any term so as to separate it from everything else, as a boundary sepa- rates fields. Logicians distinguish definitions into Nominal and Real. " Definitions are called nominal, which explain merely the meaning of the term; and real, which explain the nature of the For the different views of deduction and induction, see Whewell, Phiiosoph. of Induct. Sciences, book i., chap. 6; Mill, Log., book ii., tap. 5; Quarterly Rev., vo| Ixviii., art. on "Whewell." Cicero, De Oral., lib. i., c. 42. Mill, Log., 2d edit., vol. i., p. 18?. 128 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. DEFINITION thing signified by that term. Logic is concerned with nomina. definitions alone." l "By a real, in contrast to a verbal or nominal definition, th logicians do not intend ' the giving an adequate conception of the nature and essence of a thing ;' that is, of a thing con- sidered in itself, and apart from the conceptions of it already possessed. By verbal definition is meant the more accurate determination of the signification of a word; by real the more accurate determination of the contents of a notion. The one clears up the relation of words to notions; the other of notions to things. The substitution of notional for real would, perhaps, remove the ambiguity. But if we retain the term real, the aim of a verbal definition being to specify the thought denoted by the word, such definition ought to be called notional, on the principle on which the definition of a notion is called real; for this definition is the exposition of what things are com- prehended in a thought." 2 " In the sense in which nominal and real definitions were distinguished by the scholastic logicians, logic is concerned with real, i. e., notional definitions only ; to explain the mean- ing of words belongs to dictionaries or grammars." 8 " There is a real distinction between definitions of names and what are erroneously called definitions of things ; but it is that the latter, along with the meaning of a name, covertly asserts a matter of fact. This covert assertion is not a defini- tion, but a postulate. The definition is a mere identical pro- position, which gives information only about the use of lan- guage, and from which no conclusions respecting matters of fact can possibly be drawn. The accompanying postulate, on the other hand, affirms a fact which may lead to consequences of every degree of importance. It affirms the real existence of things, possessing the combination of attributes set forth in the definition, and this, if true, may be foundation sufficient to build a whole fabric of scientific truth." 4 Eaal definitions are divided into essential and accidental 1 Whately, Log., b. ii. ; ch. 2, g 6. * Sir Will. Hamilton, Reid's Works, p. 691, note. Mansel, Prolegom. Log., p. 189. 4 Mill, Log., p. 197. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 129 DEFINITION An essential definition states what are regarded as the con stituent parts of the essence of that which is to be defined ; and an accidental definition (or description) lays down what are regarded as circumstances belonging to it, viz., properties or accidents, such as causes, effects, &c. "Essential definition is divided into physical (natural), and logical (metaphysical) ; the physical definition being made by an enumeration of such parts as are actually separable ; such as are the hull, masts, &c., of a ' ship / the root, trunk, branches, bark, &c., of a 'tree.' The logical definition consists of the genus and difference, which are called by some the metaphysical (ideal) parts ; as being not two real parts into which an individual object can (as in the former case), be actually divided, but only different views taken (notions formed) of a class of objects, by one mind. Thus a magnet would be defined logically, l an iron ore having attraction for iron.' " ! Accidental or descriptive definition may be 1. Causal ; as when man is defined as made after the image of God, and for his glory. 2. Accidental; as when he is defined to be animal, bipes implume. 3. Genetic; as when the means by which it is made are indicated ; as, if a straight line fixed at one end be drawn round by the other end so as to return to itself, a circle will be described. Or, 4. Per oppositum; as, when virtue is said to be flying from vice. The rules of a good definition are: 1. That it be adequate. If it be too narrow, you explain a part instead of a whole; if too extensive, a whole instead of a part. 2. That it be clearer (i. e., consist of ideas less complex) than the thing de- fined. 3. That it be in just a sufficient number of proper words. Metaphorical words are excluded because they are indefinite. 2 Whately, Log., b. ii., ch. 5, 6. 3 Mansel's Aldrich., p. 35. Aristotle, Foster. Analyt., lib. ii. ; Topic., lib. ri.- Porl Royal Log., part i., chap. 12, 13, 14; part II,, chap. 16; Locke, Essay on Hum. Fhder< ttand., book iii., c. 3 and 4; Leibnitz, Noveaux Essais, liv. iii., cap. 3 et 4: Rid, Account of Aristotle's Logic, chap. 2, sect. 4; Tappan, Appeal to Consciousness, ofea^ 130 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. DEIST (Dem, God). There are different kinds of deists noticed by Dr. Sam. Clarke. 1 1. Those who believe in an Eternal and Intelligent Being, but deny a Providence, either conserving or governing. 2. Those who believe in God and in Providence, but deny moral distinctions and moral government. 3. Those who believe in God and His moral perfections, but deny a future state. 4. Those who believe in God and His moral government, here and hereafter, in so far as the light of nature goes ; but doubt or deny the doctrines of revelation. Kant has distinguished between a theist and a deist the former acknowledging a God, free and intelligent, the creator and preserver of all things ; the latter believing that the first principle of all things is an Infinite Force, which is inherent in matter, and the blind cause of all the phenomena of nature. Deism, in this sense, is mere materialism. But deism is gene- rally employed to denote a belief in God, without implying a belief in revelation. " That modern species of infidelity, called deism, or natural religion, as contradistinguished from revealed."* " Tindal appears to have been the first who assumed for himself, and bestowed on his coadjutors, the denomination of Christian deists, though it implied no less than an absolute contradiction in terms." 3 V. THEIST. DEMIURGE (87jiuot>pyo$, workman, architect). Socrates and Plato represented God as the architect of the universe. Plo- tinus confounded the demiurge with the soul of the world, and represented it as inferior to the supreme intelligence. The Gnostics represented it as an emanation from the supreme divinity, and having a separate existence. The difficulty of reconciling our idea of an infinite cause to the variable and contingent effects observable in the universe, has given rise tc the hypotheses of a demiurge, and of a plastic nature ; but they do not alleviate the difficulty. This term is applied to God, Heb. xi. 10. 1 WorTcs, vol. ii., p. 12. * Van Mildert, Hampton Led.., sermon ix. 8 Ibid., sermon x. See Leland, View of Deistical Writert. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 131 DEMON (5cu/icoi>). " The demon kind is of an intermediate nature between the divine and human. What is the power and virtue, said I, of this intermediate kind of being? To trans- mit and to interpret to the gods, what comes from men ; and to men, in like manner, what comes from the gods ; from men their petitions and their sacrifices ; from the gods, in return, the revelation of their will." l Socrates declared that he had a friendly spirit, or Demon, who restrained him from imprudence, and revealed to him what was true. Plutarch has a Dialogue on the Demon of Socrates, and Apuleius also wrote De Deo *Socratis. In modern times we have Lelut, Du Demon de Socrate. 2 Ha thinks Socrates was subject to hallucinations of sight and hearing. DEMONSTRATION (demonstro, to point out, to cause to see). In old English writers this word was used to signify the point' ing out the connection between a conclusion and its premises, or that of a phenomenon with its asserted cause. It now denotes a necessary consequence, and is synonymous with proof from first principles. To draw out a particular truth from a general truth in which it is enclosed, is deduction; from a necessary and universal truth to draw consequences which necessarily follow, is demonstration. To connect a truth with a first principle, to show that it is this principle applied or realized in a particular case, is to demonstrate. The result i8 science, knowledge, certainty. Those general truths arrived at by induction in the sciences of observation, are certain knowledge. But it is knowledge which is not definite or com- plete. It may admit of increase or modification by new dis- coveries ; but the knowledge which demonstration gives is fixed and unalterable. A demonstration is a reasoning consisting of one or moro arguments, by which some proDOsition brought into question is evidently shown to be contained in some other proposition assumed, whose truth and certainty being evident and acknow- ledged, the proposition in question must also be admitted aa certain. Demonstration is direct or indirect. Direct demonstration ih 1 Sydenham, Plato, The Banquet. * Paris, 1836, 1856. 132 VOCAEULAR/ OF PHILOSOPHY. DEMONSTRATION descending when starting from a general truth we come to a particular conclusion, which we must affirm or deny ; or as* cending when starting from the subject and its attributes, we arrive by degrees at a general principle, with which we connect the proposition in question. Both these are deduc- tive, because they connect a particular truth with a general principle. Indirect demonstration is when we admit hypo; thetically a proposition contradictory of that which we wish to demonstrate, and show that this admission leads to absurd- ity ; that is, an impossibility or a contradiction. This is, de- monstratio per impossible, or reductio ad absurdum. It should only be employed when direct demonstration is unattainable. " Demonstration was divided by ancient writers into two kinds : one kind they called demonstration 6V t ; the other de- monstration fiton. " The demonstration Sioti, or argument from cause to effect, i=i most commonly employed in anticipating future events. When, e. g., we argue that at a certain time the tides will be unusually high, because of its being the day following the new or the full moon, it is because we .know that that condition of the moon is in some way connected as a cause with an un- usually high rising of the tides as its effect, and can argue, therefore, that it will produce what is called spring tide. "On the other hand, the demonstration btt,, or argument from effect to cause, is more applicable, naturally, to past events, and to the explanation of the phenomena which they exhibit as effects. Thus the presence of poison in the bodies of those whose death has been unaccountably sudden, is frequently proved in this way by the phenomena which such bodies present, and which involve the presence of poison as their cause." * The theory of demonstration is to be found in the Organon of Aristotle, " since whose time," said Kant, " Logic, as to its foundation, has gained nothing." DENOMINATION, External. F. MODE. DEONTOLOGY (*6 te'ov, what is due, or binding ; ?ioyo$, dis- course). 1 Karslak* Aids to Logic, vol. ii., p. 46. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 133 DEONTOLOGY- "Deontology, or that which is proper, has been chosen as a fitter term than any other which could be found, to represent, in the field of morals, the principle of utilitarianism, or that which is useful." l " The term deontology expresses moral science, and ex- presses it well, precisely because it signifies the science of duty, and contains no reference to utility." 2 Deontology involves the being bound or being under obliga- tion ; the very idea which it was selected to avoid, and which utility does not give. " The ancient Pythagoreans defined virtue to be "E|tj tov &eovto$ (that is, the habit of duty, or of doing what is binding), the oldest definition of virtue of which we have any account and one of the most unexceptionable which is yet to be found in any system of philosophy." 3 And Sir W. Hamilton 4 has observed that ethics are well denominated deontology. DESIGN" (designo, to mark out). " The atomic atheists further allege, that though there be many things in the world which serve well for uses, yet it does not at all follow that there- fore they were made intentionally and designedly for those uses. 6 " What is done, neither by accident, nor simply for its own sake, but with a view to some effect that is to follow, is said to be the result of design. None but intelligent beings act with design ; because it requires knowledge of the connection of causes and effects, and the power of comparing ideas, to con- ceive of some end or object to be produced, and to devise the means proper to produce the effect. Therefore, whenever we see a thing which not only may be applied to some use, but which is evidently made for the sake of the effect which it produces, we feel sure that it is the work of a being capable of thought." 8 " When we find in nature the adaptation of means to an end, we infer design and a designer ; because the only circum- 1 Bentham, Deontology ; or, the Science of Morality, vol. i., p. 34. 2 Whewell, Preface to Mackintosh's Prelim. Dissert., p. 20. 3 Stewart, Act. and Mor. Powers, vol. ii., p. 446. 4 RdtiCs Works, p. 540, note. Cudworth, Intell. Syst., p. 670. Taylor, Elements of Thought 13 134 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. DESIGN - stances in which we can trace the origination of adaptation, are those in which human mind is implicated." l On the argument for the being of God from the evidences of design, or the adaptation of means to ends in the universe, see Xenophon, Memorabilia of Socrates* Buffier, Treatise on First Truths, 3 Reid, 4 Stewart, 6 Paley," Bridgewater Treatises ; Burnett Prize Essays. V. CAUSE (Final). DESIRE. "Desire may be defined that uneasy sensation excited in the mind by the view or by the contemplation of any de- sirable good which is not in our possession, which we are so- licitous to obtain, and of which the attainment appears at least possible." 7 According to Dr. Hutcheson, 8 " desires arise in our mind from the frame of our nature, upon apprehension of good or evil in objects, actions, or events, to obtain for ourselves or others the agreeable sensation when the object or event is good ; or to prevent the uneasy sensation when it is evil." But, while desires imply intelligence, they are not the mere efflux, or product of that intelligence ; and, while the objects of our desires are known, it is not, solely, in consequence of knowing them, that we desire them ; but, rather, because we have a capacity of desiring. There is a tendency, on our part, towards certain ends or objects, and there is a fitness in them to give us pleasure, when they are attained. Our desires of such ends or objects are natural and primary. Natural, but not instinctive, for they imply intelligence ; primary, and not factitious, for they result from the constitution of things, and the constitution of the human mind, antecedent to expe- rience and education. It has been maintained, however, that there are no original principles in our nature, carrying us towards particular objects, but that, in the course of experience, we learn what gives us pleasure or pain what does us good or ill that we flee from the one class of objects, and follow after the other; that in this way, likings and dislikings inclination and aversion, . ! , , * Dove, Theory of Hum. Progression, p. 482. a Book., chap. 4. * Part ii., chap. 16. * Act. Pow., essay vi., chap. 6. * Act. and Mor. Pow., book ii*., chap. ii. Nat. Theol. 1 Cogan, On Passions, part i., chap. 2, sect. 3. Essay on the Passions, sect L VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 13d DESIRE spring up within us; and that all the various passi/ns and pursuits of human life are produced and prompted by sensi- bility to pleasure and pain, and a knowledge of what affects that sensibility ; and thus, all our desires may be resolved int one general desire of happiness or well-being. There is room for difference of opinion as to th* number of those desires which are original ; but there is little room for doubting, that there are some which may be so designated. Every being has a nature. Everything is what it is, by having such a nature. Man has a nature, and his nature has an end. This end is indicated by certain tendencies. He feels incli- nation or desire towards certain objects, which are suited to his faculties and fitted to improve them. The attainment of these objects gives pleasure, the absence of them is a source of uneasiness. Man seeks them by a natural and spontaneous effort. In seeking them, he comes to know them better and desire them more eagerly. But the intelligence which is gra- dually developed, and the development which it may give to the desires, should not lead us to overlook the fact, that th desires primarily existed, as inherent tendencies in our nature, aiming at their correspondent objects ; spontaneously, it may be, in the first instance, but gradually gaining clearness and strength, by the aid and concurrence of our intellectual and rational powers. DESTINY (destinatum, fixed), is the necessary and unalterable connection of events ; of which the heathens made a divine power, superior to all their deities. The idea of an irresisti- ble destiny, against which man strives in vain, pervades the whole of Greek tragedy. V. FATALISM. DETERMINISM. This name is applied by Sir W. Hamilton 1 to the doctrine of Hobbes, as contradistinguished from the ancient doctrine of fatalism. The principle of the sufficient reason is likewise called by Leibnitz the principle of the determining reason. In the Diet des Sciences Philosoph., nothing is given under determinism, but a reference made to fatalism* And fatalism is explained as the doctrine 1 Reid's Works, p. 601, note. But in the article " LibertS," determinism is applied to the doctrine that motives invincibly determine the will, and is opposed to liberty of indifference, which is described M the doctrine that man can determine himself without motives. 136 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. DETERMINISM which denies liberty to man. V. NECESSITY, FATALISM, Li BERTY. DIALECTIC (dialektik] is the logic of appearance as distinguished from universal Logic, or it may be that which teaches us to excite appearance or illusion. As logical or formal it treats of the sources of error and illusion, and the mode of destroying them; as transcendental, it is the exposure of the natural and unavoidable illusion that arises from human reason itself, which is ever inclined to look upon phenomena as things in themselves, and cognitions a priori, as properties adhering .to these things, and in such way to form the super-sensible, ac- cording to this assumed cognition of things in themselves." * " How to divide and subdivide, and dissect, and analyze a topic, so as to be directed to the various roads of argument by which it may be approached, investigated, defended, or attacked, is the province of dialectic. How to criticise those arguments, so as to reject the sophistical, and to allow their exact weight to the solid, is the province of Logic. The dia- lectician is praised in proportion as his method is exhaustive; that is, in proportion as it supplies every possible form of argu- ment applicable to the matter under discussion. The logician is praised in proportion as his method is demonstrative; that is, in proportion as it determines unanswerably the value of every argument applied to the matter under discussion. Dia- lectic provides, and Logic appreciates argumentation; dialectic exercises the invention, and Logic the judgment.'' 2 DIALECTICS (Siatextixri *e%vij). "The Greek verb StaXty- (o8at, in its widest signification, 1. Includes the use both of reason and speech as proper to man. Hence dialectics may mean Logic, as including the right use of reason and language. 2. It is also used as synonymous with the Latin word disserere, to discuss or dispute ; hence, dialectics has been used to denote the Logic of probabilities, as opposed to the doctrine of demon- stration and scientific induction. 3. It is also used in popular language to denote Logic properly so called. But dialectics, like science, is not Logic, but the subject matter of Logic, 1 Haywood, Transl. of Kant, p. 596. Taylor, Synonyms. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 137 DIALECTICS- Dialectics is handled, anatomized, and its conditions deter- mined by Logic ; but, for all that, it is not Logic, any more than the animal kingdom is Zoology, or the vegetable king- dom is Botany." 1 "Xenophon 2 tells us, that Socrates said, 'That dialectic (to 6xX'y) makes a difference; by affixing a mark (dis and crimen] makes a discrimination. Distinction, therefore, is applied to delicate variations ; diversity to glaring contrasts ; difference to hostile unlikenesses ; and discrimina- tion to formal criticism." 2 DISTRIBUTION " is the placing particular things in the places or compartments which have already been prepared to receive them." 3 " In Logic, a term is said to be distributed when it is em- ployed in its full extent, so as to comprehend all its signifi- cates everything to which it is applicable." 4 "A term is said to be ' distributed,' when an assertion H made or implied respecting every member of the class which the term denotes. Of every universal proposition, therefore, the subject is distributed; e. g., all men are mortal; No rational being is responsible ; Whatsoever things were written aforetime were written for our learning. When an assertion is made or applied respecting some member or members of a class, but not necessarily respecting all, the term is said to be ' undis- tributed ;' as, for example, the subjects of the following pro- positions : Some men are benevolent ; There are some stand- ing here that shall not die; Not every one that invokes the. sacred name shall enter into the heavenly kingdom." 6 " When the whole of either term (in a proposition) is com- pared with the other, it is said to be distributed; when a part only is so compared, it is said to be undistributed. In the pro- position 'All, A is B/ the term A is distributed; but in the proposition ' Some, A is B/ it is undistributed." 6 The rules for distribution are : 1. All universal propositions, and no particular, distribute the subject. 1 Bossuet, Log., liv. i., c. 25 ; Reid, Account of Aristotle's Logic, ch. 2, sect. 3. 9 Taylor, Synonyms. * Taylor, Elements of Thought. Whately, Logic, b. ii., cb. 3,g 2. Kidd, Principles of Reasoning, ch. 4, sect. 3, p. 179. lolly, SyU. of Log., p. 47. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 143 DISTR BTJTION 2. All negative, and no affirmative, the predicate. 1 "A singular term can never denote anything less than th object of which it is a name. A common term may be under- stood as denoting all, or fewer than all, of the objects of the class. When it denotes all, it is said to be taken universally, or to be distributed ; that is, to be spread over the whole class, or to be applied to all the objects distributively not collect- ively to each, not to all together. When it denotes fewer than all the objects of the class, it is said to be taken particu- larly, or to be undistributed."* DITHEISM. "As for that fore-mentioned ditheism, or opinion of two gods a good and an evil one, it is evident that its original sprung from nothing else, but from a firm persuasion of the essential goodness of Deity, &c." 3 V. DUALISM. DIVISION "is the separating things of the same kind into parcels ; analysis is the separating of things that are of dif- ferent kinds ; we divide a stick by cutting it into two, or into twenty pieces ; we analyze it by separating the bark, the wood, and the pith a division may be made at pleasure, an analysis must be made according to the nature of the object." 4 Division is either division proper or partition. Partition is the distribution of some substance into its parts; as of the globe into Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. Division proper is the distribution of genus and species into what is under them ; as when substance is divided into spiritual and material. The members which arise from division retain the name of their whole ; but not those from partition. "Division is the separation of a whole into its parts. " But as there are two kinds of wholes, there are also two kinds of division. There is a whole composed of parts really distinct, called in Latin, totum, and whose parts are called integral parts. The division of this whole is called properly partition ; as when we divide a house into its apartments, a town into its wards, a kingdom or state into its provinces, man into body and soul, the body into its members. The sole rJ 1 Wesl< y. Guide to Syllogism, p. 10. Spald ng. Log., p. 57. Cudworth, Intdl. System, p. 213 4 Taylor, Elements of ThougJtL 144 VOCABULARY Q? PHILOSOPHY. DIVISION - of their division is, to make the enumeratioL Df particulars very exact, and that there be nothing wanting to them. " The other whole is called, in Latin, omne, and its parts subjected or inferior parts, inasmuch as the whole is a common term, and its parts are the terms comprising its extension. The word animal is a whole of this nature, of which the in- feriors, as man and beast, which are comprehended under its extension, are subjected parts. This division obtains properly the name of division, and there are four kinds of division which may be noticed. " The first is, when we divide the genus by ifs species ; every substance is body or mind, every animal is man or beast. The second is, when we divide the genus by its differences ; every animal is rational or irrational, every number is even or un- even. The third is, when we divide a common subject into the opposite accidents of which it is susceptible, these being accord- ing to its different inferiors, or in relation to different times ; as, every star is luminous by itself, or by reflection only ; every body is in motion or at rest, &c. The fourth is, that of an accident into its different subjects, as division of goods into those of mind and body." l "Division (Logical) is the distinct enumeration of several things signified by one common name. It is so called from its being analogous to the real division of a whole into its parts." 2 The rules of a good division are : 1. Each of the parts, or any, short of all, must contain less (i. e., have a narrower signification) than the thing divided. " Weapon " could not be a division of the term " sword." 2. All the parts taken together must be exactly equal to the thing divided. In dividing the term " weapon " into " sword," " pike," " gun," &c., we must not omit anything of which " weapon " can be predicated, nor introduce anything of which it cannot. 3. The parts, or members, must be opposed, i. e., must not be contained in one another. " Book " must not be divided into "Quarto," "French ;" for a French book may be a quarto, and a quarto French. It may be added, that a divi Port Ray. Log., part ii., chap. 15. Whately, Log., book ii., ch. 5, gft. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 145 DIVISION Bion should proceed throughout upon the same principle- Books may be divided according to size, language, matter, &c., all these being so many cross-divisions. Aristotle, 1 Reid. 2 V. WHOLE, FALLACY. DIVORCE (diverto, to separate), is a separation, especially of husband and wife. It is used to signify, 1. Separation of a married pair without any right of re-marriage. 2. The like separation with that right; and 3. The declaratory sentence, pronouncing a marriage to have been void db initio that is, never to have existed in law. Paley s understands by divorce, " the dissolution of the marriage contract by the act and at the will of the husband." 4 DOGMATISM (Soy^a, from 8oxeu, to think). " Philosophers," said Lord Bacon, " may be divided into two classes, the em- pirics and the dogmatists. The empiric, like the ant, is content to amass, and then consume his provisions. The dogmatist, like the spider, spins webs of which the materials are ex- tracted from his own substance, admirable for the delicacy of their workmanship, but without solidity or use. The bee keeps a middle course she draws her matter from flowers and gardens ; then, by art peculiar to her, she labours and digests it. True philosophy does something like this." "He who is certain, or presumes to say he knows, is, whether he be mistaken or in the right, a dogmatist." * Kant defined dogmatism, "the presumption that we are able to attain a pure knowledge based on ideas, according to prin- ciples which the reason has long had in use, without any inquiry into the manner or into the right by which it has attained them."* " By dogmatism we understand, in general, both all pro- pounding and all receiving of tenets merely from habit, without thought or examination, or, in other words, upon the authority of others ; in short, the very opposite of critical investigation. All assertion for which no proof is offered is dogmatical." T Poster. Analyt., lib. ii., c. 13. * Account nf Aristotle's Logic, chap, ii., sect. 2. Mor. Phil, b. iii., pt. iii., c. 7. Quarterly Rev., No. 203, p. 256. Shaftesbury, Miscell. Reflect., Miscell. ii., c. 2. Morell, Elements of Ptycholngy, p. 236, note. 1 Chalybaeus, Specul. Philosoph., p. 4. 14 L 146 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. DOGMATISM- To maintain that man -cannot attain to knowledge of tba truth, is scepticism. To maintain that he can do so only by renouncing his reason, which is naturally defective, and sur- rendering himself to an internal inspiration or superior intui- tion, by which he is absorbed into God, and loses all personal existence, is mysticism. Dogmatism is to maintain that know- ledge may be attained by the right use of our faculties, each within its proper sphere, and employed in a right method. This is the natural creed of the human race. Scepticism and mysticism are after thoughts. Dogmatism, or faith in the results of the due exercise of our faculties, is to be commended. But dogmatism in the method of prosecuting our inquiries is to be condemned. Instead of laying down dogmatically truths which are not proven, we should proceed rather by observation and doubt. The scho- lastic philosophers did much harm by their dogmatic method. It is not to be mistaken for the synthetic method. There can be no synthesis without a preceding analysis. But they started from positions which had not been proved, and deduced con- sequences which were of no value. 1 There is wisdom as well as wit in the saying that, Dogma- tism is Puppyism come to maturity. DOUBT (dubito, to go two ways). Man knows some things and is ignorant of many things, while he is in doubt as to other things. Doubt is that state of mind in which we hesitate as to two contradictory conclusions having no preponderance of evidence in favour of either. Philosophical doubt has been distinguished as provisional or definitive. Definitive doubt is scepticism. Provisional, or methodical doubt is a voluntary suspending of our judgment for a time, in order to come to a more clear and sure conclusion. This was first given as a rule in philosophical method by Descartes, who tells us that he began by doubting everything, discharging his mind of all preconceived ideas, and admitting none as alear and true till he had subjected them to a rigorous examination. "Doubt is some degree of belief, along with the conscious- ness of ignorance, in regard to a proposition. Absolute di 1 Diet, des Sciencet Philosoph. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 147 DOUBT belief implies knowledge : it is the knowledge that such or such a thing is not true. If the mind admits a proposition without any desire for knowledge concerning it, this is credulity. If it is open to receive the proposition, but feels ignorance con- cerning it, this is doubt. In proportion as knowledge increases, doubt diminishes, and belief or disbelief strengthens." 1 V. CERTAINTY, SCEPTICISM. DREAMING. The phenomena of sleep and dreaming, are treated by almost all writers on psychology. Dreams very often take their rise and character from something in the preceding state of body or mind. " Through the multitude of business cometh a dream," said Solomon ; and Aristotle regarded dreams as the vibrations of our waking feelings. 8 According to these views, dreams, instead of beir.g prospec- tive or prophetic, are retrospective and resultant. The former opinion, however, has prevailed in all ages and among all nations ; and hence, oneiromancy or prophesying by dreams, that is, interpreting them as presages of coming events. DUALISM, DUALITY. "Pythagoras talked, it is said, of an immaterial unity, and a material duality, by which he pre- tended to signify, perhaps, the first principles of all things, the efficient and material causes. 3 Dualism is the doctrine that the universe was created and is preserved by the concurrence of two principles, equally ne- cessary, eternal, and independent. Mythological dualism was held by Zoroaster and the Magi, who maintained the existence of a good principle and an evil principle ; and thus explained the mixed state of things which prevails. It would appear, however, according to Zoroaster, that both Ormuzd and Ahrimanes were subordinate to Akerenes, or the Supreme Deity ; and that it was only a sect of the Magi who held the doctrine of dualism in its naked form. Their views were revived in the second century by the Gnostics, and in the third century were supported by Manes, whose follow- ers were called Manicheans. Many of the ancient philosop hers regarded the universe as constituted by two principles, the one active, the other pa* Taylor, Elements of Tliought. Ethic, lib. i., cap. 13. Boliiijr vroke, Hum. Reaton, essay ii. 148 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. DUALISM 8ive, the one mind, the other matter the one soul, the other body. But the supposition of two infinites, or rf twc first causes, is self-contradictory, and is now abandoned. The term dualism also finds a place in the theory of percep- tion q. v. DURATION. "After some thought has entirely disappeared from the mind it will often return, joined with the belief that it has been in the mind before ; this is called memory. Memory and the consciousness of succession give us the notion signi- fied by the word duration" l According to Kant, duration or time, and also space, are necessary forms of the human mind, which cannot think of bodies but as existing in space, nor of events but as occurring in time. V. TIME. DUTY. That which we ought to do that which we are under obligation to do. In seeing a thing to be right, we see at the same time that it is our duty to do it. There is a complete synthesis between rectitude and obligation. Price has used oughtness as synonymous with rightness. V. OBLIGATION. Duty and right are relative terms. If it be the duty of one party to do some thing, it is the right of some other party to expect or exact the doing of it. 2 V. RIGHT, RECTITUDE. DYNAMISM, the doctrine of Leibnitz, that all substance in- volves force. V. MATTER. ECLECTICISM (txriyu, to select, to choose out). The Alex- andrian philosophers, or Neo-Platonicians, who arose \t Alexandria about the time of Pertinax and Severus, and continued to flourish to the end of the reign of Justinian, professed to gather and unite into one body, what was true in all systems of philosophy. To their method of philosophizing, the name eclecticism was first applied. Clemens Alexandrinus 8 said, " By philosophy I mean neither the Stoic, nor the Pla- tonic, nor the Epicurean, nor the Aristotelian ; but whatever 1 Locke, Essay mi Hum. Understand., book ii.. chap. 15. Bee Wordsworth, Ode to Duty. Stromm., lib. 1., p. 22& VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 149 ECLECTICISM - things have been properly said by each of these sects, incul- cating justice and devout knowledge, this whole selection I call philosophy." Diogenes Laertes 1 tell us, that Potamos of Alexandria introduced t-xtextixriv aipeaw. But the method had been adopted by Plato and Aristotle before, and has been followed by many in all ages of philosophy. Leibnitz said that truth was more widely diffused than was commonly thought; but it was often burdened and weakened, mutilated and corrupted by additions which spoiled it and made it less useful. In the philosophy of the ancients, or those who had gone before, he thought there was perennis qucedam philoso- pJiia if it could only be disintricated from error and disin- terred from the rubbish which overwhelmed it. In modern times the great advocate of eclecticism is Mons. Cousin. But its legitimacy as a mode of philosophizing has been chal- lenged. "The sense in which this term is used by Clemens" (of Alexandria) says Mr. Maurice, 2 " is obvious enough. He did not care for Plato, Aristotle, Pythagoras, as such ; far less did he care for the opinions and conflicts of the schools which bore their names ; he found in each hints of precious truths of which he desired to avail himself; he would gather the flowers without asking in what garden they grew, the prickles he would leave for those who had a fancy for them. Eclecti- cism, in this sense, seemed only like another name for catholic wisdom. A man, conscious that everything in nature and in art was given for his learning, had a right to suck honey wherever it was to be found ; he would find sweetness in it if it was hanging wild on trees and shrubs, he could admire the elaborate architecture of the cells in which it was stored. The Author of all good to man had scattered the gifts, had im- parted the skill ; to receive them thankfully was an act of homage to Him. But once lose the feeling of devotion and gratitude, which belonged so remarkably to Clemens once let it be fancied that the philosopher was not a mere receiver of treasures which had been provided for him, but an ingenioua chemist and compounder of various naturally unsociable in gredients, and the eclectical doctrine would lead to more self 1 1, sect 21. Mor. and Metaphys. Phil., p. 53. 14* 150 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ECLECTICISM conceit, would be more unreal and heartless than any cm 8 of the sectarian elements out of which it was fashioned. It would want the belief and conviction which dwell, with what ever unsuitable companions, even in the narrowest theory. Many of the most vital characteristics of the original dogmas would be effaced under pretence of taking off their rough edges and fitting them into each other. In general the super- ficialities and formality of oach creed would be preserved in the new system ; its original and essential characteristics sacrificed." "In philosophy Cicero was never more than an eclectic, that is, in point of fact, no philosopher at all. For the very essence of the philosophical mind lies in this, that it is constrained by an irresistible impulse to ascend to primary, necessary prin- ciples, and cannot halt until it reaches the living, streaming sources of truth ; whereas the eclectic will stop short where he likes, at any maxim to which he chooses to ascribe the autho- rity of a principle. The philosophical mind must be system- atic, ever seeking to behold all things in their connection, as parts or members of a great organic whole, and impregnating them all with the electric spirit of order ; while the eclectic is content if he can string together a number of generalizations. A philosopher incorporates and animates ; an eclectic heaps and ties up. The philosopher combines multiplicity into unity; the eclectic leaves unity straggling about in multi- plicity. The former opens the arteries of truth, the latter its . veins. Cicero's legal habits peer out from under his philoso- phical cloak, in his constant appeal to precedent, his ready deference to authority. For in law, as in other things, the practitioner does not go beyond maxims, that is, secondary or tertiary principles, taking his stand upon the mounds which his predecessors have erected." * See Cousin, 2 Jouffroy, 3 and Damiron. 4 ECONOMICS (olxos, a house ; vojuoj, a law). Treatises under this title were written by Xenophon, Aristotle, and Cicero. 1 Second Series of Guesses at Truth, edition 1848, p. 238. * Fragmens Philosophiques, 8vo, Paris, 1826. * Melanges Philosophiques, 8vo, Paris, 1833. 4 Essai sur VHistoire de la Philosophic au dixneuvieme siecle, 2 torn., STO, Paris, 1884 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 151 ECONOMICS - They seem to have treated of the best means of managing and increasing the comforts and resources of a household. Only fragments of them remain. But in modern ttmo justice or social duly has been distinguished by Henry More into ethical, economical, and political. And economics has been employed to denote those duties which spring from the relations which exist in a family or household. These are the duties 1. Of husband and wife. 2. Of parent and child. 3. Of master and servant. ECSTASY (sxata.a(,t, standing out), a transport of the soul 05 which it seems as if out of the body. " Whether that which we call ecstasy be not dreaming with the eyes open, I leave to be examined." l This word does not occur in philosophy before the time of Philo and the Alexandrians. Plotinus and Porphyry pre- tended to have ecstasies in which they were united to God. Among Christian writers, Bonaventura ( Itinerarium Mentis in Deum), Gerson (T/ieologia Mystica], and Francis de Sales, re- commend those contemplations which may lead to ecstasy. But there is danger of their leading to delusion, and to con- found the visions of a heated imagination with higher and nearer views of spiritual things. 2 EDUCATION (educo, to lead out), means the development of the bodily and mental powers. The human being is born and lives amidst scenes and circumstances which have a tendency to call forth and strengthen his powers of body and mind. And this may be called the education of nature. Bat by edu- cation is generally meant the using those means of develop- ment which one man or one generation of men may employ in favour of another. These means are chiefly instruction, or the communication of knowledge to enlighten and strengthen the mind : and discipline, or the formation of manners and habits. Instruction and discipline may be physical or moral, that is, may refer to the body or to the mind. Both, wl en employed in all their extent, go to make up education, which 1 Locke, Essay on Bum. Understand., book ii., chap. 19. * Baafler, Traite swr PExtase, 1817. 152 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. EDUCATION is the aid given to assist the development, and ad\ance th progress of the human being, as an individual, and as a mem- ber of a family, of a community, and a race. " The business of education is to educe or bring out that which is within, not merely or mainly to instruct or impose a form from without. Only we are not framed to be self-suffi- cient, but to derive our nourishment, intellectual and spiritual, as well as bodily, from without, through the ministration of others ; and hence instruction must ever be a chief element of education. Hence too we obtain a criterion to determine what sort of instruction is right and beneficial that which minis- ters to education, which tends to bring out, to nourish and cul- tivate the faculties of the mind, not that which merely piles a mass of information upon them. Moreover, since nature, if left to herself, is ever prone to run wild, and since there are hurtful and pernicious elements around us, as well as nourish- ing and salutary, pruning and sheltering, correcting and pro- tecting are also among the principal offices of education." ' Milton, 2 Locke, 3 Guizot, 4 Conseils d'un Ptre sur I' Education. EFFECT. That which is produced by the operation of a cause. V. CAUSE. EGO (I). " Supposing it proved that my thoughts and my con- sciousness must have a subject, and consequently that I exist, how do I know that all that train and succession of thoughts which I remember belong to one subject, and that the Jof this moment is the very individual / of yesterday, and of time past?" 8 Sir William Hamilton's note upon this passage is as follows: " In English, we cannot say the Jand the not I, so happily as the French le moi and h non-moi, or even the German das Ich and das nicht Ich. The ambiguity arising from identity of sound between the / and the eye, would itself preclude the ordinary employment of the former. The ego and the non-ego are the best terms we can use; and as the expressions are scientific, it is perhaps no loss that their technical precision ig guarded by their non-vernacularily." 1 Second Series, Guesses at Truth, 1848, p. 145. a On Education. On Education. * Meditations, 8vo, Paris, 185?, Reid, Inquiry, Introd., sect. 3. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY 353 EGO- In another note 1 he has added : " The ego as the subject of thought and knowledge, is now commonly styled by phi- losophers the subject; and subjective is a familiar expression for what pertains to the mind or thinking principle. In con- trast and correlation to these, the terms object and objective are, in like manner, now in general use to denote the non-ego, its affections and properties, and in general, the really existent as opposed to the ideally known." EGOISM, EGOIST. " Those Cartesians who in the progress of iheir doubts ended in absolute egoism." *'A few bold thinkers, distinguished by the name of egoists, had pushed their scepticism to such a length as to doubt of everything but their own existence. According to these, the proposition, Cogito ergo sum, is the only truth which can be regarded as absolutely certain." 2 Dr. Reid 8 says, that some of Descartes' disciples who doubted of everything but their own existence, and the existence of the operations and ideas of their own mind, remained at this stage of his system and got the name of egoists. But Sir Wil- liam Hamilton, in a note on the passage, says, " He is doubt- ful about the existence of this supposed sect of egoists." The first sense and aspect of egoism may seem to be selfish- ness. But this is contradicted by the following epitaph : In the churchyard of Homersfield (St. Mary, Southelm- ham), Suffolk, was the gravestone of Robert Cry toft, who died Nov. 17, 1810, aged ninety, bearing the following epitaph: "MYSELF. "As I walk'd by myself, I talk'd to myself, And thus myself said to me, Look to thyself, and take care of thyself, For nobody cares for thee. " So I turned to myself and I answered myself In the self-same reverie, Look to myself, or look not to myself, The self-same thing will it be." ELECTION (eligo, to choose), is an elicit act of will, by which, after deliberation of several means to an end proposed by the * Reid's Works, note B, sect. 1, p. 806. Stewart, Dissert., part ii., >. 161, and p. 175. Intdl, P0w. } essay ii., chp. 8. 154 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ELECTION understanding, the will elects one rather than any other. Vo lition has reference to the end, election is of the means. Ac- cording to others, no distinction should be taken between election and volition ; as to will an end is the same act as to choose the means. But an end may be accomplished by dif- ferent means of one or other of which there is election. Aristotle 1 says, "moral preference, rtpocupfotj, then, relates to those things only which may be accomplished by our own exertions ; it is appetite or affection, combined with and modi- fied by reason ; and conversant not about ends, but about the best means by which they may be attained. Volition, on the contrary, is conversant only about ends ; which consist, ac- cording to some, in real, and according to others, in seeming good." ELEMENT (ototxn)>- The Stoic definition of an element is, " that out of which, as their first principle, things generated ire made, and into which, as their last remains, they are .csolved." 4 " We call that elementary which in a composition cannot be divided into heterogeneous parts thus the elements of sound constitute sound, and the last parts into which you divide it parts which you cannot divide into other sounds of a different kind. The last parts into which bodies can be divided parts which cannot be divided into parts of a different kind, are the elements of bodies. The elements of every being are its con- stitutive principle." 3 "Elements are -fa ci/wtap^cWa otVia the inherent or inexist- ing causes, such as matter and form. There are other causes, such as the tribe of efficient causes, which cannot be called elements, because they make no part of the substances which they generate or produce. Thus the statuary is no part of his statue ; the painter of his picture. Hence it appears that all elements are causes, but not all causes elements"* And in the chap, he says, " In form and matter we place the elements of natural substance." Materia prima, or matter without form fay, was an element ready to receive form. This seems to be the use of the word Ethics, book Hi., chap. 3, 4. a Diog. Laert., vii., 176. Artet., Metaphys., lib. iy., c. 3. Harris, Philosoph. Arrang^ chap. 5, not*. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHT. 155 ELEMENT - as retained in the communion service. Bread and wine are elements ready to receive the form of the body and blood of Christ. " Like the elements of the material world, the basea of the sacred natures into which they were transformed." * See Doublado's Letters. " The elementes be those originall thynges unmyxt and un- compounde, of whose temperance and myxture all other thynges having corporal substance be compact ; of them be foure, that is to say, earth, water, ayre, and fyre." 2 Element is applied analogically to many things ; as to letters, the elements of words; to words the elements of speech; and in general to the principles or first truths or rules of any sc'.ence or art. ELEMENTOLOGY. V. METHODOLOGY. ELICIT (elicio, to draw out), is applied to acts of will which are produced directly by the will itself, and are contained within it ; as velle aid nolle. An elicit act of will is either election or volition the latter having reference to ends, and the former to means. ELIMINATION (elimino, to throw out), in Mathematics, is the process of causing a function to disappear from an equation, the solution of which would be embarrassed by its presenc? there. In other writings the correct signification is, "the ex trusion of that which is superfluous or irrelevant." Thus ; Sir W. Hamilton 8 says : " The preparatory step of the dis- cussion was, therefore, an elimination of those less precise and appropriate significations, which, as they would at best only afford a remote genus and difference, were wholly incompe- tent for the purpose of a definition." It is frequently used in the sense of eliciting, but incor- rectly. EMANATION (emano, to flow from). According to several systems of philosophy and religion which have prevailed in the East, all the beings of which the universe is composed, whether body or spirit, have proceeded from, and are parts of, the Divine Being or substance. This doctrine of emanation ia 1 Hampden, On Scholastic Philosophy, lect. vii. Sir T. Elyot, Castel of Health, I i. In Edin. Rev., April, 1833. 156 VOCABULARY CE PHILOSOPHY. EMANATION to be found in the systems of Zoroaster, the Gnostics, an Neo-Platonicians. It differs little, if at all, from Pantheism. EMINENTLY, F. VIRTUAL. EMOTION (emoveo, to move out), is often used as synonymous with feeling. Strictly taken, it means " a state of feeling which, while it does not spring directly from an affection of body, manifests its existence and character by some sensible effect upon the body." An emotion differs from a sensation, by its not originating in a state of body ; and from a cognition, by its being pleasu- rable or painful. Emotions, like other states of feeling, imply knowledge. Something beautiful or deformed, sublime or ridiculous, is known and contemplated ; and on the contemplation, springs up the appropriate feeling, followed by the characteristic ex- pression of countenance, or attitude, or manner. In themselves considered, emotions l can scarcely be called springs of action. They tend rather, while they last, to fix attention on the objects or occurrences which have excited them. In many instances, however, emotions are succeeded by desires to obtain possession of the objects which awaken them, or to remove ourselves from the presence of such objects. When an emotion is thus succeeded by some degree of desire, it forms, according to Lord Kames, a passion, and becomes, according to its nature, a powerful and permanent spring of action. Emotions, then, are awakened through the medium of the intellect, and are varied and modified by the conception we form of the objects to which they refer. Emotions manifest their existence and character by sensible effects upon the body. Emotions, in themselves, and by themselves, lead to quies- cence and contemplation, rather than activity. But they com- bine with springs of action, and give to them a character and " The feelings of beauty, grandeur, and whatever else is comprehended under the name of taste, do not lead to action, but terminate in delightful contemplation, whicfc constitutes the essential distinction between them and the moral sentiments, to which, in some points of view, they may doubtless be likened." Mackintosh, Disseit p. 238. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 157 EMOTION a colouring. What is said to be done from surprise or shame, has its proper spring the surprise or shame being con- comitant. 1 EMPIRIC, EMPIRICISM. Among the Greek physicians those who founded their practice on experience called themselves empirics (f'^rfstpixoi,') ; those who relied on theory, methodists and those who held a middle course, dogmatists . The term empiricism became naturalized in England when the writings of Galen and other opponents of the empirics were in repute, and hence it was applied generally to any ignorant pretender to knowledge. It is now used to denote that kind of knowledge which is the result of expe- rience. Aristotle applies the terms historical and empirical in the same sense. Historical knowledge is the knowledge that a thing is. Philosophical knowledge is the knowledge of its cause, or why it is. The Germans laugh at our phrase philo- sophical transactions, and say, " Socrates brought down philo- sophy from the clouds but the English have brought her down to the dunghill." Empiricism allows nothing to be true nor certain but what is given by experience, and rejects all knowledge a priori. In antiquity the Ionian school may be said to have been sensualist or empirical. The saying of Heraclitus that nothing is, but that all things are beginning to be, or are in a continual flux, amounts to a denial of the persistence of substance. De- mocritus and the atomists, if they admitted the substance of atoms, denied the fundamental laws of the human mind. And the teaching of Protagoras, that sense is knowledge, and man the measure of all things, made all science individual and relative. The influence of Plato and Aristotle re-esta- blished the foundation of true philosophy, and empiricism was regarded as scepticism. In the middle ages empiricism was found only among the physicians and alchemists, and was not the badge of any school of philosophy. Empiricism, as applied to the philosophy of Locke, means that he traces all knowledge to experience, ^rtftpta. Expe- 1 See Dr. Chalmers, Sketches of Ment. and Mor. Phil., p. 88. 15 158 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. EMPIRIC - rience, according to him, included sensation and reflection. The French philosophers, Condillac and others, rejected re- flection as a distinct source of knowledge ; and their doctrine, to distinguish it from that of Locke, is called sensualism. Ideology gives nothing to the mind but sensations remembered or generalized, which it calls ideas. But Reid and the common sense philosophers, as well as Cousin and the rationalist philosophers, hold that the mind has primary beliefs, or universal and necessary ideas, which are the ground of all experience and knowledge. V. EXPERIENCE. Empirical or experimental "is an epithet used by Madame de Stae'l and other writers on German philosophy, to distin- guish what they call the philosophy of sensation, from that of Plato and of Leibnitz. It is, accordingly, generally, if not always, employed by them in an unfavourable sense. In this country, on the contrary, the experimental or inductive philo- sophy of the human mind denotes those speculations concern- ing mind, which, rejecting all hypothetical theories, rest solely on phenomena for which we have the evidence of conscious- ness. It is applied to the philosophy of Reid, and to all that is truly valuable in the metaphysical works of Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume." ' EMULATION (cemulus, striving; from a^tt-XXa, a strife), is the desire of superiority. It is one of those primitive desires which manifest themselves in very early years. It prompts, when properly directed and regulated, to the most strenuous and persevering exertion. Its influence in the carrying for- ward of education is most important. ENDS. Ends are of two kinds, according to Aristotle, 2 lytpyfiat, operations ; ?pya, productions. An i vi pyna is the end, when the object of a man's acting is the pleasure or advantage in being so employed, as in music, dancing, contemplation, &c., which produce nothing, generally speaking, beyond the plea,- sure which the act affords. An epyov is something which is produced beyond the operation or energy ; thus, tho shoe is the tpyov produced by the eve pysta of shoe-making. 8 This corresponds to Adam Smith's distinction of labour as 1 Stewart, Dissert., pt. ii., p. 146, note. * Eih., lib. i., cap. 1. 3 Paul, Analysis of Arist., p. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 159 ENDS productive or unproductive, according as it gives or does not give a material product. An end is that for the sake of which an action is done. Hence it has been said to be, principium in intentione tf, ter- minus in executione. When one end has been gained, it may be the means of gaining some other end. Hence it is that ends have be distinguished, as supreme and ultimate, or subordinate a. d intermediate. That which is sought for its own sake, is the supreme and ultimate end of those actions which are done with a view to it. That which is sought for the sake of some other end, is a subordinate and intermediate end. Ends as ultimate, are distinguished into the end simpliciter \iltimus, and ends which are ultimate secundum quid. An end which is the last that is successively aimed at, in a series of actions, is called ultimate secundum quid. But that which is aimed at, exclusively for its own sake, and is never regarded as a means to any other end, is an ultimate end, simply an 1 absolutely. See Edwards, 1 Cicero. 2 ENS is either ens reale or ens rationis. Ens Rationis. That which has no existence but in the idea which the mind forms of it ; as a golden mountain. Ens Reale, in philosophical language, is taken late et stride, and is distinguished as ens potentiate, or that which may exist, and ens actuate, or that which does exist. It is sometimes taken as the concrete of essentia, and signifies what has essence and may exist as a rose in winter. Sometimes as the participle of esse, and then it signifies what actually exists. Ens with- out intellect is res, a thing. ENTELECHY (!rf exka, from ivtsiJs, perfect ; ***/, to have : and r&oj, an end ; in Latin perfectihabia] . "In one of the books of the Pythagoreans, viz., Ocellus Lucanus, Ilspt *ov rtdv-tos, the word awteteia, is used in the same sense. H*noe it has been thought that this was borrowed from the Pj cha- goreans." 3 1 Dissertation concerning the End for which God created the World. * De Finibus Bonorum et Malorwn. * Monboddo, Ancient Metaphys., b. 1., ch. 3, p. 16, note. 160 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY ENTELECHY Cicero 1 interprets it to mean guandam quasi continuatam motionem et perennem. Melancthon 2 gives two interpretations of Endelechy, as he writes it. He says that ii/foteglf signifies continuus, and 'M&Jgtim continuitas. According to him, Aristotle used it as synonymous with Ivepyfta. Hence Cicero translated it by continuous movement or agitation. Argyropolus blames Cicero for this, and explains it as meaning " interior perfec- tion," as if it were to ivtb$ -ttteiovv. But Melancthon thinks Cicero's explanation in accordance with the philosophy of Aristotle. According to others, IvfojiEgeta means continuance, and is a totally different word from tVi'sto'^Eta, which means actu- ality. 9 According to Leibnitz, entelecneia is derived apparently from the Greek word which signifies perfect, and therefore the cele- brated Hermolaus Barbarus expressed it in Latin, word for word, by perfectihabia, for act is the accomplishment of power ; and he needed not to have consulted the devil, as he did, they say, to tell him this much. 4 " You may give the name of entelechies to all simple sub- stances or created monads, for they have in them a certain perfection ("^oust to tvt&e$), they have a sufficiency (avtdpxfia) which makes them the source of their internal actions, and sc to say incorporeal automatons." 5 He calls a monad an autar- chic automaton, or first entelechie having life and force in itself. "Entelechy is the opposite to potentiality, yet would be ill translated by that which we often oppose to potentiality, actuality. l8o$ expresses the substance of each thing viewed in repose its form or constitution; tvspyeia its substance, considered as active and generative ; ivteiJzsta, seems to be the synthesis or harmony of these two ideas. The effectio of Cicero, therefore, represents the most important side of it, bul not the whole/' 8 1 Tuscul. Qucest., lib. i., quaest. 1. a Opera, torn, xiii., pp. 12-14, edit. 1846. Arist. Metaphys., Bohn's Libr.,pp. 68, 301; Donaldsoi, New Cratylus, pp. 339-344, 4 Leibnitz, Theodic&e, partie i.. sect. 87. Monadologie, sect. 18. Maurice, Mar. and Metaphys. Phil, note, p. 191. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 161 ENTELECHY- ce qui a en soi sa fin, qui par consequent nft releve que de soi meme, et constitue une unite indivisible. 1 "L'Entelechie est oppose a la simple puissance, comme la forrne a la matiere, Petre au possible. C'est elle qui, par la vertu de la fin, constitue 1'essence meme des choses, et im- prime le mouvement a la matiere aveugle ; et c'est en ce sena qu' Aristote a pu donner de Tame cette celebre definition, qu'elle est 1'entelechie ou forme premiere de tout corps naturel qui possede la vie en puissance." 2 Aristotle defines the soul of man to be an entelechy ; a defi- nition of which Dr. Reid said he could make no sense. V. SOUL, ACTUAL. ENTHUSIASM (6 06j iv r^w} "is almost a synonym of genius ; the moral life in the intellectual light, the will in the reason ; and without it, says Seneca, nothing truly great was ever achieved." 8 The word occurs both in Plato and Aristotle. According to its composition it should signify " divine inspiration." But it is applied in general to any extraordinary excitement or exaltation of mind. The raptures of the poet, the deep medi- tations of the philosopher, the heroism of the warrior, the devotedness of the martyr, and the ardour of the patriot, are so many different phases of enthusiasm. "According to Plu- tarch, there be five kinds of Enthusiasm : Divinatory, Bac- chical (or corybantical), Poetical (under which he compre- hends musical also), Martial and Erotical, or Amatorie." 4 ENTHYMEME (fa Qv^, in the mind), is an irregular syllogism in which one of the premisses is not expressed, but kept in mind ; as " every animal is a substance, therefore, every man is a substance ;" in which the premiss, " man is an animal," is suppressed. " This is the vulgar opinion regarding Aris- totle's Enthymeme, but, as I have shown, not the correct." 5 1 Cousin, note to Transl. of Aristotle's Metaphysics, book xii., p. 212. Diet, des Sciences Pfiilosoph. * Coleridge, Notes on Eng. Div., TD!. i., p. 338. 4 A Treatise concerning Enthusiasm by Meric Casaubon, D. D., chap. 1. Shaftesbury, y/ Enthusiasm. See also Natural Hist, of Enthusiasm, by Isaac Taylor; Madame de Stael, Germany; Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., book iv., chap. 19; More, Enthi* tiasmus Triumphatus. free Edin. Rev., vol. lyii , p. 221 ; Sir William Hamilton, Reid? s Works, p. 704, noift 15* M 162 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPIir. ENTHYMEME- Aristotle's Syllogism was an inference in matter necessary , his Enthymeme was an inference in matter probable. 1 The famous expression of Descartes, Cogito ergo sum, is, as to form, an enthymeme. It was not put, however, as a proof of exist- ence, but as meaning that the fact of existing is enclosed in the consciousness of thinking. ENTITY (entitas), in the scholastic philosophy was synonymous with essence or form. To all individuals of a species there is something in com- mon a nature which transiently invests all, but belongs ex- clusively to none. This essence, taken by itself and viewed apart from any individual, was what the scholastics called an entity. Animals had their entity, which was called animality. Men had their entity, which was called humanity. It denoted the common nature of the individuals of a species or genus It was the idea or model according to which we conceived oi them. The question whether there was a reality correspond- ing to this idea, divided philosophers into Nominalists and Realists q. v. It is used to denote anything that exists, as an object of sense or of thought. V. ENS. ENUNCIATION, in Logic, includes the doctrine of propositions q. v. EPICHEIREMA (a'rtt^stpsw, to put one's hand to a thing), an attempted proof is a syllogism having the major or minor premiss, or both, confirmed by an incidental proposition called a Prosyllogism. This proposition, with the premiss it is at- tached to, forms an enthymeme. The incidental proposition is the expressed premiss of the enthymeme, and the premiss it is attached to is the conclusion : e. g., All sin is dangerous. Covetousness is sin (for it is a transgression of the law), therefore, It is dangerous. The minor premiss is an enthymeme. " Covetousness is a transgression of the law ; therefore, it is sin." 1 Bachman, p. 260. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 163 EPICUREAN. A follower of Epicurus, a philosopher, who was H>rn 341, B. c. " The system of Epicurus agreed with those of Plato, Aris- totle, and Zeno, in making virtue consist in acting in the most suitable manner to obtain primary objects of natural desire. It differed from all of them in two other respects ; 1st, in the account which it gave of these primary objects of natural desire ; and, 2dly, in the account which it gave of the excel- lence of virtue, or the reason why that quality ought to be esteemed." l EPISTEMOLOGY (xoyoj *%$ irturtfaw, the science of true know- ing) "the doctrine or theory of knowing, just as Ontology* is the doctrine or theory of being." * EPISYLLOGISM. In a chain of reasoning one of the premisses of the main argument may be the conclusion of another argu- ment, in that case called a Prosyllogism ; or the conclusion of the main argument may be a premiss to a supplementary one, which is called an episyllogism. The question is, " Has A. B. been poisoned?" and the syllogism is, "A man who has taken a large quantity of arsenic has been poisoned, and A. B. is found to have done so, therefore, he has been poisoned." With the addition of a prosyllogism and an epi- syllogism the meaning would run "A man who has taken arsenic has been poisoned ; and A. B. has taken arsenic, for tests discover it (Prosyl.}, therefore, A. B. has been poisoned, and, therefore, there cannot be a verdict of death from natural causes (EpisylL}." EQUANIMITY. F. MAGNANIMITY. EQUITY (f'rttftxna, or to i), is described by Aristotle 3 as that kind of justice which cor- rects .the irregularities or rigours of strict legal justice. All written laws must necessarily speak in general terms, and must leave particular cases to the discretion of the parties. An equitable, man will not press the letter of the law in his own favour, when, by doing so, he may do injustice to hia neighbour. The ancients, in measuring rusticated building, 1 Smith, Theory of Mor. Sent., part vii., vect. 2. See Qassendi, De Vita Moribus at Doctrina, Epicuri, 4to, Lyons, 1647. Ferrier, Inst of Metaphys., p. 46. Ethics, book v chap. 10. 164 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. EQUITY in which the stones alternately projected and receded, used a leaden rule. Equity, like this leaden rule, bends to the specialities of every case, when the iron rule of legal justice cannot do so. " Equity contemplates the mass of rights growing out of the law of nature; and justice contemplates the mass of rights growing out of the law of society. Equity treats of our dues as equals; justice treats of our dues as fellow-subjects. The purpose of equity is respect for humanity ; the purpose of justice is respect for property. Equity withstands oppression ; justice withstands injury." 1 V. JUSTICE. " In the most general sense we are accustomed to call that equity which, in human transactions, is founded in natural justice, in honesty and right, and which properly arises ex cequo et bono. In this sense it answers precisely to the defi- nition of justice or natural law, as given by Justinian in his Pandects, ' Justitia est constant et perpetua voluntas jus suum cuique tribuendi.' And the word jus is used in the same sense in the Roman law, when it is declared that jus est ars boni et cequi, where it means that we are accustomed to call jurispru- dence." This is natural jurisprudence. In this sense equity is coincident with it. But Wolfius says, " Justum appellatur qu-icquidjit secundum jus perfectum alterius ; cequum vero quod secundum im perfectum." 2 EQUIVOCAL or HOMONYMOUS words have different signifi- cations, as bull, the animal, the Pope's letter, a blunder. Gallus, in Latin, a cock, or a Frenchman. Canis, a dog, or the dog-star. They originate in the multiplicity of things and the poverty of language. Words signifying different things may be used, First, By accident ; or, second, With intention. 1st, It haa happened, that Sandwich is the name of a peer of a town of a cluster of Islands, and of a slice of bread and meat. 2d, There are four ways in which a word may come to be used equivocally with knowledge or intention : 1. On account of the resemblance of the things signified, aa when a statue or a picture is called a man. 1 Taylor, Synonyms. a Story, Comment, on Equity Jurisp., pp. 1-3. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 165 EQUIVOCAL 2. On account of proportion, as when a point is called t principle in respect to a line, and unity a principle in respect to number. 3. On account of common derivation thus, a medical man, a medical book, a medical instrument, are all derived from medicine. 4. On account of common reduction or reference thus, a healthful medicine, healthful pulse, healthful herb, all referring to human health. Some of these are intermediate between equivocal and analo- gous terms, particularly No. 4. An Equivocal noun, in Logic, has more than one significa- tion, each of its significations being equally applicable to several objects, as pen, post. " Strictly speaking, there is hardly a word in any language which may not be regarded as in this sense equivocal; but the title is usually applied only in any case when a word is employed equivocally; e. g., when the middle term is used in different senses in the two pre- mises, or where a proposition is liable to be understood in dif- ferent senses, according to the various meaning of one of its terms." * EQTJI VOCATION (ceque, voco, to use one word in different senses). " How absolute the knave is ! We must speak by the card, or equivocation will undo us." Hamlet, act v., scene 1. In morals, to equivocate is to offend against the truth by using language of double meaning, in one sense, with the intention of its being understood in another or in either sense according to circumstances. The ancient oracles gave responses of ambiguous meaning. Aio, te, jEacide, Romanos vincere posse may mean either ; " I say that thou, descend- ant of ^lacus, canst conquer the Romans ;" or, "I say that the Romar s can conquer thee, descendant of JEacus." La- tronem Petrum occidisse, may mean, " a robber slew Peter :" or, " Peter slew a robber." Edwardum occidere nolite timere bonum est. The message penned by Adam Orleton, Bishop of Hereford, and sent by 1 Whately, Log., b. iii., g 10. 166 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. EQUIVOCATION Q. Isabella to the gaolers of her husband, Edw. II. Being written without punctuation, the words might be read two ways ; with a comma after timere, they would mean, " Ed- ward, to kill fear not, the deed is good ;" but with it after nolite, the meaning would be, " Edward kill not, to fear the deed is good." Henry Garnet, who was tried for his participation in the Gunpowder Plot, thus expressed himself in a paper dated 20th March, 1605-6 : " Concerning equivocation, this is my opinion ; in moral affairs, and in the common intercourse of life, when the truth is asked among friends, it is not law- ful to use equivocation, for that would cause great mischief in society wherefore, in such cases, there is no place for equivocation. But in cases where it becomes necessary to an individual for his defence, or for avoiding any injustice or loss, or for obtaining any important advantage, without danger or mischief to any other person, then equivocation is lawful."* J)r. Johnson would not allow his servant to say he was not at home when he really was. "A servant's strict regard for truth/' said he, " must be weakened by such a practice. A philosopher may know that it is merely a form of denial, but few servants are such nice distinguishers. If I accustom a servant to tell a lie for me, have I not reason to apprehend that he will tell many lies for himself?' 2 There may be equivocation in sound as well as in sense. It is told that the queen of George III. asked one of the dig- nitaries of the church, if ladies might knot on Sunday ? His reply was, Ladies may not ; which, in so far as sound goes, is equivocal. V. RESERVATION. ERROR. Knowledge being to be had only of visible certain truth, error is not a fault of our knowledge, but a mistake of our judgment, giving assent to that which is not true. 3 " The true," said Bossuet, after Augustine, " is that which is, the false is that which is not." To err is to fail of attaining 1 Jardine, Gunpowder Plot, p. 233. Boswell, Letters, p. 32. Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., b. iv., c. 20. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 167 ERROR- to the true, which we do when we think that to be which is not or think that not to be which is. Error is not in things themselves, but in the mind of him who errs, or judges not according to the truth. Our faculties, when employed within their proper sphere, are fitted to give us the knowledge of truth. We err by a wrong use of them. The causes of error are partly in the objects of knowledge, and partly in ourselves. As it is only the true and real which exists, it is only the true and real which can reveal itself. But it may not reveal itself fully and man, mistaking a part for the whole, or partial evidence for complete evidence, falls into error. Hence it is, that in all error there is some truth. To discover the relation which this partial truth bears to the whole truth, is to discover the origin of the error. The causes in ourselves which lead to error, arise from wrong views of our faculties, and of the conditions under which they operate. Indolence, precipitation, passion, custom, authority, and education, may also contribute to lead us into error. 1 V. FALSITY. ESOTERIC and EXOTERIC (eerwflev, within; ?|, without). " The philosophy of the Pythagoreans, like that of the other sects, was divided into the exoteric and the esoteric; the open, taught to all; and the secret, taught to a select number." 2 According to Origen, Aulus Gellius, Porphyry, and Jamblichus, the distinction of esoteric and exoteric among the Pythagoreans Avas applied to the disciples according to the degree of initiation to which they had attained, being fully admitted into the society, or being merely pos- tulants.* Plato is said to have had doctrines which he taught publicly to all and other doctrines which he taught only to a few, in secret. There is no allusion to such a distino 1 Bacon, Novum Organitm, lib. i.; Malebranch*, Recherche de la Veritc; Descarte^ On Method ; Locke, Essay on Huvi. Understand., b. vi., c. 20. * Warburton, Div. Leg., book ii., note BB. Hitter, Hist, de Philosophic, torn, i., p. 298, of French translation. 168 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ESOTERIC- tion of doctrines in the writings of Plato. Aristotle 1 speaks of opinions of Plato which were not written. But it does not follow that these were secret 'Ey z'otj foyo{ivot,$ dypa'cj SoyiJUHSiv. They may have been oral. Aristotle himself frequently speaks of some of his writings as exoteric; and others as acroamatic, or esoteric. The former treat of the same subjects as the latter, but in a popular and elementary way ; while the esoteric are more scientific in their form and matter. 2 V. ACROAMATICAL. ESSENCE (essentia, from essens, the old participle of esse, to be introduced into the Latin tongue by Cicero). " Sicut ab eo quod est sapere, vocatur sapientia; sic db eo quod est esse, vocatur essentia." Augutine. 8 " Totum illud per quod res est, et est id quod est." Chauvin. 4 " Essence may be taken for the very being of anything, whereby it is what it is." 6 Mr. Locke distinguishes the real and the nominal essence. The nominal essence depends upon the ral essence ; thus the nominal essence of gold, is that complex idea which the word "gold" represents; viz., "a body yellow, heavy, malleable, fusible, and fixed;" but its real essence is tho constitution of its insensible parts, on which these qualities and all its other properties depend, which is wholly unknown to us. " The essence of things is made up of that common nature wherein it is founded, and of that distinctive nature by which \t is formed. This latter is commonly understood when we apeak of the formality or formalis ratio (the formal con- sideration) of things ; and it is looked upon as being more peculiarly the essence of things, though 'tis certain that a triangle is as truly made up in part of figure, its common nature, as of the three lines and angles, which are distinctive and peculiar to it. Phyt., lib. iv., c. 2. Ravaisson, Essai sur la Mdaphysique (TAristote, torn, i., c. 1 ; Tucker, Light nj yature, vol. ii., chap. 2. De Civ., lib. xii., c. 11. 4 Lexicon PhUosopk. Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., book iii , chap. 3, sect. 15. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 169 ESSENCE- " The essence of a thing most properly and strictly is, what does first and fundamentally constitute that thing, and that only is strictly essential which is either the whole or some part of the constituent essence; as, in man to be a living creature, or to be capable of religion ; his being capable of celestial happiness, may be called essential in the way of consequence, or consecutively, not constituency." l "Whatever makes a thing to be what it is, is properly called its essence. Self-consciousness, therefore, is the essence of the mind, because it is in virtue of self-consciousness that the mind is the mind that a man is himself." 2 " All those properties or qualities,, without which a thing could not exist, or without which it would be entirely altered, make up what is called the essence of a thing. Three lines joining are the essence of a triangle ; if one is removed, what remains is no longer a triangle." 8 The essential attributes, faciunt esse entia, cause things to be what they are. The Greeks had but one word for essence and substance, viz., ovtfta. The word VTtoatasi? was latterly introduced. By Aristotle ovca'a was applied 1. To thefoi'm, or those qualities which constitute the specific nature of every being. 2. To the matter, in which those qualities manifest themselves to us the substratum or subject (vttoxetfitvov}. 3. To the concrete or individual being (avvohov], constituted by the union of the two preceding. In the scholastic philosophy a distinction began to be esta- blished between essence and substance. Substance was applied to the abstract notion of matter the undetermined subject or substratum of all possible forms, to vrtoxs^svov ; Essence to the qualities expressed in the definition of a thing, or those ideas which represent the genus and species. Descartes 4 de- fined substance as " that which exists so that it needs nothing but itself to exist" a definition applicable to deity only. Essence he stripped of its logical signification, and made it 1 Oldfield, Essay on Reason, p. 184. * Ferrier, Inst. of Metaphys., p. 245. ' Taylor, Elements of Thought. 4 Princip. Philosoph., pars. 4, sect. 1. 16 170 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ESSENCE- the foundation of all those qualities and modes which we per- ceive in matter. Among the attributes of every substance there is one only which deserves the name of essence, and on which the others depend as modifications as extension, in matter, and thought, in mind. He thus identified essence and substance. But extension supposes something extended, and thought something that thinks. With Leibnitz essence and substance were the same, viz., force or power. Essence is analogically applied to things having no real ex- istence and then it retains its logical sense and expresses the qualities or ideas which should enter into the definition ; as when we speak of the essence of an equilateral triangle being three equal sides and three equal angles. This is the only sense in which Kant recognizes the word. In popular lan- guage essence is used to denote the nature of a thing. ETERNITY is a negative idea expressed by a positive term. It supposes a present existence, and denies a beginning or an end of that existence. Hence the schoolmen spoke of eternity, a parte ante, and a parte post. The Scotists maintained that eternity is made up of successive parts, which drop, so to speak, one from another. The Thomists held that it is simple dura- tion, excluding the past and the future. Plato said, time is the moving shadow of eternity. The common symbol of eternity is a circle. It may be doubted how far it is competent to the human mind to compass in thought the idea of absolute begin- ning, or the idea of absolute ending. On man's conception of eternity, see an Examination oj Mr. Maurice's Theory of a Fixed State out of Time. By Mr. Mansel. "What is eternity f can aught Paint its duration to the thought? Tell all the sand the ocean laves, Tell all its changes, all its waves, Or, tell with more laborious pains, The drops its mighty mass contains Be this astonishing account Augmented with the full amount Of all the drops that clouds have shed, Where'er their wat'ry -fleeces spread, Through all time's long protracted tour, from Adam to the present hour; VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 171 ETERNITY Still short the sum, nor can it vie With the more numerous years that lie Embosomed in eternity, Attend, man, with a\ve divine, For this eternity is thine." Gibbons. ETERNITY (OF GOD). Dens non est duratio vel spatium, sed durat et adest. This scholium of Sir Isaac Newton con- tains the germ of Dr. Clarke's Demonstration of the Being of God. Time and space are qualities, and imply a substance. The ideas of time and space necessarily force themselves upon our minds. We cannot think of them as not existing. And as we think of them as infinite, they are the infinite qualities of an infinite substance, that is, of God, necessarily existing. ETHICS " extend to the investigation of those principles by which moral men are governed ; they explore the nature and excel- lence of virtue, the nature of moral obligation, on what it is founded, and what are the proper motives of practice ; moral- ity in the more common acceptation, though not exclusively, relates to the practical and obligatory part of ethics. Ethics principally regard the theory of morals." * Aristotle 2 says that ^0oj, which signifies, moral virtue, is derived from e Oo$, custom ; since it is by repeated acts that virtue, which is a moral habit, is acquired. Cicero 8 says, Quia pertinet ad mores, quod y9os illi vacant, nos earn partem philosophic, De moribus, appellare solemus: sed decet augentem linguam Latinam nominare Moralem. Ethics is thus made synonymous with morals or moral philosophy q. v. Ethics taken in its widest signification, as including the moral sciences or natural jurisprudence, may be divided into 1. Moral Philosophy, or the science of the relations, rights, and duties, by which men are under obligation towards God, themselves, and their fellow-creatures. 2. The Law of Nations, or the science of those laws by which all nations, as constituting the universal society of the human race, are bound in their mutual relations to one another. 3. Public or Political Law, or the science of the relations between the different ranks in society. 1 Cogan, Ethic. Treat, on Passions, In trod. Etk., lib. 2. De fato, cap. 1. 172 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOtSf. ETHICS 4. Civil Law, or the science of those laws, rights. And duties, by which individuals in civil society are bound, is commer- cial, criminal, judicial, Roman, or modern. 5. History, Profane, Civil, and Political. 1 ETHNOGRAPHY (!0w* and yp a<^), and ETHNOLOGY bear the same relation almost to one another as geology and geo- graphy. While ethnography contents herself with the mere description and classification of the races of man, ethnology, or the science of races, " investigates the mental and physical differences of mankind, and the organic laws upon which they depend ; seeks to deduce from these investigations principles of human guidance, in all the important relations of social and national existence." "Ethnology treats of the different races into which the human family is subdivided, and indicates the bonds which bind them all together." 2 ETHOLOGY (i$0of, or E0oj, and Xoyoj), is a word coming to be. used in philosophy. Sir William Hamilton has said that Aristotle's Rhetoric is the best ethology extant, meaning that it contains the best account of the passions and feel- ings of the human heart, and of the means of awakening and interesting them so as to produce persuasion or action. Mr. Mill 3 calls ethology the science of the formation of cha- racter. ETJDEMONISM (suSat^ona, happiness), is a term applied by Ger- man philosophers to that system of morality which places the foundation of virtue in the production of happiness. 4 This name, or rather Hedonism, may be applied to the sys- tem of Chrysippus and Epicurus. EURETIC or ETTRISTIC F. OSTENSIYE. EVIDENCE (e and video, to see, to make see). "Evidence sig- nifies that which demonstrates, makes clear, or ascertains the truth of the very fact or point in issue, either on the one side or the other." 6 1 Peemans, Introd. ad P/rilosoph., p. 96. 9 Donaldson, New Cratylus, p. 13. Ethnological Journal. June 1, 1848 ; Edin. JKev., Oct., 1844. Log., book vi., chap. 5. Whewell, Pref. to Mackintosh''! IHsstrt., p. 2ft Blackstone, Comment., b. iii., c. 23. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 173 EVIDENCE Evidence is the ground or reason of knowledge. It is the light by which the mind apprehends things presented to it. Fulgor quidam mentis assensum rapiens. In an act of knowledge there is the object or thing known, and the subject or person knowing. Between the faculties of the person knowing and the qualities of the thing known, there is some proportion or relation. The qualities manifest themselves to the faculties, and the result is knowledge ; or the thing is made evident that is, it not only exists, but is revealed as existing. There are as many kinds of evidence as there are powers or faculties by which we attain to truth. But according as truth may be attained, more or less directly, evidence is distinguished into intuitive and deductive. Intuitive evidence comprehends all first truths, or principles of common sense, as, " every change implies the operation of a cause" axioms, in science, as, "things equal to the same thing are equal to one another " and the evidence of con- sciousness, whether by sense, or memory, or thought, as when we touch, or remember, or know, or feel anything. Evidence of this kind arises directly from the presence or contemplation of the object, and gives knowledge without any effort upon our parts. Deductive evidence is distinguished as demonstrative and probable. Demonstrative evidence rests upon axioms, or first truths, aud from which, by ratiocination, we attain to other truths. It is scientific, and leads to certainty. It admits not of de- grees ; and it is impossible to conceive the contrary of the truth which it establishes. Probable evidence has reference, not to necessary, but con tingent truth. It admits of degrees, and is derived from various sources ; the principal are the following, viz. : Expe- rience, Analogy, and Testimony q. v. 1 1 Glaisford, Essay on Principles of Evidence, 8vo, Edin., 1820; Campbell, Philosophy of Rhetoric, book i.; Gambier, On Moral Evidence, 8vo, Lond., 1824; Smedley, Moral &Mence, 8vo, Lend., 1850; Butler, Analogy, Introd. ; Lccke, Lnay on Hum. Undtr Hand., book iv., chap. 15. 16* 174 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. EVIL is the negation or contrary of good. " That which hath in it a fitness to promote its own preservation or well-being, is called good. And, on the contrary, that which is apt to hinde* it, is called evil." 1 " Every man calleth that which pleaseth, and is delightful to himself, good ; and that evil which displeaseth him." 2 Pleasure is^ for, or agreeable to, the nature of a sensible being, or a natural good; pain is unfit, or is a natural evil. " The voluntary application of this natural good and evil to any rational being, or the production of it by a rational being, is moral good and evil." 9 " Metaphysical evil consists simply in imperfection, physical evil in suffering, and moral evil in sin." 4 " Evil does not proceed from a principle of evil. Cold does not proceed from a principle of coldness, nor darkness from a principle of darkness. Evil is mere privation." * Evil is not a generation, but a degeneration ; and as Augus- tine often expresses it, it has not an efficient, but only a defi- cient cause. 6 Metaphysical evil is the absence or defect of powers and capacities, and the consequent want of the higher enjoyment which might have flowed from the full and perfect possession of them. It arises from the necessarily limited nature of all created beings. Physical evil consists in pain and suffering. It seems to be necessary as the contrast and heigh tener of pleasure or enjoy- ment, and is in many ways productive of good. Moral evil originates in the will of man, who could not have been capable of moral good without being liable to moral evil, a power to do right being, ex necessitate rei, a power to do wrong. The question concerning the origin of evil has been answered by 1. The doctrine of pre-existence, or that the evils we are here suffering are the punishments or expiations of moral delinquencies in a former state of existence. 2. The doctrine of the Manicheans which supposes two co-eternal and inde- Wilkins, Nat. Relig., book i. Hobbes, Hum. Nat., chap. 7. Kiag, Essay on Origin of EvU. translated by Law, cbap. 1, sect. 3, ntes, p. 38, fiftl k ;. Leibnitz, On Goodness of God, part 1, sept- 31. * Part 2, sect. 153. Dt, Civ. Pei, 1. 17, c. 7. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 175 EVIL- pendent agencies, the one the author of good, and the other of evil. 3. The doctrine of optimism, or, that evil is part of a system conducted by Almighty power, under the direction of infinite wisdom and goodness. 1 On the origin of evil, its nature, extent, uses, &c., see Plato, Cicero, and Seneca, Malebranche and Fenelon, Clarke and Leibnitz, Bledsoe, Theodicy; Young, Mystery; King, J. Miiller. EXAMPLE. V. ANALOGY. EXCLUDED MIDDLE. Principium exclusi medii inter duo contradictor -ia. " By the principle of * Contradiction' we are forbidden to think that two contradictory attributes can both be present in the same object; by the principle of 'Excluded Middle ' we are forbidden to think that both can be absent. The first tells us that both differentiae must be compatible with the genus : I cannot, for example, divide animal into ani- mate and inanimate. The second tells us that one or the other must be found in every member of the genus ; but in what manner this is actually carried out, whether by every existing member possessing one of the differentiae and none of the other, or by some possessing one and some the other, experi- ence alone can determine." 2 The formula of this principle is "Everything is either A or not A : everything is either a given thing, or something which is not that given thing." That there is no mean be- tween two contradictory propositions is proved by Aristotle. 5 " So that if we think a judgment true, we must abandon its contradictory ; if false, the contradictory must be accepted." 4 EXISTENCE (exsisto, to stand out). " The metaphysicians look upon existence as the formal and actual part of a being." 8 It has been called the actus entitativus, or that by which anything has its essence actually constituted in the nature of things. Essence pertains to the question, Quid est f Existence pertains to the question, An est ? 1 Stewart, Act. and Mar. Pow., b. iii., c. 3, sect. 1. * Mansel, Prolegom., Log., p. 193. 3 Metaphys., book iii., ch. 7. 4 Thomson, Laws of Thought, p. 295. H. More, Aniid. agt. Atheism, app, . 44. 176 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. EXISTENCE Essence formal, combined with essence substantial, givei existence ; for existence is essence clothed with form. 1 Existence is the actuality of essence. It is the act by which the essences of things are actually in rerum natura beyond their causes. Before things are produced by their causes, they are said to be in the objective power of their causes ; but when produced they are beyond their causes, and are actually in rerum natura as maggots before they are warmed into life by heat of the sun. Existentia est unio realis, sive actualis conjunctio partium sine attributorum quibus ens constat Existentia dicitur quasi rei extra causas et nihilum sistentia." 2 Existence and Essence. Incaute sibi finxerunt quidam, "Es- sentias quasdam easque eternas, fuisse sine existentia ;" si- quando autem subnascatur Res istiusmodi idece similis, tune censent existentiam essentice supervenientem, veram rem efficere, sive ens reale. Atque hinc, essentiam et existentiam dixerunt essendi principia, sive entis constitutiva. Quicquid vero essen- tiam habei veram, eodem tempore habet existentiam, eodem sensu quo habet essentiam, aut quo est ens, aid at/quid." 3 "Essence, in relation to God, must involve a necessary exist- ence; for we cannot in any measure duly conceive what he is, without conceiving that he is, and, indeed, cannot but be. The name he takes to himself is I am (or, I will be). This is the contraction of that larger name, I am what I am (or, I will be what I will be), which may seem closely to conjoin God's unquestionable necessary existence with his unsearchable, boundless essence." 4 EXOTERIC. V. ESOTERIC. EXPEDIENCY (Doctrine of ). Paley has said, "Whatever is expedient is right." V. UTILITY (Doctrine of). EXPERIENCE (t>*ipfo, experientia}. According to Aristotle, 8 from sense comes memory, but from repeated remembrance of the same thing we get experience. * Tiberghien, Essai des Connaiss. Hum., p. 739, note. * Peemans, Introd. ad Philosoph., 12mo, Lovan, 1840, p. 45. 1 Hutcheson, Mf.ta.phys., p. 4. 4 Oldfield, Essay on Reason, p. 48. See art. " Existence," iu French Encyclopedia, t| MODS. Turgot. Analyt. Poster., ii., 19. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 17? EXPERIENCE Wolf 1 used experience as co-extensive with the contents of consciousness, to include all of which the mind is conscious, as agent or patient, all that it does from within, as well as all that it suffers from without. " Experiri dicimur, quicquid ad perceptiones nostras attenti cognoscimus. Solem lucere, cog- noscimus ad ea attenti, qnce visit percipimus. Dude experientia constare dicitur, quod sol luceat. Similiter ad nosmet ipsos attenti cognoscimus, nos non posse assensum prsebere contra- dictoriis, v. g. non posse sumere tanquam verum, quod simul pluit et non pluit." "Experience, in its strict sense, applies to what has occurred within a person's own knowledge. Experience, in this sense of course, relates to the past alone. Thus it is that a man knows by experience what sufferings he has undergone in some disease ; or what height the tide reached at a certain time and place. More frequently the word is used to denote that judg- ment which is derived from experience in the primary sense, by reasoning from that in combination with other data. Thus a man may assert, on the ground of experience, that he was cured of a disorder by such a medicine that that medicine is gene- rally beneficial in that disorder ; that the tide may always bo expected, under such circumstances, to rise to such a height. Strictly speaking, none of these can be known by experience, but are conclusions from experience. It is in this sense only that experience can be applied to the future, or, which comes to the same thing, to any general fact ; as, e. g., when it is said that we know by experience that water exposed to a cer- tain temperature will freeze." 2 Mr. Locke 8 has assigned experience as the only and universal source of human knowledge. "Whence hath the mind all the materials of reason and knowledge ? To this I answer, in one word, from experience; in that, all our knowledge is founded, and from that ultimately derives itself. Our obser- vation, employed either about external sensible objects, or about the internal operations of our minds, perceived and re- flected on by ourselves, is that which supplies our under- standing with all the materials of thinking. These are thq 1 Philosoph. Rat., sect. 664. 3 WLatcly, Log., app. i. 3 Essay on Hum. Understand,, book ii., chap. .. 1*3 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. EXPERIENCE fountains of knowledge from whence all the ideas we hav6i or can naturally have, do spring that is, sensation and re- flection." In opposition to this view, according to which all human knowledge is a posteriori, or the result of experience, it is con- tended that man has knowledge d priori knowledge which experience neither does nor can give, and knowledge without which there could be no experience inasmuch as all the gene- ralizations of experience proceed and rest upon it. " No accumulation of experiments whatever can bring a general law home to the mind of man; because if we rest upon experi- ments,our conclusion can never logically pass beyond the bounds of our premises ; we can never infer more than we have proved ; and all the past, which we have not seen, and the future, which we cannot see, is still left open, in which new experiences may arise to overturn the present theory. And yet the child will believe at once upon a single 1 experiment. Why? Because a hand divine has implanted in him the tendency to generalize thus rapidly. Because he does it by an instinct, of which he can give no account, except that he is so formed by his Maker." 2 "We may have seen one circle, and investigated its proper- ties, but why, when our individual experience is so circum- scribed, do we assume the same relations of all? Simply because the understanding has the conviction intuitively that similar objects will have similar properties; it does not acquire this idea by sensation or custom; the mind develops it by its own intrinsic force it is a law of our faculties, ultimate and universal, from which all reasoning proceeds." 8 Experience, more especially in physical philosophy, is either active or passive, that is, it is constituted by observation and experiment. " Observationes fiunt spectando id quod natura per seipsam sponte exhibet. JExperimenta fiunt ponendo naturam in eat circumsiantias, in quibus debeat agere, et nobis ostendere id quod qucerimus." * 1 As having been once burnt by fire. Sewell, Christ. Mor., chap. 24. Dr. Mill, Essays, p. 337. 4 Boscovich, Note to Stay'g Poem, De Systematte. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. - EXPERIENCE These are more fully explained and characterized in the following passage from Sir John Herschel.' " The great, and indeed the only ultimate source of our knowledge of nature and its laws is experience; by which wo mean not the experience of one man only, or of one generation, but the accumulated experience of all mankind in all ages, registered in books, or recorded by tradition. But experience may be acquired in two ways : either, first, by noticing facts aa they occur, without any attempt to influence the frequency of their occurrence, or to vary the circumstances under which they occur ; this is observation : or, secondly, by putting in action causes and agents over which we have control, and purposely varying their combinations, and noticing what effects take place ; this is experiment. To these two sources we must look as the fountains of all natural science. It is not intended, however, by thus distinguishing observation from experiment, to place them in any kind of contrast. Essentially they are much alike, and differ rather in degree than in kind ; so that, perhaps, the terms passive and active observation might better express their distinction ; but it is, nevertheless, highly important to mark the different states of mind in inquiries carried on by their respective aids, as well as their different effects in pro- moting the progress of science. In the former, we sit still and listen to a tale, told us, perhaps obscurely, piecemeal, and at long intervals of time, with our attention more or less awake. It is only by after rumination that we gather its full import ; and often, when the opportunity is gone by, we have to regret that our attention was not more particularly directed to some point which, at the time, appeared of little moment, but of which we at length appreciate the importance. In the latter, on the other hand, we cross-examine our witness, and by comparing one part of his evidence with the other, while he is yet before us, and reasoning upon it in his presence, are enabled to put pointed and searching questions, the answer to which may at once enable us to make up our minds. Accord- ingly it has been found invariably, that in those departments of physics where the phenomena are beyond our control, of 1 On the Study of Nat. Phil., Lardner's Cyclop., No. xiv., p. 67. 180 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. EXPERIENCE into which experimental inquiry, from other causes, has net been carried, the progress of knowledge has been slow, uncer tain, and irregular ; while in such as admit of experiment, and in which mankind have agreed to its adoption, it has been rapid, sure, and steady." V. ANALOGY. EXPERIMENT. V. OBSERVATION. EXPERIMENTUM CRUCIS. A crucial or decisive experi- ment in attempting to interpret the laws of nature ; so called, by Bacon, from the crosses or way-posts used to point out roads, because they determine at once between two or more possible conclusions. Bacon 1 says, " Crucial instances are of this kind ; when in inquiry into any nature the intellect is put into a sort of equi- librium, so that it is uncertain to which of two, or sometimes more natures, the cause of the nature inquired into ought to be attributed or assigned, on account of the frequent and ordi- nary concurrence of more natures than one ; the instances of the cross show that the union of the one nature with the nature sought for is faithful and indissoluble ; while that of the other is varied and separable ; whence the question is limited, and that first nature received as the cause, and the other sent off and rejected.' 7 Sir G. Blane 2 notices that in chemistry a single experiment is conclusive, and the epithet experimentum crucis applied because the crucible derives its name from the figure of the cross being stamped upon it. A and B, two different causes, may produce a certain number of similar effects ; find some effect which the one produces and the other does not, and this will point out, as the direction- post (crux), at a point where two highways meet, which of these causes may have been in operation in any particular instance. Thus, many of the symptoms of the Oriental plague are common to other diseases ; but when the observer discovers the peculiar bubo or boil of the complaint, he has an instantia crucis which directs him immediately to its discovery. " If all that the senses present to the mind is sensations, Berkeley must be right ; but Berkeley assumed this premiss * JTov. Org., book ii., sect. 36. Med. Log., p. 30. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 181 EXPERIMENT CRUCIS without any foundation or any proof of it. The size and shape of things are presented to us by our senses, yet every one knows that size and shape are not sensations. " This I would therefore humbly propose as an expcrimen- tnm crucis, by which the ideal system must stand or fall ; and it brings the matter to a short issue. Extension, figure, and motion, may any one or all of them be taken for the sub- ject of this experiment. Either they are ideas of sensation, or they are not. If any one of them can be shown to be an idea of sensation, or to have the least resemblance to any sen- sation, I lay my hand upon my mouth, and give up all pre- tence to reconcile reason to common sense in this matter, and must suffer the ideal scepticism to triumph." l " If, in a variety of cases presenting a general resemblance, whenever a certain circumstance is present, a certain effedi follows, there is a strong probability that one is dependent on the other ; but if you can also find a case where the circum stance is absent from the combination, and the effect also dis- appears, your conclusion has all the evidence in its favour of which it is susceptible. When a decisive trial can be made by leaving out, in this manner, the cause of which we wish to trace the effect, or by insulating any substances so as to exclude all agents but those we wish to operate, or in any other way, such a decisive trial receives the title of experi- mentum crucis. One of the most interesting on record is that of Dr. Franklin, by which he established the identity of light- ning and the electricity of our common machines." 2 EXTENSION (extendo, to stretch from)." The notions acquired by the sense of touch, and by the movement of the body, compared with what is learnt by the eye, make up the idea expressed by the word extension."* Extension is that property of matter by which it occupies space ; it relates to the qualities of length, breadth, and thick- ness, without which no substance can exist ; but has no re- spect to the size or shape of a body. Solidity is an essential quality of matter as well as extension. And it is from the * Keid, Inquiry into Hum. Mind, ch. 5, sec. 7. 1 8. Bailey, Discourses, Lond., 1852, p. 169, Taylor, ElemenU of Thoiqlit. 17 182 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. EXTENSION resistance of a solid body, as the occasion, that we get the idea of externality q. v. According to the Cartesians, extension was the essence of matter. "Sola igitur extensio corporis naturam constituit, quvm ilia omni solnm semperqiie conveniat, adeo ut nihil in corport privs percipere possumus." l Hobbes's views are given, Phil. Primal Locke's views are given, in Essay on Rum. Understand. 9 Extension (Logical), when predicated as belonging to a general term, means the number of objects included under it, and comprehension means the common characters belonging to such objects. " I call the comprehension of an idea, those attributes which it involves in itself, and which cannot be taken away from it without destroying it ; as the comprehension of the idea tri- angle includes extension, figure, three lines, three angles, and the equality of these three angles to two right angles, &c. " I call the extension of an idea those subjects to which that idea applies, which are also called the inferiors of a general term, which, in relation to them, is called superior, as the idea of triangle in general extends to all the different sorts of triangles." * We cannot detach any properties from a notion without ex- tending the list of objects to which it is applied. Thus, if we abstract from a rose its essential qualities, attending only to those which it connotes as a plant, we extend its application, before limited to flowers with red petals, to the oak, fir, &c. But as we narrow the sphere of a notion, the qualities which it comprehends proportionally increase. If we restrict the term body to animal, we include life and sensation if to man, it comprehends reason. Thus emerges the law of the inverse ratio between the ex- tension of common terms and their comprehension, viz., the greater the extension the less the comprehension, and via versa. * Le Grand, Inst. Philosoph., pars iv., p. 152. a Pars ii., c. 8, sect. 1. * B. ii., chap. 13, see also chap. 15; Reid, Inquiry, c. 5, sect. 5, 6; Intett. Pow., owsaj Ii., c. 19. * Port. Boy. Logic, part I. chap. 8. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHT. 188 EXTERNALITY or OUTNESS. "Pressure or resistance ne- cessarily supposes externality in the thing which presses 01 resists." ' " Distance or outness is neither immediately of itself per- ceived by sight, nor yet apprehended or judged of by lines and angles, but is only suggested tc our thoughts/' &c. 2 V. PERCEPTION. FABLE. "The word fable is at present generally limited to those fictions in which the resemblance to the matter in ques- tion is not direct but analogical." 3 Fable and Myth were at one time synonyms. "Fables of jEsop and other eminent mythologists," by Sir R. L'Estrange. 4 V. APOLOGUE. FACT. "Whatever really exists, whether necessarily or rela- tively, may be called a, fact. A statement concerning a num- ber of facts, is called a doctrine (when it is considered abso- lutely as a truth), and a law (when it is considered relatively to an intelligence ordaining or receiving it)." 5 By a matter of fact, in ordinary usage, is meant something which might, conceivably, be submitted to the senses; and about which it is supposed there could be no disagreement among persons who should be present, and to whose senses it should be submitted ; and by a matter of opinion is understood anything respecting which an exercise of judgment would be called for on the part of those who should have certain objects before them, and who might conceivably disagree in their judgment thereupon." 6 V. OPINION. " By a matter of fact, I understand anything of whinh we obtain a conviction from our internal consciousness, or any individual event or phenomenon which is the object of sensa- tion." 7 It is thus opposed to matter of inference. Thus, the destruo " Adam Smith, On the Senses. a Berkeley, Principles of Knowledge, part i., sect. 43. 8 Whately, Rhet., part i., ch. 2, g 8. Fol., Lond., 1704. 8 Irons, On Final Causes, p. 48. Whately, Rha., pt i., ch. 2, \ i * Sir G. C. Lewis, Essay on Influence of Authority, pp. 1-4. 184 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. FACT tiveness of cholera is matter of fact, the mode of its propa- gation is matter of inference. Matter of fact also denotes what is certain, as opposed to matter of doubt. The existence oi God is matter of fact, though ascertained by reasoning. " The distinction of fact and theory is only relative. Events and phenomena considered as particulars which may be col- ligated by induction, are facts; considered as generalities already obtained by colligation of other facts, they are theories The same event or phenomenon is &fact or a theory, according as it is considered as standing on one side or the other of the inductive bracket." ' " Theories which are true, are facts." 2 V. OPINION. FACTITIOUS (factito, to practise), is applied to what is the result of use or art, in distinction to what is the product of nature. Mineral waters made in imitation of the natural springs are called factitious. Cupiditas alionim exist imationis non est factitia sed nobis congenita; deprehenditur enirn et in infantibus qui, etiam ante reflectionis usum, molestia afficiuntur, quum parvi a ceteris penduntur? " It is enough that we have moral ideas, however obtained ; whether by original constitution of our nature, or factitiously, makes no difference." 4 " To Mr. Locke, the writings of Hobbes suggested much of the sophistry displayed in the first book of his essay on the factitious nature of our moral principles."* FACULTY. Facultates sunt aut quibus f&ciliusjif, aut sine quibus omnino confici non potest* Facultas est qucdibet vis activa, sen virtus, sen potestas. Solet etiam vocari potentia, verum tune intelligenda est potentia activa, seu habilitas ad agendum.' 1 " The word faculty is most properly applied to those powers of the mind which are original and natural, and which make part of the constitution of the mind." 8 Whewell, Philosoph. Induct. Sciences, aphorism 23. 2 Ibid., On Induction, p. 23. * N. Lacoudre, Inst. Philosoph., torn, iii., p. 21 4 Hampden, Introd. to Mor. Philosoph., p. 13. Stewart, Prelim. Dissert., p. 64 Cicero, De Invent., lib. ii., 40 1 Chaurin, Lexicon Philosoph. * Reid, Intett. Pow., essay i., chap. 1. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 185 FACULTY - A faculty is the natural power by which phenomena are produced by a person that is an agent, who can direct and concentrate the power which he possesses. 1 Bodies have the property of being put in motion, or of being melted. The magnet has an attractive power. Plants have a medical virtue. But instead of blind and fatal activity, let the being who has power be conscious of it, and be able to exercise and regulate it ; this is what is meant by faculty. It implies intelligence and freedom. It is personality which gives the character of faculties to those natural powers which belong to us.' 2 "The faculties of the mind and its powers,'" says Dr. Reid, " are often used as synonymous expressions. But," continues he, " as most synonyms have some minute distinction that deserves notice, I apprehend that the word faculty is most properly applied to those powers of the mind which are original and natural, and which make part of the constitution of the mind. There are other powers which are acquired by use, exercise, or study, which are not called faculties, but habits. There must be something in the constitution of the mind necessary to our being able to acquire habits, and this is com- monly called capacity." Such are the distinct meanings which Dr. Reid would assign to these words, and these meanings are in accordance both with their philosophical and more familiar use. The distinction between power and faculty is, that faculty is more properly applied to what is natural and original, in opposition or con- trast to what is acquired. We say the faculty of judging, but the power of habit. But, as all our faculties are powers, we can apply the latter term equally to what is original and to what is acquired. And we can say, with equal propriety, the power of judging and the power of habit. The acquiring of habits is peculiar to man : at least the inferior animals do so to a very limited extent. There must, therefore, be .something in the constitution of the human mind upon which the acquiring of habits depends. This, says Dr. Reid, is called a capacity. The capacity is natural, the habit is acquired. Dr. Reid did Jouffroy, Melanges, Bruxell, 1834, p. 249. a Diet, des Sciences Philosoph- 17* 186 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. FACULTY- not recognize the distinction between active and passive power But a capacity is a passive power. The term is applied to those manifestations of mind in which it is generally regarded as passive, or as affected or acted on by something external to itself. Thus, we say a man is capable of gratitude, or love, or grief, or joy. We speak also of the capacity of acquiring knowledge. Now, in these forms of expression, the mind is considered as the passive recipient of certain affections or im- pressions coming upon it. Taking into account the distinction of powers as active and passive, " these terms," says Sir Win. Hamilton, 1 " stand in the following relations. Powers are active and passive, natural and acquired. Powers natural and active are called facilities. Powers natural and passive, ca- pacities or receptivities. Powers acquired are Jiabits, and habit is used both in an active and passive sense. The power, again, of acquiring a habit is called a disposition." This is quite in accordance with the explanations of Dr. Keid, only that instead of disposition he employs the term capacity, to denote that on which the acquiring of habits is founded. Dis- position is employed by Dr. Reid to denote one of the active principles of our nature. One great end and aim of philosophy is to reduce facts and phenomena to general heads and laws. The philosophy of mind, therefore, endeavours to arrange and classify the opera- tions of mind according to the general circumstances under which they are observed. Thus we find that the mind fre- quently exerts itself in acquiring a knowledge of the objects around it by means of the bodily senses. These operations vary according to the sense employed, and according to the object presented. But in smelling, tasting, and touching, and in all its operations by means of the senses, the mind cornea to the knowledge of some object different from itself. This general fact is denoted by the term perception ; and we say that the mind, as manifested in these operations, has the power or faculty of perception. The knowledge which the mind thus acquires can be recalled or reproduced, and this is an operation which the mind delights to perform, both from the pleasure which it feels in reviving objects of former knowledge and th 1 ReicTs Works, p. 221. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 187 FACULTY benefit which results from reflecting upon them. But ihe re- calling or reproducing objects of former knowledge is an act altogether different from the act of originally obtaining it. It implies the possession of a peculiar power to perform it. And hence we ascribe to the mind a power of recollection or a faculty of memory. A perception is quite distinct from a recol- lection. In the one we acquire knowledge which is new to us in the other we reproduce knowledge which we already possess, In the operations of recollection or memory it is often neces- sary that the mind exert itself to exclude some objects which present themselves, and to introduce others which do not at first appear. In such cases the mind does so by an act of re- solving or determining, by a volition. Now, a volition is alto- gether different from a cognition. To know is one thing, to will is quite another thing. Hence it is that we assign these different acts to different powers, and say that the mind has a power of understanding, and also a power of willing. The power of understanding may exert itself in different ways, and although the end and result of all its operations be knowledge, the different ways in which knowledge is acquired or improved may be assigned, as we have seen they are, to different powers or faculties but these are all considered as powers of understand- ing. In like manner the power of willing or determining may be exerted under different conditions, and, for the sake of distinctness, these may be denoted by different terms ; but still they are included in one class, and called powers of the will. Before the will is exerted we are in a state of pleasure or pain, and the act of will has for its end to continue that state or to terminate it. The pleasures and the pains of which we are susceptible are numerous and varied, but the power or capacity of being affected by them is denoted by the term sensibility or feeling. And we are said not only to have powers of understanding and will, but powers of sensibility. When we speak, therefore, of a power or faculty of the mind, we mean that certain operations of mind have been observed, and classified according to the conditions and circumstances under which they manifest themselves, and that distinct names have been given to these classes of phenomena, to mark what 188 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. FACULTY is peculiar in the act or operation, and consequently in the power or faculty to which they are referred. But when w thus classify the operations of the mind, and assign them to diiferent powers, we are not to suppose that we divide the mind into different compartments, of which each has a different energy. The energy is the same in one and all of the oper- ations. It is the same mind acting according to different con- ditions and laws. The energy is one and indivisible. It is only the manifestations of it that we arrange and classify. This is well put by the famous Alcuin, who was the friend and adviser of Charlemagne, in the following passage, which is translated from his work De Ratione Animce: "The soul bears divers names according to the nature of its operations ; inasmuch as it lives and makes live, it is the soul (anima]; inasmuch as it contemplates, it is the spirit (spiritus); inas- much as it feels, it is sentiment (sensus] ; since it reflects, it is thought (animus] ; as it comprehends, intelligence (mens] ; inasmuch as it discerns, reason (ratio]; as it consents, will (voluntas); as it recollects, memory (memoria}. But these things are not divided in substance as in name, for all this is the soul, and one soul only." Faculties of the Mind (Classification of ). The faculties of the human mind were formerly distinguished as gnostic or cogni- tive, and orectic or appetent. They have also been regarded as belonging to the understanding or to the will, and have been designated as intellectual or active. A threefold classification of them is now generally adopted, and they are reduced to the heads of intellect or cognition, of sensitivity or feeling, and of activity or will. Under each of these heads, again, it is common to speak of several subordinate faculties. " This way of speaking of faculties has misled many into a confused notion of so many distinct agents in us, which had their several provinces and authorities, and did command, obey, and perform several actions, as so many distinct beings: which has been no small occasion of wrangling, obscurity, and uncertainty, in questions relating to them/' ' Dr. Brown, 2 instead of ascribing so many distinct faculties t< 1 Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., chap. 21, $ 17, 20. 1 Lecture xvi. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 189 FACULTY the mind, which is one, would speak of it as in different states, or under different affections. V. OPERATIONS OF THE MIND. "Les divers facult6s que Ton considere dans Tame, ne sont point des choses distinctes reellement, mais le meme gtre dif- fer ement considere." ! " Quoique nous donnions a ces facultes des noms differents, par rapport a leur diverses operations, cela ne nous oblige pas a les regarder comine des choses differentes, car 1'entende- ment n'est autre chose que Fame, en tant qu'elle retient et se ressouvient ; la volonte n'est autre chose que Tame, en tant qu'elle veut et qu'elle choisit De sorte qu'on peut entendre que toutes ces facultes ne sont, au fond, que le mme ame, qui, recoit divers noms, a cause de ses differentes operations. ' 2 " Man is sometimes in a predominant state of intelligence, sometimes in a predominant state of feeling, and sometimes in a predominant state of action and determination. To call these, however, separate faculties, is altogether beside the mark. No act of intelligence can be performed without the will, no act of determination without the intellect, and no act either of the one or the other without some amount of feeling being mingled in the process. Thus, whilst they each have their own distinctive characteristics, yet there is a perfect unity at the root." 3 " I feel that there is no more reason for believing my mind to be made up of distinct entities, or attributes, or faculties, than that my foot is made up of walking and running. My mind, I firmly believe, thinks, and wills, and remembers, just as simply as my body walks, and runs, and rests." 4 " It would be well if, instead of speaking of ' the powers (or faculties] of the mind' (which causes misunderstanding), we adhered to the designation of the several * operations of one mind ;' which most psychologists recommend, but in the sequel forget." 6 1 Arnaud, Des Vrais et des Fausses Idces, ch. 27. a Bossuet, Connaissance de Dieu, ch. 2, art. 20. Morell, Psychology, p. 61. Irons, Final Causes, p. 93. Feuchtersleben, Medical PsycJiol, 8vo, 1847, p. 120. 190 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. FACULTY " The judgment is often spoken of as if it were a distinct power or faculty of the soul, differing from the imagination, the memory, &c., as the heart differs from the lungs, or the brain from the stomach. All that ought to be understood by these modes of expression is, that the mind sometimes com- pares objects or notions ; sometimes joins together images ; sometimes has the feeling of past time with an idea now present, &C." 1 " Notwithstanding we divide the soul into several powers and faculties, there is no such division in the soul itself, since it is the whole soul that remembers, understands, wills, or imagines. Our manner of considering the memory, under- standing, will, imagination, and the like faculties, is for the better enabling us to express ourselves in such abstracted subjects of speculation, not that there is any such division in the soul itself." 2 " The expression, ' man perceives, and remembers, and imagines, and reasons,' denotes all that is conveyed by the longer phrase, 'the mind of man has the faculties of percep- tion, and memory, and imagination, and reasoning.'" 3 "Herbart rejects the whole theory of mental inherent faculties as chimerical, and has, in consequence, aimed some severe blows at the psychology of Kant. But, in fact, it is only the rational psychology which Kant exploded, which is open to this attack. It may be that in mental, as in physical mechanics, we know force only from its effects ; but the con- sciousness of distinct effects will thus form the real basis of psychology. The faculties may then be retained as a con- venient method of classification, provided the language is properly explained, and no more is attributed to them than is warranted by consciousness. The same consciousness which tells me that seeing is distinct from hearing, tells me also that volition is distinct from both ; and to speak of the faculty of will does not necessarily imply more than the consciousness of a distinct class of mental phenomena." 4 FAITH. V. BELIEF. * Taylor. Elements of Thought. Spectator, No. 600 S. Bailey, Letters on Philosoph. Hum, Mind, p. 13. 4 Mansel, Prolegom. Log., p. 34, note. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 191 FALLACY (A) is an argument, or apparent argument, profess- ing to decide the matter at issue, while it really does not. Fallacies have been arranged as logical, semi-logical, and non* logical. By Aristotle they were arranged in two classes according as the fallacy lay in the form, in dictione; or in the matter, extra dictionem. The fallacies, in form or expression, are the following : Fallacia ^quivocationia, arising from the use of an equivo- cal word ; as, the dog is an animal ; Sirius is the dog ; there- fore, Sirius is an animal. Fallacia Amphiboliae, arising from doubtful construction; quod tangitur a Socrate illud sentit ; columna tangitur a So- crate ; ergo columna sentit. In the major proposition sentit means " Socrates feels." In the conclusion, it means "feela Socrates." Fallacia Compositionis, when what is proposed, in a divided sense, is afterwards taken collectively ; as, two and three are even and odd ; five is two and three ; therefore five is even and odd. Fallacia Divisionis, when what is proposed in a collective, is afterwards taken in a divided sense ; as, the planets are seven ; Mercury and Venus are planets ; therefore Mercury and Venus are seven. Fallacia Accentus, when the same thing is predicated of dif- ferent terms, if they be only written or pronounced in the same way ; as, Equus est quadrupes ; Aristides est cequus; ergo Aristides est quadrupes. Fallacia Figurae Dictionis, when, from any similitude between two words, what is granted of one is, by a forced application, predicated of another; as, projectors are unfit to be trusted ; this man has formed a project; therefore, this man is unfit to be trusted. Fallacies in the matter, or extra dictionem, according to some, are the only fallacies strictly logical ; while, according to the formal school of logicians, they are beyond the province of logic altogether. Fallacia Accidentis, when what is accidental is confounded with what is essential ; as, we are forbidden to kill ; using capital punishment is killing ; we are forbidden to use capitaJ punishment. 102 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. FALLACY Fallacia a Dicto Secundum quid ad Dictum Simpliciter, when a term is used, in one premiss, in a limited, and in the other in an unlimited sense ; as, the Ethiopian is white as to his teeth; therefore he is white. Fallacia Ignorationis Elenchi, an argument in which the point in dispute is intentionally or ignorantly overlooked, and the conclusion is irrelevant ; as if any one, to show the inu- tility of the art of logic, should prove that men unacquainted with it have reasoned well. Fallacia a non Causa pro Causa, is divided into/aZZaaa a non vera pro vera, and fallacia a non tali pro tali; as, "a comet has appeared, therefore, there will be war." " What intoxi- cates should be prohibited. Wine intoxicates." Excess of it does. Fallacia Conseciuentis, when that is inferred which does not logically follow; as, "he is an animal; therefore he is a man." Fallacia Petitionis Principii (begging the question), when that is assumed for granted, which ought to have been proved ; as, when a thing is proved by itself (called petitio statim), " he is a man, therefore, he is a man; or by a synonym; as, "a sabre is sharp, therefore a scimitar is ;" or by anything equally unknown ; as, Paradise was in Armenia, therefore, Gihon is an Asiatic river; or by anything more unknown; as, "thia square is twice the size of this triangle, because equal to this circle ;" or by reasoning in a circle, i. e., when the disDutant tries to prove reciprocally conclusion from premises, and pre- mises from conclusion ; as, " fire is hot, therefore it burns ;" and afterwards, "fire burns, therefore it is hot;" "the stars twinkle, therefore they are distant;" "the stars are distant, therefore they twinkle." Fallacia Plurium Interogationum, when two or more questions, requiring each a separate answer, are proposed as one, so that if one answer be given, it must be inapplicable to one of the particulars asked ; as, " was Pisistratus the usurper and scourge of Athens?" The answer "no" would be false of the former particular, and " yes " would be false of the latter. The fallacy is overthrown by giving to each particular a .sena reply. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 193 FALSE, FALSITY, The false, in one sense, applies to things ; and there is falsity either when things really are not, or when it is impossible they can be ; as when it is said that the pro- portion of the diagonal to the side of a square is commensur- able, or that you sit the one is absolutely false, the other accidentally for in the one case and the other the fact affirmed is not. The false is also predicated of things which really exist, but which appear other than they are, or what they are not ; a portrait, or a dream. They have a kind of reality, but they really are not what they represent. Thus, we say that things are false, either because they do not absolutely exist, or be- cause they are but appearances and not realities. Falsity is opposed to verity or truth q. v. To transcendental truth, or truth of being, the opposite is nonentity rather th&n falsity. A thing that really is, is what it is. A thing that is not is a nonentity. Falsity, then, is two- fold objective said formal. Objective falsity is when a thing resembles a thing which it really is not, or when a sign or proposition seems to represent or enunciate what it does not. Formal falsity belongs to the intellect when it fails to discover objectively falsity, and judges according to appearances rather than the reality and truth of things. Formal falsity is error ; which is opposed to logical truth. To moral truth, the oppo- site is falsehood or lying. FANCY (avT'av tyvoixuv tipap/j-svyv, the fate of the naturalists, that is, indeed, the atheists, the assertors whereof may be called also the Democritical fatalists." 2 Cicero, De Fato; Plutarchus, De Fato; Grotius, PJiiloso- phorum Sententice De Fato. FEAR is one of the passions. It arises on the conception or con- templation of something evil coming upon us. FEELING. "This word has two meanings. First, it signifies the perceptions we have of external objects, by the sense of touch. When we speak of feeling a body to be hard or soft, or rough or smooth, hot or cold, to feel these things is to perceive * Fifth Paper to Dr. Samuel Clarke. Cudworth, Intell. Syst., book i., chap. 1. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 197 FEELING them by touch. They are external things, and that act of the mind by which we feel them is easily distinguished from the objects felt. Secondly, the word feeling is used to signify the same thing as sensation; and in this sense, it has no object; the feeling and the thing felt are one and the same. " Perhaps betwixt feeling, taken in this last sense, and sen- sation, there may be this small difference, that sensation is most commonly used to signify those feelings which we have by our external senses and bodily appetites, and all our bodily pains and pleasures. But there are feelings of a nobler nature accompanying our affections, our moral j udgments, and our determinations in matters of taste, to which the word sen- sation is less properly applied." 1 Reid. 2 "Feeling, beside denoting one of the external senses, is a general term, signifying that internal act by which we are made conscious of our pleasures and our pains ; for it is not limited, as sensation is, to any one sort. Thus, feeling being the genus of which sensation is a species, their meaning is the same when applied to pleasure and pain felt at the organ of sense ; and accordingly we say indifferently, ' I feel plea- sure from heat, and pain from cold ;' or, ' I have a sensation of pleasure from heat and of pain from cold/ But the mean- ing of feeling, as is said, is much more extensive. It is proper to say, I feel pleasure in a sumptuous building, in love, in friendship ; and pain in losing a child, in revenge, in envy ; sensation is not properly applied to any of these. " The term, feeling is frequently used in a less proper sense, to signify what we feel or are conscious of; and in that sense it is a general term for all our passions and emotions, and for all our other pleasures and pains." 8 All sensations are feelings ; but all feelings are not sensa- tions. Sensations are those feelings which arise immediately and solely from a state or affection of the bodily organism. But we have feelings which are connected not with our animal, 1 The French use of sensation as when we say such an occurrence excited a grat tensation, that is, feeling of surprise, or indignation, or satisfaction, is becoming mor tommon. 1 Intell. Pow., essay i., chap. 1. 1 Kaines, Elements of Criticism, Appendix. 18* 198 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY". FEELING but with our intellectual, and rational, and moral nature; such as feelings of the sublime and beautiful, of esteem and gratitude, of approbation and disapprobation. Those higher feelings it has been proposed to call Sentiments q. v. From its most restricted sense of the perceiving by the sense of touch, feeling has been extended to signify immediate perceiving or knowing in general. It is applied in this sense to the immediate knowledge which we have of first truths or the principles of common sense. " By external or internal perception, I apprehend a phenomenon of mind or matter as existing ; I therefore affirm it to be. Now, if asked how I know, or am assured, that what I apprehend as a mode of mind, may not, in reality, be a mode of mind ; I can only say, using the simplest language, * I know it to be true, because I feel, and cannot but feel,' or ' because I believe, and cannot but believe/ it so to be. And if further interrogated how I know, or am assured that I thus feel or thus believe, I can make no better answer than, in the one case, ' because I believe that I feel;' in the other, 'because I feel that I believe.' It thus appears, that when pushed to our last resort, we must retire either upon feeling or belief, or upon both indifferently. And, accordingly, among philosophers, we find that a great many employ one or other of these terms by which to indicate the nature of the ultimate ground to which our cognitions are reducible ; while some employ both, even though they may award a preference to one. ... In this application of it we must discharge that signification of the word by which we denote the phenomena of pain and pleasure." x V. BELIEF. FETICHISM is supposed to have been the first form of the theo- logical philosophy ; and is described as consisting in the as- cription of life and intelligence essentially analogous to our own, to every existing object, of whatever kind, whether organic or inorganic, natural or artificial. 2 The Portuguese call the objects worshipped by the negroes of Africa felisso bewitched or possessed by fairies. Such are the grisgris of Africa, the manitous and the ockis of America, and the burh 1 Sir William Hamilton, Reitfs Works, note A, sect. 6. a Comte, Philosoph. Positive, i., 3. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 199 FETICHISM hans of Siberia good and evil genii inhabiting the object! of nature which they worship. The priests of this worship are called griots in Africa, jongleurs or jugglers in America, and chamanes in Central Asia. Mr. Grote, 1 in reference to Xerxes scourging the Hellespont which had destroyed his bridge, remarks, that the absurdity and childishness of the proceeding is no reason for rejecting it as having actually taken place. " To transfer," continues he, " to inanimate objects the sensitive as well as the willing and designing attributes of human beings, is among the early and wide-spread instincts of mankind, and one of the primitive forms of religion ; and although the enlargement of reason and experience gradually displaces this element- ary fetic h ism, and banishes it from the region of reality into those of conventional fictions, yet the force of momentary pas- sion will often suffice to supersede the acquired habit, and even an intelligent man may be impelled in a moment of agoni- zing pain to kick or beat the lifeless object from which he has suffered." Dr. Reid was of opinion that children naturally believed all things around them to be alive a belief which is encouraged by the education of the nursery. And when under the smarting of pain we kick or strike the inanimate object which is the occasion of it, we do so, he thought, by a momentary relapse into the creed of infancy and childhood. FIGURE. V. SYLLOGISM. FITNESS and TINFITNESS " most frequently denote the con- gruity or incongruity, aptitude or inaptitude, of any means to accomplish an end. But when applied to actions, they generally signify the same with right and wrong; nor is it often hard to determine in which of these senses these words are to be understood. It is worth observing thaijitness in the former sense is equally undefinable withjitness in the latter; or, that it is as impossible to express in any other than synonymous words, what we mean when we say of certain objects, ' that they have a fitness to one another ; or are Jit to answer certain purposes/ as when we say, ' reverencing the Deity is Jit, o* 1 Out. of Greece, vol. v., p. 22. 800 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHT, FITNESS beneficence is fit to be practised/ In the first of these in (stances, none can avoid owning the absurdity of making an arbitrary sense the source of the idea of fitness, and of con- cluding that it signifies nothing real in objects, and that no one thing can be properly the means of another. In both cases the term fit signifies a simple perception of the under, standing." ' According to Dr. Samuel Clarke, virtue consists in acting in conformity to the nature and fitness of things. In this theory the term fitness does not mean the adaptation of an action, as a means towards some end designed by the agent ; but a congruity, proportion, or suitableness between an action and the relations, in which, as a moral being, the agent stands. Dr. Clarke has been misunderstood on this point by Dr. Brown 2 and others. 3 " Our perception of vice and its desert arises from, and is the result of, a comparison of actions with the nature and capacities of the agent. And hence arises a proper application of the epithets incongruous, unsuitable, disproportionate, unfit, to actions which our moral faculty determines to be vicious." 4 In like manner, when our moral faculty determines actions to be virtuous, there is a propriety in the application of the epithets congruous, suitable, proportionate,^. FORCE is an energy or power which has a tendency to move a body at rest, or to affect or stop the progress of a body already in motion. This is sometimes termed active force, in contra- distinction to that which merely resists or retards the motion of a body, but is itself apparently inactive. But according to Leibnitz, by whom the termybrce was introduced into modern philosophy, no substance is altogether passive. Force, or a continual tendency to activity, was originally communicated by the Creator to all substances, whether material or spiritual. Every force is a substance, and every substance is a, force. The two notions are inseparable ; for you cannot think of action without a being, nor of a being without activity. A substance entirely passive is a contradictory idea. 6 V. MONAD. 1 Price, Review, ch. 6. a Lect. Ixxvi. See Wardlaw, Christ. Ethics, note E. 4 Butler, Dissertation on Virtue. 1 See Leibnitz, De primce Philosophies emendafione, et de iwtione substantice. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 20l FORCE In like manner Boscovich 1 maintained that the ultimate particles of matter are indivisible and unextended points, endowed with the forces of attraction and repulsion. According to the dynamic theory of Kant, and the atomic theory of Leucippus, the phenomena of matter were explained by attraction and repulsion. " La force proprement dite, c'est ce qui regit les actes, sans regler les wlontes." If this definition of force, which is given by Mons. Comte, be adopted, it would make a distinction between force and power. Power extends to volitions as well as to operations, to mind as well as matter. But we also speak of force as physical, vital, and mental. FORM "is that of which matter is the receptacle," says Lord Monboddo. 2 A trumpet may be said to consist of two parts ; the matter or brass of which it is made, and the form which the maker gives to it. The latter is essential, but not the former ; since although the matter were silver, it would still be a trumpet; but without the form it would not. Now, al- though there can be no form without matter, yet as it is the form which makes the thing what it is, the word form came to signify essence or nature. " Form is the essence of the thing, from which result not only its figure and shape, but all its other qualities." Matter void of form, but ready to receive it, was called, in metaphysics, mater ia prima, or elementary ; in allusion to which Butler has made Hudibras say, that he Professed He had first matter seen undressed, And found it naked and alone, Before one rag of form was on. Forr/i was defined by Aristotle Tioyoj t ijj ovo-t'aj, and as ovft'a signifies, equally, substance and essence, hence came the question whether form should be called substantial or essen- tial ; the Peripatetics espousing the former epithet, and the Cartesians the latter. 1 Kstertationes duos de viribus vivis, 4to, 1745 See also Stewart, Philosophical Etsay^ tssay ii., chap. 1. * Ancient Metaphys., book ii., chap. 2. 202 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. FORM According to the Peripatetics, in any natural composite body, there were 1. The matter. 2. Quantity, which fol- lowed the matter. 3. The substantial form. 4. The qualities which followed the form. According to others, there were only 1. Matter. 2. Essential form; as quantity is identified with matter, and qualities with matter or form, or the com- pound of them. According to the Peripatetics, form was a subtle substance, penetrating matter, and the cause of all acts of the compound ; in conformity with the saying, formce est agere, material vero pati. According to others, form is the union of material parts, as atoms, or elements, &c., to which some added a certain motion and position of the parts. 1 He who gives form to matter, must, before he do so, have in his mind some idea of the particular form which he is about to give. And hence the word form is used to signify an idea. Idea and Law are the same thing, seen from opposite points. " That which contemplated objectively (that is, as existing ex- ternally to the mind), we call a law; the same contemplated subjectively (that is, as existing in a subject or mind), is an idea. Hence Plato often names ideas laws ; and Lord Bacon, the British Plato (?), describes the laws of the material uni- verse as ideas in nature. Quod in natura naturata lex, in natura naturante idea dictur." 2 Bacon 3 says, "When we speak of forms, we understand nothing more than the laws and modes of action which regulate and constitute any simple nature, such as heat, light, weight, in all kinds of matter sus- ceptible of them ; so that the form of heat, or the form of light, and the law of heat, and the law of light, are the same thing." Again he says, 4 " Since the form of a thing is the very thing itself, and the thing no otherwise differs from the form, than as the apparent differs from the existent, the out- ward from the inward, or that which is considered in relation to man from that which is considered in relation to the uni- verse it follows clearly that no nature can be taken for th 1 Derodon, Phys., pars prima, pp. 11, 12. 1 Coleridge, Church and State, p. 12. 3 In Not. Org., ii., 17. Ibid., 2, 18. . VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY, 203 FORM , unless it ever decreases when the nature itself de* creases, and in like manner is always increased when the nature is increased." As the word form denotes the law, so it may also denote the class of cases brought together and united by the law. " Thus to speak of i\isform of animals might mean, first, the law or definition of animal in general ; second, the part of any given animal by which it comes under the law, and is what it is ; and last, the cla.ss of animals in general formed by the law." f " The sense attached at the present day to the words form and matter, is somewhat different from, though closely related to, these. The form is what the mind impresses upon its perceptions of objects, which are the matter; form therefore means mode of viewing objects that are presented to the mind. When the attention is directed to any object, we do not see the object itself, but contemplate it in the light jf our own prior conceptions. A rich man, for example, is regarded by the poor and ignorant under the form of a very fortunate person, able to purchase luxuries which are above their own reach ; by the religious mind under the form of a person with more than ordinary temptations to contend with ; by the political economist, under that of an exam- ple of the unequal distribution of wealth ; by the tradesman, under that of one whose patronage is valuable. Now, the object is really the same to all these observers; the same rich man has been represented under all these different forms. And the reason that the observers are able to find many in one, is that they connect him severally with their own prior conceptions. The form, then, in this view, is mode of know- ing; and the matter is the perception, or object, we have to know." 2 Sir W. Hamilton 8 calls the theory of substantial forms, " the theory of qualities viewed as entities conjoined with, and noi as mere dispositions or modifications of matter." Thomson, Outline of Zaif s of Thought, p. 33, 2d edit Ibid., p. 34. Sfufs WbrJa p. 827. 204 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. FORM- Aristotle, 1 Michelet, 2 Ravaisson. 8 V. LAW, MATTER. FORMALLY. V. REAL, VIRTUAL, ACTION. FORTITUDE is one of the virtues called cardinal. It may dis- play itself actively by resolution or constancy, which con- sists in adhering to duty in the face of danger and difficulty which cannot be avoided, or by intrepidity or courage, which consists in maintaining firmness and presence of mind in the midst of perils from which there may be escape. The dis- plays of fortitude passively considered may be comprehended under the term patience, including humility, meekness, sub- mission, resignation, &c. FREE WILL. V. LIBERTY, NECESSITY, WILL. FRIENDSHIP is the mutual affection cherished by two persons of congenial minds. It springs from the social nature of man, and rests on the esteem which each entertains for the good qualities of the other. The resemblance in disposition and character between friends may sometimes be the occasion of their contracting friendship ; but it may also be the effect of imitation and frequent and familiar intercourse. And the interchange of kind offices which takes place between friends is not the cause of their friendship, but its natural result. Familiarities founded on views of interest or pleasure are not to be dignified by the name of friendship. Dr. Brown 4 has classified the duties of friendship as they regard the commencement of it, the continuance of it, and its close. See the various questions connected with friendship treated by Aristotle, 5 and by Cicero. 6 FUNCTION (fungor, to perform). " The pre-constituted forms or elements under which the reason forms cognitions and assigns laws, are called ideas. The capacities of the reason to know in different modes and relations, we shall call its functions."'' " The function of conception is essential to thought." The firsl intention of every word is its real meaning ; the second inten Metaphys., lib. 7 et 8. Examen Critique de la Jfetaphysique cPAristote, 8vo, Paris, 1836; p. 164 et p. 287. 8 Essai sur la Metaphysique d'Aristote, 8vo, Paris, 1837, torn, i., p. 149. 4 Lect. Ixxxix. * In Ethics, book? viii. and i In bis treatise De AmicUa. * Tap pan, Log, p. 119. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 205 FUNCTION tion, its logical value, according to the function of thought to which it belongs." * " The function of names is that of enabling us to remember and to communicate our thoughts." 1 GENERAL TEEM, V. TERM. GENERALIZATION " is the act of comprehending, under a common name, several objects agreeing in some point which we abstract from each of them, and which that common name serves to indicate." "When we are contemplating several individuals which resemble each other in some part of their nature, we can (by attending to that part alone, and not to those points wherein they differ) assign them one common name, which will express or stand for them merely as far as they all agree ; and which,- of course, will be applicable to all or any of them (which pro- cess is called generalization] ; and each of these names is called a common term, from its belonging to them all alike ; or a predicable, because it may be predicated affirmatively of them or any of them." 3 Generalization is of two kinds classification and generalize tion properly so called. When we observe facts accompanied by diverse circum- stances, and reduce these circumstances to such as are essen- tial and common, we obtain a law. When we observe individual objects and arrange them according to their common characters, we obtain a class. When the characters selected are such as belong essentially to the nature of the objects, the class corresponds with the law. When the character selected is not natural the classification is artificial. If we were to class animals into white and red, we would have a classification which had no reference to the laws of their nature. But if we classify them as vertebrate or invertebrate, we have a classification founded on their or- ganization. Artificial classification is of no value in science, 1 Thomson, Outline of Laws of Thought, pp. 25 and 40, 2d edit. Mill, Log., b. ii., ch. 2, 2. Wbately. Log., b. ii., ch. 5, 2 2. 19 206 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY GENERALIZATION it is a mere aid to the memory. Natural classification is the foundation of all science. This is sometimes called generalizes tion. It is more properly classification. V. CLASSIFICATION. The la.w of gravitation is exemplified in the fall of a single stone to the ground. But many stones and other heavy bodies must have been observed to fall before the fact was gene- ralized, and the law stated. And in this process of generalizing there is involved a principle which experience does not fur- nish. Experience, how extensive soever it may be, can only give the particular, yet from the particular we rise to the general, and affirm not only that all heavy bodies which have been observed, but that all heavy bodies whether they have been observed or not, gravitate. In this is implied a belief that there is order in nature, that under the same circum- stances the same substances will present the same phenomena. This is a principle furnished by reason, the process founded on it embodies elements furnished by experience. V. INDUCTION. The results of generalization are general notions expressed by general terms. Objects are classed according to certain properties which they have in common, into genera and spe- cies. Hence arose the question which caused centuries of acrimonious discussion. Have genera and species a real, inde- pendent existence, or are they only to be found in the mind ? V. REALISM, NOMINALISM, CONCEPTUALISM.* The principle of generalization is, that beings howsoever different agree or are homogeneous in some respect. GENIUS (from geno, the old form of the verb gigno, to produce). This word was in ancient times applied to the tutelary god or spirit appointed to watch over every individual from his birth to his death. As the character and capacities of men were supposed to vary according to the higher or lower nature of their genius, the word came to signify the natural powers and abilities of men, and more particularly their natural in- clination or disposition. But the peculiar and restricted use of the term is to denote that high degree of mental power which produces or invents. " Genius," says Dr. Blair, 2 " always imports something inventive or creative." " It produces," 1 Reid, Inletl. Pow., essay v., chap. 6; Stewart, Elements, chap. 4. * Lectures on Rhetoric, lect. iii. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 207 GENIUS says another, " what has never been accomplished, and which all in all ages are constrained to admire. Its chief elements are the reason and the imagination, which are alone inventive and productive. According as one or other predominates, genius becomes scientific or artistic. In the former case, it seizes at once those hidden affinities which otherwise do not reveal themselves, except to the most patient and vigorous application ; and as it were intuitively recognizing in pheno- mena the unalterable and eternal, it produces truth. In the latter, seeking to exhibit its own ideas in due and appropriate forms, it realizes the infinite under finite types, and so creates the beautiful." " To possess the powers of common sense in a more eminent degree, so as to be able to perceive identity in things widely different, and diversity in things nearly the same ; this it is that constitutes what we call genius, that power divine, which through every sort of discipline renders the difference so con- spicuous between one learner and another." l " Nature gives men a bias to their respective pursuits, and that strong propensity, I suppose, is what we mean by genius." * Dryden has said, "What the child admired, The youth endeavoured, and the man acquired." He read Polybius, with a notion of his historic exactness, before he was ten years old. Pope, at twelve, feasted his eyes in the picture galleries of Spenser. Murillo filled the margin of his schoolbooks with drawings. Le Brun, in the beginning of childhood, drew with a piece of charcoal on the walls of the house. 3 " In its distinctive and appropriate sense, the term genius is applied to mind only when under the direction of its indi- vidual tendencies, and when those are so strong or clear as to concentrate all its powers upon the production of new, or at least independent results ; and that whether manifested in the regions of art or science. Bacon, Descartes, and Newton, were no less men of genius, than Michael Angelo, Raphael, Shdfke- 1 Harris, P/ritosoph. Arrange., chap. 9. * ibuper. Pleasures, <&c., of Literature, 12mo, Lond., 1851, pp. 27, 28. 203 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. speare, and Scott, although the work they performed and th means they employed were different." ' Sharp, Dissertation on Genius;' 1 Duff, Essays on Original Genius ; 3 Gerard, Essay on Genius;* Lcelius and Hortensia ; or, Thoughts on the Nature and Objects of Taste and Genius; 1 Beattie, Dissertations, Of Imagination? Genius and Talent. "Genius is that mode of intellectual power which moves in alliance with the genial nature ; i. e,, with the capacities of pleasure and pain ; whereas talent has no vestige of such an alliance, and is perfectly independent of all human sensibilities. Consequently, genius is a voice or breath- ing that represents the total nature of man, and therefore, his enjoying and suffering nature, as well as his knowing and distinguishing nature ; whilst, on the contrary, talent repre- sents only a single function of that nature. Genius is the language which interprets the synthesis of the human spirit with the human intellect, each acting through the other; whilst talent speaks only of insulated intellect. And hence also it is that, besides its relation to suffering and enjoyment, genius always implies a deeper relation to virtue and vice ; whereas talent has no shadow of a relation to moral qualities any more than it has to vital sensibilities. A man of the highest talent is often obtuse and below the ordinary standard of men in his feelings ; but no man of genius can unyoke him- self from the society of moral perceptions that are brighter, and sensibilities that are more tremulous, than those of men in general." 7 GENUINE, V. AUTHENTIC. GENUS is " a predicable which is considered as the material part of the species of which it is affirmed." 8 It is either summum or subalternum, that is, having no genus above it, as being, or having another genus above it, as quadruped; proximum or remotum,) when nothing intervenes between it and the spe- cies, as animal in respect of man, or when something inter- venes, as animal in respect of a crow, for between it and crow, i Moffat, Study of (Esthetics, p. 203, Cincinnati, 1350. Lond., 1755. 3 Lond.. 1767. * Lond., 1774. Edin., 1782. e Chap. 3, 4to, Lond., 178 * De Quincy, Sketches, Crit. and Bingraph., p. 275 a Whately, Log., b. ii., ch. 5 |3. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY 209 3ENUS brute and bird intervene. A genus physicum is part of the species, as animal in respect of man, who has an animal bodj and a rational soul. A genus metaphysicum is identified ade- quately with the species and distinguished from it extrinsi- cally, as animal in respect of brute, colour in respect of blackness in ink. Logically the genus contains the species ; whereas metaphysically the species contains the genus; e. g. t we divide logically the genus man into European, Asiatic, &c., but each of the species, European, &c., contains the idea of man, together with the characteristic difference. In modern classification, genus signifies "a distinct but sub- ordinate group, which gives its name as a prefix to that of all the species of which it is composed. GNOME (yvw/M?) a weighty or memorable saying. The saying in the parable (Matt. xx. 1-16), " Many that are first shall be last, and the last shall be first/' is called by Trench 1 & gnome. V. ADAGE. GOD, in Anglo-Saxon, means good. One of the names of the Supreme Being. The correspond- ing terms in Latin (Deus) and in Greek (so?) were applied . to natures superior to the human nature. With us, God al- ways refers to the Supreme Being. That department of knowledge which treats of the being, perfections, and government of God, is Theology q. v. " The true and genuine idea of God in general, is this a perfect conscious understanding being (or mind), existing of itself from eternity, and the cause of all other things." 2 " The true and proper idea of God, in its most contracted form, is this a being absolutely perfect ; for this is that alone to which necessary existence is essential, and of which it ia demonstrable." 8 " I define God thus an essence or being, fully and absolutely perfect. I say fully and absolutely perfect, in contradistinction to such perfection as is not full and absolute, but the perfection of this or that species or kind of finite beings, suppose a lion, horse, or tree. But to be fully and absolutely perfect, is to be, 1 On (he. Parables, pp. 164. 165. a Cudworth, Intell. Syst., b. i., ch. 4, sect. 4. 1 Ibid, sect. 8. 19* F 210 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. GOD at least, as perfect as the apprehension of a man can conceir* without a contradiction." ' GOOD (The Chief). An inquiry into the chief good, or the summum bonum, is an inquiry into what constitutes the perfec- tion of human nature and the happiness of the human condition. This has been the aim of all religion and philosophy. The answers given to the question have been many. Varro enu- merated 288. 2 But they may easily be reduced to a few. The ends aimed at by human action, how various soever they may seem, may all be reduced to three, viz., pleasure, interest and duty. What conduces to these ends we call good, and seek after ; what is contrary to these ends we call evil, and shun. But the highest of these ends is duty, and the chief good of man lies in the discharge of duty. By doing so he perfects his nature, and may at the same time enjoy the highest happiness. Semita certe Tranquillse per virtutem patet unica vitse." Juvenal, lib. iv., sat. 10. Cicero, De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum; I/ Abbe Anselme, Sur le Souverain bien des anciens, Mem. d. I'Acad. des Inscript., et Belles Lettres? Jouffroy, Miscell. V. BONUM (Summum). GRAMMAR (Universal). This word grammar comes to us from the Greeks, who included under ti^n ypa/*/*ow > w < i'Mcjj the art of writing and reading letters. But "grammar," says B. Jonson, 4 " is the art of true and well speaking a language ; the writing is but an accident." Language is the expression of thought thought is the operation of mind, and hence lan- guage may be studied as a help to psychology. 6 Thought assumes the form of ideas or of judgments, that is, the object of thought is either simply apprehended or conceived of, or something is affirmed concerning it. Ideas are expressed in words, judgments by propositions ; so that as ideas are the elements of judgments, words are the elements of propositions. Every judgment involves the idea of a substance, of which 1 H. More, Antidote, against Atheism, ch. 2. August., De Oivit., lib. 19, cap. 1. 1 ser., tora. * * English Grammar, c, \ Keid, Intdl. Pow., essay i., chap. 5. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 211 GRAMMAR - some quality is affirmed or denied so that language must have the substantive or noun, the adjective or quality, and the verb connecting or disconnecting. If the objects of our thoughts existed or were contemplated singly, these parts of speech would be sufficient. But the relations between objects and the connection between proposi- tions, render other parts of speech necessary. It is because we have ideas that are general, and ideas that are individual, that we have also nouns common and proper; and it is because we have ideas of unity and plurality, that we have numbers, singular, dual, and plural. Tenses and moods arise from dividing duration, and viewing things as conditional or positive. Even the order or construction of language is to be traced to the calm or impassioned state of mind from which it proceeds. In confirmation of the connection thus indicated between grammar and psychology, it may be noticed that those who have done much for the one have also improved the other Plato has given his views of language in the Cratylus, and Aristotle, in his Interpretation and Analytics, has laid the foundations of general grammar. And so in later times the most successful cultivators of mental philosophy have also been attentive to the theory of language. In Greek, the same word (xoyo$) means reason and lan- guage. And in Latin, reasoning is called discursus a mean- ing which is made English by our great poet, when he speaks of "large discourse of reason." In all this the connection be- tween the powers of the mind and language is recognized. Montemont, 1 Beattie, 2 Monboddo. 3 GRANDEUR. " The emotion raised by grand objects is awful, solemn, and serious/' " Of all objects of contemplation, the Supreme Being is the most grand The emotion which this grandest of all obj ects raises in the mind is what we call devotion a serious recollected temper, which inspires magnanimity, and disposes to the most heroic acts of virtue. 1 Grammaire General ou Philosophic fas Langues, 2 torn., STO, Paris, 1 845. a Dissertations, Theory of Language, part ii., 4to, Loud., 1783. * On tkn. Origin and Progress of Language, 3 vols. 212 VOCABULARY Or PHILOSOPHY. GRANDEUR "The emotion produced by other objects which may b called grand, though in an inferior degree, is, in its nature and in its effects, similar to that of devotion. It disposes to seriousness, elevates the mind above its usual state to a kind of enthusiasm, and inspires magnanimity, and a contempt of what is mean ..... " To me grandeur in objects seems nothing else but such a degree of excellence, in one kind or another, as merits our admiration." 1 F. SUBLIMITY, BEAUTY, ESTHETICS. GRATITUDE is one of the affections which have been designated benevolent. It implies a sense of kindness done or intended, and a desire to return it. It is sometimes also characterized as a moral affection, because the party cherishing it has the idea that he who did or intended kindness to him has done right and deserves a return ; just as the party who has received an injury has not merely a sense or feeling of the wrong done, but a sense of injustice in the doing of it, and the feeling or conviction that he who did it deserves punishment. See Chalmers, 2 Shaftesbury. 3 GYMNOSOPHIST (yv^dj, naked; 50^05, wise). " Among the Indians, be certain philosophers, whom they call gymnosophists, who from sun rising to the setting thereof are able to endure all the day long, looking full against the sun, without winking or once moving their eyes." 4 The Brahmins, although their religion and philosophy were but little known to the ancients, are alluded to by Cicero. 5 Oolebrooke and others in modern times have explained the Indian philosoDhy. HABIT (His, habitus}. "Habit, or state, is a constitution, frame, or disposition of parts, by which everything is fitted to act of 1 Reid, Intell. POM?., essay viii., chap. 8 * Sketches of Mental and Moral Philosophy, chap. 8. 3 Moralists, pt. iii., sect. 2. Holland, Pliny, b. vii., c. 2. TuscuL, lib. T., c. 27. Exped. Alexana., lib. vii., c. 2. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 2 13 HABIT suffer in a certain way." 1 By Aristotle 2 |ij is defined to b in one sense, the same with 8*0mj, or disposition. His com mentators make a distinction, and say tftj is more permanent. A similar distinction has been taken in English between habit and disposition. Habits have been distinguished into natural and super natural, or acquired and infused. Natural habits are those acquired by custom or repetition. Supernatural habits are such as are infused at once. They correspond to gifts or graces, and the consideration of them belongs to theology. Acquired habits are distinguished into intellectual and moral. From habit results power or virtue, and the intellectual habits or virtues are intellect, wisdom, prudence, science, and art. " These may be subservient to quite contrary purposes, and those who have them may exercise them spontaneously and agreeably in producing directly contrary effects. But the moral virtues, like the different habits of the body, are deter- mined by their nature to one specific operation. Thus, a man in health acts and moves in a manner conformable to his healthy state of body, and never otherwise, when his motions are natural and voluntary; and in the same manner the habits of justice or temperance uniformly determine those adorned by them to act justly and temperately." 8 Habits have been distinguished as active or passive. The determinations of the will, efforts of attention, and the use of our bodily organs, give birth to active habits ; the acts of the memory and the affections of the sensibility, to passive habits. Aristotle 4 proves that our habits are voluntary, as being created by a series of voluntary actions. " But it may be asked, does it depend merely on our own will to correct and reform our bad habits? It certainly does not ; neither does it depend on the will of a patient, who has despised the advice of a physician, to recover that health which has been lost by profligacy. When we have thrown a stone we cannot restrain its flight ; but it depended entirely on ourselves whether we should throw it or not." Monboddo, Ancifnt Mdaphys., chap. 4. Metaphys., lib. iv., cap. 20. Arist., Ethic., lib. v., cap. 1. Ibid., lib. iiL 214 VOCABULARY O* PHILOSOPHY. HABIT Actions, according to Aristotle, are voluntaiy throughout; habits only as to their beginnings. Thurot 1 calls "habit the memory of the organs, or that which gives memory to the organs." Several precepts can be given for the wise regulation of the exercises of the mind as well as of the body. We shall enu- merate a few of them. " The first is, that we should, from the very commencement, be on our guard against tasks of too difficult or too easy a nature ; for, if too great a burden be imposed, in the diffident temper you will check the buoyancy of hope, in the self-confi- dent temper you will excite an opinion whereby it will promise itself more than it can accomplish, the consequence of which will be sloth. But in both dispositions it will happen that the trial will not answer the expectation, a circumstance which always depresses and confounds the mind. But if the task be of too trivial a kind, there will be a serious loss on the total progress. " The second is, that in order to the exercise of any faculty for the acquirement of habit, two particular times should be carefully observed : the one when the mind is best disposed, the other, when worst disposed to the matter ; so that, by the former, we may make most progress on our way ; by the latter, we may, by laborious effort, wear out the knots and obstruc- tions of the mind, by which means the intermediate times shall pass on easily and smoothly. " The third precept is that of which Aristotle makes inci- dental mention : ' That we should, with all our strength (yet not running into a faulty excess), struggle to the opposite of that to which we are by nature the most inclined ;' as when we row against the current, or bend into an opposite direction a crooked staff, in order to straighten it. "The fourth precept depends on a general law, of undoubted truth, namely, that the mind is led on to anything more suc- cessfully and agreeably, if that at which we aim be not the chief object in the agent's design, but is accomplished, as it were, by doing something else ; since the bias of our nature is such, that 1 De VEntendement, torn, i., p. 138. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 215 HABIT it usually dislikes constraint and rigorous authority. There are several other rules which may be given with advantage oc the government of habit; for habit, if wisely and skilfully formed, becomes truly a second nature (as the common saying i) ; but unskilfully and unmethodically directed, it will be, as it were, the ape of nature, which imitates nothing to the life, but only clumsily and awkwardly." Bacon, 1 Maine de Biran, 2 Dutrochet, 3 M. F. Ravaisson, 4 Butler, 6 Reid. 6 V. CUSTOM. HAPPINESS " is not, I think, the most appropriate term for a state, the perfection of which consists in the exclusion of all hap, that is, chance. " Felicity, in its proper sense, is but another word for for- tunateness, or happiness ; and I can see no advantage in the improper use of words, when proper terms are to be found, but on the contrary, much mischief." 7 The Greeks called the sum total of the pleasure which is allotted or happens to a man tv^v^ta, that is, good hap ; or, more religiously, cvftuaoMa, that is, favourable providence. 8 To live well and to act well is synonymous with being happy. 9 Happiness is never desired but for its own sake only. Honour, pleasure, intelligence, and every virtue are desirable on their own account, but they are also desirable as means towards happiness. But happiness is never desirable as a means, .because it is complete and all-sufficient in itself. "Happiness is the object of human action in its most general form, as including all other objects, and approved by reason. As pleasure is the aim of mere desire, and interest the aim of prudence, so happiness is the aim of wisdom. Happiness is conceived as necessarily an ultimate object of action. To be happy, includes or supersedes all other gratifications. If we are happy, we do not miss that which we have not ; if we are * On Advancement of Learning, book vii. L' Influence de Habitude. T/if/rrie de V Habitude. * DC f Habitude. * Analogy, pt. i., ch. 5. Act. Pow., essay iii., pt. I., ch. 3; Intett. Pmo., essay iv., ch. 4. * Coleridge, Aids to Reflection, vol. i., pp. 31-2. Ibid. Aristotle, Ethic., lib. i., c. 4. 216 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. HAPPINESS not happy, we want something more, whatever we have. The desire of happiness is the supreme desire. All other desires of pleasure, wealth, power, fame, are included in this, and are subordinate to it. "We may make other objects our ultimate objects ; but we can do so only by identifying them with this. Happiness is our being's end and aim. " Since happiness is necessarily the supreme object of our desires, and duty the supreme rule of our actions, there can be no harmony in our being, except our happiness coincide with our duty. That which we contemplate as the ultimate and universal object of desire, must be identical with that which we contemplate as the ultimate and supreme guide of our intentions. As moral beings, our happiness must be found in our moral progress, and in the consequences of our moral progress we must be happy by being virtuous." l See Aristotle, 2 Harris. 3 V. GOOD (Chief). HARMONY (Pre-established). When an impression is made on a bodily organ by an external object, the mind becomes percipient. When a volition is framed by the will, the bodily organs are ready to execute it. How is this brought about ? The doctrine of a pre-established harmony has reference to this question, and may be thus stated. Before creating the mind and the body of man, God had a perfect knowledge of all possible minds and of all possible bodies. Among this infinite variety of minds and bodies, it was impossible but that there should come together a mind the sequence of whose ideas and volitions should correspond with the movements of some body : for, in an infinite number of possible minds and possible bodies, every combination or union was possible. Let us, then, suppose a mind, the order and succession of whose modifications corresponded with the series of movements to take place in some body, God would unite the two and make of them a living soul, a man. Here, then, is the most perfect harmony between the two parts of which man is composed. There is no commerce nor communication, no action and reaction. The mind is an independent force 1 Whewell, Morality, Nos. 544, 545. Ethic., lib. i. IXuloyue on Huppinest. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 217 HARMONY which passes from one volition or perception to another, in conformity with its own nature; and would have done so although the body had not existed. The body, in like man- ner, by virtue of its own inherent force, and by the single impression of external objects, goes through a series of move- ments; and would have done so although it had not been united to a rational soul. But the movements of the body and the modifications of the mind correspond to each other. In short, the mind is a spiritual automaton, and the body is a material automaton. Like two pieces of clockwork, they are so regulated as to mark the same time ; but the spring which moves the one is not the spring which moves the other ; yet they go exactly together. The harmony between them existed before the mind was united to the body. Hence this is called the doctrine of pre-established harmony. It may be called correspondence or parallelism, but not har- mony between mind and body for there is no unity superior to both, and containing both, which is the cause of their mu- tual penetration. In decomposing human personality into two substances, 1 from eternity abandoned each to its proper im- pulse, which acknowledges no superior law in man to direct and control them, liberty is destroyed. 2 The doctrine of pre-established harmony differs from that of occasional causes "only in this respect, that by the former the accordance of the mental and the bodily phenomena was supposed to be pre-arranged, once for all, by the Divine Power, while by the latter their harmony was supposed to be brought about by His constant interposition." 3 V. CAUSES (Occa- sional). This doctrine was first advocated by Leibnitz in his Theo- dicee and Monadologie. Bilfinger, De Harmonia Prcestabilita. 4 HARMONY (of the Spheres). The ancient philosophers sup- posed that the regular movements of the heavenly bodies throughout space formed a kind of harmony, which they called the harmony of the spheres. * Soul and body, however, constitute one suppvsitum or person. 2 Tiberghien, Essai des Connais. Hum., p. 394. Ferrier, Inst. of Mdaphyt., p. 478. < 4to, Tubing., 1740. 20 218 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. HARMONY- "Look how the floor of heaven Is thick inlaid with patines of bright gold; There's not the smallest orb which thou behold'st But in his motion like an angel sings, Still quiring to the young-ey'd cherubim: Such harmony is in immortal souls; But, whilst this muddy vesture of decay Doth grossly close it in, we cannot hear it." Merchant of Venice, Act v., sc. 1. HATRED. V. LOVE. HEDONISM (j^oj'jj, pleasure), is the doctrine that the chief good of man lies in the pursuit of pleasure. This was the doctrine of Aristippus and the Cyrenaic school. HERMETIC BOOKS. A collection of treatises ascribed to the Egyptian Thoth or Taaut, and also to the Hermes or Mercury of the Greeks. Different opinions have been entertained as to their origin and author. Marsilius Ficinus has collected the quotations made from the Hermetic books scattered throughout the writings of the Platonicians and early Christians; of which he published a Latin translation in 1471. They are a miscellany of theosophy, astrology, and alchemy partly Egyptian, partly Greek, and partly Jewish and Christian. 1 HEURISTIC. V. OSTENSIVE. HOLINESS suggests the idea, not of perfect virtue, but of that peculiar affection wherewith a being of perfect virtue regards moral evil ; and so much indeed is this the precise and charac- teristic import of the term, that, had there been no evil either actual or conceivable in the universe, there would have been no holiness. There would have been perfect truth and perfect righteousness, yet not holiness; for this is a word which denotes neither any one of the virtues in particular, nor the assemblage of them all put together, but the recoil or the repulsion of these towards the opposite vices a recoil that never would have been felt, if vice had been so far a nonentity as to be neither an object of real existence nor an object of thought." a HOMOLOGTTE (6/io$, same ; Xoyoj). "A homologue is denned as the same organ in different animals, under every variety of 1 Lenglet du Fresnoy, Hist, de la Philosnph. Hermetique, 3 torn., 12mo, Paris, 1742. Chalmers, Nat. Tlueol., vol. ii., p. 3SO. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 219 HOMOLOGUE form and function. Thus, the arms and feet of man, the fora and hind feet of quadrupeds, the wings and feet of bhds, and the fins of fishes, are said to be homologous." ' " The corresponding parts in different animals are called homologues, a term first applied to anatomy by the philosophers of Germany : and this term Mr. Owen adopts to the exclusion of terms more loosely denoting identity or similarity." 2 See Owen, On the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton, 1848. V. ANALOGUE. HOMONYMOUS. V. EQUIVOCAL. HOMOTYPE (fytoj, same; tvrtof, type). "The corresponding or serially repeated parts in the same animal are called homotypes. Thus, the fingers and toes of man, indeed the fore and hind limbs of vertebrate animals generally, are said to be homo- typal."* HUMOUR (humor, moisture). As the state of the mind is influ- enced by the state of the fluids of the body, humour has come to be used as synonymous with temper and disposition. But temper and disposition denote a more settled frame of mind than that denoted by the word humour. It is a variable mood of the temper or disposition. A man who is naturally of a good temper or kind disposition may occasionally be in bad humour. V. WIT. HYLOZOISM ("wty, matter; and fjj, life). The doctrine that life and matter are inseparable. This doctrine has been held under different forms. Straton of Lampsacus held that the ultimate particles of matter were each and all of them possessed of life. The Stoics, on the other hand, while they did not accord activity or life to every distinct particle of matter, held that the universe, as a whole, was a being animated by a principle which gave to it motion, form, and life. This doc- trine appeared among the followers of Plotinus, who held that the soul of the universe animated the least particle of matter. Spinoza asserted that all things were alive in different degrees. Omnia quamvis diver sis gradibus animata tamen sunt. Under all these forms of the doctrine there is a confounding 1 M'Cosh, Typical Forms, p. 25. Whewell, SuppUm. Vol., p. 142. * M'Cosh, Typical Forms, p. 25. 220 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. HYLOZOISM of life with force. Matter, according to Leibnitz and Bosco- vich, and others, is always endowed with force. Even the vit inertias ascribed .to it is a force. Attraction and repulsion, and chemical affinity, all indicate activity in matter ; but life is a force always connected with organization, which much of matter wants. Spontaneous motion, growth, nutrition, separation of parts, generation, are phenomena which indicate the presence of life ; which is obviously not co-extensive with matter. HYPOSTASIS. V. SUBSISTENTIA. HYPOTHESIS (v7t60 Part ii., ch. I, sect 2. Rapports du Physique et de Moral de VHomme. Catechism du tttoyen Francais. Dumiron, Hist, de Philosoph. en France au 19 siecU. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 237 IDEOLOGY- on the Hum. Understanding, and the ideological school is the natural offspring of Locke." l " By a double blunder in philosophy and Greek, ideologic (for idealogie), a word which could only properly suggest an d priori scheme, deducing our knowledge from the intellect, has in France become the name peculiarly distinctive of that phi- losophy of mind which exclusively derives our knowledge from sensation/' 2 " Destutt de Tracy has distinguished Condillac by the title of the father of ideology." 8 IDIOSYNCRASY (I8io$, proprius ; ovv, con, and xpav). In the former ease the ignorance is the direct cause of the action, in the latter case it is an accident ox eoncomita'? f , VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 239 ILLATION at knowledge ; or their probable connection on which it with- holds its assent, as in opinion." 1 V. INFERENCE, INDUCTION ILLITMINATI (illumino, to enlighten). The name given to a secret society said to exist in Germany and other countries of Europe, towards the close of the last century. They pro- fessed the purest principles of virtue ; but their real design was to subvert all religion and all government. Doubts have been entertained as to the extent and influence of any such society ; and some have even denied its existence. 2 IMAGINATION. "Nihil aliud est imaginari quam rei corporeae figuram seu imaginem eontemplari." * Mr. Addison 4 says, " The pleasures of imagination are such as arise from visible objects, since it is the sense of sight that furnishes the imagination with its ideas." Dr. Reid says, "Imagination, in its proper sense, signifies a lively conception of objects of sight. It is distinguished from conception, as a part from a whole." But a much wider signification has been given to the word by others. "By imagination we mean, in a comprehensive sense, that operatftn of the mind by which it (1) receives, (2) retains, (3) recalls, and (4) combines, according to higher laws the ideal images furnished to it by the csenesthesis and by the senses ; for all these acts are manifestly links of one chain. At the first step, we usually call this operation 6 the faculty of conception ; at the second, memory ; at the third, reproductive fancy ; and at the fourth, productive fancy." * " In the language of modern philosophy, the word imagina- tion seems to denote first, the power of apprehending or con- ceiving ideas, simply as they are in themselves, without any view to their reality ; secondly, the power of combining into new forms or assemblages, those thoughts, ideas, or notions, which we have derived from experience or from information. 1 Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., b. iv., c. 17. Robison, Proofs of a Conspiracy, Taylor, Elements of Thought. * Spalding., Log., p. 1. Ibid., p. 160 Whately, Log., b. iv,, ch. 3, g 1. Whately, ibid. 8. Bailey, Theory of Reasoning, pp. 31, 32, 8vo, Lond., 1851 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY, 257 INFINITE;- than any assignable magnitude. But strictly speaking it means that which is not only without determinate "bounds, but which cannot possibly admit of bound or limit. " The infinite expresses the entire absence of all limitation, and is applicable to the one infinite Being in all his attributes. The absolute expresses perfect independence, both in being and in action. The unconditioned indicates entire freedom from every necessary relation. The whole three unite in expressing the entire absence of all restriction. But let this be particularly observed, they do not imply that the one infinite Being cannot exist in relation, they only imply that He cannot exist in a necessary relation, that is, if He exist in relation, that relation cannot be a necessary condition of his existence." 1 V. ABSOLUTE, UNCONDITIONED. As to our idea of the infinite there are two opposite opinions. According to some, the idea is purely negative, and springs tip when we contemplate the ocean or the sky, or some ob- ject of vast extent to which we can assign no limits. Or, if the idea has anything positive in it, that is furnished by the imagination, which goes on enlarging the finite without limit. On the other hand it is said that the enlarging of the finite can never furnish the idea of the infinite, but only of the indefinite. The indefinite is merely the confused apprehension of what may or may not exist. But the idea of the infinite is the idea of an objective reality, and is implied as a necessary condition of every other idea. We cannot think of body but as existing in space, nor of an event but as occurring in time ; and space and duration are necessarily thought of as infinite. But have we or can we have knowledge of the infinite f Boethius 2 is quoted as saying, "Infinitorum nulla cognitio est; irifinita namque animo comprehend! nequeunt ; quod autem ratione mentis circumdari non potest, nullius scientise fine concluditur ; quare infinitorum scientia nulla est/' tOn the other hand, Cud worth 3 has said, " Since infinite it * Calderwood, Philosoph. of the Infinite, p. 37. In Prod., p. 113, edit. Bas. > InteK. Syttem, p. 449. 23* a 258 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. INFINITE the same with absolutely perfect, we having a notion or idei of the latter must needs have of the former." But, while we cannot comprehend the infinite, we may ap- prehend it in contrast or relation with the finite. And this ia what the common sense of men leads them to rest satisfied with, and, without attempting the metaphysical difficulty of reconciling the existence of the infinite with that of the finite, to admit the existence of both. " Truth is bigger than our minds, and we are not the same with it, but have a lower participation only of the intellectual nature, and are rather apprehenders than comprehenders there- of. This is indeed one badge of our creaturely state, that we have not a perfectly comprehensive knowledge, or such as is adequate and commensurate to the essence of things." Cudworth. Ancillon, Essai sur I' Idee et le Sentiment de I'lnfini; Cousin, Cours de Philosoph., et Hist, de la Philosoph. ; Sir W. Hamil- ton, Discussions on Philosophy, &c. ; L. Velthuysen, Dissertatio de Finito et Infinito; Descartes, Meditations. " The infinite and the indefinite may be thus distinguished: the former implies an actual conceiving the absence of limits; the latter is a not conceiving the presence of limits processes as different as searching through a house and discovering that a certain person is not there, as from shutting our eyes and not seeing that he is there. Infinity belongs to the object of thought ; indefiniteness to the manner of thinking of it." l INFLUX (Physical) (infiuo, to flow in), is one of the theories as to our perception of external objects. " The advocates of this scheme maintained that real things are the efficient causes of our perceptions, the word efficient being employed to signify that the things by means of some positive power or inherent virtue which they possess, were competent to transmit to the mind a knowledge of themselves External objects were supposed to operate on the nervous system by the transmission of some kind of influence, the nervous system was supposed to carry on the process by the transmission of certain images or representations, and thus our knowledge of external Hansel, Led. on Philosoph. of Kant, p. 29. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 25S INFLUX things was supposed to be brought about. The representa- tions alone came before the mind ; the things by which they were caused remained occult and unknown." l V. CAUSES (OCCASIONAL). INJURY (injuria, from in andjws, neglect or violation of right), in morals and jurisprudence is the intentional doing of wrong. We may bring h arm or evil upon others without in- tending it. But injury implies intention, and awakens a sense of injustice and indignation, when it is done. It is on this difference in the meaning of harm and injury that Bishop Butler founds the distinction of resentment into sudden and deliberate. 2 INNATE (IDEAS). Ideas, as to their origin, have been distin- guished into adventitious, or such as we receive from the objects of external nature, as the idea or notion of a moun- tain, or a tree ; factitious, or such as we frame out of ideas already acquired, as of a golden mountain, or of a tree with golden fruit ; and innate, or such as are inborn and belong to the mind from its birth, as the idea of God or of immortality. Cicero, in various passages of his treatise De Natura Deorum, speaks of the idea of God and of immortality as being inserted, or engraven, or inborn in the mind. "Intelligi necesse est, esse deos, quoniam insitas eorum, vel potius innatas cognitiones habe- mus."* In like manner, Origen 4 has said, " That men would not be guilty if they did not carry in their mind common notions of morality, innate and written in divine letters." It was in this form that Locke 6 attacked the doctrine of innate ideas. It has been questioned, however, whether the doctrine, as represented by Locke, was really held by the ancient phi- losophers. And Dr. Hutcheson 6 has the following passage : "Omnes autem ideas, apprehensiones, etjudicia, quce de rebus, duce natura, formamus, quocunque demum tempore hoc fat, sive quce natures nostrce viribus quibuscunque, necessario fere, atque nniversaliter" 1 recipiuntur, innata quantum memini, dixerunt ' Ferrier, Inst. of Mctaphys., p. 472. a Butler, Sermons, viii. and 9. Lib. i., sect. 17. Adv. Celsum, lib i., cap. 4. Essay on Hum. Understand., book 1. Oratio Jnavguralis, De Naturali hominum Ftncietate. We have here, in 1730, the two marks of necessity and universality which subsa quently were so much insisted on by Kant and others as characterizing ail o cognitions. 260 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. INNATE- antiqui" Among modern philosophers it would lie difficult to name any who held the doctrine in the form in which it haa been attacked by Locke. In calling some of our ideas innatl they seem merely to have used this word as synonymous with natural, and applied it, as Huteheson thinks the ancients did, to certain ideas which men, as human or rational beings, necessarily and universally entertain. See NATURAL as dis- tinguished from INNATE. " There are three senses in which an idea may be supposed to be innate ; one, if it be something originally superadded to our mental constitution, either as an idea in the first instance fully developed ; or as one undeveloped, but having the power of self-development: another, if the idea is a subjective con- dition of any other ideas, which we receive independently of the previous acquisition of this idea, and is thus proved to be in some way embodied in, or interwoven with, the powers by which the mind receives those ideas: a third, if, without being a subjective condition of other ideas, there be any faculty or faculties of mind, the exercise of which would suffice, inde- pendently of any knowledge acquired from without, spontane- ously to produce the idea. In the first case, the idea is given us at our first creation, without its bearing any special rela- tion to our other faculties ; in the second case, it is given us as a form, either of thought generally or of some particular species of thought, and is therefore embodied in mental powers by which we are enabled to receive the thought; in the third case, it is, as in the second, interwoven in the original consti- tution of some mental power or powers ; not, however, as in the preceding case, simply as a pre-requisite to their exercise, but by their being so formed as by exercise spontaneously to produce the idea." 1 The first of these three is the form in which the doctrine of innate ideas is commonly understood. This doctrine was at one time thought essential to support the principles of natural religion and morality. But Locke saw that these principles were safe from "the attacks of the sceptic, although a belief in God and immortality, and a sense of the difference between 1 Dr. AlHot, Psychology and Theology, p. 93, 12mo, Lond., 18S5 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 261 INNATE- right and wrong were not implanted or inserted in the mind ; if it could be shown that men necessarily and universally came to them by the ordinary use of their faculties. He took a distinction between an innate law, and a law of nature;* and while he did not admit that there was a law " imprinted on our minds in their very original," contended " that there is a law knowable by the light of nature." In like manner, Bishow Law 2 said, " It will really come to the same thing with regard to the usual attributes of God, and the nature of virtue and vice, whether the Deity has implanted these in- stincts and affections in us, or has framed and disposed us in such a manner has given us such powers and placed us in such circumstances, that we must necessarily acquire them." V. NATURE (Law of). " Though it appears not that we have any innate ideas or formed notions or principles laid in by nature, antecedently to the exercise of our senses and understandings ; yet it must be granted that we were born with the natural faculty, whereby we actually discern the ' agreement or disagreement of some notions, so soon as We have the notions themselves ; as, that we can or do think, that therefore we ourselves are ; that one and two make three, that gold is not silver, nor ice formally water ; that the whole is greater than its part, &c., and if we should set ourselves to do it, we cannot deliberately and seriously doubt of its being so. This we may call intui- tive knowledge, or natural certainty wrought into our very make and constitution." 8 " Some writers have imagined, that no conclusions can be drawn from the state of the passions for or against the Divine Benevolence, because they are not innate but acquired. This is frivolous. If we are so framed and placed in such circum- stances, that all these various passions must be acquired ; it is just the same thing as if they had been planted in us ori- ginally." 4 " Ni nos ide"es, ni nos sentiments, ne sont innes, mais ils eont naturels, fond6s sur la constitution de notre esprit et d Essay on Hum. Understand., book i., ch. 3. * King's Essay on Origin of Evil, p. 79, note. Oldfield, Essay on Reason, p. 5, 8vo, Lend., 1707. 4 Balguy, JXvine Benevolence, p. 100, note. 262 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. INNATE notre ame, et sur nos rapports avec tout ce qui noua envi ronne." Turgot, 1 quoted by Cousin. 2 " We are prepared to defend the follow/ng propositions it regard to innate ideas, or constitutional principles of the mind. First, Negatively, that there are no innate ideas in the mind (1.) as images or mental representations ; nor (2.) as abstract or general notions; nor (3.) as principles of thought, belief, or action before the mind as principles. But, Second, Posi- tively (1.) that there are constitutional principles operating in the mind, though not before the consciousness as principles ; (2.) that these come forth into consciousness as individual (not general) cognitions or judgments; and (3.) that these individual exercises, when carefully inducted, but only when so, give us primitive or philosophic truths. It follows that, while these native principles operate in the mind spontane- ously, we are entitled to use them reflexly in philosophic or theologic speculations only after having determined their nature and rule by abstraction and generalization." 3 " Though man does not receive from his Maker either spe- culative or moral maxims, as rules of judgment and of con- duct, like so many perfect innate propositions enforcing assent in his very infancy ; yet he has received that constitution of mind which enables him to form to himself the general rules or first principles on which religion and science must be built, when he allows himself these advantages of cultivation and exercise, which every talent he possesses absolutely requires. And this is all that is pleaded for ; and it is sufficient for the end. Nor is there anything either mystical, or unphilosophi- cal, or unscriptural in the notion. For if the proposition be not strictly innate, it arises from an innate power, which, in a sound mind, cannot form a proposition in any other way that will harmonize with enlightened reason and purified moral sentiment than in that to which the natural bias of the mind leads." 4 The doctrine of innate ideas is handled by Locke in his Essay on Hum. Understand.* and by most authors who treat (Euvres, torn, iv., p 308. * CEuvres, 1 serie, torn. IT., p. 202. M'Cosh, Meth. of Zht, Govern., p. 508, 5th edit. 4 Hancock, On Instinct, p. 414. Book L VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 263 INNATE of intellectual philosophy. See also Ellis, Knowledge of Divint Things; 1 Sherlock, On the Immortality of the Soul* INSTINCT (iv or tVtdj and attgw, inlus pungo), signifies an inter nal stimulus. In its widest signification it has been applied to plants as well as to animals ; and may be defined to be " the power or energy by which all organized forms are preserved in the in- dividual, or continued in the species." It is more common, however, to consider instinct as belonging to animals. And in this view of it, Dr. Reid 3 has said; "By instinct I mean a natural blind impulse to certain actions without having any end in view, without deliberation, and very often without any conception of what we do." An instinct, says Paley, 4 "is a propensity prior to experience and independent of instruction." "An instinct," says Dr. Whately, 6 "is a blind tendency to some mode of action independent of any consideration on the part of the agent, of the end to which the action leads." There are two classes of actions, which, in the inferior animals, have been referred to instinct as their spring. 1. Those which have reference to the preservation of individuals as the seeking and discerning the food which is convenient for them, and the using their natural organs of locomotion, and their natural means of defence and attack. 2. Those which have reference to the continuation of the species as the bringing forth and bringing up of their young. The theories which have been proposed to explain the instinctive operations of the inferior animals may be arranged in three classes. I. According to the physical theories, the operations of instinct are all provided for in the structure and organization of the inferior animals, and do not imply any mind or soul. The principle of life may be developed 1. By the mechanical play of bodily organs. See Descartes, Epistles; Polignac, Anti- Lucretius; 9 Norris, Essay toward* the Theory of an Ideal World? i Pp. 59-86. a Chap. 2. Act. Pow., essay iii., part 1, chap. 2. Nat. Thed., chap. 18. Tract on Instinct, p. 21. Book Ti. t Part 2, ch. 2. 264 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. INSTINCT - 2. By Irritability: Badham, Insect Life; Mason Good, Bool of Nature; 1 Virey, De la Physiologic dans ses rapports, avec la Philosophic. 2 3. By Sensation: Bushnan, Philosophy of Instinct and Reason; 3 Barlow, Connection between Physiology and Intellec- tual Philosophy; Kirby, Bridgewater Treatise* II. According to the psychical theories, the instinctive actions of the inferior animals are the results of mental powers or faculties possessed by them, analogous to those of under- standing in man. 1. Mr. Coleridge 6 calls instinct "the power of selecting and adapting means to a proximate end." But he thinks " that when instinct adapts itself, as it sometimes does, to varying circumstances, there is manifested by the inferior animals, an instinctive intelligence, which is not different in kind from understanding, or the faculty which Judges according to sense in man." Green, Vital Dynamics* or Coleridge's Works. 1 2. Dr. Darwin 8 contends, that what have been called the instinctive actions of the inferior animals are to be referred to experience and reasoning, as well as those of our own species ; " though their reasoning is from fewer ideas, is busied about fewer objects, and is exerted with less energy." 3. Mr. Smellie, 9 instead of regarding the instinctive actions of the inferior animals as the results of reasoning, regards the power of reasoning as itself an instinct. He holds 10 that " all animals are, in some measure, rational beings ; and that the dignity and superiority of the human intellect are neces- sary results of the great variety of instincts which nature has been pleased to confer on the species." III. According to the theories which may be called hyper- psychical, the phenomena of instinct are the results of an intelligence, different from the human, which emanates upon the inferior animals from the supreme spirit or some subordi- nate spirit. This doctrine is wrapped up in the ancient fable, that the Vol. ii., p. 132. P. 394. P. 178. * Vol. ii., p. 265. Aids to Reflection, Tol. 1., p. 193, 6th edit. App. F, p. 88. Vol. ii., App. B, 5. Zoonomia, vol. i.. 4to, p. 256-7. Philosophy of Nat. Hist., Tol. i., 4to, p. 166 10 P. 159. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 265 INSTINCT- gods, when pursued by tlie Titans, fled into Egypt, and took refuge under the form of animals of different kinds. Father Bougeant, in a work entitled, A Philosophical Amusement on the Language of Beasts, contends that the bodies of the inferior animals are inhabited by fallen and reprobate spirits. Mr. French ! holds that the actions of the inferior animals are produced by good and evil spirits ; the former being the cause of the benevolent, and the latter of the ferocious in- stincts. Others have referred the operations of instinct to the direct agency of the Creator on the inferior animals. See Newton, Optics ; 2 Spectator ; 3 Hancock, Essay on Instinct. Dr. Reid 4 has maintained, that in the human being many actions, such as sucking and swallowing, are done by instinct; while Dr. Priestley 6 regards them as automatic or acquired. And the interpretation of natural signs and other acts which Dr. Reid considers to be instinctive, Dr. Priestley refers to association and experience. V. APPETITE. , INTELLECT (intelligo, to choose between, to perceive a differ- ence). Intellect, sensitivity, and will, are the three heads under which the powers and capacities of the human mind are now generally arranged. In this use of it, the term, intellect includes all those powers by which we acquire, retain, and extend our knowledge, as perception, memory, imagination, judgment, &c. "It is by those powers and faculties which compose that part of his nature commonly called his intellect or understanding that man acquires his knowledge of external objects; that he investigates truth in the sciences; that he combines means in order to attain the ends he has in view ; and that he imparts to his fellow-creatures the acquisitions he has made." 8 The intellectual powers are commonly distinguished from the moral powers; inasmuch as it is admitted that the 1 Zoological Journal, No. 1. Book iii., xx., query subjoined. No. 120i 4 Act. Pow., essay iii., pt. i., chap. 2. Examin. of Reid, Ac., p. 70. Stewart, Active and Moral Powers, Introd. 24 266 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. INTELLECT - moral powers partake partly of the intellect and partly of the sensitivity, and imply not only knowledge lout feeling. And when the moral powers are designated active, it is not meant to assert that in exercising the intellectual powers the mind is altogether passive, but only to intimate that while the function of the intellectual powers is to give knowledge, the function of the active and moral powers is to prompt and regulate actions. Lord Monboddo 1 reduces the gnostic powers to two, viz. sense and intellect. Under sense he includes the phantasy and also the comparing faculty, and that by which we appre- hend ideas, either single or in combination. This he consi- ders to be partly rational, and shared by us .with the brutes. But intellect or vov$, he considers peculiar to man it is the faculty by which we generalize and have ideas altogether independent of sense. He quotes Hierocles 2 on the golden verses of Pythagoras, as representing the Xoyoj or $V%YI hoyixri, as holding a middle place betwixt the irrational or lowest part of our nature and intellect, which is the highest. "The term intellect is derived from a verb (intelligere\ which signifies to understand: tut the term itself is usually so applied as to imply a faculty which recognizes principles explicitly as well as implicitly ; and abstract as well as ap- plied ; and therefore agrees with the reason rather than the understanding ; and the same extent of signification belongs to the adjective intellectual/' 3 "Understanding is Saxon and intellect is Latin for nearly the same idea: perhaps understanding describes rather the power of inference, a quickness at perceiving that which stands under the object of contemplation: perhaps intellect describes rather the power of judgment, a quickness at choos- ing between (inter and legere] the objects of contemplation." 4 Intellect and Intellection. " The mind of man is, by its native faculty, able to discern universal propositions, in the same manner as the sense does particular ones that is, as the truth * Ancient Metaphysics, book ii., chap. 7. * P. 160, edit. Needham. * Wbewell. Elements of Morality, introd. 12. 4 Taylor, Synonyms. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 267 INTELLECT - of these propositions Socrates exists, An eagle flieji, Buce- phalus runs, is immediately perceived and judged of by the sense ; so these contradictory propositions cannot be both true ; What begins to exist has its rise from another ; Action argues that a thing exists (or, as it is vulgarly expressed, a thing that is not, acts not), and such-like propositions, which the mind directly contemplates and finds to be true by its native force, without any previous notion or applied reasoning ; which method of attaining truth is by a peculiar name styled intel- lection, and the faculty of attaining it the intellect." 1 Intellect and Intelligence. " By Aristotle, vovj is used to denote " 1. Our higher faculties of thought and knowledge. "2. The faculty, habit, or place of principles, that is, of self-evident and self-evidencing notions and judgments. " The schoolmen, following Boethius, translated it by intel- lectus and intelligentia ; and some of them appropriated the former of these terms to its first or general signification, the latter to its second or special/' 2 Intellect and intelligence are commonly used as synonymous. But Trusler has said, " It seems to me that intellectus ought to describe art or power, and intelligentia ought to describe ust or habit of the understanding ; such being the tendency of the inflections in which the words terminate. In this case intellect or understanding power is a gift of nature ; and intelligence, or understanding habit, an accumulation of time. So discri- minated, intellect is inspired, intelligence is acquired. The Supreme Intellect, when we are speaking of the Wisdom, the Supreme Intelligence when we are speaking of the Knowledge of God. Every man is endowed with understanding ; but it requires reading to become a man of intelligence." V. REA- SON, UNDERSTANDING. Intellectus Patiens. and Intellectus Agens. Aristotle 3 dis- tinguished between the intellectus patiens and intellectus agens. The former, perishing with the body, by means of the senses, imagination, and memory, furnished the matter of knowledge ; 1 Barrow, Mafhem. Lectures, 1734, p. 72. Sir William Hamilton, Reid's Works, note A, sect. 6. 8 De. Anima, cap. 5. 268 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. INTELLECT - the latter, separable from the body, and eternal, gave that knowledge form. Under the impressions of the senses the mind is passive ; but while external things rapidly pass, ima- gination does not allow them altogether to escape, but the knowledge of them is retained by the memory. But this knowledge, being the knowledge of singulars, cannot give universal notions, but merely generalized ones. The intellectus agens, however, proceeding upon the information furnished by the senses, actually evolves the idea which the intellectus patiens potentially possessed. His illustration is, as light makes colours existing potentially, actually to be, so the intel- lectus agens converts into actuality, and brings, as it were, to a new life, whatever was discovered or collected by the intel- lectus patiens. As the senses receive the forms of things ex- pressed in matter, the intellect comprehends the universal form, which, free from the changes of matter, is really prior to it and underlies the production of it as cause. The common illustration of Aristotle is that the senses perceive the form of a thing, as it is to otjtov or a height ; the intellect has know- ledge of it as resembling t^ XOLJ^, a hollow, out of which the height was produced. Aristotle has often been said to reduce all knowledge to experience. But although he maintained that we could not shut our eyes and frame laws and causes for all things, yet he maintained, while he appealed to experience, that the intellect was the ultimate judge of what is true. 1 According to Thomas Aquinas, 2 "Intellectus nosier nihil intel- ligit sine phantasmate." But he distinguished between the intellect passive and the intellect active ; the one receiving im- pressions from the senses, and the other reasoning on them. Sense knoVs the individual, intellect the universal. You see a triangle, but you rise to the idea of triangularity. It is thia power of generalizing which specializes man and makes him what he is, intelligent. INTENT or INTENTION (in-tendo, to tend to), in morals and in law, means that act of the mind by which we contemplate * See Hermann Rassow, Aristotdis de Notivnis Definitione Doctrina, Berol., 1343. Adv. Gentes, lib. iii., cap. 41. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 269 INTENT and design the accomplishment of some end. It is followed by the adoption and use of' suitable means. But this is more directly indicated by the word purpose. " He had long har- boured the intention of taking away the life of his enemy, and for this purpose he provided himself with weapons." Purpose is a step nearer action than intention. But both in law and in morals, intention, according as it is right or wrong, good or bad, affects the nature or character of the action following. According to the doctrine of the Church of Rome, intention may altogether change the nature of an action. Killing may be no murder, if done with the intention of freeing the church from a persecutor, and society from a tyrant. And if a priest administers any of the sacraments without the intention of exercising his priestly functions, these sacraments may be rendered void. F. ELECTION. INTENTION (Logical). Quoth he, whatever others deem ye, I understand your metonymy, 1 Your words of second-hand intention, When things by wrongful names you mention. Butler, Budibras. Intention, with logicians, has the same meaning as notion; as it is by notions the mind tends towards or attends to objects. V. NOTION. Intention (First and Second). " Nouns of the first intention are those which are imposed upon things as such, that conception alone intervening, by which the mind is carried immediately to the thing itself. Such are man and stone. But nouns of the second intention are those which are imposed upon things not in virtue of what they are in themselves, but in virtue of their being subject to the intention which the mind makes concerning them ; as, when we say that man is a species, and animal a genus." 9 Raoul le Breton, Super Lib. Poster. Analyt. He was a Thomist. 1 "The transference of words from the primary to a secondary meaning, is what grammarians call metonymy. Thus a door signifies both an opening in the wall (more strictly called the doorway) and a board which closes it; which are things neithel iimilar nor analogous." Whately, Log., b. iii., 10. 3 Part ii., canto 3, 1. 987. Aquinas, Opuscula, xlii., art. 12, ad init. 24* 270 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. INTENTION- See Tractatio de Secundis Intentionibus secundum doctrinam Scoti. By Sarnanus, 4to, Ursellis, 1622. Ajirst intention may be defined "a conception of a thing or things formed by the mind from materials existing without itself." A second intention is "a conception of another conception or conceptions formed by the mind from materials existing in itself." Thus the conceptions " man, animal, whiteness," &c., are framed from marks presented by natural objects. " The conceptions, genus, species, accident, &c., are formed from the first intentions themselves viewed in certain relations to each other." INTERPRETATION of NATURE . " There are," says Bacon,' " two ways, and can be only two, of seeking and finding truth. One springs at once from the sense, and from par- ticulars, to the most general axioms ; and from principles thus obtained, and their truth assumed as a fixed point, judges and invents intermediate axioms. This is the way now in use. The other obtains its axioms (that is, its truths) also from the sense and from particulars, by a connected and gra- dual progress, so as to arrive, in the last place, at the most general truths. This is the true way, as yet untried. The former set of doctrines we call," he says, 3 " for the sake of clearness, 'Anticipation of Nature,' the latter the ' Interpreta- tion of Nature.' " INTUITION (from intueor, to behold). " Sometimes the mind perceives the agreement or disagreement of two ideas imme- diately by themselves, without the intervention of any other ; and this, I think, we may call intuitive knowledge. For in this the mind is at no pains of proving or examining, but perceives the truth as the eye doth the light, only by being directed towards it. Thus, the mind perceives that white is not black, that a circle is not a triangle, that three are more than two, and equal to one and two." 4 " What we know or comprehend as soon as we perceive 01 Mansel, Note to Aldrich, 1849, pp. 16, 17. See Review of Whately's Logic, No. C*T ISdin. Review. * Nov. Org., I, Aph. 19. Aph. 94. * Locke, Ettay on Hum. Understand., b. iv., ch. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. - 27* INTUITION attend to it, we are said to know by intuition: things which we know by intuition, cannot be made more certain by argu- ments, than they are at first. We know by intuition that all the parts of a thing together are equal to the whole of it. Axioms are propositions known by intuition"* "Intuition has been applied by Dr. Beattie and others, not only to the power by which we perceive the truth of tlie axioms of geometry, but to that by which we recognize the authority of the fundamental laws of belief, when we hear them enunciated in language. My only objection to this use of the word is, that it is a departure from common practice ; according to which, if I be not mistaken, the proper objects of intuition are propositions analogous to the axioms prefixed to Euclid's Elements. In some other respects this innovation might perhaps be regarded as an improvement on the very limited and imperfect vocabulary of which we are able to avail ourselves in our present discussions." 2 "Intuition is properly attributed and should be carefully restricted, to those instinctive faculties and impulses, external and internal, which act instantaneously and irresistibly, which were given by nature as the first inlets of all knowledge, and which we have called the Primary Principles, whilst self- evidence may be justly and properly attributed to axioms, or the Secondary Principles of truth/' 3 On the difference between knowledge as intuitive, immediate, or presentative, and as mediate, or representative, see Sir W. Hamilton. 4 Intuition is used in the extent of the German Anschaming, to include all the products of the perceptive (external or in- ternal) and imaginative faculties ; every act of consciousness, in short, of which the immediate object is an individual^ thing, state, or act of mind, presented under the condition of distinct existence in space or time." 6 " Besides its original and proper meaning (as a visual perception), it has been employed to denote a kind of appro- 1 Taylor, Elements of Thought. 3 Stewart, Elements, part ii., chap. 1, sect. 2. Tatham, Chart and Scale of Truth, ch. 7, lect. 1. * Reid's Workt;, note B- ' Mansel, Prolcgom. Log , p. 9. 272 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. INTUITION- hension and a kind of judgment. Under the former head it has been used to denote, 1. A perception of the actual and present, in opposition to the abstractive knowledge which we have of the possible in imagination, and of the past in memory. 2. An immediate apprehension of a thing in itself, in contrast to a representative, vicarious or mediate, appre- hension of it, in or through something else. (Hence by Fichte, Schelling, and others, intuition is employed to designate the cognition as opposed to the conception of the absolute.) 3. The knowledge, which we can adequately represent in imagination, in contradistinction to the ' symbolical' knowledge which we cannot image, but only think or conceive, through and under a sign or word. (Hence, probably, Kant's application of the term to the forms of the sensibility, the imaginations of Time and Space, in contrast to the forms or categories of the Understanding). 4. Perception proper (the objective), in contrast to sensation proper (the subjective), in our sensitive consciousness. 5. The simple apprehension of a notion, in contradistinction to the complex apprehension of the terms of a proposition. " Under the latter head it has only a single signification, viz.: To denote the immediate affirmation by the intellect, the predicate does or does -not pertain to the subject, in what are called self-evident propositions." ! INTUITION and CONCEPTION. " The perceptions of sense are immediate, those of the understanding mediate only; sense refers its perceptions directly and immediately to an object. Hence the perception is singular, incomplex, and immediate, i. e., is intuition. When I see a star, or hear the tones of a harp, the perceptions are immediate, incomplex, and intuitive. This is the good old logical meaning of the word intuition. In our philosophic writings, however, intuitive and intuition have come to be applied solely to propositions ; it is here extended to the first elements of perception, whence such propositions spring. Again, intuition, in English, is restricted to percep- tions d priori; but the established logical use and wont applies the word to every incomplex representation whatever; and 1 Sir W. Hamilton, Reid's Works, note A, sect. 5, p. 759. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 273 INTUITION it is left for further and more deep inquiry to ascertain what intuitions are founded on observation and experience, and what arise from a priori sources." l INVENTION (invenio, to come in, or to come at) is the creaticn or construction of something which has not before existed. Discovery is the making manifest something which hitherto has been unknown. We discover or uncover what is hidden. We come at new objects. Galileo invented the telescope.. Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood. " We speak of the invention of printing, the discovery of America. Shift these words, and speak, for instance, of the invention of America, you feel at once how unsuitable the lan- guage is. And why ? Because Columbus did not make that to be which before him had not been. America was there before he revealed it to European eyes ; but that which before was, he showed to be ; he withdrew the veil which hitherto had concealed it, he discovered it." 2 Newton discovered the law of gravitation, but Watt invented the steam engine. We speak with a true distinction, of the inventions of Art, the discoveries of Science. In Locke and his contemporaries, to say nothing of the older writers, to invent is currently used for to discover. Thus Bacon 3 says, " Logic does not pretend to invent science, or the axioms of sciences, but passes it over with a cuique in sua artt credendum." [RONY (fipcovfta, dissimulation), is an ignorance purposely af- fected to provoke or confound an antagonist. It was very much employed by Socrates against the Sophists. In modern times it was adopted by Burke in his Defence of Natural Society, in which, assuming the person of Bolingbroke, he proves, according to the principles of that author, that the arguments he brought against ecclesiastical, would equally lie against civil, institutions. Sir William Drummond, in his (Edipus Judaicus, maintained that the history of the twelve patriarchs is a mythical representation of the signs of the Zodiac. Dr. Townsend, in his (Edipus Ronianus, attempts to show that upon the same principles the twelve patriarchi 1 Semple, Introd. to Metaplnjs. of Ethics, p. 34. Trench, On Words. Adv. of learning. 274 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. IRONY were prophecies of the twelve Caesars. Dr. "Whately, in a pamphlet entitled Historic Doubts, attempted to show that objections similar to those against the Scripture-history, and much more plausible, might be urged against all the received accounts of Napoleon Bonaparte. JUDGMENT. "A judgment is a combination of two concepts, related to one or more common objects of possible intuition." ' Our judgments, according to Aristotle, are either proble- matical, assertive, or demonstrable; or, in other words, the results of opinion, of belief, or of science. " The problematical judgment is neither subjectively nor objectively true, that is, it is neither held with entire certainty by the thinking subject, nor can we show that it truly repre- sents the object about which we judge. It is a mere opinion. It may, however, be the expression of our presentiment of certainty ; and what was held as mere opinion before proof, may afterwards be proved to demonstration. Great discoveries are problems at first, and the examination of them leads to a conviction of their truth, as it has done to the abandonment of many false opinions. In other subjects, we cannot, from the nature of the case, advance beyond mere opinion. Whenever we judge about variable things, as the future actions of men, the best course of conduct for ourselves under doubtful circum- stances, historical facts about which there is conflicting testi- mony, we can but form a problematical judgment, and must admit the possibility of error at the moment of making our decision. " The assertive judgment is one of which we are fully per- suaded ourselves, but cannot give grounds for our belief that shall compel men in general to coincide with us. It is there- fore subjectively, but not objectively, certain. It commends itself to our moral nature, and in so far as other men are of the same disposition, they will accept it likewise. " The demonstrative judgment is both subjectively and object' ively true. It may either be certain in itself, as a mathematical Mansel, PrtHegmn. Log., p. 60. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 275 JUDGMENT - axiom is, or capable of proof by means of other judgments, as the theories of mathematics and the laws of physical science." l Port Royal definition: "Judgment is that operation of the mind through which, joining different ideas together, it affirms or denies the one or the other ; as when, for instance, having the ideas of the earth and roundness, it affirms or denies that the earth is round." When expressed in words a, judgment is called a proposition. According to Mr. Locke, judgment implies the comparison of two or more ideas. But Dr. Reid 2 says he applies the word judgment to every determination of the mind concerning what is true or false, and shows that many of these determinations are simple and primitive beliefs (not the result of comparing two or more ideas), accompanying the exercise of all our faculties, judgments of nature, the spontaneous product of intelligence. "One of the most important distinctions of OUT judgments is, that some of them are intuitive, others grounded on argument." In his Inquiry, 3 he shows that judgment and belief, so far from arising from the comparison of ideas, in some cases pre- cede even simple apprehension. The same view has been taken by Adolphe Gamier, in his Traite des Facultes de I'ame* Judgments, Analytic, Synthetic, and Tautologous. " Some judgments are merely explanatory of their subject, having for their predicate a conception which it fairly implies, to all wh .> know and can define its nature. They are called analytic judgments because they unfold the meaning of the subject, without determining anything new concerning it. If we say that 'all triangles have three sides/ the judgment is analytic; because having three sides is always implied in a right notion of a triangle. Such judgments, as declaring the nature or essence of the subject, have been called * essential propositions. 1 "Judgments of another class attribute to the subject some- thing not directly implied in it, and thus increase our know 1 Thomson, Outline of Laws of Thought, pp. 304-6. Intell. Pow., essay vi., chap. 1. Chap. 4. Chap. 2, sect. 4. 3 torn., 8vo, Paris, 1852. 276 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. JUDGMENT ledge. They are called synthetic, from placing together twc notions not hitherto associated. 'All bodies possess power of attraction ' is a synthetic judgment, because we can think of bodies without thinking of attraction as one of their imme- diate primary attributes. "We must distinguish between analytic and tautologous judgments. Whilst the analytic display the meaning of the subject, and put the same matter in anew form, the tautologous only repeat the subject, and give us the same matter in the same form, as ' whatever is, is/ 'A spirit is a spirit/ " It is a misnomer to call analytic judgments identical pro- positions. 1 ' Every man is a living creature ' would not be an identical proposition unless ' living creature ' denoted the same as 'man;' whereas it is far more extensive. Locke 2 under- stands by identical propositions only such as are tautologous. Thomson, Outline of Laws of Thought. 9 JURISPRUDENCE (jurisprudent, the science of rights). Some refer the Latin word jus to jussum, the supine of tho verbjubeo, to order or enact. Others refer it tojustum, that which is just and right. But as right is, or ought to be, the foundation of positive law, a thing is jussum, quiajustum est made law because it was antecedently just and right. Jurisprudence is the science of rights in accordance with positive law. It is distinguished into universal and particular. " The former relates to the science of law in general, and investigates the principles which .are common to all positive systems of law, apart from the local, partial, and accidental circumstances and peculiarities by which these systems respec- tively are distinguished from one another. Particular juris- prudence treats of the laws of particular states ; which laws are, or at least profess to be, the rules and principles of uni- versal jurisprudence itself, specifically developed and applied/' There is a close connection between jurisprudence and morality, so close that it is difficult to determine precisely the respective limits of each. Both rest upon the great law of right and wrong as made known by the light of nature. But while morality enjoins obedience to that law in all its extent, jurisprudence exacts c bedience to it only in so far as the la^i Mill, Log., b. i., chap. 6 a B. iv., ch. 8, 3. Pp. 194, 195. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 277 JURISPRUDENCE of -nature has been recognized in the law of nations or the positive institutions of society. Morality is, therefore, more extensive than jurisprudence. Morality has equal reference to the whole of human duty. Jurisprudence has special reference to social duty. All social duty as enjoined by the light of nature whether included under justice or benevo- lence belongs to morality. Jurisprudence treats chiefly or almost exclusively of duties of justice, which have beef made the subject of positive law; which duties of benevo- lence cannot well be. The rules of morality as such, are en- forced merely by the law within; but in so far as they have been adopted by jurisprudence, they can be enforced by external law. The moralist appeals to our sense of duty, the jurist to a sense of authority or law. "As the sense of duty is the sense of moral necessity simply, and excluding the sense of physical (or external) compulsion, so the sense of law is the sense of the same necessity, in combination with the notion of physical (or external) compulsion in aid of its requirements." ' The difference between morality and jurisprudence as to extent of range, may be illustrated by the difference of signi- fication between the word right, when used as an adjective, and when used as a substantive. Morality contemplates all that is right in action and disposition. Jurisprudence con- templates only that which one man has a right to from another. " The adjective right," says Dr. Whewell, 2 " has a much wider signification than the substantive right. Every- thing is right which is conformable to the supreme rule of human action ; but that only is a right which, being conform- able to the supreme rule, is realized in society and vested in a particular person. Hence the two words may often be pro- perly opposed. We may say, that a poor man has no right to relief; but it is right he should have it. A rich man has a right to destroy the harvest of his fields ; but to do so would not be right." So that the sphere of morality is wider than that of jurisprudence, the former embracing all that is right, the latter only particular rights realized or vested in particular persons, 1 Foster, Elements of Jurisprudence, p. 39. 9 Elements of Morality, No. 84. 25 278 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. JURISPRUDENCE - Morality and jurisprudence differ also in the immediate ground of obligation. Morality enjoins us to do what is right, because it is right. Jurisprudence enjoins us to give to others their right, with ultimate reference, no doubt, to the truth made known to us by the light of nature, that we are morally bound to do so; but, appealing more directly to the fact, that our doing so can be demanded by our neighbour, and that his demand will be enforced by the authority of positive law. And this difference between the immediate ground of obli- gation in matters of morality and matters of jurisprudence., gives rise to a difference of meaning in the use of some words which are generally employed as synonymous. For example, if regard be had to the difference between morality and juris- prudence, duly is a word of wider signification than obligation; just as right, the adjective, is of wider signification than right, the substantive. It is my duty to do what is right. I am under obligation to give another man his right. A similar shade of difference in meaning may be noticed in reference to the words ought and obliged. I ought to do my duty ; I am obliged to give a man his right. I am not obliged to relieve a distressed person, but I ought to do so. These distinctions are sometimes explained by saying, that what is enjoined loj jurisprudence is of perfect obligation, and what is enjoined only by morality is of imperfect obligation, that is, that we may or may not do what our conscience dic- tates, but that we can be compelled to do what positive law demands. But these phrases of perfect and imperfect obli- gation are objectionable, in so far as they tend to represent the obligations of morality as inferior to those of jurisprudence the dictates of conscience as of less authority than the enactments of law whereas the latter rest upon the former, and the law of nations derives its binding force from the law of nature. Grotius, De Jure Belli et Pads; Puffendorff, De Gfficio Hominis et Civis; Leibnitz, Jurisprudent ia; Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws; Burlamaqui, Principles of Natural Law; Rutherforth, Institutes of Natural Law; Mackintosh, Dis- course of the Law of Nature and of Nations; Lerminier, Suf le Droit. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 279 JUSTICE (Sixauoavrvjijustitia], is one of the four cardinal virtues. It consists, according to Cicero, 1 in suocuique tribuendo, in ac- cording to every one his right. By the Pythagoreans, and also by Plato, it was regarded as including all human virtue or duty. The word righteousness is used in our translation of the Scripture in a like extensive signification. As opposed to equity, justice (to vopixov] means doing merely what posi- tive law requires, while equity (to laov) means "doing what is fair and right in the circumstances of every particular case. Justice is not founded in law, as Hobbes and others hold, but in our idea of what is right. And laws are just or unjust in so far as they do or do not conform to that idea. " To say that there is nothing just nor unjust but what is commanded or prohibited by positive laws," remarks Montes- quieu, 2 " is like saying that the radii of a circle were not equal till you had drawn the circumference." Justice may be distinguished as ethical, economical, and political. The first consists in doing justice between man and man as men ; the second, in doing justice between the mem- bers of a family or household ; and the third, in doing justice between the members of a community or commonwealth. These distinctions are taken by More in his Enchiridion Ethir cum, and are adopted by Grove in his Moral Philosophy. Plato's Republic contains a delineation of justice. Aristotle, Ethic.;* Cicero, De Finibus. Horace 4 gives the idea of a just or good man. V. RIGHT, DUTY, EQUITY. KABALA. In Hebrew kabal signifies "to receive ;" masora "to hand down." " The Kabalists believe that God has expressly committed his mysteries to certain chosen persons, and that they themselves have received those mysteries in trust, still further to hand them down to worthy recipients." 6 The origin of the kabala has been carried back to Moses, 1 De Finibus, lib. v., cap. 23. a Spirit of Laws, book i., chap. 1. ' Lib. v. Episl., lib. i., 16, 40. * Etheridge, Heb. Liter., p. 293. 280 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. KABALA and even to Adam. The numerous allusions to it in th Mishna and Gemara, show, that under the Tanaim, a certain philosophy, or religious metaphysic, was secretly taught, and that this system of esoteric teaching related especially to the Creation and the Godhead. So early as A. D. 189, the time of the Mishna redaction, it was recognized as an established theo- sophy, the privilege of select disciples. Two works of the Mishnaic period are still extant in authentic and complete form, viz., SepJier Tetsira and the Zohar. The kabala, considered as a constructed science, is theoretical and practical. The practical department comprises a symbolical apparatus, and rules for the use of it. The theoretical consists of two parts the cosmogonic, relating to the visible universe, and the iheo- gonic and pneumatological, relating to the spiritual world and the perfections of the Divine nature. Pantheism is the foun- dation of both. The universe is a revelation of the Infinite an immanent effect of His ever active power and presence. Towards the end of the fifteenth century the kabala was adopted by several Christian mystics. Raymond Lully, Reuchlin, Henry More, and others paid much attention to it. Reuchlin, De Arte Cabalistica ; ' De Verbo Mirifico;* Atha- nasius Kircher, CEdipus (Egyptiacus ; 3 Henry More, Cabbala; 4 Ad. Franck, Z,aJwz&&a/e; 6 Etheridge, Hebrew Literature ; 6 Picua (J. Paris.), CabaUstarum Selectiora Obscurioraque Dogmata.* KNOWLEDGE (yvZoif, cognitio). . . . . " Learning dwells In beads replete with thoughts of other men, Knowledge in minds attentive to their own." "Knowledges (or cognitions), in common use with Bacon and our English philosophers, till after the time of Locke, ought not to be discarded. It is, however, unnoticed by any English lexicographer." 8 "Knowledge is the perception of the connection and agree- ment, or disagreement and repugnancy of any of our ideas 1 Fol., Hagen, 1517. 3 Fol., Basil, 1494. Fol., Rom., 1652. 3 Fol., Lond., 1662. 8vo, Paris, 1843. Svo, Lond., 1856. * 12mo, Venet., 1569. Sir William Hamilton, Reid's Works, note A, sect. 5, p. 76a VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 281 KNOWLEDGE - Where this perception is, there is knowledge ; and where it is not, then, though we may fancy, guess, or believe, yet we always come short of knowledge." Locke. 1 And in chap. 14, he says, " The mind has two faculties conversant about truth and falsehood. First, knowledge, whereby it certainly perceives, and is undoubtedly satisfied of the agreement or disagreement of any ideas. Secondly, judgment, which is the putting ideas together, or separating them from one another in the mind, when their certain agreement or disagreement is not perceived, but presumed to be so." Knowledge is here opposed to opinion. But judgment is the faculty by which we attain to certainty, as well as to opinion. "And," says Dr. Reid, 2 " I know no authority, besides that of Mr. Locke, for calling knowledge a faculty, any more than for calling opinion a faculty." tl Knowledge implies three things, 1st, Firm Belief; 2d, of what is true ; 3d, On sufficient grounds. If any one, e. g., is in doubt respecting one of Euclid's demonstrations, he can- not be said to know the proposition proved by it ; if, again, he is fully convinced of anything that is not true, he is mistaken in supposing himself to know it ; lastly, if two persons are each fully confident, one, that the moon is inhabited, and the other, that it is not (though one of these opinions must be true), neither of them could properly be said to know the truth, since he cannot have sufficient proof of it." 8 Knowledge supposes three terms : a being who knows, an object known, and a relation determined between the knowing being and the known object. This relation properly consti- tutes knowledge. But this relation may not be exact, in conformity with the nature of things ; knowledge is not truth. Knowledge is a sub- jective conception a relative state of the human mind; it resides in the relation, essentially ideal, of .our thought and its object. Truth, on the contrary, is the reality itself, the reality ontological and absolute, considered in their absolute relations with intelligence, and independent of our personal 1 Essay on Hum. Understand., book iv., chap. 1. * IntelL Pow., essay iv., chap. 3. W'bately, Log., book iv., chap. 2, \ 2, note. 25* 282 VOCABULARY DF PHILOSOPHY. KNOWLEDGE conceptions. Truth has its source in God ; knowledge proceeds from man. Knowledge is true and perfect from the moment that our conception is really conformable to that which is from the moment that our thought has seized the reality. And, in this view, truth may be defined to be the conformity of our thought with the nature of its object. But truth is not yet certitude. It may exist in itself without being acquired by the human mind, without existing actually for us. It does not become certain to us till we have acquired it by the employment of method. Certitude : is thus truth brought methodically to the human intelligence, that is, conducted from principle to principle, to a point which is evident of itself. If such a point exist, it is plain that we can attain to all the truths which attach themselves to it directly or indirectly; and that we may have of these truths, howsoever remote, a certainty as complete as that of the point of departure. Certitude, then, in its last analysis, is the relation of truth to knowledge, the relation of man to God, of ontology to psychology. When the human intelligence, making its spring, has seized divine truth, in identifying itself with the reality, it ought then, in order to finish its work, to return upon itself, to individualize the truth in us ; and from this individualize tion results the certitude which becomes, in some sort, per- sonal, as knowledge ; all the while preserving the impersonal nature of truth. Certitude then reposes upon two points of support, the one subjective man or the human consciousness ; the other objective and absolute the Supreme Being. God and consciousness are the two arbiters of certitude. 1 " The schoolmen divided all human knowledge into two species, cognitio intuitively and cognitio abstractive By intui- tive knowledge they signified that which we gain by an im- mediate presentation of the real individual object; by abstrac- tive, that which we gain and hold through the medium of a general term ; the one being, in modern language, a percep- tion, the other a concept." 2 V. ABSTRACTIVE. 1 Tibergbien, Essai des Omnais. Hum., p. 34, Morell, Psychology, p, 158, VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 283 KNOWLEDGE Leibnitz took a distinction between knowledge as intuitive 01 symbolical. "When I behold a triangle actually delineated, and think of it as a figure with three sides and three angles, &c., according to the idea of it in my mind, my knowledge ia intuitive. But when I use the word triangle, and know what it means without explicating all that is contained in the idea of it, my knowledge is blind or symbolical. 1 Knowledge as Immediate and Presentative or Intuitive and as Mediate and Representative or Remote. "A thing is known immediately or proximately, when we cognize it in itself; mediately or remotely, when we cognize it in or through something numerically different from itself. Im- mediate cognition, thus the knowledge of a thing in itself, involves the fact of its existence ; mediate cognition, thus the knowledge of a thing in or through something not itself, involves only the possibility of its existence. "An immediate cognition, inasmuch as the thing known is itself presented to observation, may be called a presentative ; and inasmuch as the thing presented is, as it were, viewed by the mind face to face, may be called an intuitive cognition. A mediate cognition, inasmuch as the thing known is held up or mirrored to the mind in a vicarious representation, may be called a representative cognition. "A thing known is an object of knowledge. "In a presentative or immediate cognition there is one sole object; the thing (immediately) known and the thing existing being one and the same. In a representative or mediate cog- nition there may be discriminated two objects ; the thing (im- mediately) known and the thing existing being numerically different. "A thing known in itself is the (sole) presentative or intui- tive object of knowledge, or the (sole) object of a presentative or intuitive knowledge. A thing known in and through some- thing else is the primary, mediate, remote, real, existent or repre^ sented object of (mediate) knowledge objectum quod; and a thing through which something else is known is the secondary, immediate, proximate, ideal, vicarious, or representative objeci Cognition*, &c. ; Wolf, Psychol. Empir., sect. 286, 289. 284 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. KNOWLEDGE of (mediate) knowledge objectum quo or per quod. Tin former may likewise be styled objectum entitativum." 1 Knowledge, in respect of the mode in which it is obtained, is intuitive or discursive intuitive when things are seen in themselves by the mind, or when objects are so clearly ex- hibited that there is no need of reasoning to perceive them as, a whole is greater than any of its parts discursive when objects are perceived by means of reasoning, as, the sum of the angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles. In respect of its strength, knowledge is certain or probable. If we attend to the degrees or ends of knowledge, it is either science, or art, or experience, or opinion, or belief q. v. " Knowledge is not a couch whereon to rest a searching and reckless spirit, or a terrace for a wandering and variable mind to walk up and down with a fair prospect, or a tower of state for a proud mind to raise itself upon, or a fort or commanding ground for strife and contention, or a shop for profit or sale ; but a rich storehouse for the glory of the Creator, and the relief of man's estate." 2 V. CERTAINTY, TRUTH, WISDOM. LANGUAGE. " The ends of language in our discourse with others are chiefly these three : first, to make known one man's thoughts or ideas to another ; secondly, to do it with as much ease and quickness as is possible; and thirdly, thereby to convey knowledge of things/' 3 Language has been thus divided by Mons. Duval-Jouve: 4 f / Absolute Cries and Gestures. Conventional-^^. Languages are J ("Absolute Painting, Sculpture. ( Artificial < Conventional Emblems, Telegraphic Signs, ( Hieroglyphics, Writing. Reid, Inquiry. 6 V. SIGNS. LAUGHTER is the act of expressing our sense of the ridiculous, This act, or rather the sense of the ridiculous which prompt! 1 Sir W. Hamilton, Pritfs Works, note B, sect. 1. *. Bacon. 1 Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., book Hi., ch. 10. Lnyic, p. 201. Chap, ii., sect. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 285 LAUGHTER it, has been thought peculiar to man, as that which distin- guishes him from the inferior animals. 1 Hutcheson, Essay on Laughter; Beattie, Essay on Laughter and Ludicrous Com- position ; Akenside, Pleasures of Imagin. ; * Spectator. 3 LAW comes from the Anglo-Saxon verb signifying "to lay down." "All things that are have some operation not violent or casual. That which doth assign unto each thing the kind, that which doth moderate the force and power, that which doth appoint the form and measure of working, the same we term a law." 4 "Laws in their most extended signification are the necessary relations arising from the nature of things ; and, in this sense, all beings have their laws, the Deity has his laws, the material world has its laws, superior intelligences have their laws, the beasts have their laws, and man has his laws." 6 Thus understood, the word comprehends the laws of the physical, metaphysical, and moral universe. Its primary signi- fication was that of a command or a prohibition, addressed by one having authority to those who had power to do or not to do. There are in this sense laws of society, laws of morality, and laws of religion each resting upon their proper authority. But the word has been transferred into the whole philosophy of being and knowing. And when a fact frequently observed recurs invariably under the same circumstances, we compare it to an act which has been prescribed, to an order which has been established, and say it recurs according to a law. On the analogy between political laws or laws proper, and those which are called metaphorically laws of nature, see Lindley, Introduction to Jurisprudence? Austin, Province of Jurisprudence Determined, p. 186. Law and Cause. The word law expresses the constant and regular order according to which an energy or agent operates. It may thus The ludicrous pranks of the puppy and the kitten make this doubtful ; and Mon- taigne said he was not sure whether his favourite cat might not sometimes be laughinf as much at him as with him. Book iii. NOS. 47 and 249. 4 Hooker, Ecdes. Pol., book i., sect. 2. Montesquieu, Spirit of Laws, book i., ch. L App., p. 1. 286 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. LAW- be distinguished from cause the latter denoting efficiency, the former denoting the mode according to which efficiency is de- veloped. "It is a perversion of language," says Paley, 1 "to assign any law, as the efficient, operative cause of anything A law presupposes an agent ; this is only the mode, accord- ing to which an agent proceeds ; it implies a power ; for it is the order according to which that power acts. Without this agent, without this power, which are both distinct from itself, the law does nothing, is nothing." To the same purpose Dr, Reid has said, " The laws of nature are the rules according to which effects are produced; but there must be a cause which operates according to these rules. The rules of navi- gation never steered a ship, nor the law of gravity never moved a planet." " Those who go about to attribute the origination of man- kind (or any other effect) to a bare order or law of nature, as the primitive effecter thereof, speak that which is perfectly irrational and unintelligible ; for although a law or rule is the method and order by which an intelligent being may act, yet a law, or rule, or order, is a dead, unactive, uneffective, thing of itself, without an agent that useth it, and exerciseth it as his rule and method of action. What would a law signify in a kingdom or state, unless there were some person or society of men that did exercise and execute, and judge, and deter- mine, and act by it, or according to it ? " 2 To maintain that the world is governed by laws, without ascending to the superior reason of these laws not to recog- nize that every law implies a legislator arid executor, an agent to put it in force, is to stop half-way ; it is to hypostatize these laws, to make beings of them, and to imagine fabulous divinities in ignoring the only God who is the source of all laws, and who governs by them all that lives in the universe. 1 "A law supposes an agent and a power; for it is the mode, according to which the agent proceeds, the order according to which the power acts. Without the presence of such an agent, of such a power, conscious of the relations on which the law 1 Nat. Jheol., ch. 1. 9 Hale, Prim. Origin, chap. 7, sect. 4. See Tiberghien, Essai des Connais. Hum., p. 743. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 287 LAW depends, producing the effects which the late prescribes^ the law can have no efficacy, no existence. Hence we infer, that the intelligence by which the law is ordained, the power by which it is put into action, must be present at all times a?^ in all places, where the effects of the law occur ; that thus th knowledge and the agency of the Divine Being pervade everj portion of the universe, producing all action and passion, all permanence and change. The laws of matter are the laws which he, in his wisdom, prescribes to his own acts ; his universal presence is the necessary condition of any course of events ; his universal agency, the only organ^of any efficient force." * Law, Physical, Mental, Moral, Political. Laws may acquire different names from the difference in the agents or energies which operate according to them. A stone when thrown up into the air rises to a height pro- portional to the force with which it is thrown, and then falls to the ground by its own gravity. This takes place according to physical laws, or what are commonly called laws of nature.* " Those principles and faculties are the general laws of our constitution, and hold the same place in the philosophy of mind that the general laws we investigate in physics hold in that branch of science." 8 When an impression has been made upon a bodily organ a state of sensation follows in the mind. And when a state of sensation has been long continued or often repeated it comes to be less sensibly felt. These are mental laws. We have a faculty of memory by which the objects of former consciousness are recalled ; and this faculty operates according to the laws of association. Moral laws are derived from the nature and will of God, and the character and condition of man, and may be under- stood and adopted by man, as a being endowed with intelli- gence and will, to be the rules by which to regulate his actions. It is right to speak the truth. Gratitude should be cherished. These things are in accordance with the nature and condition 1 Whewell, Astronomy, p. 361. * See M'Cosh, Meth. of Div. Govern., b. ii., chap. 1 1 Stewart, Elements, part i., iutrod. 288 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. LAW- of man, and with the will of God that is, they are in accord- ance with the moral law of conscience and of revelation. Political laws are prohibitions or injunctions promulgated by those having authority to do so, and may be obeyed or disobeyed ; but the disobedience of them implies punish- ment. " The intent or purpose of a law is wholly different from the motives or grounds of the law. The former is its practi- cal end or effect; the latter, the pre-existing circumstances which suggested and caused its enactment. 1 For example, the existence of a famine in a country may tend to the enact- ment of a poor law. In this case the famine is the motive or ground of the law; and the relief of the poor its intent or purpose. The one is its positive cause, the latter its desired effect." 2 In reference to the moral law, Hobbes and his followers have overlooked the difference between a law and the principle of the law. An action is not right merely in consequence of a law declaring it to be so. But the declaration of the law proceeds upon the antecedent Tightness of line action. Law and Form, " though correlative terms, must not, in strict accuracy, be used as synonymous. The former is used pro- perly with reference to an operation; the latter with reference to its product. Conceiving, judging, reasoning, are subject to certain laws; concepts, judgments, syllogisms, exhibit certain forms."* LAW (Empirical). " Scientific inquirers give the name of empi- rical laws to those uniformities which observation or experi- ment has shown to exist, but on which they hesitate to rely in cases varying much from those which have been actually observed, for want of seeing any reason why such a law should 1 Suarez (De Legibus, iii., 20, sect. 2) says, "Sine dubio in ammo legislatoris haec duo distincta sunt. scilicet voluntas seu intentio ejus, secundum quam vult prsecipere, et ratio, ob quam moYetur." The ratio legis and the mens legis are distinguished by Grotius (J. B. et P., ii., 16, eect. 8) with Barbeyrac's notes; and by Puffendorff (v., 12, sect. 10). The purpose of a law and its motive have often been confounded under the general term ratio legis. Se g.ivigny, System des Rechts, vol. 5., pp. 216-224. a Sir Q. C Lewis, Method of Observ. in Politics, ch. 12, sect. 0. Mansel, Prolegom. Log., p. 240. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 289 LAW- exist. It is implied, therefore, in the notion of an empirical law, that it is not an ultimate law ; that if true at all, its truth is capable of being, and requires to be, accounted for. It is a derivative law, the derivation of which is not yet known. To state the explanation, the why of the empirical law, would be to state the laws from which it is derived ; the ultimate causes on which it is contingent. And if we knew these, we should also know what are its limits ; under what conditions it would cease to be fulfilled." x As instances of empirical laws he gives the local laws of the flux and reflux of the tides in different places ; the succession of certain kinds of weather to certain appearances of the sky, &c. But these do not deserved to be called laws. LEMMA (from xcytjSai'to, to take for granted, to assume). This term is used to denote a preliminary proposition, which, while it has no direct relation to the point to be proved, yet serves to pave the way for the proof. In Logic, a premiss taken for granted is sometimes called a lemma. To prove, some propose tion in mechanics, some of the propositions in geometry may be taken as lemmata. LIBERTARIAN. "I believe he (Dr. Crombie, that is) may claim the merit of adding the word Libertarian to the English language, as Priestley added that of Necessarian" 2 Both words have reference to the questions concerning liberty and necessity, in moral agency. LIBERTY of the WILL or LIBERTY of a MORAL AGENT. " The idea of liberty is the idea of a power in any agent to do or forbear any particular action, according to the determi- nation or thought of the mind, whereby either of them is pre- ferred to the other." 3 " By the liberty of a moral agent, I understand a power over the determinations of his own will. If, in any action, he had power to will what he did, or not to will it, in that action he is free. But if, in every voluntary action, the determination of his will be the necessary consequence of something involun- tary in the state of his mind, or of something in his external 1 Mill, Log., b. Hi., chap. 16. * Correspondence of Dr. Reid, p. 88. Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., b. ii., ch. 21, sect. & 2G n 290 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. LIBERTY circumstances, he is not free ; he has not what I call tho liberty of a moral agent, but is subject to necessity." 1 It has been common to distinguish liberty into freedom from co-action, and freedom from necessity. Freedom from co-action implies, on the one hand, the absence of all impediment or restraint, and, on the other hand, the absence of all compulsion or violence. If we are prevented from doing what is in our power, when we desire and will to do it, or, if we are compelled to do it, when we desire and will not to do it, we are not free from co-action. This general explanation of freedom agrees equally with bodily freedom, mental freedom, and moral freedom. Indeed, although it is common to make a distinction between these, there is no dif- ference, except what is denoted by the different epithets intro- duced. We have bodily freedom, when our body is not sub- jected to restraint or compulsion mental freedom, when no impediment or violence prevents us from duly exercising our powers of mind and moral freedom, when our moral princi- ples and feelings are allowed to operate within the sphere which has been assigned to them. Now it is with freedom regarded as moral that we have here to do it is with freedom as the attribute of a being who possesses a moral nature, and who exerts the active power which belongs to him, in the light of reason, and under a sense of responsibility. Liberty of this kind is called freedom from necessity. Freedom from necessity is also called liberty of election, or power to choose, and implies freedom from anything invincibly determining a moral agent. It has been distinguished into liberty of contrariety, or the power of determining to do either of two actions which are contrary, as right or wrong, good or evil ; and liberty of contradiction, or the power of determining to do either of two actions which are contradictory, as to walk or to sit still, to walk in one direction or in another. Freedom from necessity is sometimes also called liberty of indifference, because, before he makes his election, the agent has not determined in favour of one action more than another. Liberty of indifference, however, does not mean, as some would have it, liberty of equilibrium, or that the agent has no more 1 Reid, Act. Pow., essay iv., ch. 1. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 291 LIBERTY - inclination towards one action or one mode of action than towards another ; for although he may have motives prompting more urgently to one action or course of action, he still has liberty of election, if he has the power of determining in favour of another action or another course of action, Still less can the phrase liberty of indifference be understood as denoting a power to determine in opposition to all motives, or in absence of any motive. A being with liberty of indifference in the former of these senses would not be a reasonable being ; and an action done without a motive is an action done without an end in view, that is, without intention or design, and, in that respect, could not be called a moral action, though done by a moral agent. Liberty of will may be viewed, 1st, in respect to the object, and 2d, in respect of the action. In both respects it may be liberty of, 1st, contrariety, or 2d, of contradiction. Liberty of contrariety in respect of the object is when the will is indifferent to any object and to its opposite or contrary aa when a man is free, for the sake of health, to take hot water or cold water. Liberty of contradiction is when the will is in- different to any object, and to its opposite or contradictory^ as walking and not walking. In respect of the act of will, there is liberty of contrariety, when the will is indifferent as to contrary actions concerning the same particular object, as to choose or reject some parti- cular good. There is liberty of contradiction, when the will is free not to contrary action, but to act or not to act, that is, to will or not to will, to exercise or suspend volition. Liberty has also been distinguished into, 1st, liberty of spe- cification, and 2d, liberty of exercise. The former may be said to coincide with liberty of contrariety, and the latter with liberty of contradiction. 1 LIFE belongs to organized bodies, that is, animals and vegetables. Birth and development, decay and death, are peculiar to living bodies. Is there a vital principle, distinct on the one hand from matter and its forces, and on the other, from mind and its energies ? According to Descartes, Borelli, Boerhaave, and others, the phenomena of living bodies may be explained by 1 Baronius, Metaphys., p. 96. 292 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. WE- ^he mechanical and chemical forces belonging t( matter, According to Bichat, there is nothing in common \ tit rathei an antagonism between the forces of dead matter and the phenomena of life, which he defines to be " the sum of func- tions which resist death." Bichat and his followers are called Organicists. Barthez and others hold that there is a vital principle distinct from the organization of living bodies, which directs all their acts and functions which are only vital, that is, without feeling or thought. Their doctrine is Vitalism. The older doctrine of Stahl was called Animism, according to which the soul, or anima mitndi, presides not only over the functions of the sensibility and thought but over all the func- tions and actions of the living economy. Are life and sensibility two things essentially distinct, or two things essentially united ? Irritability and Excitability are terms applied to the sensi- bility which vegetables manifest to external influences, such as light, heat, &c. Bichat ascribed the functions of absorp- tion, secretion, circulation, &c., which are not accompanied with feeling, to what he called organic sensibility. The characteristics of the several kingdoms of nature given by Linnaeus are the following: Lapides crescunt; vegetabilia crescunt et vivunt; animalia crescunt vivunt et sentiimt. The theories of life and its connection with the phenomena of mind are thus classified by Morell. 1 " 1. The chemical theory. This was represented by Sylvius in the seventeenth century, who reduced all the phenomena of vital action and organization to chemical processes. 2. The mechanical theory. This falls to the time when Harvey dis- covered the circulation of the blood, and Boerhaave represented the human frame as one great hydraulic machine. 3. The dynamical theory. Here we have the phenomena j>f mind and of life drawn closely together. The writings of Stahl especially show this point of view. He regarded the whole man as being the product jf certain organic powers, which evolve all the various manifestations of human life, from the lowest physical processes to the highest intellectual. 4. The theory of irritation. 'This we find more especially amongst tho 1 Psychology, p. 77, note. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 293 LIFE French physiologists, such as Bichat, Majendie, and others, who regard life as being the product of a mere organism, acted on by physical stimuli from the, world without. 5. The theory of evolution. Schultz and others of the German writers of the same school, regard life as a regular evolution, created by opposing powers in the universe of existence, from the lowest forms of the vital functions to the highest spheres of thought and activity. To these speculators nature is not a fixed reality, but a relation. It is perpetual movement, an unceas- ing becoming, a passing from death to life, and from life to death. And just as physical life consists in the tension of the lower powers of nature, so does mental life consist in that of its higher powers. 6. The theory of the Divine ideal. Here, Carus, prompted by Schelling's philosophy, has seized the ideal side of nature, as well as the real, and united them together in his theory of the genesis of the soul, and thus connected the whole dynamics of nature with their Divine original." Plato, Timceus; Aristotle, De Anima; 1 Descartes, (Euvres, par Cousin; 2 Barthez, Bichat, Cabanis, and Berard ; Cole- ridge, Posthumous Essay: Hints towards the Formation of a more Comprehensive Theory of Life. LOGIC (xoyix)?, a.oyoj, reason, reasoning, language). The word logica was early used in Latin; while vj koyixri and to Xoytxdv were late in coming into use in Greek. Aristotle did not use either of them. His writings which treat of the syllogism and of demonstration were entitled Analytics (q. v.) The name organon was not given to the collected series of kis writings upon logic till after the invention of printing. The reason of the name is, that logic was regarded as not so much a science in itself as the instrument of all science. The Epicureans called it xavovtxy, the rule by which true and false are to be tried. Plato in the Phaedrus, has called it a part (/u/poj), and in the Parmenides the organ (opyou-w) of philosophy. 3 An old division of philosophy was into logic, ethics, and physics. But excluding physics, philosophy may Lib. ., cap. 10. Tom. iy. See Trendelenburg, Elementa Log Arist., 8vo, Basil, 1842, pp. 48, 49. 26* 294 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. LOGIC be regarded as consisting of four parts viz., psychology logic, ethics, and metaphysics properly so called. "Logic is derived from the word (xoyoj), which signifies communication of thought usually by speech. It is the name which is generally given to the branch of inquiry (be it called science OT art) in which the act of the mind in reason- ing is considered, particularly with reference to the connec- tion of thought and language." l " "We divide logicians into three schools, according as they hold words, things, or conceptions, to be the subject of logic; and entitle them respectively, the verbal, the phenomenal, and the conceptional." 2 "When we attend to the procedure of the human intellect we soon perceive that it is subject to certain supreme laws which are independent of the variable matter of our ideas, and which posited in their abstract generality, express the absolute and fixed rules not only of the human intellect, but of all thought, whatever be the subject which frames it or the object which it concerns. To determine those universal laws of thought in general, in order that the human mind in particular may find in all its researches a means of control, and an infallible criterion of the legitimacy of its procedure, is the object of logic. At the beginning of the prior analytics, Aristotle has laid it down that 'the object of logic is demon- stration.' "Logic is the science of the laws of thought as thought that is, of the necessary conditions to which thought, consi- dered in itself, is subject." 3 " 'Logic is the science of the laws of thought.' It is a science rather than an art. As the science of the necessary laws of thought it is pure. It only gives those principles which constitute thought ; and pre-supposes the operation of those principles by which we gain the materials for thinking And it is the science of the form or formal laws of thinking, and not of the matter." 4 V. INTENTION, NOTION. Others define logic to be the science of the laws of reasoih * De Morgan, Formal Logic, ch. 2. * Chretien, Logical Method, r. 95. * Sir W. Hamilton. Reid's Works, p. 698, note. * Thomson, Outline of the Laws of Thought, VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 295 LOGIC - ing. Dr. Whately has said, "Logic in its m )st extenshl application, is the scien je as well as the art of reasc ning. So far as it institutes an analysis of the process of the mind in reasoning, it is strictly a science ; while so far as it investigates the principles on which argumentation is conducted, and furnishes rules to secure the mind from error in its deduc- tions, it may be called the art of reasoning." Kirwan 1 has said, "Logic is both a science and an art; it is a science inasmuch as, by analyzing the elements, principles, and structure of arguments, it teaches us how to discover their truth or detect their fallacies, and point out the sources of such errors. It is an art, inasmuch as it teaches us how to arrange arguments in such manner that their truth may be most readily perceived or their falsehood detected." Sir Wil- liam Hamilton 2 thinks that Dr. Whately had this passage in view when he constructed his own definition ; but he adds, " Not a single reason has been alleged to induce us to waver in our belief, that the laws of thought, and not the laws of reasoning, constitute the adequate object of the science." According to the significations attached to the terms art and science, and according to the point of view in which it is regarded, logic may be called a science or an art, or both, that is, a scientific art. Thought may manifest itself in framing concepts, or judg- ments, or reasonings ; and logic treats of these under three corresponding heads. Method, which is the scientific arrange- ment of thoughts, is frequently added as a fourth head. But to some it appears that method belongs more properly to psy- chology than to logic. Barthelemy St. Hilaire, 3 who takes this view, has said, " In logic considered as a science there are necessarily four essential parts, which proceed from the simple to the compound, and in the following order, which cannot be changed : 1, A theory of the elements of a proposition ; 2, A theory of propositions ; 3, A general theory of reasoning formed of propositions connected with one another according to certain laws; and, lastly, a theory of that special and supreme kind of reasoning which is called demonstration, and 1 Logic, vol, i., p. 1. * Discussions, pp. 131-4. 8 Ifai. des Sciences Philosopft., art. Logique." 290 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. LOGIC - gives assurance to the mind of man of the forms of truth, ii it fee not truth itself." LOVE and HATRED are the two genetic or mother passions or affections of mind, from which all the others take their rise. The former is awakened by the contemplation of something which is regarded as good ; and the latter by the contempla- tion of something which is regarded as evil. Hence springs a desire to seek the one, and a desire to shun the other ; and desire, under its various forms and modifications, may be found as an element in all the manifestations of the sensi- tivity. MACROCOSM and MICROCOSM (^axpoj, large ; ,iu*poj, small ; jeoctytoj, world). "As for Paracelsus, certainly he is injurious to man, if (as some eminent chemists expound him) he calls a man a micro- cosm, because his body is really made up of all the several kinds of creatures the macrocosm or greater world consists of, and so is but a model or epitome of the universe." l Many ancient philosophers regarded the world as an ani- mal, consisting like man of a soul and a body. This opinion, exaggerated by the mystics, became the theory of the macro- cosm and the microcosm, according to which man was an epitome of creation, and the universe was a man on a grand scale. The same principles and powers which were perceived in the one were attributed to the other, and while man was believed to have a supernatural power over the laws of the universe, the phenomena of the universe had an influence on the actions and destiny of man. Hence arose Alchemy and Astrology, which were united in the Hermetic medicine. Such views are fundamentally pantheistic, leading to the belief that there is only one substance, manifesting itself in the universe by an infinite variety, and concentrated in man as in an epi- tome. Van Helmont, Paracelsus, Robert Fludd, aid other? held some of these views. * Boyle, Works, vol. ii., p. 54, VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 297 MACROCOSM - Dr. Reid 1 has said, "Man has not, without reason, been called an epitome of the universe. His body, by which his mind is greatly affected, being a part of the material system, is subject to all the laws of inanimate matter. During some part of his existence, his state is very like that of a vegetable. He rises, by imperceptible degrees, to the animal, and, at last, to the rational life, and has the principles that belong to all." "Man is not only a microcosm, in the structure of his body, but in the system, too, of his impulses, including all of them within him, from the basest to the most sublime. " * " Man is a living synthesis of the universe." 8 Cousin 4 has given an analysis of a MS. work by Bernard de Chartres, entitled Megacosmus et Microcosmus. MAGIC (juaysux, from juayoj, a Magian). " It is confessed by all of understanding that a magician (according to the Persian word) is no other than a studious observer and expounder of divine things." 6 But while magic was used primarily to denote the study of the more sublime parts of knowledge, it came at length to sig- nify a science of which the cultivators, by the help of demons or departed souls, could perform things miraculous. " Natural magic is no other than the absolute perfection of natural philosophy." 6 Baptista Porta has a treatise on it, which was published in 1589 and 1591. It is characterized by Bacon 7 as full of credulous and superstitious observations and traditions on the sympathies and antipathies and the occult and specific qualities of things. Sir D. Brewster has a treatise under the same title, but of very different character and contents, and answering to the definition of Raleigh. Campanella, De Sensu Rerum et Magia; 9 Longinus, Trinon Magicum. 9 MAGNANIMITY and EQUANIMITY (magnus, great; aequus, even ; animus, mind), are two words which were much used by Cicero and other ancient ethical writers. 1 Active Pow., essay iii., part i., chap. 1. Harris, Philosoph. Arrange., cap. 17. * Tiberghien. 4 Introd. aux (Euvres Inedites d'Abelard, p. 127. Raleigh, Hist, of the World, b. i., c. 11, s. 3. Ibid., Hist, of the World, b. i., c. 11, B. 2. ' De Augm., lib. ill. 4to, Par., 1637. 12mo, Francf, 1610 298 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MAGNANIMITY - Magnanimity was described as lifting us above the good and evil of this life so that while the former was not necessary tc our happiness, the latter could not make us miserable. The favourite example of magnanimity, among the Romans, was Fabius Maximus, who, amidst the provocation of the enemy and the impatience of his countrymen, delayed to give battle till he saw how he could do so succesfully. Equanimity supposes change of state or fortune, and means the preservation of an even mind in the midst of vicissi- tude neither elated unduly by prosperity nor depressed unduly by adversity. Equanimity springs from Magnanimity. Indeed both these words denote frames or states of mind from which special acts of virtue spring rather than any particular virtue. They correspond to the active and passive fortitude of modern moralists. " Aequam memento rebus in arduis Servare mentem, non secus in bonis A insolenti temperatam Laetitia, moriture Belli." Hor. "Est hie, Est ubi vis, animus si te non deficit cequus." Hor. "True happiness is to no ppot confined; If you preserve a firm and equal mind, 'Tis here, 'tis there, 'tis everywhere." HANICHEISM (so called from Manes, a Persian philosopher, who flourished about the beginning of the third century), is the doctrine that there are two eternal principles or powers, the one good and the other evil, to which the happiness and misery of all beings may be traced. It has been questioned whether this doctrine was ever maintained to the extent of denying the Divine unity, or that the system of things had not an ultimate tendency to good. It is said that the Persians, before Manes, maintained dualism so as to give the supremacy to the good principle ; and that Manes maintained both to be equally eternal and absolute. The doctrine of manicheism was ingrafted upon Christianity about the middle of the third century. The Cathari or Albi- genses who appeared in the twelfth century are said also tc have held the doctrine of dualism or ditheism q. v. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 299 MANICHEISM- To refute it we have only to say that if the two opposing principles were equal, they would neutralize each other if they were unequal, the stronger would prevail, so that there would be nothing but evil, or nothing but good in the world ; which is contrary to fact. Matter, Hist. Critiq. du Gnosticism; 1 Beausobre, Hist, du Manicheisme. MATERIALISM. ''The materialists maintain that man consista of one uniform substance, the object of the senses; and that perception, with its modes, is the result, necessary or other- wise, of the organization of the brain." 2 Ihe doctrine opposed to this is spiritualism, or the doctrine that there is a spirit in man, and that he has a soul as well as a body. In like manner he who maintains that there is but one substance (unisubstancisme), and that that substance is matter, is a ma' terialist. And he who holds that above and beyond the mate- rial frame of the universe there is a spirit sustaining and directing it, is a spiritualist. The philosopher who admits that there is a spirit in man, and a spirit in the universe, is a perfect spiritualist. He who denies spirit in man or in the universe, is a perfect materialist. But some have been incon- sistent enough to admit a spirit in man and deny the exist- ence of God, while others have admitted the existence of God and denied the soul of man to be spiritual. V. IMMA- TERIALITY. Baxter and Drew have both written on the immateriality of the soul. Belsham and Priestly have defended materialism without denying the existence of God. Priestley, Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit; Three DiS' sertations on the Doctrine of Materialism and Philosophical Necessity; Price, Letters on Materialism and Philosophical Necessity. MATHEMATICS (juafl^cWMcjJ [so. frtLcnfr t iJ-rj] ta juafl^afa), ac- cording to Descartes, 3 treat of order and measures. "Ilia om~ nia tanfum, in quibus ordo vel mensura examinatur, admathesim referri, nee interesse utrum in numeris vel Jjguris, vel asfris, ve, sonis, aliove quovis objecto talis mensuia qucerenda est." 3 torn., Paris, 1843. a Belsham, Moral Philosophy, chap, xi., sect. 1 Reg. ad Direct. Ingenii, Reg. 4. 300 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MATHEMATICS Mathematics are either Pure or Mixed. Arithmetic, Geo- metry, Algebra, and the Differential and Integral Calculus belong to Pure Mathematics. Mixed Mathematics is the appli- cation of Pure Mathematics to physical science in its various departments: Mechanics, Hydrodynamics, Optics, Astronomy, Acoustics, Electricity, Magnetism, &c., are physico-mathemati- cal sciences. Among philosophers, Anaximander of Miletus, and Pythagoras are called mathematicians. MATTER, as opposed to mind or spirit (q. v.}, is that which occupies space, and with which we become acquainted by means of our bodily senses or organs. Everything of which we have any knowledge is either matter or mind, i. e., spirit. Mind is that which knows and thinks. Matter is that which makes itself known by means of the bodily senses. " The first form which matter assumes is extension, or length, breadth, and thickness it then becomes body. If body were infinite there could be no figure, which is body bounded. But body is not physical body, unless it partake of or is constituted of one or more of the elements, fire, air, earth, or water." ' According to Descartes the essence of mind is thought, and the essence of matter is extension. He said, Give me extension and motion, and I shall make the world. Leibnitz said the essence of all being, whether mind or matter, is force. Matter is an assemblage of simple forces or monads. His system of physics may be called dynamical, in opposition to that of Newton, which may be called mechanical; because Leibnitz held that the monads possessed a vital or living energy. We may explain the phenomena of matter by the movements of ether, by gravity and electricity; but the ultimate reason of all movement is a force primitively communicated at creation, a force which is everywhere, but which while it is present in all bodies is differently limited ; and this force, this virtue or power of action is inherent in all substances material and spiritual. Created substances received from the creative sub- stance not only the faculty to act, but also to exercise their activity each after its own manner. See Leilmite. Pe Primca P.Mlosophice Emendatione et de Notione Substantive, or Nouveav Monboddo, Ancient Metaphys., b. ii., c. S. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 301 WAITER Systeme de la Nature et de la Communication des Substances, in the Journal des Savans, 1695. On the various hypotheses to explain the activity of matter, see Stewart. 1 The properties which have been predicated as essential to matter are impenetrability, extension, divisibility, inertia, weight. To the senses it manifests colour, sound, smell, taste, heat, and motion ; and by observation it is discovered to possess elasticity, electricity, magnetism, &c. Metaphysicians have distinguished the qualities of matter into primary and secondary, and have said that our knowledge of the former, as of impenetrability and extension, is clear and absolute while our knowledge of the latter, as of sound and smell, is obscure and relative. This distinction taken by Descartes, adopted by Locke and also by Reid and Stewart, was rejected by Kant, according to whom, indeed, all our knowledge is relative. And others who do not doubt the objective reality of matter, hold that our knowledge of all its qualities is the same in kind. See the distinctions precisely stated and strenuously upheld by Sir William Hamilton ; 2 and ingeniously controverted by Mons. Emilie Saisset. 3 Matter and Form. Matter as opposed to form (q. v.) is that elementary consti- tutent in composite substances, which appertains in common to them all without distinguishing them from one another. Everything generated or made, whether by nature or art, is generated or made out of something else ; and this something else is called its subject or matter. Such is iron to the boat, such is timber to the boat. Matter void of form was called i>x; rtpw-tif, or, prima materia (vxiy, means wood. V. HYLOZO- ISM). Form when united to matter makes it determinate anti constitutes body q. v. " The term matter is usually applied to whatever is given to the artist, and consequently, a/* given, does not come within the province of the art itself to supply The form is that which is given in and through the proper operation of the art. In sculpture, the matter is the marble in its rough state as given 1 Outlines, part ii., ch. 2, sect. 1, and Act. and Mor. Pvw., last edit., vol. ii., n rte A. 2 ei(fs Works, note D. In Diet, des Sciences Philosoph., art. " Matiere." 27 302 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MATTER - to the sculptor ; the form is that which the sculptor in the exercise of his art communicates to it. The distinction between matter and form in any mental operation is analogous to this. The former includes all that is given to, the latter all that isr given by, the operation. In the division of notions, for ex- ample, the generic notion is that given to be divided; the addition of the difference in the art of division constitutes the species. And accordingly, Genus is frequently designated by logicians the material, Difference, the formal part of the species." l Harris, PliilosopJi. Arrange.; 9 Monboddo, Ancient Meta- phys.; 3 Reid, Intell. Pow.* V. ACTION, PROPOSITION. MAXIM (maxima propositio, a proposition of the greatest weight), is used by Boethius as synonymous with axiom, or a self- evident truth. 6 It is used in the same way by Locke. 1 " There are a sort of propositions, which, under the name of maxims and axioms, have passed for principles of science." " By Kant, maxim was employed to designate a subjective principle, theoretical or practical, i. e., one not of objective validity, being exclusively relative to some interest of the sub- ject. Maxim, and regulative principle are, in the critical phi- losophy, opposed to law and constitutive principle." In Morals, we have Rochefoucald's Maxims. In Theology, Fenelon wrote Maxims of the Saints, and Rollin made a collection of Maxims drawn from holy writ. MEMORY (from memini, preterite of the obsolete from meneo or meno, from the Greek phew, manere, to stay or remain. From the contracted form HVOM comes fivr^, the memory in which things remain. Lennep). "The great Keeper, or Master of the Rolls of the soul, a power that can make amends for the speed of time, in causing him to leave behind him those things which else he would so carry away as if they had not been." 7 Consciousness testifies that when a thought has once beec present to the mind, it may again become present to it, wit> Mansel, Prolegnm. Log., p. 226. a Chap. iv. Book ii., chap. 1. Essay ii., chap. 19. Sir Will. Hamilton. Reid's Works, note A, sect. 5. Essay on Hum. Understand., b. iv., chap. 7. Bishop Hall, Righteous Mammon. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 303 MEMORY- the additional consciousness that it has formerly been present to it. When this takes place we are said to remember, and the faculty of which remembrance is the act is memory. Memory implies, 1. A mode of consciousness experienced. 2. The retaining or remaining of that mode of consciousness so that it may subsequently be revived without the presence of its object. 3. The actual revival of that mode of conscious- ness ; and 4. The recognizing that mode of consciousness as having formerly been experienced. " The word memory is not employed uniformly in the same precise sense ; but it always expresses some modification of that faculty, which enables us to treasure up, and preserve for future use, the knowledge we acquire; a faculty which is obviously the great foundation of all intellectual improvement, and without which no advantage could be derived from the- most enlarged experience. This faculty implies two things ; a capacity of retaining knowledge, and a power of recalling it to our thoughts when we have occasion to apply it to use. The word memory is sometimes employed to express the capacity, and sometimes the power. When we speak of a retentive memory, we use it in the former sense ; when of a ready memory, in the latter." ' Memory has, and must have, an object; for he that remem- bers must remember something, and that which he remembers is the object of memory. It is neither a decaying sense, as Hobbes would make it, nor a transformed sensation, as Con- dillac would have it to be ; but a distinct and original faculty, the phenomena of which cannot be included under those of any other power. The objects of memory may be things external to us, or internal states and modes of consciousness ; and we may remember what we have seen, touched, or tasted ; or we may remember a feeling of joy or sorrow which we formerly experienced, or a resolution or purpose which we previously formed. Hobbes would confine memory to objects of sense. He ays, 2 " By the senses, which are numbered according to the organs to be five, we take notice of the objects without us, Stewart, Pfiil^fsoph. of Hum. Mind, chap. 6. Hum. Nature, ch. 3, sect. 6 804 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MEMORY and that notice is our conception thereof: but we take notic* also, some way or other, of our conception, for when the conception of the same thing cometh again, we take notice that it is again, that is to say, that we have had the same conception before, which is as much as to imagine a thing past, which is impossible to the sense which is only of things present ; this, therefore, may be accounted a sixth sense, but internal ; not external as the rest, and is commonly called remembrance." Mr. Stewart holds that memory involves " a power of recognizing, as former objects of attention, the thoughts that from time to time occur to us : a power which is not implied in that law of our nature which is called the asso- ciation of ideas." But the distinction thus taken between memory and association is not very consistent with a further distinction which he takes between the memory of things and the memory of events. 1 " In the former case, thoughts which have been previously in the mind, may recur to us without suggesting the idea of the past, or of any modification of time whatever ; as when I repeat over a poem which I have got by heart, or when I think of the features of an absent friend. In this last instance, indeed, philosophers distin- guish the act of the mind by the name of conception; but in ordinary discourse, and frequently, even in philosophical writing, it is considered as an exertion of memory. In these and similar cases, it is obvious that the operations of this faculty do not necessarily involve the idea of the past. The case is different with respect to the memory of events. When I think of these, I not only recall to the mind the former objects of its thoughts, but I refer the event to a particular point of time ; so that, of every such act of memory, the idea of the past is a necessary concomitant." Mr. Stewart therefore supposes "that the remembrance of a past event is not a simple act of the mind ; but that the mind first forms a conception of the event, and then judges from circumstances, of the period of time to which it is to be referred. But the remembrance of a thing is not a simple act of the mind, any more than the remembrance of an event. The truth seems to Elements, chap. 6. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 305 MEMORY be that things and events recur to the mind equally unclothed or unconnected with the notion of pastness. 1 And it is not till they are recognized as objects of former consciousness that they can be said to be remembered. But the recognition is the act of the judging faculty. Thoughts which have for- merly been present to the mind may again become present to it without being recognized. Nay, they may be entertained for a time as new thoughts, but it is not till they have been recognized as objects of former consciousness that they can ie regarded as remembered thoughts, 2 so that an act of memory, whether of things or events, is by no means a simple act of the mind. Indeed, it may be doubted whether in any mental operation we can detect any single faculty acting in- dependently of others. What we mean by calling them dis- tinct faculties is, that each has a separate or peculiar func- tion; not that that function is exercised independently of other faculties. V. FACULTY. Mr. Locke 3 treats of retention. " The next faculty of the mind (after perception), whereby it makes a further progress towards knowledge, is that which I call retention, or the keeping of those simple ideas, which from sensation or reflec- tion it hath received. This is done two ways : first, by keep- ing the idea which is brought into it for some time actually in view; which is called contemplation. The other way of retention, is the power to revive again in our minds those ideas which, after imprinting, have disappeared, or have been as it were laid aside out of sight ; and thus we do, when we con- ceive heat or light, yellow or sweet, the object being re- moved. This is memory, which is as it were the storehouse of our ideas." V. RETENTION. The circumstances which have a tendency to facilitate or insure the retention or the recurrence of anything by the memory, are chiefly Vividness, Repetition, and Attention. When an object affects us in a pleasant or in a disagreeable 8e* Toun?, Intellect,. Philosoph., lect. xvi. 4 Aristotle (De Memoria et Reminiscentia, cap. 1), has said that memory Is always accompanied with the notion of time, and that only those animals that have the notion of time have memory. s Essay on Hum. Understand., b. ii., c. 10. 27* v 306 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MEMORY manner when it is frequently or familiarly observed or when it is examined with attention and interest, it is morA easily and surely remembered. " The things which are best preserved by the memory" said Lord Herbert, 1 " are the things which please or terrify which are great or new to which much attention has been paid or which have been oft repeated, which are apt to the circum- stances or which have many things related to them" The qualities of a good memory are susceptibility, retentive- ness, and readiness. The common saying that memory and judgment are not often found in the same individual, in a high degree, must be received with qualification. Memory in all its manifestations is very much influenced, and guided by what have been called the laws of associa* tion q. v. In its first manifestations, memory operates spontaneously, and thoughts are allowed to come and go through the mind without direction or control. But it comes subsequently to be exercised with intention and will ; some thoughts being sought and invited, and others being shunned and as far as possible excluded. Spontaneous memory is remembrance. Intentional memory is recollection or reminiscence. The former in Greek is Mrr^ij, and the latter 'Avapvyw. In both forms, but especially in the latter, we are sensible of the influence which association has in regulating the exercise of this faculty. By memory, we not only retain and recall former knowledge, but we also acquire new knowledge. It is by means of memory that we have the notion of continued existence or duration ; and also the persuasion of our personal identity, amidst all the changes of our bodily frame, and all the alterations of our temper and habits. Memory, in its spontaneous or passive manifestation, is com- mon to man with the inferior animals. But Aristotle denie^ that they are capable of recollection or reminiscence, which is a kind of reasoning by which we ascend from a present conscic'as* 1 De Veritate, p. 150, VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 307 MEMORY ness to a former, and from that to a more remote, till the whole facts of some case are brought again back to us. And Dr. Reid has remarked that the inferior animals do not mea- sure time nor possess any distinct knowledge of intervals of time. In man memory is the condition of all experience, and consequently of all progress. Memory in its exercises is very dependent upon bodily organs, particularly the brain. In persons under fever, or in danger of drowning, the brain is preternaturally excited ; and in such cases it has been observed that memory becomes more remote and far-reaching in its exercise than under ordinary and healthy circumstances. Several authentic cases of thia kind are on record. 1 And hence the question has been sug- gested, whether thought be not absolutely imperishable, or whether every object of former consciousness may not, under peculiar circumstances, be liable to be recalled ? 2 MEMORIA TECHNICA, or MNEMONICS.-These terms are applied to artificial methods which have been devised to assist the memory. They all rest on the association of ideas. The relations by which ideas are most easily and firmly associated are those of contiguity in f lace and resemblance. On these two relations the principal methods of assisting the memory have been founded. The methods of localization, or local memory, associate the object which it is wished to remember with some place or building, all the parts of which are well known. The methods of resemblance or symbolization, esta- blish some resemblance either between the things or the words which it is wished to remember, and some object more familiar to the mind. Rhythm and rhyme giving aid to the memory, technical verses have been framed for that purpose in various departments of study. The topical or local memory has been traced back to Simo nides, who lived in the sixth century, B. c. Cicero 8 describes a local memory or gives a Topology. Quintilian 4 and Pliny the naturalist 5 also describe this art. 1 l?ee Coleridge, Bingraphia Literaria; De Quincey, Confessions of an English Opium Eater ; and Sir John Barrow, Autobiography, p. 398. a Aristotle, De Memoria et Reminiscentia ; Beattie, Dissertations; Reid, Intttt. fbto, essay iii.: Stewart, Elements, chap. 6. * Df Oratore, U. 86. * xi, 2. vii. 24. 808 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MEMORIA TECHNICA In modern times may be mentioned, Gray 1 and Fei- nagle. 3 MENTAL PHILOSOPHY, The adjective mental comes to us from the Latin mens, or from the Greek ^ttVoj, or these may be referred to the German meinen, to mean, to mark. If the adjective mental be regarded as coming from the Latin mens, then mental philosophy will be the philosophy of the human mind, and will correspond with psychology. If the adjective mental be regarded as coming from the German meinen, to mean or to mark, then the phrase mental philosophy may be restricted to the philosophy of the mind in its intellectual energies, or those faculties by which it marks or knows, as dis- tinguished from those faculties by which it feels or wills. It would appear that it is often used in this restricted significa- tion to denote the philosophy of the intellect, or of the intel- lectual powers, as contradistinguished from the active powers, exclusive of the phenomena of the sensitivity i;nd the will. 8 MERIT (meritum, from jtlpo$, a part or portion of labour or re- ward), means good desert ; having done something worthy of praise or reward. "Fear not the anger of the wise to raise; Those best can bear reproof, who merit praise." Pope, Essay on Criticism. In seeing a thing to be right, we see at the same time that we ought to do it ; and when we have done it we experience a feeling of conscious satisfaction or self-approbation. We thua come by the idea of merit or good desert. The approbation of our own mind is an indication that God approves of our con- duct ; and the religious sentiment strengthens the moral one. We have the same sentiments towards others. When we see another do what is right, we applaud him. When we see him do what is right in the midst of temptation and difficulty, we say he has much merit. Such conduct appears to be deserv- ing of reward. Virtue and happiness ought to go together. We are satisfied that under the government of God they will do so. * Memoria Technica, 1730. * New Art of Memory, 1812. 1 See Chalmerp, Sketches of Moral and Mental Philosophy, c. 1. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 309 MERIT - The idea of merit then is a primary and natural idea to the mind of man. It is not an after thought to praise the doing of what is right from seeing that it is beneficial, but a sponta- neous sentiment indissolubly connected with our idea of what is right, a sentiment guaranteed as to its truthfulness by the structure of the human mind and the character of God. 1 The scholastic distinction between merit of congruity and merit of condignity is thus stated by Hobbes: 2 "God Al- mighty having promised paradise to those that can walk through this world according to the limits and precepts pre- scribed by Him ; they say, he that shall so walk, shall merit paradise ex congruo. But because no man can demand a right to it by his own righteousness, or any other power in himself, but by the free grace of God only ; they say, no man can merit paradise ex condigno." V. VIRTUE. METAPHOR (ftfratopsw, to transfer). "A metaphor is the transferring of a word from its usual meaning, to an analogous meaning, and then the employing it agreeably to such trans- fer." 8 For example : the usual meaning of evening is the conclusion of the day. But age too is a conclusion, the con- clusion of human life. Now there being an analogy in all conclusions, we arrange in order the two we have alleged, and say, that " as evening is to the day, so is age to human life." Hence by an easy permutation (which furnishes at once two metaphors] we say alternately, that " evening is the age of the day," and that " age is the evening of life." 4 " Sweet is primarily and properly applied to tastes ; second- arily and improperly (i. e., by analogy) to sounds. " When the secondary meaning of a word is founded on some fanciful analogy, and especially when it is introduced for ornament's sake, we call this a metaphor, as when we speak of a ship's ploughing the deep ; the turning up of the surface being essential indeed to the plough, but accidental only to the ship."* METAPHOR and SIMILE. "A metaphor differs from a simile in form only, not in substance. In a simile, the two 1 See Price, Review, ch. 4. * Of Man, pt. 1., ch. 14. Arist, Poet., cap. 21. . Harris, Ptulosoph. Arrange., p. 441. Whately, Log., b. iii., \ 10. 310 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. METAPHOR- subjects are kept distinct in the expression, as well as ID the thought ; in a metaphor they are kept distinct in the thought, but not in the expression. A hero resembles a lion ; and upon that resemblance many similies have been founded by Homer and other poets. But let us invoke the aid of the imagination, and figure the hero to be a lion, instead of cnly resembling one ; by that variation the simile is converted into a metaphor, which is supported by describing all the qualities of the lion that resemble those of the hero. 1 When I say of some great' minister, that 'he upholds the state like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice,' I evidently frame a comparison; but when I say of the same minister, that ' he is a pillar of the state/ this is not a comparison but a metaphor. The comparison between the minister and the pillar is instituted in the mind, but without the aid of words which denote comparison. The comparison is only insinuated, not expressed ; the one object is supposed to be so like the other, that, without formally drawing the comparison, the name of the one may be substituted for that of the other." * V. ANALOGY, ALLEGORY. METAPHYSICS. This word is commonly said to have originated in the fact that Tyrannion or Andronicus, the collectors and conservers of the works of Aristotle, inscribed upon a portion of them the words Ta peta fa Qvaixd. But a late French critic, Mons. Ravaisson, 3 says he has found earlier traces of this phrase, and thinks it probable that, although not em- ployed by Aristotle himself, it was applied to this portion of his writings by some of his immediate disciples. Whether the phrase was intended merely to indicate that this portion should stand, or that it should be studied, after the physics, in the col- lected works of Aristotle, are the two views which have been taken. In point of fact, this portion does usually stand after the physics. But in the order of science or study, Aristotle said, that after physics should come mathematics. And Dero- don 4 has given reasons why metaphysics should be studied after logic, and before physics and other parts of philosophy. But the Arist,, Rhd., lib. iii., cap. 4. Irving, English Composition, p. 172. Essai sur la Mdaphysiqw, torn, i , p. 40. Proem. Metaphys. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 311 METAPHYSICS truth is that the preposition petd means along with as well as after, and might even be translated above. In Latin meta- physica is synonymous with super naturalia. And in English Shakspeare has used metaphysical as synonymous with super- natural. ..." Fate and metaphysical aid doth seem To have thee crowned." Macbeth, Act L, scene 3. Clemens Alexandrinus * considered metaphysical as equiva- lent to supernatural; and is supported by an anonymous Greek commentator, whom Patricius has translated into Latin, and styles Philoponus. But if pstd be interpreted, as it may, to mean along with, then metaphysics or metaphysical philosophy will be that phi- losophy which we should take along with us into physics, and into every other philosophy that knowledge of causes and principles which we should carry with us into every depart- ment of inquiry. Aristotle called it the governing philosophy, which gives laws to all, but receives laws from none. 2 Lord Bacon 3 has limited its sphere, when he says, "The one part (of philosophy) which is physics enquireth and handleth the material and efficient causes; and the other which is meta- physic handleth the formal and final cause/' But all causes are considered by Aristotle in his writings which have been entitled metaphysics. The inquiry into causes was called by him the first philosophy science of truth, science of being. It has for its object not those things which are seen and temporal phenomenal and passing, but things not seen and eternal, things supersensuous and stable. It investigates the 1 Strom, i. Metaptiys., lib. i., cap. 2. Advancement of Learning, book ii. In another passage, however, Bacon admit* the advantage, if not the validity, of a higher metaphysic than this. " Because the distributions and partitions of knowledge are not like several lines that meet in one ansrle. and so touch but in a point, but are like branches of a tree that meet in a stem, which hath a dimension and quantity of entireness and continuance, before it come to discontinue and break itself into arms and boughs; therefore, it is good to erect and constitute one universal science by the mime of ' philosopMa prima.' primitive or sum- mary philosophy, as the main and common way, before we come where the ways part and divide themselves; which science, whether I should report deficient or no, I stand doubtful." Except in so far as it proceeded by observation rather than by speculation i priori, even this science would have been but Hgl ;Jy esteemed by Bacon. 312 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. METAPHYSICS - first principles of nature and of thought, the ultimate causes of existence and of knowledge. It considers things in their essence, independently of the particular properties or deter- mined modes which make a difference between one thing and another. In short, it is ontology or the science of being as being, that is, not the science of any particular being or beings, such as animals or vegetables, lines or numbers, but the science of being in its general and common attributes. There is a science of matter and there is a science of mind. But metaphysics is the science of being as common to both. " The subject of metaphysics is the whole of things. Thia cannot be otherways known than in its principles and causes. Now these must necessarily be what is most general in nature; for it is from generals that particulars are derived, which can- not exist without the generals; whereas the generals may exist without the particulars. Thus, the species, man, cannot exist without the genus, animal; but animal may be without man. And this holds universally of all genuses and specieses. The subject therefore of metaphysics, is what is principal in nature, and first, if not in priority of time, in dignity and excellence, and in order likewise, as being the causes of everything in the universe. Leaving, therefore, particular subjects, and their several properties, to particular sciences, this universal science compares these subjects together; considers wherein they differ and wherein they agree : and that which they have in common, but belongs not, in particular, to any one science, ib the proper object of metaphysics." ! Metaphysics is the knowledge of the one and the real in opposition to the many and the apparent. 2 Matter, as per- ceived by the senses, is a combination of distinct and hetero- geneous qualities, discernible, some by sight, some by smell, &c. What is the thing itself, the subject and owner of these several qualities, and yet not identical with any one of them ? What is it by virtue of which those several attri- butes constitute or belong to one and the same thing ? Mind presents to consciousness so many distinct states, and ope rations, and feelings. What is the nature of that one mind, 1 Monboddo, Ancient Metaphys., book iii., chap. 4. Ariet., Metaphys., lib. iii., c. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 313 METAPHYSICS- of which all these are so many modifications ? The inquiry may be carried higher still, can we attain to any single con- ception of being in general, to which both mind .and matter are subordinate, and from which the essence of both may be deduced ? l " Aristotle said every science must have for investigation a determined province and separate form of being, but none of these sciences reaches the conception of being itself. Hence there is needed a science which should investigate that which the other sciences take up hypothetically, or through experience. This is done by the first philosophy, which has to do with being as such, while the other sciences relate only to deter- mined and concrete being. The metaphysics, which is thia science of being and its primitive grounds, is the first philosophy, since it is pre-supposed by every other discipline. Thus, says Aristotle, if there were only a physical substance, then would physics be the first and the only philosophy ; but if there be an immaterial and unmoved essence which is the ground of all being, then must there be also an antecedent, and because it is antecedent, a universal philosophy. The first ground of all being is God, whence Aristotle occasionally gives to the first philosophy the name of tjheology. 2 Metaphysics was formerly distinguished into general and special. The former was called Ontology (q. v.), or the science of being in general, whether infinite or finite, spiritual or material ; and explained therefore the most universal notions and attributes common to all beings such as entity, non- entity, essence, existence, unity, identity, diversity, &c. This is metaphysics properly so called. Special metaphysics was sometimes called Pneumatology (q. v.), and included 1. Natural Theology, or Theodicy; 2. Rational Cosmology, or the science of the origin and order of the world; and 3. Rational Psychology, which treated of the nature, faculties, and destiny of the human mind. The three objects of special metaphysics, viz., God, the world, and the human mind, correspond to Kant's three ideas * Wolf, Philnsnph. Ration. Disc. Prdim., sect. 73 ; Mansel, Prolegym. Log., p. 277 Schwegler, Hist, of Philos., p. 112. 28 314 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. METAPHYSICS- of the pure reason. According to him, a systematic exposi- tion of those notions and truths, the knowledge of which ia altogether independent of experience, constitutes the science of metaphysics. "Time was," says Kant, 1 "when metqphysics was the queen of all the sciences ; and if we take the will for the deed, she certainly deserves, so far as regards the high importance of her object matter, this title of honour. Now, it is the fashion of the time to heap contempt and scorn upon her ; and the matron mourns, forlorn and forsaken, like Hecuba 'Modo, maxima rerum, Tot generis, natisque potens, Nunc trahor exul, inops.'" According to D'Alembert, 2 the aim of metaphysics is to ex- amine the generation of our ideas, and to show that they all come from sensations. This is the ideology of Condillac and De Tracy. Mr. Stewart 3 has said that " Metaphysics was a word formerly appropriated to the ontology and pneumatology of the schools, but now understood as equally applicable to all those inqui- ries which have for their object, to trace the various branches of human knowledge to their first principles in the constitu- tion of the human mind." And 4 he has said that by meta- physics he understands the " inductive philosophy of the human mind." In this sense the word is now popularly em- ployed to denote, not the rational psychology of the schools, but psychology, or the philosophy of the human mind prose- cuted according to the inductive method. In consequence of the subtle and insoluble questions prosecuted by the school- men, under the head of metaphysics, the word and the inqui- ries which it includes have been exposed to ridicule. 6 Preface to the first edition of the Grit, of Pure Season. * Melanges, torn, iv., p. 143. Dissert., part ii., p. 475. * In the Preface to the Dissert. * The word metaphysics was handled by Rev. Sydney Smith (Elementary Sketchet of Moral Philosophy, chap. 1, p. 3,) with as much caution as if had been a hand- grenade. " There is a word," he exclaimed, when lecturing, with his deep, sonorous, warning voice, "of dire sound and horrible import, which I would fain have kept concealed if I po* cartes, On Method; OoJeridge, On M-tJiod, Introd. to Encydop. Metropol. ; Friend, vol. Li. 4 See Kant, C>-it. of Pure, Reason, p. 541, Haywood's translation. Monboddo, Ancient Metaphys., book ii., chap. 3. Pet? his remark* on the definition of Plato and Aristotle, chap. 4. Harris, Hermes, p. 227. 1 Taylor, Ekments of Thought. 820 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. MIND sonality; soul is the appropriate mind of the being undel notice. Etymologically, mind is the principle of volition, and said the principle of animation. " I mean to go " was originally " I mind to go." Soul, at first identical with self, is from sellaii, to say, the faculty of speech being its charac- teristic. "Dumb, and without a soul, beside such beauty, He has no mind to marry." 1 F. SOUL. MIRACLE (miror, to wonder). "A miracle I take to be a sen- sible operation, which being above the comprehension of the spectator, and, in his opinion, contrary to the established course of nature, is taken by men to be divine." 8 "A miracle," says Mr. Hume, 8 " is a violation of the laws of nature ; and as a firm and unalterable experience has es- tablished these laws, the proof against a miracle, from the very nature of the fact, is as complete as any argument from experience can possibly be imagined; and if so, it is an' un- deniable consequence, that it cannot be surmounted by any proof whatever derived from human testimony." Mr. Hume says the first hint of that argument occurred to him in a conversation with a Jesuit in the College of La Flgche. It has been replied to by Dr. Adams, 4 Dr. Campbell, 1 Bp. Douglas. 6 MNEMONICS. F. MEMORTA TECHNICA. MODALITY is the term employed to denote the most general points of view under which the different objects of thought present themselves to our mind. Now all that we think of we think of as possible, or contingent, or impossible, or neces- sary. The possible is that which may equally be or not be, which is not yet, but which may be ; the contingent is that which already is, but which might not have been ; the neces- sary is that which always is ; and the impossible is that which never is. These are the modalities of being, which neces- sarily find a place in thought, and in the expression of it in 1 Taylor, Synonyms. * Locke, A Discourse of Miracles. Essay on Miracles. 4 Essay in Answer, tic. Dissert on Miracles. Criterion of Miracles. See also Lemoine, A Treatise on Miracles, 8vo s Loud., 1747 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 321 MODALITY judgments and in propositions. Hence arise the four modal propositions which Aristotle 1 has defined and opposed. He did not use the term modality, but it is to be found among hia commentators and the scholastic philosophers. In the phi- losophy of Kant, our judgments are reduced under the four heads of quantity, quality, relation, and modality. In refer- ence to modality they are either problematic, or assertory, or apodeictical. And hence the category of modality includes possibility and impossibility, existence and non-existence, necessity or contingency. But existence and non-existence should have no place ; the contingent and the necessary are not different from being. 2 MODE. " The manner in which a thing exists is called a mode or affection ; shape and colour are m.odes of matter, memory and joy are modes of mind/' 3 "Modes, I call such complex ideas, which, however com- pounded, contain not in them the supposition of subsisting by themselves, but are considered as dependencies on, or affec- tions of, substances." 4 " There are some m.odes which may be called internal, be- cause they are conceived to be in the substance, as round, square ; and others which may be called external, because they are taken from something which is not in the substance, as loved, seen, desired, which are names taken from the action of another ; and this is what is called in the schools an external denomination." 5 "Modes or modifications of mind, in the Cartesian school, mean merely what some recent philosophers express by states of mind; and include both the active and passive phenomena of the conscious subject. The terms were used by Descartes as well as by his disciples." 6 Mode is the manner in which a substance exists ; thus wax may be round or square, solid or fluid. Modes are secondary or subsidiary, as they could not be without substance, which s, c. 12-14. a Diet, des Sciences PMosoy V ' Taylor, Elements of Thought. Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., b. ii., chap. 12, sect. 4. Port Roy. Logic, part i., chap. 2. Sir William Hamilton, Keid's Works, p. 295, note. 322 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MODE exists by itself. Substances are not confined to any mode, but must exist in some. Modes are all variable conditions, and though some one is necessary to every substance, the particu- lar ones are all accidental. Modification is properly the bring- ing of a thing into a mode, but is sometimes used to denote the mode of existence itself. State is a nearly synonymous but a more extended term than mode. A mode is a variable and determinate affection of a sub- stance, a quality which it may have or not, without affecting its essence or existence. A body may be at rest or in motion, a mind may affirm or deny, without ceasing to be. They are not accidents, because they arise directly from the nature of the substance which experiences them. Nor should they be called phenomena, which may have or not have their cause in the object which exhibits them. But modes arise from the nature of the substance affected by them. It is true that one substance modifies another, and in this view modes may some- times be the effect of causes out of the substance in which they appear. They are then called modifications. Fire melts wax ; the liquidity of wax in this view is a modification. All beings which constitute the universe modify one another ; but a soul endowed with liberty is the only being that modi- fies itself, or which can be altogether and in the same mode, cause and substance, active and passive. 1 " That quality which distinguishes one genus, one species, or even one individual, from another, is termed & modification; then the same particular that is termed a property or qualify, when considered as belonging to an individual, or a class of individuals, is termed a modification when considered as dis- tinguishing the individual or the class from another ; a black skin and soft curled hair, are properties of a negro ; the same circumstances considered as marks that distinguish a negro from a man of different species, are denominated modifications." MOLECULE (molecula, a little mass), is the smallest portion of matter cognizable by any of our senses. It is something real, and thus differs from atom, which is not^crceived but conceived 1 Diet, des Sciences Philosoph. * Kames, Elements of Criticism, App. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 323 MOLECULE It is the smallest portion of matter which we c.in reach by oul means of dividing, while atom is the last possible term of all division. When molecules are of simple homogeneous elements, as of gold or silver, they are called integrant ; when they are of compound or heterogeneous elements, as salts and acids, they are called constituent. MONAD, MONADOLOGrY (/Kom'j, unity, one). According to Leibnitz, the elementary particles of matter are vital forces not acting mechanically, but from an internal principle. They are incorporeal or spiritual atoms, inaccessible to all change from without, but subject to internal movement. This hypothesis he explains in a treatise entitled Monadologie. He thought inert matter insufficient to explain the phenomena of body, and had recourse to the entelechies of Aristotle, or the substan- tial forms of the scholastic philosophy, conceiving of them aa primitive forces, constituting the substance of matter, atoms of substance but not of matter, real and absolute unities, metaphysical points, full of vitality, exact as mathematical points, and real as physical points. These substantial unities which constitute matter are of a nature inferior to spirit and soul, but they are imperishable, although they may undergo transformation. " Leibnitz conceived the whole universe, bodies as well aa minds, to be made up of monads, that is, simple substances, each of which is, by the Creator, in the beginning of its exist- ence, endowed with certain active and perceptive powers. A monad, therefore, is an active substance, simple, without parts or figure, which has within itself the power to produce all the changes it undergoes from the beginning of its existence to eternity. The changes which the monad undergoes, of what kind soever, though they may seem to us the effect of causes operating from without, are only the gradual and successive evolutions of its own internal powers, which would have pro- duced all the same changes and motions, although there had been no other being in the universe." ! Mr. Stewart 2 has said, "After studying, with all possible diligence, what Leibnitz has said of his monads in different 1 Reid, Intdl. Pow., essay ii., ch. 15. 9 Dissert., part ii., note 1, p. 219. 324 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MONAD- parts of his works, I find myself quite incompetent to annex any precise idea to the word as he has employed it." The most intelligible passage which he quotes is the following: 1 "A monad is not a material but a formal atom, it being im- possible for a thing to be at once material, and possessed of a real unity and indivisibility. It is necessary, therefore, to revive the obsolete doctrine of substantial forms (the essence of which consists in force], separating it, however, from the various abuses to which it is liable." "Monadology rests upon this axiom Every substance is at the same time a cause, and every substance being a cause, has therefore in itself the principle of its own development : such is the monad; it is a simple force. Each monad has relation to all others ; 'it corresponds with the plan of the universe ; it is the universe abridged ; it is, as Leibnitz says, a living - mirror which reflects the entire universe under its own point of view. But every monad being simple, there is no imme- diate action of one monad upon another ; there is, however, a natural relation of their respective development, which makes their apparent communication ; this natural relation, this harmony which has its reason in the wisdom of the supreme director, is pre-established harmony." 2 MONOGAMY (^ovo?, ya/ttoj, one marriage), is the doctrine that one man should have only one wife, and a wife only one hus- band. It has also been interpreted to mean that a man or woman should not marry more than once. V. POLYGAMY. MONOTHEISM (^oi'oj, 6*6$, one God), is the belief in one God only. "The general propensity to the worship of idols was totally subdued, and the Jews became monotheists, in the strictest sense of the term." 3 V. THEISM, POLYTHEISM. MOOD. V. SYLLOGISM. MORAL (moralis, from mos, manner), is used in several senses in philosophy. In reasoning, the word moral is opposed to demonstrati^ * Tom. ii., p. 50. a Cousin, Hist. Mod. Philosoph., vol. ii., p. 86. " Cogan, Discourse on Jewish Dispensation, c. 2, B. 7. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY 325 MORAL- and means probable. Sometimes it is opposed to material^ and in this sense it means mental, or that the object to which it ia applied belongs to mind and not to matter. Thus we speak of moral science as distinguished from physical science. It is also opposed to intellectual and to (esthetic. Thus we distinguish between a moral habit and an intellectual habit, between that which is morally becoming and that which pleases the powers of taste. Moral is opposed to positive. "Moral precepts are precepts, the reasons of which we see ; positive precepts are precepts, the reasons of which we do not see. Moral duties arise out of the nature of the case itself, prior to external command ; posi- tive duties do not arise out of the nature of the case, but from external command ; nor would they be duties at all, were it not for such command received from Him whose creatures and subjects we are/' 1 "A. positive precept > concerns a thing that is right because commanded ; a moral precept respects a thing commanded because it is right. A Jew, for instance, was bound both to honour his parents, and also to worship at Jerusalem ; but the former was commanded because it was right, and the latter was right because it was commanded." 2 MORAL FACULTY. V. CONSCIENCE. MORALITY. " To lay down, in their universal form, the laws according to which the conduct of a free agent ought to be regulated, and to apply them to the different situations of human life, is the end of morality." "A body of moral truths, definitely expressed, and arranged according to their rational connection," is the definition of a "system of morality" by Dr. Whewell. 8 " The doctrine which treats of actions as right or wrong ia morality ." 4 " There are in the world two classes of objects, persons and things. And these are mutually related to each other. There are relations between persons and persons, and between things and things. And the peculiar distinctions of moral actions, * Butler, Analogy, part ii., ch. 1. a Whately, Lessons on Morals. On Systematic Morality, lect. L Whewell, Morality, sect. 76. 29 326 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MORALITY moral characters, moral principles, moral habits, as contrasted with the intellect and other parts of man's nature, lies in this, that they always imply a relation between two persons, not te- tween two things." ! "Jfora/iYycommences with, and begins in, the sacred dis- tinction between thing and person. On this distinction all law, human and divine, is grounded." 2 " What the duties of morality are, the apostle instructs the believer in full, comprising them under the two heads of negative and positive ; negative, to keep himself pure from the world ; and positive, beneficence from loving-kindness, that is, love of his fellow-men (his kind) as himself. Last and highest come the spiritual, comprising all the truths, acts, and duties, that have an especial reference to the timeless, the permanent, the eternal, to the sincere love of the true as truth, of the good as good, and of God as both in one. It comprehends the whole ascent from uprightness (morality, virtue, inward rectitude) to godlikeness, with all the acts, exercises, and dis- ciplines of mind, will, and affections, that arc requisite or con- ducive to the great design of our redemption from the form of the evil one, and of our second creation or birth in the divine image. " It may be an additional aid to reflection, to distinguish the three kinds severally, according to the faculty to which each corresponds, the part of our human nature which is more particularly its organ. Thus, the prudential corresponds to the sense and the understanding ; the moral to the heart and the conscience ; the spiritual to the will and the reason, that is, to the finite will reduced to harmony with, and in subordi- nation to, thus reason, as a ray from that true light which is both reason and will, universal reason and will absolute." How nearly this scriptural division coincides with the Pla- tonic, see PRUDENCE.* MORAL PHILOSOPHY is the science of human duty. The knowledge of human duty implies a knowledge of human nature. To understand what man ought to do, it is necessary Sewell, Christ. Mm-als, p. 339. Coleridge, Aids to Refaction, vol. i., p. 265. ' Ibid., rol. i., pp. 22, 23 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 327 MORAL - to know what man is. Not that the moral philosopher, before entering upon those inquiries which peculiarly belong to hin^ must go over the science of human nature in all its extent. But it is necessary to examine those elements of human nature which have a direct bearing upon huriian conduct. A full course of moral philosophy should consist, therefore, of two parts the first containing an analysis and illustration of those powers and principles by which man is prompted to act, and by the possession of which, he is capable of acting under a sense of duty ; the second, containing an arrangement and exposition of the duties incumbent upon him as the possessor of an active and moral nature. As exhibiting the facts and phenomena presented by an examination of the active and moral nature of man, the first part may be characterized as psychological; and as laying down the duties arising from the various relations in which man, as a moral agent, has been placed, the second part may be designated as deontological. "The moral philosopher has to investigate the principles according to which men act the motives which influence them in fact the objects at which they commonly aim the passions, desires, characters, manners, tastes, which appear in the world around him, and in his own constitution. Further, as in all moral actions, the intellectual principles are impli- cated with the feelings, he must extend his inquiry to the phenomena of the mental powers, and know both what they are in themselves, and how they are combined in actions with the feelings." ! V. ETHICS. MORAL SENSE. V. SENSES (Reflex). MORPHOLOGY (wJ5, form; juiyoj). "The branch of botani- cal science which treats of the forms of plants is called mor- phology, and is now regarded as the fundamental department of botany." 2 " The subject of animal morphology has recently been ex- panded into a form, strikingly comprehensive and systematic, by Mr. Owen." 8 So that morphology treats of the forms of plants and animals, or organized beings. Hampden, Introd. to Mor. Phil., lect. vi., p. 187. " M-Cosh, Typical Forms, p. 23. Whcwell, Supplem. yol., p. 140. 828 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. MOTION (*tfi7sopkas cum Deo confundebatur. Cicero, De Nat. Dear., lib. i., c. 8, anah's view, which makes second intention mean, apparently, 'a term denned for scientific use;' though with the tenacious vitality of error, it still lingeif In some quarters, after wounds that should have been mortal." V. INTENTION. Outline of the Laws of Thought, 2d ed. } pp. 39, 40. 352 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. NOTION- through their hands is equivalent to 240 pence. Such words as the State, Happiness, Liberty, Creation, are too pregnant with meaning for us to suppose that we realize their full sense every time we read or pronounce them. If we attend to the working of our minds, we shall find that each word may be used, and in its proper place and sense, though per- haps few or none of its attributes are present to us at the moment. A very simple notion is always intuitive ; we cannot make our notion of brown or red simpler than it is by any symbol. On the other hand, a highly complex notion, like those named above, is seldom fully realized seldom other than symbolical." l NOTIONES COMMUNES, also called prcenotiones, anticipa- tiones, communes notitice, jtpo'Kr^e^, xoivai svvouu first truths, natural judgments, principles of common sense, are phrases em- ployed to denote certain notions or cognitions which are native to the human mind, which are intuitively discerned, being clear and manifest in their own light, and needing no proof, but forming the ground of proof and evidence as to other truths. V. ANTICIPATION, TRUTHS (First). NOTJMENON (to voovptvov], in the philosophy of Kant (an object as conceived by the understanding, or thought of by the rea- son, vovj), is opposed to phenomenon (an object such as we represent it to ourselves by the impression which it makes on our senses). Noumenon is an object in itself, not relatively to us. But we have, according to Kant, no such knowledge of things in themselves. For besides the impressions which things make on us, there is nothing in us but the forms of the sensibility and the categories of the understanding, according to which, and not according to the nature of things in them-, selves, it may be, are our conceptions of them. Things sensible considered as in themselves and not as they appear to us, Kant calls negative noumena; and reserves the de- signation of positive noumena, to intelligibles properly-so called, which are the objects of an intuition purely intellectual. 2 The two kinds of noumena taken together are opposed to phenomena, and form the intelligible world. This world we * Thomson, Outline of the Laws of Thought, p. 47. Wilim, Hist, de la PhOosoph. Alkmande, torn, i., p. 300. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 353 tfOUMEN admit as possible, but unknown. Kantism thus trends to- wards scepticism. "The word phenomenon has no meaning except as opposed to something intelligible to a noumenon, as Kant says. Now, either we understand by the latter word a thing which cannot be the object of a sensuous intuition, without determining the mode in which it is perceived, and in this case we take it in a negative sense ; or we understand it as the object of a real intuition, though not a sensuous one, an intellectual one, and then we take it in a positive sense. Which of these two is truth ? It cannot unquestionably be affirmed a priori that the only possible manner of perception is sensuous intuition, and it implies no contradiction to suppose that an object may be known to us otherwise than by the senses. But, says Kant, this is only a possibility. To justify us in affirming that there really is any other mode of perception than sensuous intuition, any intellectual intuition, it must come within the range of our knowledge ; and in fact we have no idea of any such faculty. We, therefore, cannot adopt the word noumenon in any positive sense ; it expresses but an indeterminate object, not of an intuition, but of a conception in other words a hypothesis of the understanding." 1 V. PHENOMENON. NOVELTY (novus, new), " is not merely a sensation in the mind of him to whom the thing is new ; it is a real relation which the' thing has to his knowledge at that time. But we are so constituted, that what is new to us commonly gives pleasure upon that account, if it be not in itself disagreeable. It rouses our attention, and occasions an agreeable exertion of our facul- ties Curiosity is a capital principle in the human constitution, and its food must be what is in some respect new. .... Into this part of the human constitution, I think, we may resolve the pleasure W3 have from novelty in objects." 2 Any new or strange object, whether in nature or in art, when contemplated gives rise to feelings of a pleasing kind, the consideration of which belongs to ^Esthetics or that de- partment of philosophy which treats of the Powers of Taste. 1 Henderson, Philosophy of Kant, p. 76. a Reid, Intdl. Pow., essay viii., chap. 2. 31* y J54 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. NUMBER was held by Pythagoras to be the ultimate principle of being. His views were adopted to a certain extent by Plato, and attacked by Aristotle. In the Middle Ages, num- bers and the proportions subsisting between them, were em- ployed in the systems of the alchemists and cabalists. But in proportion as the true spirit of philosophy prevailed, num* bers were banished from metaphysics, and the consideration of them was allotted to a separate science arithmetic and algebra. OATH. An oath is a solemn appeal to God, as the author of all that is true and right, and a solemn promise to speak the truth and to do what is right ; renouncing the divine favour and imprecating the divine vengeance, should we fail to do so. Oaths have been distinguished as 1. The assertory, or oath of evidence, and 2. The promissory, or oath of office the for- mer referring to the past, and the latter to the future. But both refer to the future, inasmuch as both are confirmatory of a promise, to give true evidence, or to do faithful service. V. AFFIRMATION. OBJECTIVE (objicio, to throw against), is now used to describe the absolute independent state of a thing ; but by the elder metaphysicians it was applied to the aspect of things as objects of sense or understanding. So Berkeley, "Natural pheno- mena are only natural appearances. They are, therefore, such as we see and perceive them. Their real and objective natures are, therefore, one and the same." Sins, sect. 292, where real and objective are expressly distinguished. The modern nomenclature appears to me very inconvenient. 1 With Aristotle vnoxtiptvov signified the subject of a pro- position, and also substance. The Latins translated it subjec- tum. In Greek object is avtixfi/^svov, translated oppositum. In the Middle Ages subject meant substance, and has this sense in Descartes and Spinoza; sometimes also in Reid. Subjective is used by Will. Occam to denote that which exists independent of mind, objective that which the mind feigned. This shows what is meant by realitas objectiva in Descartes, Fitzgerald, Notts to Aristotle, p. 191. > Mod. 3. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 35o OBJECTIVE- Kant and Fichte have iuverted the meanings : subject is the mind which knows object that which is known. Subjective the varying conditions of the knowing mind objective that which is in the constant nature of the thing known. 1 By objective reality Descartes 2 meant the reality of the object in so far as represented by the idea or thought of it by formal, or actual reality the reality of the object as conform to our idea of it. Thus the sun was objectively in our thoughx or idea of it actually or formally in the heavens. He had also a third form of reality which he called eminent that is, an existence superior at once to the idea and the object, and which contained in posse what both these had in esse. " In philosophical language, it were to be wished that the word subject should be reserved for the subject of inhesion the materia in qua; and the term object exclusively applied to the subject of operation the materia circa quarn. If this be not done, the grand distinction of subjective and objective, in philosophy, is confounded. But if the employment of subject for object is to be deprecated, the employment of object for purpose or final cause (in the French and English languages) is to be absolutely condemned, as a recent and irrational con- fusion of notions which should be carefully distinguished." 3 V. SUBJECT. OBLIGATION (obligo, to bind), is legal or moral. "Obligation, as used in moral inquiry, is derived from the doctrine of justification in the scholastic ages. In consequence of original sin man comes into the world a debtor to divine justice. He is under an obligation to punishment, on account of his deficiency from that form of original justice in which he rendered to God all that service of love which the great good- ness of God demanded. Hence our terms due and duty, to express right conduct." 4 Obligation (Moral) has been distinguished as internal and ex ternal ; according as the reason for acting arises in the mind of the agent, or from the will of another. 1 Trendelenburg, Notes to Aristotle's Logic. * Response d la Seconde Objection. Sir W. Hamilton, Reid's Works, p. 97, and App., note B. * Hampden, BamjAon Lect., vi., p. 296. 856 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. OBLIGATION In seeing a thing to be right v-e are under obligation to do it. This is internal obligation, or that reason for acting which arises in the mind of the agent along with the perception of the Tightness of the action. It is also called rational obliga~ tion. Dr. Adams ' has said, "Right implies duty in its idea. To perceive that an action is right, is to see a reason for doing it in the action itself, abstracted from all other considerations whatever. Now, this perception, this acknowledged rectitude in the action, is the very essence of obligation ; that which commands the approbation of choice, and binds the conscience of every rational being." And Mr. Stewart 2 has said, " The very notion of virtue implies the notion of obligation." External obligation is a reason for acting which arises from the will of another, having authority to impose a law. It is also called authoritative obligation. Bishop Warburton 8 has contended that all obligation necessarily implies an obli- ger different from the party obliged ; and moral obligation, being the obligation of a free agent, implies a law ; and a law implies a lawgiver. The will of God, therefore, is the true ground of all obligation, strictly and properly so called. The perception of the difference between right and wrong can be said to oblige only as an indication of the will of God. There is no incompatibility between these two grounds of obligation. 4 By some philosophers, however, this stream of living waters has been parted. They have grounded obligation altogether on the will of God, and have overlooked or made light of the obligation which arises from our perception of rectitude. Language to this effect has been ascribed to Mr. Locke. 8 And both Warburton and Horsley, as well as Paley and his followers, have given too much, if not an exclusive, promi- nence to the rewards and punishments of a future life, as prompting to the practice of virtue. But, although God, in 1 Sermon on the Nature and Obligation of Virtue. Act. and Mar. Pow., vol. ii., p. 294. 3 Div. Lm/., book i., sect. 4. 4 See Whewell, Sermons on the Fmmdztion of Morals, pp. 26-76. And Dr. Bridgewater Treatise, vol. i., p. 78. Life by Lird King, vol. ii., p. 129. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 357 OBLIGATION- accommodation to the weakness of our nature and the perili of our condition, has condescended to quicken us, in the dis- charge of our duty, by appealing to our hopes and fears, both in regard to the life that now is and that which is to come, it does not follow that self-love, or a concern for our own happiness, should be the only, or even the chief spring, of our obedience. On the contrary, obedience to the divine will may spring from veneration and love to the divine character, arising from the most thorough conviction of the rectitude, wisdom, and goodness of the divine arrangements. And that this, more than a regard to the rewards of ever- lasting life, is the proper spring of virtuous conduct, is aa plain as it is important to remark. To do what is right, even for the sake of everlasting life, is evidently acting from a motive far inferior, in purity and power, to love and vene- ration for the character and commands of Him who is just and good, in a sense and to an extent to which our most ele- vated conceptions are inadequate. That which should bind us to the throne of the Eternal is not the iron .chain of selfish- ness, but the golden links of a love to all that is right ; and our aspirations to the realms of bliss should be breathings after the prevalence of universal purity, rather than desires of our own individual happiness. Self and its little circle is too narrow to hold the heart of man, when it is touched with a sense of its true dignity, and enlightened with the knowledge of its lofty destination. It swells with generous admiration of all that is, right and good ; and expands with a love which refuses to acknowledge any limits but the limits of life and the capacities of enjoyment. In the nature and will of Him from whom all being and all happiness proceed, it acknow- ledges the only proper object of its adoration and submission; and in surrendering itself to His authority is purified from all the dross of selfishness, and cheered by the light of a calm and unquenchable love to all that is right and good. 1 V. RIGHT, SANCTION. 1 See Sanderson, De JuramenM Obligatwne, praelec. L. sect. 11 ; De Obligatione Oon> tcientiai, praelec. v. ; Whewell, Morality, book i., chap. 4, pp. 84-89; Kiug, Essay on W4 Pwlim. Dissert., sect 358 VOCAJULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. OBSERVATION. " The difference between experiment and of> servation, consists merely in the comparative rapidity with which they accomplish their discoveries ; or rather in the com- parative command we possess over them, as instruments for the investigation of truth." ! Mr. Stewart 2 has said, that according to Dr. Reid, "Atten tion to external things is observation, and attention to the sub jects of our own consciousness is reflection. Yet Dr. Reid has said, that "reflection, in its common and proper meaning, is equally applicable to objects of sense and to objects of con- sciousness and has censured Locke for restricting it to that reflection which is employed about the operations of our minds. In like manner we may observe the operations of our own minds as well as external phenomena. Observation is better characterized by Sir John Herschell as passive experience. V. EXPERIENCE. It is the great instrument of discovery in mind and matter. According to some, 4 experiment can be applied to matter, but only observation to mind. But to a certain extent the study of mind admits experiment. 6 "We can scarcely be said to make experiments on the minds of others. It is necessary to an experiment, that the observer should know accurately the state of the thing ob- served before the experiment, and its state immediately after it. But when the minds of other men are the subject, we can know but little of either the one state or of the other. We are forced, therefore, to rely not on experiment, but on experi- ence ; that is to say, not on combinations of known elements effected for the purpose of testing the result of each different combination ; but on our observation of actual occurrences, the results of the combination of numerous elements, only a few of which are within our knowledge. And the consequence is, that we frequently connect facts which are really independ- ent of one another, and not unfrequently mistake obstacles for causes. Stewart, Philosoph. Essays, Prelim. Dissert., chap, i * Elements, vol. i., p. 106, note. * Intftt. Pow., essay yi., chap 1. Edin. Rev., vol. iii., p. 269. * See Hampden, Introd. to Mm. Phil., sect, ii., p. 51 ; and Mr. Stewart, Plulosopb Essays, Prelim. Dissert,, chap. 2. / VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 359 OBSERVATION " When we direct our attention to the workings of our own minds ; that is to say, when we search for premises by means of consciousness instead of by means of observation, our powers of trying experiments are much greater. To a considerable degree we command our own faculties, and though these are few, perhaps none which we can use separately, we can at will exercise one more vigorously 'than the others. We can call, for instance, into peculiar activity, the judgment, the memory, or the imagination, and note the differences in our mental condition as the one faculty or the other is more active. And this is an experiment. Over our mental sensations we have less power. We cannot at will feel angry, or anxious, or frightened ; but we can sometimes, though rarely, put our- selves really into situations by which certain emotions will be excited. And when, as is usually the case, this is impossible or objectionable, we can fancy ourselves in such situations. The first is an actual experiment. We can approach the brink of an unprotected precipice and look down we can interpose between our bodies and that brink a low parapet, and look over it, and if we find that our condition in the two cases differ, that though there is no real danger in either case, though in both our judgment equally tells us that we are safe, yet that the apparent danger in the one produces fear, while we feel secure in the other, we infer that the imagination can excite fear for which the judgment affirms that there is no adequate cause. The second is the resemblance of an expe- riment, and which when tried by a person with the vivid imagination of Shakspeare or Homer, may serve for one ; 'but with ordinary minds it is a fallacious expedient. Few men, when they picture themselves in an imaginary situation, take into account all the incidents necessary to that situation ; and those which they neglect may be the most important." 1 "Instead of contrasting observation and experiment, we should contrast spontaneous and experimental phenomena as alike subjects of observation. Facts furnished by artificial contrivances require to be observed just in the same way as those which are presented by nature without our interference ; * Senior. Four Lectures an Pd. Earn., 1852, p. 31. 360 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. OBSERVATION- and yet philosophers are nearly unanimous in confining observation to the latter phenomena, and speaking of it as of sora 3thing which ceases where experiment begins; while in simple truth, the business of experiment is to extend the sphere of observation, and not to take up a subject where observation lays it down." l All men are apt to- notice likenesses in the facts that come before them, and to group similar facts together. The faculty by which such similarities are apprehended is called observa- tion; the act of grouping them together under a general statement, as when we say, "All seeds grow all bodies fall," has been described as generalization. V. GENERALIZA- TION. According to M. Comte 2 there are three modes of observa- tion : 1. Observation, properly so called, or the direct exami- nation of the phenomenon as it presents itself naturally. 2. Experiment, or the contemplation of the phenomenon, so modi- fied more or less by artificial circumstances introduced inten- tionally by ourselves, with a view to its more complete inves- tigation. 3. Comparison, or the successive consideration of a series of analogous cases, in which the phenomenon becomes more and more simple. The third head (as to which see torn, iii., p. 343) seems not so much a species of observation, as a mode of arranging observations, with a view to a proper in- vestigation of the phenomena. 3 According to Humboldt 4 there are three stages of the in- vestigation of nature passive observation, active observation, and experiment. The difference between active and passive observation is marked in Bacon. 6 The former is when Experientia lege certa procedit, seriatim et continenter. " This word experimental has the defect of not appearing to comprehend the knowledge which flows from observation, as well as that which is obtained by experiment. The German 1 S. Bailey,. Theory of Reasoning, pp. 114-15, 8vo, Lond., 1851. * Cours de Philosoph. Positive, torn, ii., p. 19. Sir G. C. Lewis, Meth. of Observ. in Politics, chap. 5, note. 4 Cosmos, vol. ii., p. 212. Nov. Org., 1, Aphor. 100. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 361 OBSERVATION - word empirical is applied to all the information -which exp^ rience affords ; but it is in our language degraded by another application. I therefore must use experimental in a larger sense than its etymology warrants." Sir J. Mackintosh. 1 Experiential has been proposed as equivalent to empirical. OCCASION. Cicero 2 says: Occasio est pars temporis, habens in se alicujus rei idoneam faciendi opportunitatem. Tempus autem actionisopportunum, Graece, evxatpux ; Latine, appellaturoccasio? The watchman falling asleep gives occasion to thieves to break into the house and steal. " There is much difference between an occasion and a proper cause: these two are needfully to be distinguished. Critical and exact historians, as Polybius and Tacitus, distinguish betwixt the dp^jj and the ourta, the beginning occasions and the real causes, of a war." Flavell. 4 "What is caused seems to follow naturally; what is occa sioned follows incidentally, and what is created receives its existence arbitrarily. A wound causes pain, accidents occa- sion delay, scandal creates mischief. " Between the real cause and the occasion of any phenome- non, there is a wide diversity. The one implies the pro- ducing power, the other only some condition upon which this power comes into exercise. If I cast a grain of corn into the earth, the occasion of its springing up and producing plant, ear, and grain, is the warmth and moisture of the soil in which it is buried ; but this is by no means the cause. The cause lies in the mysterious vital power which the seed contains within itself; the other is but the condition upon which this cause produces the effect." 5 OCCASIONAL CAUSES (Doctrine of). V. CAUSE. OCCULT QUALITIES. F. QUALITY ONE. V. UNIT*'. ONEIROMANCY. V. DREAMING. 1 On B icon and Locke, Works, vol. i., p. 333. * 1. De. Imentione. s De Offic.. lib. i. * Discourse of Hit, Occasions, Causes, Future, Rise, Growth, and Renifdits of Mental i/frron. 8 Morell, Specid. Phil., vol. i, p. 99. 32 3C>2 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ONTOLOGY (ov and Xoyoj, the science of being). "Ontology is a discourse of being in general, and the various or most universal modes or affections, as well as the several kinds or divisions of it. The word being here includes not only what- soever actually is, but whatsoever can be." ; Ontology is the same as metaphysics. Neither the one name nor the other was used by Aristotle. He called the science now designated by them pliilosophia prima, and denned it as ijtictiifjivi tov bvtosfiovtos Soientia Entis Quatenns Entis, that is, the science of the essence of things ; the science of the attributes and conditions of being in general, not of being in any given circumstances, not as physical or mathematical, but as being. The name ontology seems to have been first made current in philosophy by Wolf. He divided metaphysics into four parts ontology, psychology, rational cosmology, and theology. It was chiefly occupied with abstract inquiries into possibility, necessity, and contingency, substance, accident, cause, &c., without reference to the laws of our intellect by which we are constrained to believe in them. Kant denied that we had any knowledge of substance or cause as really existing. But there is a science of principles and causes, of the principles of being and knowing. In this view of it, ontology corresponds with metaphysics q. v. "Ontology may be treated of in two different methods, according as its exponent is a believer in to 6V, or in to, wta, in one or in many fundamental principles of things. In the former, all objects whatever are regarded as phenomenal modifications of one and the same substance, or as self- determined effects of one and the same cause. The necessary result of this method is to reduce all metaphysical philosophy to a Rational Theology, the one substance or Cause being identified with the Absolute or the Deity. According to the latter method, which professes to treat of different classes of beings independently, metaphysics will contain three co-ordi- nate branches of inquiry, Rational Cosmology, Rational Psy- chology, and Rational Theology. The first aims at a know- ledge of the real essence, as distinguished from the phenomena of the material world : the second discusses the nature and Watts, On Ontology, c, 2. Sec also Smith, Wealth of Nalinns, book v., c. L VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 363 ONTOLOGY- origin, as distinguished from the faculties and affections, of the human soul and of other finite spirits ; the thi^d aspirs to comprehend God himself, as cognizable a priori in his essential nature, apart from the indirect and relative indica- tions furnished by his works, as in Natural Theology, or by his Word, as in Revealed Religion.. " These three objects of metaphysical inquiry, God, the World, the Mind, correspond to Kant's three ideas of the Pure Reason; and the object of his Critique is to show that in relation to all these, the attainment of a system of speculative philosophy is impossible." ! " The science of ontology comprehends investigations of every real existence, either beyond the sphere of the present world, or in any other way incapable of being the direct ob- ject of consciousness, which can be deduced immediately from the possession of certain feelings or principles and faculties of the human soul." 2 OPERATIONS (of the Mind)." By the operations of the mind," 3 says Dr. Reid, 4 " we understand every mode of thinking of which we are conscious. " It deserves our notice, that the various modes of thinking have always and in all language, as far as we know, been called by the name of operations of the mind, or by names of the same import. To body, we ascribe various properties, but not operations, properly so called : it is extended, divisible, movable, inert ; it continues in any state in which it is put ; every change of its state is the effect of some force impressed upon it, and is exactly proportional to the force impressed, and in the precise direction of that force. These are the general properties of matter, and these are not operations; on the con- trary, they all imply its being a dead, inactive thing, which moves only as it is moved, and acts only by being acted upon. But- the mind is, from its very nature, a living and active being. Everything we know of it implies life and active energy ; and the reason why all its modes of thinking are 1 Munscl, Prolegom. Log., p. 277. ' Archer Butler, Lectures on Ancient Philosophy. * Operation, act, and enr.rgy, are nearly convortibl terms ; and are opposed to faculty s the actual to the potential. Sir Will. Hamilton 4 InidL jR>tt'.. ossay i.. chap. 1. 364 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY OPEKATIONS- called its operations, is that in all, or in most of them it is not merely passive as body is, but is really and properly active." V. STATES OF MIND. OPINION (opinor, to think). "The essential idea of opinion seems to be that it is a matter about which doubt can reason- ably exist, as to which two persons can without absurdity think differently Any proposition, the contrary of which can be maintained with probability, is matter of opinion." l According to the last of these definitions, matter of opinion is opposed not to matter of fact, but to matter of certainty. Thus, the death of Charles I. is &fact his authorship of Icon Basilike, an opinion. It is also used, however, to denote know- ledge acquired by inference, as opposed to that acquired by perception. Thus, that the moon gives light, is matter of fact ; that it is inhabited or uninhabited, is matter of opinion. It has been proposed 2 to discard from philosophical use these ambiguous expressions, and to divide knowledge, accord- ing to its sources, into matter of perception and matter of inference; and, as a cross division as to our conviction, into matter of certainty and matter of doubt. Holding for true, or the subjective validity of a judgment in relation to conviction (which is, at the same time, objec- tively valid), has the three following degrees: opinion, belief, and knowledge. Opinion is a consciously insufficient judgment, subjectively as well as objectively. Belief is subjectively sufficient, but is recognized as being objectively insufficient. Knowledge is both subjectively and objectively sufficient. Sub- jective sufficiency is termed conviction (for myself); objective sufficiency is termed certainty (for all). 3 V. BELIEF, KNOW- LEDGE, CERTAINTY, FACT, JUDGMENT. Ol'fOSED, OPPOSITION (7-6 eww, that which lies over against). Aristotle has said, that "one thing may be opposed to another in four ways ; by relation, by contrariety, or as privation is to possession, affirmation to negation. Thus, there is the opposition of relation between the double and the half , : 1 Sir G. C. Lewis, Essay on Opinion, p. i., iv. * Edin. RK.V., April, 1850, p. 311. 8 Meiklojohn, Transl. of Crit. of Pure Reason, p. 408 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 365 OPPOSED - of contrariety between good and evil ; blindness and seeing are opposed in the way of privation and possession ; the pro- positions, he sits, and he does not sit, in the way of negation and affirmation." V. CONTRARY, PRIVATION, TERM. OPPOSITION (in Logic). "Two propositions are said to be opposed to each other, when, having the same subject and predicate, they differ in quantity, or quality, or both. It is evident, that with any given subject and predicate, you may state four distinct propositions, viz., A, E, I, and ; any twc of which are said to be opposed; hence there are four different kinds of opposition, viz., 1st, the two universals (A and E), are called contraries to each other ; 2d, the two particular (I and 0), subcontraries ; 3d, A and I, or E and 0, subalterns ; 4th, A and 0, or E and I, contradictories." l The opposition of propositions may be thus exhibited : All A is B. | c on t rar i es _ may be both false, but cannot both be true. No A is B. J Some A is B. | g u k CO ntraries may both be true, but cannot both be false. Some A is not B. J 1 Contradictories one must be true and the other false. Some A is not B. ) No A is B. Some A is A11 A * B " } and { No A is B ' } Respectively subalternate. Some A is B. ) I Some A is not B. 3 "Of two subalternate propositions the truth of the universal proves the truth of the particular, and the falsity of the particular proves the falsity of the universal, but not vice versa." 2 OPTIMISM (optimum, the superlative of bonum, good), is the doctrine, that the universe, being the work of an inrinitely perfect Being, is the best that coiild.be created. This doctrine under various forms appeared in all the great philosophical schools of antiquity. During the Middle Ages it was advocated by St. Anselm and St. Thomas. In times comparatively modern, it was embraced by Descartes and Malebranche. But the doctrine has been developed in ita highest form by Leibnitz. 1 Whately, Log., K ii., ch. 2, g 3. Mill, Log., b. ii., ch. 1. 32* | Also Contradictories. 866 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. OPTIMISM According to him, God, being infinitely perfect, ijould neithei will nor produce evil. And as a less good compared with a greater is evil, the creation of God must not only be good, but the best that could possibly be. Before creation, all beings and all possible conditions of things were present to the Divine Mind in idea, and composed an infinite number of worlds, from among which infinite wisdom chose the best. Creation was the giving existence to the most perfect state of things which had been ideally contemplated by the Divine Mind. The optimism of Leibnitz has been misunderstood and mis- represented by Voltaire and others. But the doctrine which Leibnitz advocated is not that the present state of things is the best possible in reference to individuals, nor to classes of beings, nor even to this world as a whole, but in reference to all worlds, or to the universe as a whole and not even to the universe in its present state, but in reference to that indefinite progress of which it may contain the germs. 1 According to Mr. Stewart, 2 under the title of optimists, are comprehended those who admit and those who deny the free- dom of human actions, and the accouutableness of man as a moral agent. ORDEH means rank, series means succession ; hence there is in order something of voluntary arrangement, and in series some- thing of unconscious catenation. The order of a procession. The series of ages. A series of figures in uniform soldiers in order of battle. 3 Order is the intelligent arrangement of means to accomplish an end, the harmonious relation established between the parts for the good of the whole. The primitive belief that there is order in nature, is the ground of all experience. In this belief we confidently anticipate that the same causes, opera- ting in the same circumstances, will produce the same effects. This may be resolved into a higher belief in the wisdom of an infinitely perfect being, who orders all things. Order has been regarded as the higher idea into which moral rectitude may be resolved. Every being has an end to answer, and every being attains its perfection in accom * Leibnitz. Essais de Tlieodicee; Malobranche, Entretiens Mttapltysiques. Act. and Mor. Poto., b. iii., ch. 3. sect 1. a Taylor, Synonyms. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 367 plishing that end. But while other beings tend blindly to- wards it, man knows the end of his being, and the place he holds in the scheme of the universe, and can freely and intel- ligently endeavour to realize that universal order of which he is an element or constituent. In doing so he does what is right. " There is one parent virtue, the universal virtue, the virtue which renders us just and perfect, the virtue which will one day render us happy. It is the only virtue. It is the love of the universal order as it eternally existed in the Divine Reason, where every created reason contemplates it. The love of order is the whole of virtue, and conformity to order constitutes the morality of actions.' 7 1 Such is the theory of Malebranche, and more recently of Jouffroy. In like manner, science, in all its discoveries, tends to the discovery of universal order. And art, in its highest attainments, is only realizing the truth of nature ; so that the true, the beautiful, and the good, ultimately resolve them- selves into the idea of order. ORGAN. An organ is a part of the body fitted to perform a par- ticular action, which, or rather the performance of which action, is denominated its function. "By the term organ," says Gall, 2 "I mean the material condition which renders possible the manifestation of a faculty. The muscles and the bones are the material con- dition of movement, but are not the faculty which causes movement ; the whole organization of the .eye is the material condition of sight, but it is not the faculty of seeing. By the term ' organ of the soul/ I mean a material condition which renders possible the manifestation of a moral quality, or an intellectual faculty. I say that man in this life thinks and wills by means of the brain ; but if one concludes that the brain is the thing that thinks and wills, it is as if one should say that the muscles are the faculty of moving ; that the or^an of sight and the faculty of seeing are the same thing. In. each case it would be to confound the faculty with the organ, and the organ with the faculty." 1 Trait^ da Morale, Rott,., 1634. Vol. i., p. 228. 368 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ORGAN - "An organ of sense is an instrument composed of a pecu- liar arrangement of organised matter, by which it is adapted to receive from specific agents definite impressions. Between the agent that produces and the organ that receives the im- pressions, the adaptation is such, that the result of their mutual action is, in the first place, the production of sensa- tion ; and, in the second place, of pleasure." l According to phrenological writers, particular parts of the brain are fitted to serve as instruments for particular faculties of the mind. This is organology. It is further maintained, that the figure and extent of these parts of the brain can be discerned externally. This is organoscopy. Some who be- lieve in the former, do not believe in the latter. ORGANON or ORGANUM (opytu/w, an instrument), is the name often applied to a collection of Aristotle's treatises on logic ; because, by the Peripatetics, logic was regarded as the instru- ment of science rather than a science or part of science in itself. In the sixth century, Ammonius and Simplicius ar- ranged the works of Aristotle in classes, one of which they called logical or organical. But it was not till the fifteenth century that the name Organum came into common use.* Bacon gave the name of Novum Organum to the second part of his Instauratio Magna. And the German philosopher, Lambert, in 1763, published a logical work under the title, Das Neue Organon. Poste, in his translation of the Posterior Analytics, gives a sketch of the Organum of Aristotle, which he divides into four parts, viz., Genial Logic, the Logic of Deduction, the Logic of Induction, and the Logic of Opinion; the third, in- deed, not sufficiently articulated and disengaged from the fourth, and hence the necessity of a Novum Organum. " The Organon of Aristotle, and the Organon of Bacon stand in relation, but the relation of contrariety ; the one con- siders the laws under which the subject thinks, the other the laws under which the object is to be known. To compare them together, is therefore to compare together qualities of different species. Each proposes a different end ; both IE 1 Dr. Southwood Smith. * Barthelemy St. llilaire, De la Logique iFAristote, torn, i., p 19. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 369 ORGANON- different ways are useful ; and both ought to be assiduously studied." 1 ORIGIN (origo] may be taken in two senses, essentially different from each other. It may mean the cause of anything being produced, or it may imply simply the occasion of its produc- tion. 2 ORIGINATE, ORIGINATION. These words and their con- jugates are coming to be used in the question concerning liberty and necessity. Does man originate his own actions? Is man a principle of origination ? are forms of expression equivalent to the question, Is man a free agent ? " To deny all originating power of the will, must be to place the primordial and necessary causes of all things in the Divine nature Whether as a matter of fact an originating power reside in man, may be matter of inquiry ; but to main- tain it to be an impossibility, is to deny the possibility of crea- tion." 3 "Will, they hold to be a free cause, a cause which is not an effect ; in other words, they attribute to it a power of absolute origination." 4 OSTENSIVE (ostendo, to show). "An ostensive conception indicates how an object is constituted. It is opposed to the heuristic (heuretic) conception which indicates how, under its guidance, the quality and connection of objects of experience in general are to be sought. The conception of a man, a house, &c., is an ostensive one; the conception of the supreme intelligence (for theoretic reason) is an heuristic conception." 5 OTJGHTNESS. F. DUTY. OUTNESS. " The word outness, which has been of late revived by some of Kant's admirers in this country, was long ago used by Berkeley in his Principles of Human Knowledge; 6 and at a still earlier period of his life, in his Essay towards a New Theory of Vision." 1 I mention this as I have more than once heard the term spoken of as a fortunate innovation." 8 V. EXTERNALITY. 1 Sir Will. Hamilton, Reid's Works, p. 712. note. * .Morel I. Specul. Phil., vol. i., p. 99. * Thomson, Christ. Theism, book i , chap. 6 4 Sir W. Hamilton, Discussions, p. 595. See also Cairns. On Moral Freedom. 1 Haywood, Explanation of Terms in the Crit. of Pure Reason. * Sect. 43. * ?oct. 4fi. * Stewart, Philosnph. Essays, part i., essay 2. 7. 870 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PACT. V. CONTRACT, PROMISE PANTHEISM (rtaj, all; BEOS, God). "It supposes God ani nature, or God and the whole universe, to be one and the same substance one universal being ; insomuch that men's souls are only modifications of the Divine substance." ' Pantheistic qid contendunt unicam esse substantiam, ciijus paries sunt omnia entia qnce exi stunt. 2 Pantheism, when explained to mean the absorption of God in nature, is atheism ; and the doctrine of Spinoza has been so regarded by many. When explained to mean the absorption of nature in God of the finite in the infinite it amounts to an exaggeration of theism. But pantheism, strictly speaking, is the doctrine of the necessary and eternal co-existence of the finite and the infinite of the absolute consubstantiality of God and nature considered as two different but inseparable aspects of universal existence ; and the confutation of it is to be found in the consciousness which every one has of hn personality and responsibility, which pantheism destroys. PARABLE (rtapaj3o>.jj, from rfapajSataw, to put or set beside), has been defined to be a " fictitious but probable narrative taken from the affairs of ordinary life to illustrate some higher and less known truth/' "It differs from the Fable, moving, as it does, in a spiritual world, and never transgressing the actual order of things natural ; from the Myth, there being in the lat- ter an unconscious blending of the deeper meaning with the outward symbol, the two remaining separate, and separable in the Parable; from the Proverb, inasmuch as it is longer carried out, and not merely accidentally and occasionally, but necessarily figurative ; from the Allegory, comparing, as it does, one thing with another, at the same time preserving them apart as an inner and an outer, not transferring, as does the Allegory, the properties, and qualities and relations of one to the other." 3 PARADOX (rtapd 5o|a, beyond, or contrary to appearance), is a proposition which seems not to be true, but which turns out to be true. Cicero wrote " Paradoxa," and the Hon. Kober/ x Waterland. IVbrJcs. vol. \ii\., p 81. 3 Lacoudre. Inst. Philosoph., torn, ii., p. 120. 3 Tronoh. On the Parables. OF PHILOSOPHY. J71 PARADOX Boyle published, in 1666, Hydrostatical Paradoxes, made out by new experiments. PARALOGISM (rtapaAoyttf/*oj, from ?t apaXoyt^cu, to reason wrong), is a formal fallacy or pseudo-syllogism, in which the conclu- sion does not follow from the premises. We may be deceived ourselves by a paralogism ; when we endeavour to deceive others by it, it is a sophism g v, Paralogism of Pure Reason. -'The logical paralogism, con- sists in the erroneousness of a syllogism, according to form, whatever besides its content may be. But a transcendental paralogism has a transcendental foundation of concluding falsely, according to the form. In such a way, a like false conclusion will have its foundation in the nature of human reason, and will carry along with itself an inevitable, although not an insoluble illusion." l PARCIMONY (Law Of ) (parcimonia, sparingness). " That substances are not to be multiplied without necessity ;" in other words, "that a plurality of principles are not to be as- sumed, when the phenomena can possibly be explained by one." This regulative principle may be called the law or maxim of parcimony.* Entia noa siint midtplieanda prcder necessitate m. Frustra fit per plura quod fieri potest per pauciora. These are expres- sions of this principle. PARONYMQTJS. V. CONJUGATE. PART (^s'poj, pars, part, or portion). "Part, in one. sense, is applied to anything divisible in quantity. For that which you take from a quantity, in so far as it is quantity, is a part of that quantity. Thus two is a part of three. In another sense, you only give the name of part to what is an exact measure of quantity ; so that, in one point of view, two will be a part of three, in another not. That into which you can divide a genus, animal, for example, otherwise than by quantity, is still a part of the genus. In this sense species are parts of the genus. Part is also applied to that into which an object can be divided, whether matter or form. Iron is part cf a globe, or cube of iron ; it is the matter which receives the form AD 1 Kant. Crit. of Pure Reason, p. 299. Sir Will. Hamilton, ReitFs Works, p. 751, nc l -e A. 372 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PART angle is also a. part. Lastly, the elements of the definition of every particular being are parts of the whole ; so that, in this point of view, the genus may be considered as part of the species ; in another, on the contrary, the species is part of the genus." ' " Of things which exist by parts, there are three kinds. The first is of things, the parts of which are not co-existent, but successive; such as time or motion, no two parts of which can exist together. "The next kind of things consisting of parts, is such where parts are co-existent and contiguous. Things of this kind are said to be extended; for extension is nothing else but co-exist- ence and junction of parts. "The third kind of things existing by parts is, when the parts are co-existent, yet not contiguous or joined, but separate and disjoined. Of this kind is number, i\Q parts of which art separated by nature, and only united by the operation of tht mind/' 2 PASSION (passio, 7id<5zu>, to suffer), is the contrary of action. "A passive state is the state of a thing while it is operated upon by some cause. Everything and every being but God, is liable to be in this state. He is pure energy always active, but never acted upon ; while everything else is liable to suffer change." 3 PASSIONS (The). This phrase is sometimes employed in a wide sense to denote all the states or manifestations of the sensi- bility every form and degree of feeling. In a more restricted psychological sense, it is confined to those states of the sensi- bility which are turbulent, and weaken our power of self-com- mand. This is also the popular use of the phrase, in which passion is opposed to reason. Plato arranged the passions in two classes, the concupisci- ble and irascible, erttfafun and flv/woj, the former springing from the body and perishing with it, the latter connected with the rational and immortal part of our nature, and stimulating to the pursuit of good and the avoiding of excess and evil. * Aristotle. Metaphys., lib. iv., cap. 25. Q Monbotldo, Ancient- Metaphys., book ii., chap. 13. 3 Seo Harris, Dialogue concerning Happiness, p. 86, uote. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 873 PASSIONS - Aristotle included all our active principles under one gene- ral designation of oretic, and distinguished them into the appetite irascible, the appetite concupiscible, which had their origin in the body, and the appetite rational (Qovtojaif), which is the will, under the guidance of reason. Descartes and Malebranche have each given a theory and classification of the passions ; also, Dr. Isaac Watts, Dr. Cogaii, and Dr. Hutch eson. PERCEPTION (capio, to take; per, by means of), apprehension by means of the organs of sense. Descartes 1 says, "Omnes modi cogitandi, quos in nobis expe- rt rnur, ad duos generates referri possunt : quorum units est per- ceptio, sive operatio intellectus ; alius vero, volitio, sive operatio voluntatis. Nam sentire, imaginari, et pure intelligere, sunt tantum diver si modi percipiendi ; ut et cupere, aversari, affir- mare, negare, dubitare, sunt diversi modi volendi." Locke 2 says, "The two principal actions of the mind are these two; perception or thinking, and volition or willing. The power of thinking is called the understanding, and the pOAver of volition the will; and these two powers or abilities of the mind are called faculties." Dr. Reid thought that "perception is most properly applied to the evidence which we have of external objects by our . senses." He says, 3 " The perception of external objects by our senses, is an operation of the mind of a peculiar nature, and ought to have a name appropriated to it. It has so in all language? And, in English, I know no word more proper to express this act of the mind than perception. Seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching or feeling, are words that ex- press the operations proper to each sense ; perceiving expresses that which is common to them all." The restriction thus imposed upon the word by Reid, is to be found in the philosophy of Kant ; and, as convenient, has been generally acquiesced in. Sir Will. Hamilton 4 notices the following meanings of per- ception, as applied to different faculties, acts, and objects: 1 Princip. Philosoph., pars 1, sect. 32. a Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., chap. 6. 3 Intdl. Pow., essay i.,chap. 1. * In note D* to End's Works, 0. 876. 374 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PERCEPTION - 1. Perceptio^ in its primary philosophical signification, as in the mouths of Cicero and Quintilian, is vaguely equivalent to comprehension, notion, cognition in general. 2. An apprehension, a becoming aware of, consciousness. Perception, the Cartesians really identified with idea, and allowed them only a logical distinction ; the same representa- tive act being called idea, inasmuch as we regard it as a representation ; and perception, inasmuch as we regard it as a consciousness of such representation. 3. Perception is limited to the apprehension of sense alone. This limitation was first formally imposed by Reid, and there- after by Kant. 4. A still more restricted meaning, through the authority of Reid, is perception (proper), in contrast to sensation (proper). He defines sensitive perception, or perception simply as that act of consciousness whereby we apprehend in our body., a. Certain special affections, whereof, as an animated organ- ism, it is contingently susceptible ; and b. Those general relations of extension, under which, as a material organism, it necessarily exists. Of these perceptions, the former, which is thus conversant about a subject-object, is sensation proper ; the latter, which ia thus conversant about an object-object, is perception proper. PERCEPTIONS (Obscure), or latent modifications of mind. Every moment the light reflected from innumerable objects, smells and sounds of every kind, and contact of different bodies are affecting us. But we pay no heed to them. These are what Leibnitz ' calls obscure perceptions and what Thurot proposes to call impressions. But this word is already appro- priated to the changes produced by communication between an external object and a bodily organ. The sum of these obscure perceptions and latent feelings, which never come clearly into the field of consciousness, is what makes us at any time well or ill at ease. And as the amount in general is agreeable it forms the charm which attaches us to life even when our more defined perceptions and feelings are painful. * Avant Propns de se.s Nouv. Essais. * De T Kntrnilrmmt. &c.. torn, i . p. 11. VOCABULARY OF PHIL( SOPHY. 375 PERCEPTIONS- The following account of Leibnitz's philosophy as to (ct- scure] perceptions is translated from Tiberghien : 1 " Confused or insensible perceptions are without consciousness or memory. It is difficult enough to seize them in themselves, but they must be, because the mind always thinks. A sub- stance cannot be without action, a body without movement, n mind without thought. There are a thousand marks which make us judge that there is, every moment, in us an infinity of perceptions ; but the habit in which we are of perceiving them, by depriving them of the attraction of novelty, turns away our attention and prevents them from fixing themselves in our memory. How could we form a clear perception without the insensible perceptions, which constitute it ? To hear the noise of the sea, for example, it is necessary that we hear the parts which compose the whole, that is, the noise of each wave, though each of these little noises does not make itself known but in the confused assemblage of all the others together with it. A hundred thousand nothings cannot make anything. And sleep, on the other hand, is never so sound that we have not some feeble and confused feeling ; one would not be wakened by the greatest noise in the world, if one had nui some perception of its commencement, which is small. " It is important to remark how Leibnitz attaches the greatest questions of philosophy to these insensible perceptions, in so far as they imply the law of continuity. It is by means of these we can say that the present ' is full of the past and big with the future/ a.nd that in the least of substances may be read the whole consequences of the things of the universe. They often determine us without our knowing it, and they deceive the vulgar by the appearance of an indifference of equilibrium. They supply the action of substances upon one another, and explain the pre-established harmony of soul and body. It is in virtue of these insensible variations that no two things can ever be perfectly alike (the principle of indiscern- ibles], and that their difference is always more than numerical which destroys the doctrine of the tablets of the mind being empty, of a soul without thought, a substance without action 1 Essai des Connaiss. Hum., p. 566. 876 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PERCEPTIONS - a vacuum in space, and the atoms of matter. There is anothei consequence that souls, being simple substances, are always united to a body, and that there is no soul entirely separated from one. This dogma resolves all the difficulties as to the immortality of souls, the difference of their states being never anything but that of more or less perfect, which renders their s-'ite past or future as explicable as their present. It also supplies the means of recovering memory, by the periodic developments which may one day arrive." " Obscure ideas, or more properly, sensations with dormant consciousness, are numerous. It is through them, so far as they proceed from the nervous system of vegetative life, and thus accompany all its functions, digestion, secretion, &c., that the soul, according to Stahl, secretly governs the body. ' Animus est instar oceani,' says Leibnitz, 'in quo infinita multitude) percept ionum obscurissimarum adest, et distinctce, idem instar insularum sunt, qitce ex oceano emergunt.' It is they which are active throughout the whole progress of the formation of thought ; for this goes on, though we are uncon- scious of it, and gives us only the perfect results, viz., ideas and notions. It is they which in the habitual voluntary mo- tions, for instance, in playing on the piano, dancing, &c., set the proper muscles in motion through the appropriate motor nerves, though the mind does not direct to them the attention of consciousness. It is they which in sleep and in disorders of mind act a most important part. It is their totality which forms what plays so prominent a part in life under the name of disposition or temper." 1 Lord Jeffrey had a fancy, or said he had it, that though he went to bed with his head stuffed and confused with the name? and dates and other details, of various causes, they were all in order in the morning ; which he accounted for by saying, that during sleep "they all crystallized round their proper centres." 11 PERFECT, PERFECTION (perficio ; perfectmn, made out, complete). To be perfect is to want nothing. Perfection is relative or absolute. A being possessed of all the qualities 1 Feuchtersleben, Med. Psychology, 1847, p. 169. a Cookburn, Life of Jeffrey, vol. ' . p. 2-13, note. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 377 PERFECT- belonging to its species in the highest degree may be called perfect in a relative sense. But absolute perfection can only be ascribed to the Supreme Being. We have the idea of a Being infinitely perfect and from this Descartes reasoned that such a being really exists. The perfections of God are those qualities which he haa communicated to his rational creatures, and which are in Him in an infinitely perfect degree. They have been distinguished as natural and moral the former belonging to Deity as the great first cause such as independent and necessary existence the latter as manifested in the creation and government of the universe such as goodness, justice, &c. But they are all natural in the sense of being essential. It has been proposed to call the former attributes, and the latter perfections. But this distinctive use of the terms has not prevailed ; indeed it is not well founded. In God there are nothing but attributes because in Him everything is absolute and involved in the substance and unity of a perfect being. PERFECTIBILITY (The Doctrine of) is, that men, as indi- viduals, and as communities, have not attained to that happi- ness and development of which their nature and condition are capable, but that they are in a continual progress to a state of perfection, even in this life. That men as a race are capable of progress and improvement is a fact attested by experience and history. But that this improvement may be carried into their whole nature and to an indefinite extent that all the evils which affect the body or the mind may be removed can- not be maintained. Bacon had faith in the intellectual pro- gress of men when he entitled his work " Of the Advancement of Learning." Pascal has articulately expressed this faith in a preface to his "Treatise of a -Vacuum." "Not only indi- vidual men advance from day to day in knowledge, but men as a race make continual progress in proportion as the world grows older, because the same thing happens in a succession of men as in the different periods of the life of an individual ; so that the succession of men during a course of so many ages, ought to be considered as the same man always living and always learning. From this may be seen the injustice of the reverence paid to antiquity in philosophy : for as old age 33 * . 878 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PERFECTIBILITY- is the period of life most distant from infancy, who does not see that the old age of the universal man is not to be sought for in the period nearest his birth, but in that most remote from it." Malebranche 1 expressed a similar opinion: and the saying of a great modern reformer is well known, " If you talk of the wisdom of the ancients, we are the ancients. " It cannot be denied that in arts and sciences, and the accommo- dations of social life, and the extension of social freedom, the administration of justice, the abolition of slavery, and many other respects, men have improved, and are improving, and may long continue to improve. But human nature has limits beyond which it cannot b^ carried. Its life here cannot be indefinitely prolonged, its liability to pain cannot be removed, its reason cannot be made superior to error, and all the ar- rangements for its happiness are liable to go wrong. Leibnitz, in accordance with his doctrine that the universe is composed of monads essentially active, thought it possible that the human race might reach a perfection of which we cannot well conceive. Charles Bonnet advocated the doctrine of a palingenesia, or transformation of all things into a better state. In the last century the great advocates of social pro- gress are Fontenelle, Turgot, and Condorcet, in France ; Les- sing, Kant, and Schiller, in Germany ; Price and Priestley, in England. Owen's views are also well known. 2 PERIPATETIC (rtfptrtar'^T'ixoj, ambulator, from jtfpirta'tfu, to walk about), is applied to Aristotle and his followers, who seem to have carried on their philosophical discussions while walking about in the halls or promenades of the Lyceum. PERSON, PERSONALITY. Person a, in Latin, meant the mask worn by an actor on the stage, within which the sounds of the voice were concentrated, and through which (personuit) he made himself heard by the immense audience. From being applied to the mask it came next to be applied to tho actor, then to the character acted, then to any assumed character, and lastly, to any one having any character or station. Mar tinius gives as its composition per se una, an individual 1 &.orch after Truth, book ii., part ii., chap. 4. 3 Herder, De la Pe.rffCtiUli.te. flumaine, 8vo, Paris, 1842 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 375 PERSON ''Person," says Locke, 1 "stands for a thinking intelligent being, that has reason and reflection, and can consider itself as itself, the same thinking thing in different times and places ; which it does only by that consciousness which is inseparable from thinking, and as it seems to me essential to it : it being impossible for any one to perceive without perceiving that lie does perceive." " We attribute personality," says Mons. Ahrens, 2 " to every being which exists, not solely for others, but which is in the relation of unity with itself in existing, or for itself. Thus we refuse personality to a mineral or a stone, because these things exist for others, but not for them- selves. An animal, on the contrary, which exists for itself, and stands in relation to itself, possesses a degree of person- ality. But man exists for himself in all his essence, in a manner more intimate and more extensive ; that which he is, he is for himself, he has consciousness of it. But God alone exists for himself in a manner infinite and absolute. God is entirely in relation to himself; for there are no beings out of him to whom he could have relation. His whole essence is for himself, and this relation is altogether internal: and it is this intimate and entire relation of God to himself in all his essence, which constitutes the divine personality" 11 The seat of intellect," says Paley, "is a, person." A being intelligent and free, every spiritual and moral agent, every cause which is in possession of responsibility and consciousness, is & person. In this sense, God considered as a creating cause, distinct from the universe, is a person. According to Boethius, Persona est rationales naturae indi- vidua substantia. " Whatever derives its powers of motion from without, from some other being, is a thing. Whatever possesses a spontane- ous action within itself, is & person, or, as Aristotle 3 defines it, an op#7 rfpaijf w$." 4 "Personality is individuality existing in itself, but with ;i nature as its ground." 5 " If the substance be unintelligent in which the quality * Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., chap. 27. 2 Cours de I'xi/cltnlogie, torn, ii., p. 272. * Nicom. Et/t.. lib. iii. SewelJ Ctin.-t. J/or., p. 152. * Coleridge, Notes on Eng. Div., vol. i , p. 43 380 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PERSON- exists, we call it a thing or substance, but if it be intelligent, we call it a pet-son, meaning by the -word person to distinguish a thing or substance that is intelligent, from a thing or sub- stance that is not intelligent. By the word person, we therefore mean a thing or substance that is intelligent, or a conscious being ; including in the word the idea both of the substance and its properties together." ] "A subsisting substance or suppositum endued with reason as man is, that is, capable of religion, is 9, person." z "Person, as applied to Deity, expresses the definite and certain truth that God is a living being, and not a dead mate- rial energy. Whether spoken of the Creator or the creature, the word may signify either the unknown but abiding sub- stance of the attributes by which he is known to us ; or the unity of these attributes considered in themselves/' 3 V. IDENTITY (PERSONAL), REASON, SUBSISTENTIA. Personality, in jurisprudence, denotes the capacity of rights and obligations which belong to an intelligent will. 4 PETITIO PRINCIPII (oi-petitio qucesiti, begging the question). V. FALLACY. PHANTASM. F. IDEA, PERCEPTION. PHENOMENOLOGY. V. NATURE. PHENOMENON ($aou<0pw7ti'a, from acu'0 P urtfvw,' to be a friend to mankind). " They thought themselves not much 1 Stewart, Elements, c. 1, sect. 1. 1 1. Categories of Quantity. II. Categories of Quality. I Unity. Reality. Plurality Negation. Totality. Limitation. I. Categories of Relation. IV. Categories of Modality. Inherence and Subsistence. Possibility, or Impossibility. Casuality and Dependence. Existence, or Non-Existence. Community, or Reciprocal Action. Necessity or Contingence. Mans<>l, Lf.cL nn Phil, of Ka^t. pp. 21, 22. Ferrier, Inst. of Metaphys., p. 31fl B82 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PHILANTHROPY- coucerned to acquire that God-like excellency, a, philanthropy and love to all mankind/' l This state or affection of mind does not differ essentially from charity or brotherly love. Both spring from benevolence or a desire for the well-being of others. When our benevo- lence is purified and directed by the doctrines and precepts of religion, it becomes charity or brotherly love. When sus- tained by large and sound views of human nature and the human condition, it seeks to mitigate social evils and increase and multiply social comforts, it takes the name of philan- thropy. But there is no incompatibility between the two. It is only when philanthropy proceeds on false views of human nature and wrong views of human happiness, that it can be at variance with true charity or brotherly love. Philanthropy, or a vague desire and speculation as to im- proving the condition of the whole human race, is sometimes opposed to nationality or patriotism. But true charity or be- nevolence, while it begins with loving and benefiting those nearest to us by various relations, will expand according to the means and opportunities afforded of doing good. And while we are duly attentive to the stronger claims of intimate connection, as the waves on the bosom of the waters spread wider and wider, so we are to extend our regards beyond the distinctions of friendship, of family, and of society, and grasp in one benevolent embrace the universe of human beings. God hath made of one blood all nations of men that dwell upon the face of the earth ; and although the sympathies of friend- ship and the charities of patriotism demand a more early and warm acknowledgment, we are never to forget those great and general relations which bind together the kindreds of mankind who are all children of one common parent, heirs of the same frail nature, and sharers in the same unbounded goodness: "Friends, parents, neighbours, first it will embrace, Our country next, and next all human race. Wide and more wide, the o'ernowing of the mind, Takes every creature in of every kind. Earth smiles around, in boundless beauty dressed, And heaven reflects its image in her breast." Pope. 1 Bp. Taylor, vol. iii., Sorm. i. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 883 PHILOSOPHY (^aooo^'a, $ata, co^a, the love of wisdom). The origin of the word is traced back to Pythagoras, who did not call himself ooo$, like the wise men of Greece, but merely declared himself to be a lover of wisdom, $>ixoj ooftaj. Philo- sophy is not so much the love of wisdom, as the love of wisdom may be said to be its spring. The desire of knowledge ia natural to man. Ignorance is painful ; knowledge is agree- able. Surrounded with ever-changing phenomena, he seeks to know their causes, and tries to bring their multiplicity to something like unity, and to reduce their variety to law and rule. When so employed he is prosecuting philosophy. It was denned by Cicero, 1 Rerum divinarum et hiunanarumf causarumque quibus hce res contuientur, scientia. But what man can attain or aspire to such knowledge, or even to the knowledge of one of the several departments into which philo- sophy may be divided? " In philosophy," says Lord Bacon, 1 " the contemplations of man do either penetrate unto God, or are circumferred to nature, or are reflected or reverted upon himself. Out of which several inquiries there do arise three knowledges, Divine philosophy, natural philosophy, and human philosophy, or humanity/' Now the object-matter of philo- sophy may be distinguished as God, or nature, or man. But, underlying all our inquiries into any of these departments, there is & first philosophy, which seeks to ascertain the grounds or principles of knowledge, and the causes of all things. Hence philosophy has been denned to be the science of causes and principles. It is the investigation of those principles on which all knowledge and all being ultimately rest. It is the exer- cise of reason to solve the most elevated problems which the human mind can conceive. How do we know ? and what do we know ? It examines the grounds of human certitude, and verifies the trustworthiness of human knowledge. It inquires into the causes of all beings, and ascertains the nature of all existences by reducing them to unity. It is not peculiar to any department, but common to all departments of knowledge. Or if each department of knowledge may be said to have its * DK Officiis. lib. ii., c. 2. 1 According to Lord Monboddo (Ancient Metapliys., book i., chap. 5), the Romans had only the word sapteutia for philosophy, till about the time of Cicero, when they adopted the Greek word p'lilnxnpfria. Of thi AdviiKtmcnt of Lutr'nina, book ii 884 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PHILOSOPHY- philosophy, it is because it rests upon that knowledge of prin- ciples and causes which is common to them all. Man first examines phenomena, but he is not satisfied till he has reduced them to their causes, and when he has done so he asks to de- termine the value of the knowledge to which he has attained. This is philosophy properly so called, the mother and govern- ing science the science of sciences. " 'Philosophy is the science of first principles/ that, namely, which investigates the primary (/rounds, and determines the fundamental certainty, of human knowledge generally/' ' Peemans 2 proposes the following definition: "Philosophia est scientia rerum per causas primas, recto rationis usu com- parata," By this definition it is distinguished from other kinds of know-ledge. 1. From simple intelligence, which is intuitive, while philosophical knowledge is discursive. 2. From natural sciences, which do not always reach to frst causes. 3. From arts, which do not proceed by causes or principles, but by rule. 4. "From faith or belief, which rests not on evidence but autho- rity. 5. From opinion, w T hich is not certain knowledge. And from the common love of knowledge and truth, which does not prosecute and acquire it scientifically. "Philosophy is the attainment of truth by the way of reason/' 3 PHUENOLOGY (typr t v, mind; koyoj, discourse). This word ought to mean Psychology, or mental philosophy, but has been appropriated by Craniologists, on account of the light which their observations of the convolutions of the brain and corre- sponding elevations of the skull are supposed to throw on the nature and province of our different faculties. According to Dr. Gall, the founder of Craniology, " its end is to determine the functions of the brain in general, and of its different parts in particular, and to prove that you may recognize different dispositions and inclinations by the protuberances and depres- sions to be found on the cranium. The cranium being exactly 1 Morell, Philosopli. Tendencies of the Age. 8vo, Lend., 1848, p. 13. * Introd. ad Phdosoph., 12ino, Lovan.. 1840, sect. 107. * Ferrier, Inst. of Mctaphys.. p. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 38n PHRENOLOGY- moulded upon the mass of the brain, every portion of its sur- face will present dimensions and developments according to the corresponding portion of the brain. But individuals in whom such or such a portion of the brain is largely developed, have been- observed by phrenologists to be remarkable for such or such a faculty, talent, or virtue, or vice ; and the conclusion is, that the portion of the cranium corresponding to that de- velopment of the cranium is the seat of that faculty, or virtue, or vice is its special organ." See writings of Gall, Spurz- heim, and Combe. "If it be true that the multitudinous cerebral fibres act always in the same specific fasciculi, or in the same combina- tion of specific fasciculi, in order to produce the same faculty in the same process of ratiocination, then phrenology is so far true ; and if the action of these fasciculi has the effect of elon- gating them, so as to produce pressure on the corresponding internal surface of the cranium, and if the bony case make a corresponding concession of space to the elongation of these specific fasciculi, then cranioscopy is true also; but there are so many arbitrary assumptions in arriving at such a result, that a vastly greater mass of evidence must be brought for- ward before phrenologists and cranioscopists have a right to claim general assent to their doctrine." ' The British Association, established several years ago, re- fused to admit phrenology as a section of their society. PHYSIOGNOMY (fyvacs, nature ; yv^fjuw, an index) is defined by Lavater to be the " art of discovering the interior of man from his exterior" In common language it signifies the judg- ing of disposition and character by the features of the face. In the Middle Ages, physiognomy meant the knowledge of the internal properties of any corporeal existence from external appearances. " They found i' the pltysiognomies Of the planets, all men's destinies." Hudibras. It does not appear that among the ancients physiognomy was extended beyond man, or at least beyond animated nature. The treatise on this subject ascribed to Aristotle is thought to * Wigsm, Dualitv nf Mind, p. Ifi2. 34 2 A' 386 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PHYSIOGNOMY be spurious. But all men, in the ordinary business of life, seem to be influenced by the belief that the disposition and character may in some measure be indicated by the form of the body, and especially by the features of the face. " Every one is in some degree a master of that art which is generally distinguished by the name of Physiognomy, and naturally forms to himself the character or fortune of a stranger . from the features and lineaments of his face. We are no sooner presented to any one we never saw before, but we are immediately struck with the idea of a proud, a reserved, an affable, or a good-natured man ; and upon our first going into a company of strangers, our benevolence or aversion, awe or contempt, rises naturally towards several particular persons before we have heard them speak a single word, or so much as know who they are. For my own part, I am so apt to frame a notion of every man's humour or circumstances by his looks, that I have sometimes employed myself from Charing Cross to the Royal Exchange in drawing the characters of those who have passed by me. When I see a man with a sour, rivelled face, I cannot forbear pitying his wife ; and when I meet with an open, ingenuous countenance, I think of the happiness of his friends, his family, and his relations. I cannot recollect the author of a famous saying to a stranger who stood silent in his company, ' Speak that I may see thee.' But with submission I think we may be better known by our looks than by our words, and that a man's speech is much more easily disguised than his countenance." ' Young children are physiognomists and they very early take likings and dislikings founded on the judgments which they intuitively form of the aspects of those around them. The inferior animals, even, especially such of them as have been domesticated, are affected by the natural or assumed expression of the human countenance. As to their taking likings or dislikings to particular persons, this is probably to be ascribed to the great acuteness not of the sense of sight, but of scent. The taking a prejudice against a person for his looks i* , Spectator, No. 88. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. KKj PHYSIOGNOMY reckoned among the smaller vices in morality, and is called by More, in his Enchiridion Elkicum", Prosopolepsia. 1 PHYSIOLOGY and PHYSICS were formerly used as synony- mous. The former now denotes the laws of organized bodies, the latter of unorganized. The former is distinguished into animal and vegetable. Both imply the necessity of nature as opposed to liberty of intelligence, and neither can be appro- priately applied to mind. Dr. Brown, however, entitled the first part of one of his works, the Physiology of mind. V. PSYCHOLOGY. Physiology determines the matter and the form of living beings. It describes their structure and operations, and then ascends from phenomena to laws ; from the knowledge of organs and their actions, it concludes their functions and their end or purpose ; and from among the various manifestations it seeks to seize that mysterious principle which animates the matter of their organization, which maintains the nearly con- stant form of the compound by the continual renewal of the component molecules, and which at death, leaving this matter, surrenders it to the common laws, from the empire of which it was for a season withdrawn. . . . The facts which belong to it are such as we can touch and see matter and its modifications. 2 PICTURESQUE " properly means what is done in the style and with the spirit of a painter, and it was thus, if I am not much mistaken, that the word was commonly employed when it was first adopted in England. . . . But it has been frequently employed to denote those combinations or groups or attitudes of objects that are fitted for the purposes of the painter." 3 "Picturesque is a word applied to every object, and every kind of scenery, which has been or might be represented with good effect in painting just as the word beautiful, when we speak of visible nature, is applied to every object and every kind of scenery that in any way give pleasure to the eye and See Lavater, Spurzheim. J. Cross. Attempt to Establish Physiognomy upon Scientifa *i-md)>l>^ Glasg., 1817. a Diet, tics Sciences Pliilvsoph. Stewart Ptrilnfnpfi. Eat ays, paTrt i., chap. 6. 388 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY- PICTURESQUE - these seem to be the significations of both words, taken in theii most extended and popular sense." Sir Uvedale Price. 1 " The two qualities of roughness and of sudden variation, joined to that of irregularity, are the most efficient causes of the picturesque " 2 Ibid. "Beauty and picturesqueness are founded on opposite quali- ties ; the one on smoothness, the other on roughness ; the one on grandeur, the other on sudden variation ; the one on ideas of youth and freshness, the other on those of age, and even of decay." 3 PNEUMATICS is now applied to physical science, and means that department of it which treats of the mechanical proper- ties of air and other elastic fluids. It was formerly used as synonymous with pneum otology. PNEUMATOLOGY (ttvevfta,, spirit; toyo$, discourse). The branch of philosophy which treats of the nature and opera- tions of mind, has by some been called pneumatology. Philo- sophy gives ground for belief in the existence of our own mind and of the Supreme mind, but furnishes no evidence for the existence of orders of minds intermediate. Popular opinion is in favour of the belief. But philosophy has sometimes admitted and sometimes rejected it. It has found a place, however, in all religions. There may thus be said to be a religious pneumatology, and a philosophical pneumatology : In religious pneumatology, in the East, there is the doctrine of two antagonistic and equal spirits of good and evil. In the doctrines of Christianity there is acknowledged the existence of spirits intermediate between God and man, some of whom have fallen into a state of evil, while others have kept their first estate. Philosophy in its early stages is partly religious. Socn had communication with a demon or spirit. Plato did n( discountenance the doctrine, and the Neo-Platonicians of Alex- andria carried pneumatology to a great length, and adopted 1 On the. Picturesque, ch. 3. a "A picturesque object may be defined as that which, from the greater facilities which it possesses for readily and more effectually enabling an artist to display his art. is, ai It Were, a provocation to painting." Sir Thos,, L. Dick, note to above chap Chap. 4. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 389 PNEUMATOLOGY- thc cabalistic traditions of the Jews. In the scholastic ages., the belief in return from the dead, apparitions and spirits, was universal. And Jacob Boehm, in Saxony, Emanuel Sweden- bo rg, in Sweden, and in France, Martinez Pasqualis and his disciple Saint Martin, have all given accounts of orders of spiritual beings who held communication with the living. And in the present day a belief in spirit rapping is prevalent in America. Bp. Berkeley ! admits the existence of orders of spirits. Considered as the science of mind or spirit, pneumatoloyy consisted of three parts, treating of the Divine mind, Theology the angelic mind, Angelology, and the human mind. This last is now called Psychology, "a term to which no competent objection can be made, and which affords us, what the various clumsy periphrases in use do not, a convenient adjective psychological." 2 POETRY or POESY. "However critics may differ as to the definition of poetry, all competent to offer an opinion on the subject will agree that occasionally, in prose, as well Ws in verse, we meet with a passage to which we feel that the term poetry could be applied, with great propriety, by a figure of speech. In the other arts also we find, now and then, what we feel prompted from within to call the poetry of painting, of statuary, of music, or of whatever art it may be. The fact that books have been written under such figurative titles, and favourably received, proves that the popular mind conceives of something in poetry besides versification of some spiritual excellence, most properly belonging to compositions in verse, but which is also found elsewhere. When Byron said that few poems of his day were half poetry, he evidently meant by poetry something distinguishable from rhythm and rhyme. True, such may be only a figurative use of the word ; but the public accept that figurative use as corresponding to some actual conception which they entertain of poetry in its best degrees. And when they speak of the poetry of any other art, it is evident from the use of the same word that thoj believe themselves perceiving the same or similar qualities. 1 Principles of Human Knowledge, sect. 81. and throughout. 3 Sir W. Hamilton, Reid's Works, p. 219. note. 84* 390 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. POETRY- To such conceptions, then, without regard to whi nee they spring, I think, with Coleridge, that it would be expedient to appropriate the word poesy, thereby avoiding the ambiguity which now exists in the use of the word poetry ; though popu- lar choice, which always prefers a figurative application of a common word, has not adopted the suggestion." ' POLLICITATION.-F. PROMISE. POLYGAMY (rtoAvj, many ; yauoj, marriage) means a plurality of wives or husbands. It has prevailed under various forms in all ages of the world. It can be shown, however, to be con- trary to the light of nature ; and has been condemned and punished by the laws of many nations. About the middle of the sixteenth century, Bernardus Ochinus, general of the order of Capuchins, and afterwards a Protestant, published Dialogues in favour of polygamy, to which Theodore Beza wrote a reply. In 1682, a work entitled Polygamia Triumpha- trix appeared under the name of Theophilus Aletheus. The true name of the author was Lyserus, a native of Saxony. In 1780, Martin Madan published Thelyphthora, or a Treatise on Female Ruin, in which he defended polygamy, on the part of the male. See some sensible remarks on this subject in Paley's Moral and Political Philosophy* POLYTHEISM (jto-kvs, many; 0eo$, god). "To believe no one supreme designing principle or mind, but rather two, three, or more (though in their nature good), is to be &poli,theist."* Three forms of polytheism may be distinguished. 1. Idola- try, or the worship of idols and false gods, which prevailed in Greece and Rome. 2. Sabaism, or the worship of the stars and of fire, which prevailed in Arabia and in Chaldea. 3. Fetich- ism, or the worship of anything that strikes the imagination and gives the notion of great power, which prevails in Africa and among savage nations in general. POSITIVE. F. MORAL, TERM. POSITIVISM. "One man affirms that to him the principle of all certitude is the testimony of the senses ; this IB positivism."* Of late years the name positivism has been appropriated tc Moffiit, Study oj ^Esthetics, p. 221. Book iii., ch. 6. 3 Shafte&bury, b i., pt. 1, xect. 2. * Morel 1, Philosoph. Tcnden., p VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 391 POSITIVISM the peculiar principles advocated by M. Auguste Comte. This philosophy is thus described by an admirer: 2 " This is the mission of positivism, to generalize science, and to systema- tize sociality ; in other words, it aims at creating a philosophy of the sciences, as a basis for a new social faith. A social doc- trine is the aim of positivism, a scientific doctrine the means; just as in a man, intelligence is the minister and interpreter of life. " The leading conception of M. Comte is : There are but three phases of intellectual evolution the theological (super- natural), the metaphysical, and the positive. In the supernatu- ral phase, the mind seeks causes, unusual phenomena are in- terpreted as the signs of the pleasure or displeasure of some god. In the metaphysical phase, the supernatural agents are set aside for abstract forces inherent in substances. In the positive phase, the mind restricts itself to the discovery of the la-ws of phenomena." POSSIBLE (possum, to be able). That which may or can be. " ; Tis possible to infinite power to endue a creature with the power of beginning motion." 3 Possibilitas est consensio inter se, sen non repugnantia partium vel attributomm quibus res sen ens constituatur. A. thing is said to be possible when, though not actually in existence, all the conditions necessary for realizing its exist- ence are given. Thus we say it is possible that a plant or ani- mal may be born, because there are in nature causes by which this may be brought about. But as everything which is born dies, we say it is impossible that a plant or animal should live for ever. A thing is possible, when there is no contradiction between the idea or conception of it and the realization of it ; and a thing is impossible when the conception of its realiza- tion or existence implies absurdity or contradiction. We apply the terms possible and impossible both to beings and events, chiefly on the ground of experience. In propor- tion as our knowledge of the laws of nature increases, we say it is possible that such things may be produced ; and in pro- 1 In his Cours de Philnsnphie Positive. 3 G. II. Lewes, ComtSs Fkilosoph. of Sciences, 1853, sect. \. 8 Clarke, On Attributes, prop. 10. 392 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. POSSIBLE - portion as our knowledge of human nature is enlarged, we say it is possible that such events may happen. But it is safer to say what is possible than what is impossible, because our know- ledge of causes is increasing. There are three ways in which what is possible may bo brought about ; supernaturally , naturally, and morally. The resurrection of the dead is supernaturally possible, since it can only be realized by the power of God. The burning of wood is naturally or physically possible, because fire has the power to do so. It is morally possible that he who has often done wrong should yet in some particular instance do right. These epithets apply to the causes by which the possible existence or event is realized. "Possible relates sometimes to contingency, sometimes to power or liberty, and these senses are frequently confounded. In the first sense we say, e.g., ' It is possible this patient may recover/ not meaning that it depends on his choice, but that we are not sure whether the event will not be such. In the other sense it is 'possible' to the best man to violate every rule of morality ; since if it were out of his power to act so if he chose it, there would be no moral goodness in the case, though we are quite sure that such never will be his choice." 1 POSTULATE (oiV^ua, postulatum, that which is asked or assumed in order to prove something else). "According to some, the difference between axioms and postulates is analogous to that between theorems and problems; the former expressing truths which are self-evident, and from which other propositions may be deduced ; the latter operations which may be easily per- formed, and by the help of which more difficult constructions may be effected." 2 There is a difference between a postulate and a Jiypotliesis. When you lay down something which may be, although you have not proved it, and which is admitted by the learner or the disputant, you make a hypothesis. The postulate not being as- sented to, may be contested during the discussion, and is only established by its conformity with all other ideas on the subject. In the philosophy of Kant, & postulate is neither a 1 Whately, Log., Appendix i. * Stewart, Elements, vol. ii.. chap. 2. se;t. 3 From Wallis. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 393 POSTULATE - nor a corollary, but a proposition of the same binding certainty, or whose certainty is incorporated with that of another, so that you must reject that other, all evident -as it is in self, or admit at the same time what it necessarily supposes, He has three postulates. 1. I am under obligation, therefore I am free. 2. Practical reason tends necessarily to the sovereign good, which supposes an absolute conformity with the moral law ; such conformity is holiness ; a perfection which man can only attain by an indefinite continuity of effort and of progress. This progress supposes continuity of existence, personal and identical, therefore the soul is immortal, or the sovereign good is a chimera. 3. On the other hand, the sovereign good supposes felicity, but this results from the conformity of things with a will, and has for its condition, obedience to the moral law ; there must then be a harmony possible between morality and felicity, and this necessarily supposes a cause of the universe distinct from nature, an intelligent cause, who is at the same time the Author of the moral law, and guarantee of this harmony of virtue and happiness, from which results the sovereign good ; then God exists, and is himself the primitive sovereign good, the source of all good. Kant's postulates of the practical reason are thus freedom, immortality, and God. 1 POTENTIAL is opposed to actual q. v. This antithesis is a fun- damental doctrine of the Peripatetic philosophy. "Aristotle saith, that divided they (i. e., bodies) be in infinitum poten- tially, but actually not."' 2 "Anaximander's infinite was nothing else but an infinite chaos of matter, in which were either actually or potentially contained all manner of qualities/' 3 POTENTIALITY (fiwcyuj). F. CAPACITY. POWER (possum, to be able ; in Greek, ovva(u$), says Mr. Locke, " miy be considered as twofold, viz., as able to make, or abk to receive, any change : the one may be called active, and the other passive power." Dr. Reid, 5 in reference to this distino- * WiP.m, J7. de la Philosnph. Altemande, torn, i., p. 420. 9 Hollitnd. Plutarch, p. 667. Cudworth, Intell. System, p. 128. : Essay on Hum. Understand., b. ii., ch. 21. Act. Pow.. essay i., chap. 3. 394 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPH1 POWER- tior, says, "Whereas he distinguishes power into active and passive, I conceive passive power to be no power at all. He means by it the possibility of being changed. To call this power seems to be a misapplication of the word. I do not remember to have met with the phrase passive power in any other good author. Mr. Locke seems to have been unlucky in inventing it ; and it deserves not to be retained in our lan- guage/' " This paragraph/' says Sir W. Hamilton, 1 " is erroneous in almost all its statements/' The distinction be- tween power as active and passive, is clearly taken by Aristo- tle. But he says that in one point of view they are but one power,' 2 while in another they are two. 3 He also distinguishes powers into rational and irrational into those which we have by nature, and those which we acquire by repetition of acts. These distinctions have been generally admitted by subsequent philosophers. Dr. Reid, however, only used the word power to signify active power. That we have the idea of power, and how we come by it, he shows in opposition to Hume. 4 According to Mr. Hume, we have no proper notion of power. It is a mere relation which the mind conceives to exist between one thing going before, and another thing coming after. All that we observe is merely antecedent and consequent. Neither sensation nor reflection furnishes us with any idea of power or efficacy in the antecedent to produce the consequent. The views of Dr. Brown are somewhat similar. It is when the succession is constant when the antecedent is uniformly fol- lowed by the consequent, that we call the one cause, and the other effect ; but we have no ground for believing that there is any other relation between them or any virtue in the one to originate or produce the other, that is, that we have no pro- per idea of power. Now, that our idea of power cannot be explained by the philosophy which derives all our ideas from sensation and reflection, is true. Power is not an object of sense. All that we observe is succession. But when we seo one thing invariably succeeded by another, we not only con- nee 4 ; the one as effect and the other as cause, and view them 1 fidd's Wvrl.-s, p. u!9, note. a MelapJiys., lib. v., cap. 12. "Ibid., lib. ix., ra| 1. * Act. Paw., essay i., chap. 2. 4. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 395 POWER - under that relation, but we frame the idea of power, and con elude that there is a virtue, an efficacy, a force, in the one thing to originate or produce the other; and that the connec- tion between them is not only uniform and unvaried, but uni- versal and necessary. This is the common idea of power, and that there is such an idea framed and entertained by the human mind cannot be denied. The legitimacy and validity of the idea can be fully vindicated. "In the strict sense, power and agency are attributes of mind only ; and I think that mind only can be a cause in the strict sense. This power, indeed, may be where it is not exerted, and so may be without agency or causation ; but there can be no agency or causation without power to act and to produce the effect. As far as I can judge, to everything we call a cause we ascribe power to produce the effect. In intelligent causes, the power may be without being exerted ; so I have jpoieer to run when I sit still or walk. But in inani- mate causes we conceive no power but what is exerted, and, therefore, measure the power of the cause by the effect which it actually produces. The power of an acid to dissolve iron is measured by what it actually dissolves. We get the notion of active power, as well as of cause and effect, as I think, from what we feel in ourselves. We feel in ourselves a power tc move our limbs, and to produce certain effects when we choose. Hence we get the notion of power, agency, and causation, in the strict and philosophical sense ; and this I take to be our first notion of these three things." ' "The liability of a thing to be influenced by a cause is called passive power, or more properly susceptibility ; while the efficacy of the cause is called active power. Heat has the power of melting wax ; and in the language of some, ice has the power of being melted." 2 V. CAUSE. It is usual to speak of a power of resistance in matter ; and of a power of endurance in mind. Both these are passive, power. Active power is the principle of actu u, whether im- manent or transient. Passive power is the prir ciple of bearing or receiving. 1 Dr. Reid, Correspondence, pp. 77, 78. 3 Day. On the. Will, n. 3:V 396 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TOWER- Aristotle, Miu>v ; the third, to psta raj xatyytyias* The Latins adhering to the same division, coin new names : ante-prcedicamenta, or prce-prcedicamenfa, prcedi- camenta and post-prcedicamenta."* PREJUDICE (prcejudico, to judge before inquiry). A. prejudice, is a pre-judging, that is forming or adopting an opinion con- cerning anything, before the grounds of it have been fairly or fully considered. The opinion may be true or false, but in so far as the grounds of it have not been examined, it is errone- ous or without proper evidence. "In most cases prejudices are opinions which, on some account, men are pleased with, independently of any conviction of their truth ; and which, therefore, they are afraid to examine, lest they should find them to be false. Prejudices, then, are unreasonable judg- ments, formed or held under the influence of some other motive than the love of truth. They may therefore be classed according to the nature of the mot ices from which they result. These motives are, either, 1, Pleasurable, innocent, and social; or, 2, They are malignant." 5 Dr. Reid 6 has treated of prejudices or the causes of error, according to the classification given of them by Lord Bacon, under the name of idols q. v. Mr. Locke 7 has treated of the 1 Reid, Account of Aristotle's Logic. 3 Gillies, A nalysis of Aristotle, c. 2. * Amman, in Prcedic., p. 146. * Sanderson, pp. '22, 51, 55, ed. Oxon., 1672 Taylor, Elements of Thought. e Jntdl. Pow., essay vi., chap. 8. Essay on Hum. Understand., book iv., ch;iD. 20. 3Q3 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PREJUDICE - causes of error. And some excellent observations on the pre- judices peculiar to men of study, may be seen in Malebranche, Search after Truth. 1 PREMISS (propositions prcemissce, propositions which go before the conclusion, and from which it is inferred). A regular syllogism consists of two premisses and a conclusion. The two premisses are sometimes called the antecedent, and the conclu- sion the consequent. PRESCIENCE (prcescio, to know before it happens). "The prescience of God is so vast and exceeding the comprehension of our thoughts, that all that can be safely said of it is this, that this knowledge is most exquisite and perfect, accurately representing the natures, powers, and properties of the thing it does foreknow." More. 2 The prescience of God may be argued from the perfection of his nature. It is difficult or rather impossible for us to con- ceive of it, because we have no analogous faculty. Our ob- scure and inferential knowledge of what is future, is not to be likened to his clear and direct 3 beholding of all things. Many attempts have been made to reconcile the prescience of God with the liberty of man. Each truth must rest upon its own proper evidence. St. Augustin, On the Spirit and the Letter ; Bossuet, Trait^ du Libre Arbitre ; Leibnitz, Theodicee ; Fene- lon, Existence de Dien. PRESENT ATIVE. V. KNOWLEDGE. PRIMARY (primus, first) is opposed to secondary. " Those qualities or properties, without which we cannot even imagine a thing to exist, are called primary qualities. Extension and solidity are called primary qualities of matter colour, taste, smell, are called secondary qualities of matter." 4 1 Book ii., part 2. 3 Immortality of Soul, b. ii., ch. 4. 3 Wlurn the late Sir James Mackintosh was visiting the school for the deaf and dwmb %c Pari-s, then under the care of the Abbe Sicard, he is said to h;ive addressed this ques- ion in writing to one of the pupils. t; Doth God reason?" The pupil for a short time appeared to be distressed and confused, but presently wrote on his slate, the following answer : ' To reason is to hesitate, to doubt, to inquire : it is the highest attribute of u liinitnl intelligence. God sees all things, foresees all things, knows all things: there fore God doth not reason." Gurney. On Habit and Discipline, p. 138. Taylor. Eipntro's of Thought. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 399 PRIMARY- Descartes, Locke, Reid, Stewart, 1 Sir "W. Hamilton. 2 V MATTER. PRINCIPIA ESSENDI or PRINCIPLES OF BEING r re distinguished into the principle of origination and the princi- ple of dependence. The only proper principle of origination is God, whc gives essence and existence to all beings. The principle of dependence is distinguished into that of causality and that of inherence, or effective dependence, as the effect depends upon its cause, and subjective dependence, as the quality inheres or depends on its subject or substance. PRINCIPLE (principium, dp?, a beginning). "A principle is that which being derived from nothing, can hold of nothing. 'Principio autem nulla est on go,' said Cicero, ( nam ex principio oriuntur omnia: ipsum autem nulla ex re; nee enim id essel principium quod gigneretur aliunde.' " 3 Aristotle 4 has noticed several meanings of dp;^, which is translated principle, and has added " What is common to all first principles is that they are the primary source from which anything is, becomes, or is known." The word is applied equally to thought and to being ; and hence principles have been divided into those of being and those of knowledge, or principia essendi and principia cogno- scendi, or, according to the language of German philosophers, principles formal and principles real. Principia essendi may also be principia cognoscendi, for the fact that things exist is the ground or reason of their being known. But the converse Aoes not hold ; for the existence of things is in no way depend- ent upon our knowledge of them. Ancient philosophy was almost exclusively occupied with principles of being, investigating the origin and elements of all things, while, on the other hand, modern philosophy has been chiefly devoted to principles of knowledge, ascertaining the laws and elements of thought, and determining their valid- ity in reference to the knowledge which they give. PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE are those truths by means of 1 Phil. Essays, ii.. chap. 2. a Reid's Works, note D. 3 Sir Will. IVmmnond, Acid Qn?st.. p. 5. AfetopJiys., lib. iv., cap 1. 400 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PRINCIPLES - which other truths are known. They have been distinguished into simple and complex, that is, they may be found in the form of ideas, as substance, cause or in the form of propositions, as in the affirmation that every change implies the operation of a cause, or in the negation that qualities do not exist with- out a substance. Complex principles have been arranged in three classes, viz., hypotheses, definitions, and axioms. Hypo- theses and definitions have been called Qstixd, that is, conven- tional principles or truths assumed or agreed on for the pur- pose of disputation or teaching, and are confined to the depart- ment of knowledge to which they peculiarly belong. Axioms are principles true in themselves, and extending to all depart- ments of knowledge. These were called tyvoixd or e^vta, and are such as the mind of man naturally and at once accepts as true. They correspond with the first truths, primitive beliefs. or principles of common sense of the Scottish philosophy. . V. COMMON SENSE, AXIOM. "The word principle" says Mr. Stewart, 1 "in its proper acceptation, seems to me to denote an assumption (whether resting on fact or on hypothesis) upon which,'as a datum, a train of reasoning proceeds ; and for the falsity or incorrect- ness of which no logical rigour in the subsequent process can compensate. Thus the gravity and the elasticity of the air are principles of reason ing, in our speculations about the baro- meter. The equality of the angles of incidence and reflection ; the proportionality of the sines of incidence and refraction, are principles of reasoning in catoptrics and in dioptrics. In a sense perfectly analogous to this, the definitions of geometry (all of which are merely hypothetical] are the first principles ' of reasoning in the subsequent demonstration, and the basis on which the whole fabric of the science rests." Lord Herbert, De Veritate; Buffier, Treatise of First Truths; Reid, Intell. Pow* Principles as Express or as Operative correspond to pj*incipl&i of knowing and of being. An express principle asserts a pro- position; as, truth is to be spoken. An operative principle prompts to action or produces change, as when a man taker. Elements, vol. i., chap. 1, sect. 2. * Essay vi. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 401 PRINCIPLES - food to satisfy hunger. An express principle asserts an origi- nal law and is regulative. An operative principle is an original element and is constitutive. PRINCIPLES OF ACTION may either mean those express prin- ciples which regulate or ought to regulate human actions, or those operating or motive principles which prompt human action. The latter, which is the common application of tho phrase, is its psychological meaning. When applied to human action psychologically, the word principle is used in the sense of the principle of dependence : and to denote that the action depends upon the agent for its being produced. It may signify the dependence of causality, that is, that the action depends for its production on the agent, as its efficient cause ; or it may signify the dependence of inherence, that is, that the action depends for its production on some power or energy which inheres in the agent as its sub- ject. Hence it has been said that a, principle of action is two- fold the principium quod, and the principium quo. Thus, man as an active being is the principium quod or efficient cause of an action being produced ; his will, or the power by which he determines to act, is the principium quo. But the will itself is stimulated or moved to exert itself; and in this view may be regarded as the principium quod, while that which moves or stimulates it, may be regarded as the principium quo. Before we act, we deliberate, that is, we contemplate the action in its nature and consequences ; we then resolve or determine to do it or not to do it, and the per- formance or omission follows. Volition, then, or an exercise of will is the immediate antecedent of action. But the will is called into exercise by certain influences which are brought to bear upon it. Some object of sense or of thought is contem- plated. We are affected with pleasure or pain. Feelings of complacency or displacency, of liking or disliking, of satisfac- tion or disgust, are awakened. Sentiments of approbation or disapprobation are experienced. We pronounce some things to be good, and others to be evil, and feel corresponding incli- nation or aversion ; and under the influence of these states and affections of mind, the will is moved to activity. The forms which these feelings of pleasure or pain, of inclination 35 * 2 B 402 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PRINCIPLES - or tendency to or from an object, may assume, are many and various ; arising partly from the nature of the objects contem- plated, and partly from the original constitution and acquired habits of the mind contemplating. But they are all denomi- nated, in a general way, principles of action. PRIVATION (ffffpjpJK, privatio}. " A. privation is the absence of what does naturally belong to the thing we are speaking of, or which ought to be present with it ; as when a man or a horse is deaf, or blind, or dead, or if a physician or a divine be unlearned, these are called privations." l The principles of all natural bodies are matter and form. " To these Aristotle has added a third which he calls atepqrtts or privation, an addition that he has thought proper to make to the Pythagorean and Platonic philosophy, in order to give his system the appearance of novelty ; but without any neces- sity, as I apprehend ; for it is not a cause, as he himself ad- mits, such as matter uniform, but is only that without which the first matter could not receive the impression of any/orw ; for it must be clear of every form, which is what he calls pri- vation, before it can admit of any. " Now, this is necessarily implied in the notion of matter , for as it has the capacity of all^/orm, so it has the privation of all form. In this way, Aristotle 2 himself has explained the nature of matter. And Plato, in the Timceus, has very much insisted upon this quality of matter as absolutely necessary, in order to fit it to receive all forms ; and he illustrates his meaning by a comparison: Those, says he, who make un- guents or perfumes, prepare the liquid so, to which they are to give the perfume, that it may have no odour of its own. And, in like manner, those who take off an impression of anything upon any soft matter, clear that matter of every other impression, making it as smooth as possible, in order that it may better receive the figure or image intended. In like manner, he says,- matter, in order to receive the specieses of all things, must in itself have the species of nothing." 1 1 Watts, Lnff., pt. i., c. 2. Physic, lib. i., cap. 8. 8 Monboddo, Ancient MefapJiys., book ii., chap. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 403 PRIVATION - Hence privation was defined Negatio forma in subjecto apto ad habendam talem formam. According to Plato, privation, in the sense of limitation, imperfection, is the inherent condition of all finite existence, and the necessary cause of evil. Leibnitz, 1 after Augustin, Aquinas, and others, held similar views. V. NEGATION. PROBABILITY. V. CHANCES. PROBABLE (probabilis, provable). That which does not admit of demonstration and does not involve absurdity or contradic- tion, is probable, or admits of proof. "As demonstration is the showing the agreement or disagreement of two ideas, by the intervention of one or more proofs, which have a constant, immutable, and visible connection one with another ; so pr liability is nothing but the appearance of such an agreement or disagreement, by the intervention of proofs, whose connection is not constant and immutable, or at least is not perceived tc be so, but is, or appears for the most part to be so, and is enough to induce the mind to judge the proposition to be true or false, rather than the contrary The entertain- ment the mind gives this sort of propositions, is called belief, assent, or opinion, which is admitting or receiving any pro- position for true, upon arguments or proofs that are found to persuade us to receive it as true, without certain knowledge that it is so. And herein lies the difference between probabi- li.fi/ and certainty, faith and knowledge, that in all the parts of knowledge there is intuition ; each immediate idea, each step, has its visible and certain connection ; in belief, not so. That which makes us believe, is something extraneous to the thing I believe; something not evidently joined on both sides to, and so not manifestly showing the agreement or disagreement of, those ideas that are under consideration. " The grounds of probability are first, the conformity of anything with our own knowledge, observation, and experi- ence. Second, the testimony of others, touching their obser- vation and experience." Locke, Exsay on Hum. Understand. Reid, Intell. Pw* 1 Causa Dti, sect. 69,72. Essais Sur la Bonte de Di( .t, 1, partie, sect. 29. 31 ; 3. partie, ect. 378. Book iv., chap. 15. Essay vii., ehap. 3. 104 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PROBABLE " The word probable," says Mr. Stewart, 1 " does not impl} any deficiency in the proof, but only marks the particul&i na- ture of that proof, as contradistinguished from another species of evidence. It is opposed not to what is certain, but to what admits of being demonstrated after the manner of the mathe- maticians. This differs widely from the meaning annexed to the same word in popular discourse ; according to which, what- ever event is said to be probable, is understood to be expected with some degree of doubt But although, in philo- sophical language, the epithet probable be applied to events which are acknowledged to be certain, it is also applied to events which are called probable by the vulgar. The philo- sophical meaning of the word, therefore, is more comprehensive than the popular ; the former denoting that particular species of evidence of which contingent truths admit; the latter being confined to such degrees of this evidence as fall short of the highest. These different degrees of probability the philoso- pher considers as a series, beginning with bare possibility, and terminating in that apprehended infallibility, with which the phrase moral certainty is synonymous. To this last term of the series, the word probable is, in its ordinary acceptation, plainly inapplicable." PROBLEM (rfpojSjWfjiia, from rtpcj3aMw, to throw down, to put in question). Any point attended with doubt or difficulty, any proposition which may be attacked or defended by probable arguments, may be called a problem. Every department of inquiry has questions, the answers to which are problematical. So that, according to the branch of knowledge to which they belong, problems may be called Physical, Metaphysical, Logi- cal, Moral, Mathematical, Historical, Literary, &c. Aristotle distinguished three classes, the moral or practical, which may influence our conduct ; as whether pleasure is the chief good : the speculative or scientific, which merely add to our knowledge ; as, whether the world is eternal: and the auxiliary, or those questions which we seek to solve with a view to other questions. PROGRESS. V. PERFECTIBILITY. PROMISE and POLLICITATION. Pro-mittimus rogatipolli cemur ultro. A pollicitation is a spontaneous expression of 1 Elements, part ii., chap. 2. sect. 4. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 405 PROMISE - our intention to do something in favour of another. It does not necessarily imply the presence of the party in reference to whom it is made ; and it does not confer upon him a right to exact its performance. But in so far as it has become known to him, and has awakened expectations of its being performed, we may be brought under a moral obligation to perform it, especially if its performance is seen to be highly beneficial to him, and in no way prejudicial to ourselves. A promise is made in consequence of a request preferred tc us. It implies the presence of the party preferring the re- quest, or of some one for him, and confers upoii him a perfect moral right to have it fulfilled, and brings us under a moral obligation to fulfil it. In order to constitute a promise, three things are necessary. 1. The voluntary consent or intention of the promiser. 2. The expression or outward signification of that intention. 3. The acceptance of the promise by the party to whom it is made. A promise implies two parties at least the promiser and the promisee. A pact implies two or more. In this it agrees with a contract g. v. It is a dictate of the law of nature, that promises should be fulfilled, not because it is expedient to do so, but because it is right to do so. The various questions concerning the parties competent to give a valid promise, the interpretation of the terms in which it may be given, and the cases in which the obligation to fulfil it may be relaxed or dissolved, belong to what may be called the Casuistry of Ethics, and Natural Jurisprudence. V. CON- TRACT. PROOF. " To conform our language more to common use, we ought to divide arguments into demonstrations, proofs, and probabilities. By proofs, meaning such arguments from ex- perience as leave no room for doubt or opposition.'' ' Whately says that proving may be defined "the assigning of a reason or argument for the support of a given proposition, " and in- ferring "the deduction of a conclusion from given premises. In the one case our conclusion is given, and we have to seek 1 Hume, On the Understand., pert. (5, note- 406 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. PROOF - for arguments; in the other our premises are given, and w have to seek for a conclusion. Proving may be compared to the act of putting away any article into the proper receptacle of goods of that description, inferring to that of bringing out the article when needed." See EVIDENCE, INFERENCE. PROPERTY may be distinguished from quality or attribute, and also from faculty. Qualities are primary or secondary, essential or non-essen- tial. The former are called attributes, and the latter proper- ties. Extension is the attribute of matter, taste and smell are properties of body. Faculty implies understanding and will, and so is applicable only to mind. We speak of the properties of. bodies, but not of their faculties. Of mind we may say will is a faculty or property; so that while all faculties are properties, all proper- ties are not faculties. PROPERTY (Generic) is the property of a subaltern genus, and which may be predicated of all the subordinate species. "Voluntary motion" is the generic property of "animal." PROPERTY (Specific) is the property of an infima species, and which may be predicated of all the individuals contained under it. "Risibility" is the specific property of " man." PROPOSITION. A judgment of the mind expressed in words is a proposition. " A proposition, according to Aristotle, is a speech wherein one thing is affirmed or denied of another. Hence it is easy to distinguish the thing affirmed or denied, which is called the predicate, from the thing of which it is affirmed or denied, which is called the subject; and these two are called the terms of the proposition." l As to their substance, propositions are Categorical (sub- divided into pure and modal], and Hypothetical (subdivided into conditional and disjunctive}. A Categorical proposition declares a thing absolutely, as, "1 love," or " Man is not infallible." These are pure categories! Is, asserting simply the agreement and disagreement of sub ject and predicate. Modal categoricals assert the manner of * Reid, Account of Aristotle's Logic, chap. 2, soot. 6. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 40* PROPOSITION- agreement and disagreement between subject and predicate, as, " The wisest man may possibly be mistaken/' "A preju- diced historian will probably misrepresent the matter." A Hypothetical proposition asserts, not absolutely, but under a hypothesis. Such propositions are denoted by the conjunc- tions used in stating them. " If man is fallible, he is imper- fect." This is called a conditional proposition, denoted by the conjunction "if." "It is either day or night." This is a disjunctive hypothetical, and is denoted by the ' disjunctive conjunction " either." As to their qualify, propositions are either affirmative or negative, according as the predicate is said to agree or not to agree with the subject. "Man 'is' an animal." "Man 'is not' perfect." As to their quantity, propositions are universal or particular, according as the predicate is affirmed or denied of the whole of the subject, or only of part- of the subject. "All tyrants are miserable." " No miser is rich." " Some islands are fertile." " Most men are fond of novelty." Another division of propositions having reference to their quantity is into singular and indefinite. A singular proposition is one of which the subject is an individual (either a proper name, a singular pronoun, or a common noun with a singular sign). "Caesar overcame Pompey." "I am the person." " This fable is instructive." But as these propositions predi- cate of the whole of the subject, they fall under the rules that govern universals. An indefinite or indesignate proposition is one that has no sign of universality or particularity affixed to it, and its quantity must be ascertained by the matter of it, that is, by the nature of the connection between the extremes. As to their matter, propositions are either necessary, or im- possible, or contingent. In necessary and in impossible matter, an indefinite is understood as a universal ; as, "Birds have wings;" i.e., all. "Birds are not quadrupeds ;" i.e., none. In contingent matter, that is, where the terms sometimes agree and sometimes not, an indefinite is understood as parti' cular ; as, "Food is necessary to life;" *. e., some kind of food. "Birds sing;" i.e., some birds sing. "Birds are not carnivo- rous;" i. e., some birds are not; or, all are not.--F. OPPOSITION. 408 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PROPRIETY (to rtpertov, that which is fit or congruous to tH agent, and the relations in which he is placed). This, accord- ing to some, is that which characterizes an action as right, and an agent as virtuous. "According to Plato, to Aristotle, and to Zeno, virtue consists in the propriety of conduct, or in the suitableness of the affection from which we act, to the object which excites it." Adam Smith 1 treats of those systems which make virtue consist in propriety. PROPRIUM (The) or Property is a predicable which denotes something essentially conjoined to the essence of the species. 2 Proprium is applied, 1. To what belongs to some one but not to all, as to be a philosopher in respect of man. 2. To what belongs to a species, but not to it only, as blackness in respect of a crow. 3. To what belongs to all of the species, and to that only, but not always, as to grow hoary in respect of man. 4. To what belongs to species, to all of it, to it only, and always, as laughter in respect of man. This last is truly the proprium. Quod speciei toii, soli et semper convenit? " There is a proprium which belongs to the whole species, but not to the sole species, as sleeping belongs to man. There is a proprium which belongs to the sole species, but not to the whole species, as to be a magistrate. There is a proprium which belongs to the whole species, and to the sole species, but not always, as laughing ; and there is a proprium which always belongs to it, as to be risible, that is, to have the faculty of laughing. Can one forbear laughing when he repe- sents to himself these poor things, uttered with a mouth made venerable by a long beard, or repeated by a trembling and respectful disciple ?" 4 PROSYLLOGISM. V. EPICHEIREMA. PROVERB. The Editor of the fourth edition of Kay's Proverbs says, "A proverb is usually denned, an instructive sentence, or common and pithy saying, in which more is generally designed than expressed ; famous for its peculiarity and elegance, and therefore adopted by the learned as well as 1 Theory of Mm-. Sent., part rii., sect. 2, chap. 1. a Whately, Log., book ii., chap. 5, sect. 3. 8 Derodcn, Log., p. 37. 4 Crousaz, Art of Thinking, part i., sect. 3. chap, 6. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 409 PROVERB - the vulgar, by which it is distinguished from counterfeits, which want such authority." Lord John Russell's definition of a proverb is, " the wit of one, the wisdom of many." ' Proverbs embody the current and practical philosophy of an age or nation. Collections of them have been made from the earliest times. The book of Scripture called the Proverbs of Solomon, contains more than one collection. They have always been common in the East. Burckhardt made a collec- tion of Arabian proverbs, which was published at London in 1830. Seiler published at Augsburg, in 1816, The Wisdom of the Streets, or, the Meaning and Use of German Proverbs. Ray's Proverbs, Allan Ramsay's Proverbs, Henderson's Pro- verbs, have been published among ourselves. Backer (Geo. de) has Le Dictionnaire de Pro'oerbes Francais,* rare and curious. Panckouke published his Dictionnaire des Proverbes in imitation of it. PROVIDENCE. " What in opposition to Fate," said Jacobi, " constitutes the ruling principle of the universe into a true God, is Providence." Providence is a word which leads us to think of conservation and superintending, or upholding and governing. Whatever is created can have no necessary nor independent existence ; the same power which called it into being must continue to uphold it in being. And if the beauty and order which appear in the works of nature prove them to be the effects of an intel- ligent designing cause, the continuance of that beauty and order argues the continued operation of that cause. So that the same arguments which prove the existence of God imply his providence. . With regard to the extent of providence, some have regarded it. as general, and reaching only to things re- garded as a whole, and to great and important results, while others regard it as particular, and as embracing every indivi- dual and every event. But the same arguments which prove that there is a providence, prove that it must be particular ; or rather, when properly understood, there is no inconsistency between the two views. The providence of God can only be * Moore. Diary, vol. vii.. p. 204. 9 Sro. 1710. 36 310 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. PROVIDENCE - called general from its reaching to every object and event, and this is the sense in which we are to understand a particular providence. But while the providence of God extends to every particular, it proceeds according to general laws. And while these laws are fixed and stable, they may be so fixed as to admit of what we think deviations ; so that both what we call the law, and what we call the deviation from the law, may be embraced in the plan of pi^ovidence. As to the way in which this plan is carried forward, some have had recourse to the supposition of a plastic nature, intermediate between the Crea- tor and the creature, others to an energy communicated from the Creator to the creature. But the true view is to regard all things and all events as upheld and governed by the continual presence and power of God. There is a difficulty in recon- ciling this view with the freedom and responsibility of man, but it is not impossible to do so. l PRUDENCE (prudentia, contracted for providentia, foresight or forethought) is one of the virtues which were called cardinal by the ancient ethical writers. It may be described as the habit of acting at all times with deliberation and forethought It is equally removed from rashness on the one hand, and timidity or irresolution on the other. It consists in choosing the best ends, and prosecuting them by the most suitable means. It is not only a virtue in itself, but necessary to give lustre to all the other virtues. "The rules of prudence in general, like the laws of the stone tables, are for the most part prohibitive. Thou shalt not is their characteristic formula: and it is an especial part of Christian prudence that it should be so. Nor would it be diffi- cult to bring under this head all the social obligations that arise out of the relations of the present life, which the sensual understanding (-to q>p6vi]/j.a t^ aapxo$, Horn. viii. 6) is of itself able to discover, and the performance of which, under favour- able circumstances, the merest worldly self-interest, without love or faith, is sufficient to enforce ; but which Christian pru- dence enlivens by a higher principle and renders symbolic and sacramental (Ephes. v. 32}." 1 Sherlock. On Providr.nc: : M Cosh. M Prelim. Dbs. to Plnlosph. Essays, p. 24. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 413 PSYCHOLOGY - of matter. And, notwithstanding the objection of Mr. Stew art, the term is now current, especially on the continent to denote the science of the human mind as manifested by con- sciousness. Dr. Priestley at one time maintained the materiality of mind, and at another the spirituality of matter, The apostle speaks of a spiritual body. A body which is spirit sounds tc us contradictory. Coleridge, in his Treatise upon Method, employs the word psychological, and apologizes for using an insolens verbum. " Goclenius is remarkable as the author of a work, the title of which is ^vWKoyia, (Marburg, 1597). This I think the first appearance of psychology, under its own name, in modern philosophy. Goclenius had, as a pupil, Otto Casmann, whc wrote Pxychologia Anthropologica, sive animce Immance doctrina (Hanau, 1594)." J rxych.ology has been divided into two parts 1. The empiri- cal, having for its object the phenomena of consciousness and the faculties by which they are produced. 2. The rational, having for its object the nature or substance of the soul, its spirituality, immutability, &c. Rational psychology, which had been chiefly prosecuted be- fore his day, was assailed by Kant, who maintained that apart from experience we can know nothing of the soul. But even admitting that psychology rests chiefly on observation and experience, we cannot tfell separate between phenomena and their cause, nor consider the cause apart from the phenomena. There are, however, three things to which the psychologist may successively attend. 1. To the phenomena of conscious- ness. 2. To the faculties to which they may be referred.. 3. To the Ego, that is, the soul or mind in its unity, individu- ality, and personality. These three things are inseparable ; and the consideration of them belongs to psychology. Sub- sidiary to it are inquiries concerning the mutual action and reaction of soul and body, the effect of organization, tempera- ment, age, health, disease, country, climate, 1 8vo, Leipsig, 1808. a Harris, Phil. An inge., chap. 8. 3 Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., chap. 8, suet. 8. 4 Did. des Sciences Philosoph. * Princip. Philosoph., pars priiua, sect. 56. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 415 QUALITY- telligimu*, quod alibi per attributa vel qualitates. Sed cum con- sideramus substantiam ab illis affici, velvariari, vocamus modos ; cum ab isia variations talem posse denominare, vocamus quali- tates ; ac denique, cum generalius spectamus tantum ea substantial inesse, vocamus attributa. Ideoque in Deo non proprie modos aut qualitates sed attributa tantum esse dicimus, quia mdla in eo variatio est intelligenda. Et eliam in rebus creatis, ea quce nun- quam in Us diverso modo se habeni, ut existentia et duratio in re existeute et duranle, non qualitates aut modi, sed attributa diet debent." "As qualities help to distinguish not only one soul from an- other soul, and one body from another body, but (in a more general way) every soul from every body, it follows that quali- ties, by having this common reference to both, are naturally divided into corporeal and incorporeal." ' Hutcheson also 2 reduces all qualities to two genera. Thought, proper to mind. Motion, proper to matter. Qualities are distinguished as essential, or such as are inse- parable from the substance as thought from mind, dr exten- sion from matter; and non-essential, or such as we can separate in conception from the substance as passionateness or mild- ness from mind, or heat or cold from matter. " With respect to all kinds of qualities, there is one thing to be observed, that some degree of permanence is always requisite ; else they are not so properly qualities as incidental affections. Thus we call not a man passionate, because he has occasionally been angered, but because he is prone to frequent anger ; nor do we say a man is of a pallid or a ruddy com- plexion, because he is red by immediate exercise or pale by sudden fear, but when that paleness or redness may be called constitutional." 3 On the question, historical and critical, as to the distinction of the qualities of matter as primary or secondary, see Reid's Works, by Sir W. Hamilton. 4 "Another division of qualities is into natural and acquired. Thus in the mind, docility may be called a natural qualify; science an acquired one : in the human body, beauty may be 1 Harris, Phil. Arrange., chap. 8. Metaphys., part, i., cap. 6. 9 Harris, Phil. Arrange., chap. 8. Note D. 116 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. ftlTALITY- called a natural quality; gentility (good carriage) an acquired one. This distinction descends even to bodies inanimate. Tc transmit objects of vision is equality natural to crystal; but to enlarge them while transmitted, is a character adventitious. Even the same quality may be natural in one substance, as attraction in the magnet; and acquired in another, as the same attraction in the magnetic bar." ' V. ATTRIBUTE, PROPOSITION. duality (Occult). "It was usual with the Peripatetics, when the cause of any phenomena was demanded, to have recourse to their faculties or occult qualities, and to say, for instance, that bread nourished by its nutritive faculty (quality] ; and senna purged by its purgative." 2 "Were I to make a division of the qualities of bodies as they appear to our senses, I would divide them first into those that are manifest, and those that are occult. The manifest qualities are those which Mr. Locke calls primary; such as Extension, Figure, Divisibility, Motion, Hardness, Softness, Fluidity. The nature of these is manifest even to sense ; and the busi- nesk of the philosopher with regard to them is not to find out their nature, which is well known, but to discover the effects produced by their various combinations ; and, with regard to those of them which are not essential to matter, to discover their causes as far as he is able. " The second class consists of occult qualities, which may be subdivided into various kinds ; 8,sjirst, the secondary qualities ; secondly, the disorders we feel in our own bodies ; and thirdly, all the qualities which we call powers of bodies, whether me- chanical, chemical, medical, animal, or vegetable : or if there be any other powers not comprehended under these heads. Of all these the existence is manifest to sense, but the nature is occult; and here the philosopher has an ample field/ 73 QUANTITY (rtotfov, quantum, how much) is defined by mathe- maticians to be " that which admits of more or less." "Mathematics contain properly the doctrine of measure; and the object of this science is commonly said to be quantity; 1 Hams, Phil. Arrange., chap. 8. * Hume. Dial, nn Nat. Relig., part iv. 1 Reid, Infell. Pbw., essay it. chap. 18; Sir W. Hamilton, Discussions, p. 611. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 417 aUANTITY- tlierefore, quantity ought to be defined, what may be measured. Those who have defined quantity to be whatever is capable of more or lesx, have given too wide a notion of it, which, it is apprehended, has led some persons to apply mathematical rea- soning to subjects that do not admit of it. Pain and pleasure admit of various degrees, but who can pretend to measure them?" 1 " According to the common definition, quantity is that which is susceptible of augmentation or diminution. But many things susceptible of augmentation or diminution, and that even in a continuous manner, are not quantities. A sensation, painful or pleasing, augments or diminishes, and runs through different phases of intensity. But there is nothing in common between a sensation and quantity." 2 "There are some quantities which may be called proper, and others improper That properly is quantity which is measured by its own kind; or which, of its own nature, is capable of being doubled or tripled, without taking in any quantity of a different kind as a measure of it. Improper quan- tity is that which cannot be measured by its own kind; but to which we assign a measure by the means of some proper quantity, that is related to it. Thus velocity of motion, when we consider it by itself, cannot be measured. " We measure it by the space passed in a given time. 3 Quantity (Discrete and Continuous). "In magnitude and multitude we behold the two primary, the two grand and com- prehensive species, into which the genus of quantity is divided : magnitude, from its union, being called quantity continuous; multitude, from its separation, quantity discrete. Of the con- tinuous kind is every solid ; also the bound of every solid : that is, a superficies ; and the bound of every superficies, that is, a line ; to which may be added those two concomitants of every body, namely, time and place. Of the discrete kind arc fleets and armies, herds, flocks, the syllables of sounds articu- late, &c." 4 " Discrete quantity is that of which the parts have no con- tinuity, as in number. The number, e. g., of inches in a fo >t> 1 Reid, Essay on Quantity. Did. des Sciences Plnlosfph. * Beid, Essay on Quantity. * Harris. Phil. Arrange., chap. 9. 2c 418 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. QTJANTITY- rule, is the same whether the solid inches remain continuous, or are cut asunder and flung about the world ; but they do not constitute a foot length (which is a continuous quantity), un- less they are so joined together that the bounding lines of one coincide with those of another. Of continuous quantities there are two kinds; one, of which the parts are co-existent, as in extension; another, in which the parts are successive, as in duration. Discrete and continuous quantities are sometimes called multitude and magnitude." 1 According to Derodon 2 quantity is either 1. Permanent, when its parts are .together ; or 2. Successive, when they exist some after others. Time and motion are quantity successive. Permanent quantity is 1. Continuous, as a line which is length ; superficies, which is length and breadth ; and mathe- matical body, which is length, breadth, and depth. 2. Dis- crete, as number and speech. Hutcheson 3 notices magnitude, time, and number, as three genera of quantity. Quantity is called discrete when the parts are not connected, as number ; continuous, when they are connected, and then it is either successive, as time, motion ; or permanent, which is what is otherwise called space or extension, in length, breadth, and depth ; length alone constitutes lines ; length and breadth, surfaces; and the three together, solids. 4 V. PROPOSITION. QUIDDITY or QTJIDITY (qttidditas, from quid, what). This term was employed in scholastic philosophy as equivalent to the fb ti fy flvai of Aristotle, and denotes what was subse- quently called the substantial form. It is the answer to the question, What is it? quid cstf It is that which distinguishes a thing from other things, and makes it what it is, and not another. It is synonymous with essence, and comprehends both the substance and qualities. For qualities belong to sub- stance, and by qualities substance manifests itself. It is the known essence of a thing; or the complement of all thut makes us conceive of anything as we conceive of it, as dif- -ferent from any or every other thing. * Fitzgerald, Xolfs to Aristotle's Ethics. STO, Dublin, 1850. p. 151. See Arishtle is Vategcr.. c. 6. a /V/'/.t.. pnr. 1. cap. 5. 8 Metaphys., part i., cap. 5 4 Port Hnii. Lor,., part i., ch. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 419 QUIETISM (quies, rest) "is the doctrine that the highest charac- ter of virtue consists in the perpetual contemplation and lovo of supreme excellence." ' The two following propositions from Fenelon's Maxims of the Saints, were condemned by Innocent XII. in 1699. 1. There is attainable in this life a state of perfection in which the ex- pectation of reward and the fear of punishment have no place, 2. Souls may be so inflamed with love to God, and so resigned to his will, that if they believed that God had condemned them to eternal pain, they would absolutely sacrifice their salvation. Madame Guyon thought she had learned a method by which souls might be carried to such a state of perfection, that a con- tinual act of contemplation and love might be substituted for all other acts of religion. A controversy was carried on by Fenelon and Bossuet on the subject. See a dissertation by M. Bonnel, De la Contra- verse de Bossuet et Fenelon, sur le Qiiielisme;'* Upham, Life o/ Madame Guyon. RACE. V. SPECIES. RATIO. When two subjects admit of comparison with reference to some quality which they possess in common, and which may be measured, this measure is their ratio, or the rate in which the one exceeds the other. With this term is connected that of proportion, which denotes the portions, or parts of one mag- nitude which are contained in another. In mathematics, the term ratio is used for proportion ; thus, instead of the propor- tion which one thing bears to another, we say, the ratio which one bears to the other, meaning its comparative magnitude. In the following passage ratio is used for reason or cause. " In this consists the ratio and essential ground of the gospel doctrine." 3 V. REASON. RATIOCINATION. "The conjunction of images with affirma- tions and negations, which make up propositions, and the conjunction of propositions one to another, and illation of coiv elusions upon them, is ratiocination or discourse. 1 Sumner, -Rccnrds of. Oreation, vol. ii.. p. 239. 2 Svo, Macon, 1850. 8 Waterland, Works, vol. ix., wrm. i. 120 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. RATIOCINATION " Some consecutions are so intimately and evidently con- nexed to, or found in, the premises, that the conclusion is at- tained quasi per saltum, and without anything of ratiocinativt process, and as the eye sees its objects immediately and with- out any previous discourse." * " The schoolmen make a third act of the mind which they call ratiocination, and we may style it the generation of a judgment from others actually in our understanding/' 2 " When from a general proposition, by combining it with other propositions, we infer a proposition of the same degree of generality with itself, or a less general proposition, or a proposition merely individual, the process is ratiocination (or syllogism)/' 3 V. REASONING. RATIONALE. " The chairs of theology and philosophy (during the scholastic ages) were the oracular seats from which the doctrines of Aristotle were expounded, as the rationale of theological and moral truth/' 4 " There cannot be a body of rules without a rationale, and this rationale constitutes the science. There were poets before there were rules of poetical composition ; but before Aristotle, or Horace, or Boileau, or Pope could write their arts of poetry and criticism, they had considered the reasons on which their precepts rested, they had conceived in their own minds a theory of the art. In like manner there were navigators before there was an art of navigation ; but before the art of navigation could teach the methods of finding the ship's place by observations of the heavenly bodies, the science of astro- nomy must have explained the system of the world/' 5 Anthony Sparrow, bishop of Exeter, is the author of a work entitled, A Rationale upon the Book of Common Prayer. 6 V. SCIENCE, ART. RATIONALISM, in philosophy, is opposed to sensualism, sen- suism, or sensism, according to all which, all our knowledge is derived from sense. It is also opposed to empiricism, which 1 Hale, Prim. Orig. of Mankind, pp. 50, 51. a Tucker, Light of Nature, vol. i., part i., c. 11, sect. 13. * Mill, Log., 2d edit., vol. i., p. 223. 4 Hampden, On Scholastic Philosophy, lect. i., p. 9. Sir G. C. Lewis, Method, nf Observ in Politics, .chap. 19, 8*ct. 2. 12mo, Lond., 1868. VOCABULARY OP PHILCSOP11 Y. 'J RATIONALISM - refers all our knowledge to sensation and reflection, or expe- rience. According to rationalism, reason furnishes certain elements, without which experience is not possible. The phi- losophy of Condillac is of the former kind. that of Hover Collard of the latter. The philosophy of Locke and Reid have been contrasted in the same manner, but not quite correctly. V. SENSISM, SENSUISM, SENSUALISM. RATIONALISM, in religion, as opposed to snpernaluralism means the adoption of reason as our sufficient and only guide, exclusive of tradition and revelation. Spinoza, in his Trac- tatus Theologico-Politicus, tried to explain all that is super- natural in religion by reason. And Strauss and others in modern Germany have carried this line of speculation mud farther. RATIONALISTS. "The empirical philosophers are like ph mires ; they only lay up and use their store. The rationalists are like the spiders ; they spin all out of their own bowels. But give me a philosopher, who, like the bee, hath a middle faculty, gathering from abroad, but digesting that which is gathered by his own virtue." ' REAL (The). " There is no arguing from ideal to real existence, unless it could first be shown, that such ideas must have their objective realities, and cannot be accounted for, as they pass within, except it be by supposing such and such real exist- ences, ad extra, to answer them." 2 The term real always imports the existent. It is used 1. As denoting the existent, as opposed to the non-existent, something, as opposed to nothing. 2. As opposed to the nominal or verbal, the thing to thois, which Cicero translates recta effectio : xatop- he translates rectum factum. 2 Now the definition of was vopov rtpdtffay^ua, 'A thing commanded by law' (that is, by the law of nature, the universal law). Antoninus, speaking of the reasoning faculty, how, without looking far- ther, it rests contented in its own energies, adds, ' for which reason are all actions of this species called rectitudes (searop- 0uff8t, xafd 6|j0oj, right onwards), as denoting the directness of their progression right onwards." 3 "Goodness in actions is like unto straightness ; wherefore that which is done well we term right, for as the straight way is most acceptable to him that travelleth, because by it he cometh soonest to his journey's end : so in action, that which doth lye the evenest between us and the end we desire, must needs be the fittest for our use." 4 If a term is to be selected to denote that in action and in disposition of which the Moral Faculty approves, perhaps the most precise and appropriate is rectitude or Tightness. Dr. Adams 5 has remarked, " The man who acts virtuously is said to act rightly. This appears more proper than to say that he acts according to truth ; and more clear and distinct than to * Whatcly, Log., Introd. 4. a De Fin., lib. iii., cap. 4. * Harris, Dialogue on Happiness, p. 73, note. * Hooker, Eccles. Pol., b. i. 8. S) 11 Sermon on the Nature and Obligation of Virtue. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 433 RECTITUDE - say that he acts according to the nature and reason of things ; the meaning of which will, in all cases, be found to be only this that he acts according to what reason, in the present circumstances of the agent, and the relation he stands in to the objects before him, pronounces to be right." In like manner, Dr. Reid 1 has said, "Prudence is a virtue, benevo- lence is a virtue ; but the essence and formal nature of virtue must lie in something that is common to all these, and to every other virtue. And this, I conceive, can be nothing else but the rectitude of such conduct and turpitude of the contrary, which is discerned by a good man. And so far only he is virtuous as he pursues the former and avoids the latter." Rectitude, then, is that in action and in disposition of which the moral faculty approves. The contrary of what is right is wrong. Rightness and wrongness, then, are the characteristics of action and disposition, as contemplated by the moralist. So that tho foundation of morals, the ground upon which moral distinc- tions are taken, is in the essential difference between what is right and what is wrong. 11 There are other phrases which have been used, which I see no reason for adopting, such as, acting contrary to the rela- tions of things contrary to the reason of things to the fitness of things to the truth of things to absolute fitness. These phrases have not the authority of common use, which, in mat- ters of language, is great. They seem to have been invented by some authors with a view to explain the nature of vice ; but I do not think they answer that end. If intended as defi- nitions of vice, they are improper ; because, in the most favour- able sense they can bear, they extend to every kind of foolish and absurd conduct, as well as to that which is vicious." 2 But what is rectitude or Tightness as the characteristic of an action ? According to Price and others, this term denotes a simple and primitive idea, and cannot be explained. It might as well be asked, what is truth, as the characteristic of a pro- position ? It is a capacity of our rational nature to see and acknowledge truth ; but we cannot define what truth is. We call it the conformity of our thoughts with the reality of things. 1 Act. Pnw., essay v., chap. 5. a Ibid., essay v., ch. 7. 3R 2 D 434 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. RECTITUDE - But it may be doubted how far this explanation makes tbu nature of truth more intelligible. In like manner, fr.mo explain rectitude by saying that it consists in a congruity be- tween an action and the relations of the agent. It is the idea we form of an action, when it is, in every way, conform- able to the relations of the agent and the circumstances in which he is placed. On contemplating such an action, we approve of it, and feel that if we were placed in such circum- stances, and in such relations, we should be under an obliga- tion to perform it. Now the circumstances and relations in which man is placed arise from his nature and from the nature of things in general : and hence it has been said, that rectitude is founded in the nature and fitness of things ; that is, an action is right when it is fit or suitable to all the rela- tions and circumstances of the agent; and of this fitness conscience or reason is the judge. Conscience or reason does not constitute the relations ; these must arise from the nature of man and the nature of things ; but conscience or reason judges and determines as to the conformity of actions to these relations; and these relations arising necessarily from the very nature of things, the conformity with them which constitutes rectitude, is said to be eternal and immutable. V. RIGHT. REDINTEGRATION. V. TRAIN or THOUGHT. REDUCTION IN LOGIC. The first figure of syllogism is called perfect; because, 1. It proceeds directly on the Dictum, and, 2. It arranges the terms in the most natural order. All argu- ments may be, in one way or other, brought into some one of the four moods in the first figure : and a syllogism is, in that case, said to be reduced (i. e., to the first figure). These four are called the perfect moods, and all the rest imperfect. The mood to be reduced is called the reducend, and that to which it is reduced the reduct. Reduction is of two kinds. 1. Direct or ostensive, which consists in bringing the premisses of the reducend to a corresponding mood in the first figure, by trans- position or conversion of the premisses, and from the premisses thus changed deducing either the original conclusion, or. one from which it follows by conversion. 2. Indirect, or reductio per impoaatibile ov'ctd abmt > Le.fS'm? n M>,raU. p. 142. 40 458 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SELF-LOVE - be good for his health. This latter is impelled by self-lovt, bul not the other. " So again, one person may pursue some course of study in order to qualify himself for some profession by which he may advance in life, and another from having a iasle for that study, and a desire for that branch of knowledge. This latter, though he may perhaps be, in fact, promoting his own welfare, is noi acting from self-love. For as the object of thirst is not. hap- piness, but drink, so the object of curiosity is not happiness, but knowledge. And so of the rest." Self-love may, like any other of our tendencies, be cherished and indulged to excess, or it may be ill-directed. But within due bounds it is allowable and right, and by no means incom- patible with benevolence, or a desire to promote the happiness of others. And Dr. Hutcheson, who maintains that kind af- fection is what constitutes an agent virtuous, has said, that he who cherishes kind affection towards all, may also love him- self ; may love himself as a part of the whole system of ra- tional and sentient beings ; may promote his own happiness in preference to that of another who is not more deserving of his love ; and may be innocently solicitous about himself, while he is wisely benevolent towards all. 1 The error of Hobbes, and the school of philosophers who maintained that in doing good to others our ultimate aim is to do good to ourselves, lay in supposing that there is any an- tagonism between benevolence and self-love. So long as self- love does not degenerate into selfishness, it is quite compatible with true benevolence. In opposition to the views of Hobbes and the selfish school of philosophers, see Butler, Sermons;* Turnbull, Nature and Origin of Laws; 3 Hume, On General Principles of Morals;* Hutcheson, Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil; 6 Haz- litt, Essay on Principles of Hum. Action; 9 Mackintosh, View of Ethical Philosophy.' 1 SEMATOLOGY (atjiw,, a sign ; and Tujyoj, discourse), the doctrine of signs q. v. 1 Inquiry concerning Moral Good and Evil, sect. iii. 3 On Hum. Nat., ov Compassion. Ac. * Vol. ii., p. 258. * Sect. ->. Sect. 2. P. 239. < P. 192.- VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 459 SENSATION. " The earliest sign by which the Ego becomes perceptible is corporeal sensation. "Without this general innate sensation we should not possess the certainty that our body is our body ; for it is as m ich an object for the other senses as anything : Ise that we can see, hear, taste, or feel. This original general in- nate sensation is necessary to the existence of all other parti- cular sensations, and may exist independently of the nervous system. Polypi, animals of the simplest structure, with- out a nervous system distinct from the rest of the organic mass, show traces of innate sensation. The light by means of which we see, acts not only on the visual nerves, but also on the fluids of the eye, and the sensations of sight partly de- pend on the structure of the eye. This sensibility, therefore, appears to be a necessary attribute of animated organic matter itself. "All the perceptions of sense are rooted in the general sensation. The child must be conscious of his senses before he applies them. This sensation, however, is very obscure ; even pain is not clearly felt by it at the place where it exists. Equally obscure is the notion which it entertains of an obj ect. Though Brach, therefore, is right in ascribing something ob- jective, even to the general sensation, since conditions cannot communicate themselves, without communicating (though ever so obscurely) something of that which produces the con- dition nay, strictly speaking, as even in the idea ' subject,' that of an ' object' is involved, yet it is advisable to abide by the distinction founded by Kant, according to which, by in- nate sensation, we especially perceive our own personality (subject), and by the senses we specially perceive objects, and thus in the ascending line, feeling, taste, smell, hearing, and sight. " The next step from this obscure original innate sensation is particular sensation through the medium of the nervous system, which, in its more profound, and yet more obscure sphere, produces common sensation (CCENESTHESIS), and in a higher manifestation, the perceptions of the senses. Coenes* thesis, or common feeling, is referred to the ganglionic nervos. It may be calle I subjective, inasmuch as the body itself g 460 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SENSATION- the excitement to the nerve concerned. 1 By the Coei^stheaia, states of our body are revealed to us which have their seat in the sphere of the vegetative life. These states are " 1. General: corporeal heaviness and buoyancy, atony, toniety. "2. Special: hunger, thirst, sexual instinct, &c. " The sensations of pain, titillation, itching, &c., which arc generally cited here, belong, in their more common accepta- tion, to the general corporeal feeling ; in their more local limitation, with distinct perception of the object exciting, to the sense of touch ; but when they arise from the nervous system allotted to the vegetative sphere of the body, they certainly belong to the Coenesthesis in the more limited sense of the word. " To this class belongs especially the anxiety arising from impediment in respiration, and from nausea. "In the analysis of the psycho-physical processes proceed- ing outwards from sensation to perception, we encounter after the organs of the Coenesthesis, the organs of sense." 2 Sensation and Perception. "A conscious presentation, if it refers exclusively to the subject, as a modification of our own being, is = sensation. The same if it refers to an object, is = perception." 3 Rousseau distinguished sensations as affectives, or giving pleasure or pain ; and representatives, or giving knowledge of objects external. Paffe 4 distinguishes the element affectif and the element instrnctif. In like manner Dr. Reid regards sensation not only as a state of feeling, but a sign of that which occasions it. Bozelli 5 calls sensations, in so far as they are representative, * However subjective this sensation is, there is always in it the indication of an object, as Brach shows : hence illustrating the instinct of animals. Presentiment, too. chiefly belongs to this system. * Feuchtersleben, Med. Psychology, 1847, p. 83. Coleridge, Church and State quoted by Thomson, Outline of Laws of Though^ 0.104. ' * Sur la 'Sensibilite. * De V Union dc l7. 3 Axx nj mi TnttJt, part ii., chap. 1, gen. 1. P, 269 68 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SENTIMENT - The admiration of a work of art which results from fir^t im- pressions, is classed with our sentiments ; and when we have accounted to ourselves for the approbation, it is classed with our opinions." l SIGN (sigmim, a mark). The definition of a sign is " that which represents anything to the cognitive faculty." We have know- ledge by sense and by intellect, and a sign may be addressed to either or to both as smoke, which to the eye and to the intellect indicates or signifies fire ; so that a sign has a twofold relation to the thing signified and to the cognitive faculty. "Signs are either to represent or resemble things, or only to intimate and suggest them to the mind. And our ideas being the signs of what is intended or supposed therein, are in such sort and so far right, as they do either represent or resemble the object of thought, or as they do at least intimate it to the mind, by virtue of some natural connection or proper appointment." 2 Signs are divided into natural and conventional. A natural sign has the power of signifying from its own nature, so that at all times, in all places, and with all people it signifies the same thing, as smoke is the sign of fire. A conventional sign has not the power of signifying in its own nature, but sup- poses the knowledge and remembrance of what is signified in him to whom it is addressed, as three balls are the conven- tionally understood sign of a pawnbroker's shop. In his philosophy Dr. Reid makes great use of the doctrine of natural signs. He arranges them in three classes, 1. Those whose connection with the thing signified is established by nature, but discovered only by experience, as natural causes are signs of their effects; and hence philosophy is called an interpretation of nature. 2. Those wherein the connection between the sign and thing signified is not only established by nature, but discovered to us by a natural principle without reasoning or experience. Of this class are the natural signs <;f human thoughts, purposes, and desires, such as modulations of the voice, gestures of the body, and features of the face, which may be called natural language, in opposition to that which \9 * Taylor Synonyms. " Oldfield, Essay on Reason, p 184. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 469 SIGN- spoken or written. 3. A third class of natural signs compre- hends those which, though we never before had any notion or conception of the thing signified, do suggest it and at once give us a conception and create a belief of it. In this wav consciousness, in all its modifications, gives the conception and belief of a being who thinks Cogito ergo sum. " As the first class of natural signs is the foundation of true philosophy, so the second is the foundation of the fine arts or of taste, and the last is the foundation of common sense." l The doctrine or science of signs has been called Sematology. And as the signs which the mind makes use of in order to obtain and to communicate knowledge are words ; the proper and skilful use of words is in different ways the object of 1. Grammar ; 2. Logic; and 3. Rhetoric. 2 See Berkeley, Minute Phil.; 3 New Theory of Vision; 4 Theory of Vision Vindicated. 5 Hutcheson, Synopsis Meta- phys.; 6 Mor. Phil.'' De Gerando, Des Signes et de I' Art de Penser; Adam Smith, On the Formation of Language. SIMILE. V. METAPHOR. SIN. V. EVIL. SINCERITY implies singleness and honesty. The Latin woro sincerum signifies what is without mixture, and has been thought to be compounded of sine cera, without wax, as pure honey is. " Sincerity and sincere have a twofold meaning of great moral importance. Sincerity is often used to denote i mere reality of conviction -,' that a man actually believes what he professes to believe. Sometimes, again, it is used to denote 4 unbiassed conviction/ or, at least, an earnest endeavour to shake off all prejudices, and all undue influence of wishes and passions on the judgment, and to decide impartially." 8 SINGULAR. V. TERM. SOCIALISM. In the various forms under which society has 1 lleid, Inquiry, chap. 5. sec. 3. 3 Smart, Sematology, 8vo, Loni., 1839. 3 Dial, iv , s.H-t. 7. 11, 12. Sect. 144, 147. * Sect. 38-43. ' Part ii., chap. 1. 1 B. i., ch. 1 ; p. 5. Whately, Log., Append, i 41 470 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SOCIALISM - existed, private property, individual industry and enterprise, and the rights of marriage and of the family, have been re- cognized. Of late years several schemes of social arrange- ment have been proposed, in which one or all of these prin- ciples have been abandoned or modified. These schemes may be comprehended under the general term of socialism. The motto of them all is solidarite. Communism demands a community of goods or property Fourierism or Phalansterism would deliver men over to th4 guidance of their passions and instincts, and destroy all do- mestic and moral discipline. Saint Simonism or Humanita,' rianism holds that human nature has three great functions, that of the priesthood, science, and industry. Each of these is represented in a College, above which is the father or head, spiritual and temporal, whose will is the supreme and living law of the society. Its religion is pantheism, its morality materialism or epicurism, and its politics despotism. 1 SOCIETY (Desire of). " God having designed man for a soci- able creature, made him not only with an inclination, and under a necessity to have fellowship with those of his own kind, but furnished him also with language, which was to be the great instrument and common tie of society."' 2 That the desire of society is natural to man, is argued by Plato in the Second Book of his Republic. It is also hinted at in his dialogue entitled Protagoras. The argument is unfolded by Harris in his Dialogue Concerning Happiness. 3 Aristotle has said at the beginning of his Politics, " The tendency to the social state is in all men by nature/' The argument in favour of society from our being possessed of speech is in- sisted on by him. 4 Also by Cicero. 5 In modern times, Hobbes argued that man is naturally an enemy to his fellow-men, and that society is a device to defend men from the evils which they would bring on one another. Hutcheson wrote his inaugural oration when 1 Diet, des Sciences FJiflosoph. * Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., book iii., chap. 1. Sect. 12 4 Polit., lib. i., cap. 2. .rye Legibus, lib. i., cap. 9; De Officiis, lib. i.. cap. 16; De JVaf Dcorum, lib. ii, car 59. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 471 SOCIETY - admitted Professor of Moral Philosophy at Glasgow, in ;>pp> sition to Hobbes. 1 Man is a social animal, according to Seneca. 2 Lactantiua says that he is a social animal by nature, 3 in -which he follow? Cicero. 4 " Mankind have always wandered or settled, agreed or quarrelled, in troops and companies." 6 "La nature do rhomme le porte a vivre en societe. Quelle qu'en soit la cause, le fait se manifesto en toute occasion. Partout ou Ton a rencontre des homines, ils vivaient en troupes, en herdes, en corps de nation. Peut-gtre est ce afin d'unir leur forces pour leur surete commune ; peut-etre afin de pourvoir plus aisement a leur besoins ; toujours il est vrai qu'il est dans la nature de 1'homme de se reunir en societ6, comme font les abeilles et plusieurs especes d'animaux ; on remarque des traits communs dans toutes ces reunions d'hoimnes, en quelque parti du monde qu'ils habitant." 6 This gregarious propensily is different from the political capacity, which has been laid down as the characteristic of man. Society (Political, Capacity of). Command and obedience, which are essential to government, are peculiar to mankind. Man is singular in commanding not only the inferior animals, but his own species. Hence men alone form a political com- munity. It has been laid down by Aristotle 7 and others, that this difference is owing to the exclusive possession of reason and speech by man, and to his power of discriminating be- tween justice and injustice. Animals, says Cicero, 8 are un- fitted for political society, as being " rationis et orationis ex- pertes." Separat licec nos a grege mulorum? SOMATOLOGY. V. NATURE. SOPHISM, SOPHISTER, SOPHISTICAL (So<^a, frorn^'a, wisdom). " They were called sophisters, as who would say, Counterfeit wise men." 10 r>t Naturc.U Hominum Socialitate, 4to, Glasg., Typis Academ., 1730. D(. Clem., i., 3. * Div. Inst., vi v 10. De Offii , : .. U * ^'erguson, Essay on Hist, of Civ. Soc.. p. 26. See also Lord Eaines, Jliti of Man : oc< k ii., sketch 1 ; Filangieri, Scienza della Lfgislazirme, lib. i., c. 1. b Say, ('ours ePEcon. Polit.. torn. vi. Compare Comte, ibid, torn, iv., p. 54. K'Ht- i-, 2. * De Offic., i., 16. Jiiv.iial. xv., U2-15 North, Plutarch, r 96 i72 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SOPHISM - "For lyke wyse as though a SopTiyster woulde with a fonde urgumente, prove unto a symple soule, that two egges were three, because that ther is one, and that ther be twayne, and one and twayne make three ; yt symple unlearned man, though he lacke learnying to soyle hys fonde argument, hath yet wit ynough to laugh thereat, and to eat the two egges himself, and byd the Sophyster tak and eat the thyrde." ' li Sophism is a false argument. This word is not usually applied to mere errors in reasoning ; but only to those erro- ne ;us reasonings of the fallacy of which the person who maintains them is, in some degree, conscious ; and which he endeavours to conceal from examination by subtilty, and by some ambiguity, or other unfairness in the use of words/' 2 According to Aristotle, the sophism is a syllogismus conten- tiosus, a syllogism framed not for enouncing or proving the truth, but for disputation. It is constructed so as to seem to warrant the conclusion, but does not, and is faulty either in form or argument. 3 See Reid, Account of Aristotle's Logic. 4 On the difference of meaning between $a.offo$o? and ootyia-trfr see Sheppard, Characters of Theophrastus. 6 See also Grote, Hist, of Greece* and the Cambridge Journal of Philosophy? . V. FALLACY. SORITES (awpof, a heap) is an argument composed of an inde- terminate number of propositions, so arranged that the predi- cate of the first becomes the subject of the second, the predi- cate of the second the subject of the third, and so on till you come to a conclusion which unites the subject of the first with the predicate of the last. A is B, B is C, C is D, D is E, therefore A is E. This is the Direct or Common form of the Sorites. Thfi Reversed form is also called the Goclenian, from Goclenius of Marburg, who first analyzed it about the end of the sixteenth century. It differs from the common form in two respects. 1 Sir T. More, Works, p. 475. a Taylor, Elements of Thought. 1 Trendelenburg, Lineamenta Log. Arist., sect. 33, 8vo., Berol., 1842. 4 Chap, o, sect. 3. 8vo., Lond., 1852, p. 81, and p. 26l, Vol. viii., pp. 434-486. ' No. 2. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 473 SORITES - 1. Its premises are reversed ; and, 2. It begins with the premise containing the two terms which have the greatest extension, while the common form starts with the premise containing the terms which have the greatest comprehen- sion. Thus D is E, C is D, B is C, A is B, therefore A isE. SOUL (tyzfi, anima, soul). This word had formerly a wider signification than new. In the Second Book of his Treatise Iltpt 4/D^jJj, Aristotle has given two definitions of it. In the first of these he calls it " the Entelechy, or first form of an organized body which has potential life." The word 'Evtte%ia, which Dr. Reid begged to be excused from translating, because he did not know the meaning of it, is compounded of ei/tcXe;, perfect ; %fiv, to have ; and t&o$, an end. Its use was revived by Leibnitz, who designated by it that which possesses in itself the principle of its own activity, and tends towards its end. According to his philosophy, the universe is made up of monads or forces, each active in itself, and tending by its activity to accomplish its proper end. In the philosophy of Aristotle, the word Entelechy, or first form, had a similar meaning, and denoted that which in virtue of an end consti- tuted the essence of things, and gave movement to matter. When the soul then is called the Enteleehy of an organized body having potential life, the meaning is, that it is that force or power by which life develops itself in bodies destined to receive it. Aristotle distinguished several forms of soul, viz., the nufn- tive or vegetative soul, by which plants and animals had growth and reproduction. The sensitive, which was the cause of sensation and feeling. The motive, of locomotion. The appetitive, which was the source of desire and will ; and the rational or reasonable, which was the seat of reason or in- tellect. These powers or energies of soul exist all in some beings; some of them only in other beings; and in some beings only one of them. That is to say. man possesses all ; h/utes possess some ; /plants one only. In the scholastic phi- losophy, desire and locomotion were not regarded as simple powers or energies and only the nutritive or vegetative soul t 41* 174 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SOTJL- the sensitive or animal, and the rational or human were reeog nized. In the system of Plato, three forms or energies of soul were assigned to man. The rational, which had its seat in the head and survived the dissolution of the body the irascible, which had its seat in the heart and was the spring of acti- vity and movement, and the appetitive or concupiscible, which was the source of the grosser passions and physical instincts, and which died with the bodily organs with which it was united. A similar distinction between the. forms or energies of the soul has been ascribed to Pythagoras, and traces of it are to be found in several of the philosophical systems of the East. Among modern philosopher? in Germany, a distinction is taken between -\v^ (Seele) and xvsvpa, (Geist), or soul arid spirit. According to G. H. Schubert, professor at Munich, and a follower of Schelling, the soul is the inferior part of our intellectual nature that which shows itself in the phenomena of dreaming, and which is connected with the state of the brain. The spirit is that part of our nature which tends to the purely rational, the lofty, and divine. The doctrine of the natural and the spiritual man, which we find in the writings of St. Paul, may, it has been thought, have formed the basis upon which thia mental dualism has been founded. Indeed it has been main- tained that the' dualism of the thinking principle is distinctly indicated by the apostle when he says of the Word of God that it is able to " divide asunder soul and spirit." The words in the original are 4/v^ and jtvevfjio,, and it is contended that by the former is meant the sentient, or animal soul, and by the latter the higher or rational soul. A similar distinction has been traced in the language of the Old Testament Scriptures, where one word is employed to denote the life that is common to man with the inferior animals, HI")* an d another word, HDk!'^' to denote that inspiration of the Almighty which giveth him understanding, and makes of him a rational soul. It may be doubted, however, whether this distinction is uniformly observed, either in the Scriptures of the Old or of the Ne^v Testament. And it may be better for us. instead of attempting to define the soul a jjriori by its essence, to define it rathe? VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY 475 30TJL- d posteriori by its operations. This also has been chne bj Aristotle, in a definition which has been generally adopted. He says, " The soul is that by which we live, feel, or perceive [will], move and understand." This is a full enumeration of all the energies which Aristotle assigned to the soul, and they are all manifested by the soul as it exists in man. Two of them, however, the energies of growth and motion, are usually treated of by the physiologist, rather than by the psychologist. At the same time, life and movement are not properties of matter ; and therefore they were enumerated by Aristotle as the properties of soul the soul nutritive, and the soul motive. " The animating form of a natural body is neither its organi- zation, nor its figure, nor any other of those inferior forms which make up the system of its visible qualities ; but it is the power which, not being that organization, nor that figure, nor those qualities, is yet able to produce, to preserve, and to employ them." ' This is what is now called the principle of life, and the consideration of it belongs to the physiologist for, although in the human being life and soul are united, it is thought they may still be separate entities. In like man- ner some philosophers have contended that all movement im- plies the existence of a soul, and hence it is that the various phenomena of nature have been referred to an anima nunidi, or soul of the universe. A modern philosopher of great name enumerated among the energies of the human soul a special faculty of locomotion, and the power of originating move- ment or change is ascribed to it when we call it active. The same view is taken by Adolphe Gamier. 3 Still, life and lo- comotion are not usually treated of as belonging to the soul, but rather as belonging to the bodies in which they are mani- fested. Hence it is that Dr. Reid, in his definition of the human soul, does not enumerate the special energies by which we live and move, but calls it that by which we think. " By the mind of a man," says he, 4 "we understand that in him which thinks, remembers, reasons, wills. . . We are 1 Harris, Phil. Arrange., p. 279. * Jouffroy, in his Caurs Pi-ofesse d la Facultc d<-s Lcttres in 1S37 1 In his Traitf. dfs Facultes de I'ame, iii. torn., 8vo, Par., 1852. 4 InteJl Pow., essay i., chap. 1. i76 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SOTJL- conscious that we think, and that we have a variety of thoughts of different kinds such as seeing, hearing, remembering, de- liberating, resolving, loving, hating, and many other kinds of thought all which we are taught by nature to attribute to one internal principle ; and this principle of thought we call the mind or soul of man." 1 It will be observed that Dr. Reid uses the word soul as synonymous with mind. And, perhaps, no very clear nor important distinction can be taken between them. The plainest and most common distinction taken in the use of these words is, that in speaking of the mind of man we refer more to the various powers which it possesses, or the various operations which it performs : and in speaking of the soul of man we refer rather to the nature and destiny of the human being. Thus we say the immortality of the soul, and the powers of the mind. 2 A difference of meaning is more observable in our language between the terms spirit and mind than between soul and mind. Both the latter terms may be and are applied indifferently to the mental principle as living and moving in connection with a bodily organism. But the term spirit properly denotes a being without a body. A being that never had a body is a pure spirit. A human soul when it has left the body is a disembodied spirit. Body is animated matter. Mind or soul is incorporated spirit. Into these verbal criticisms, however, it is not necessary to enter very minutely, because in psychological inquiries the term mind is commonly employed to denote that by which we feel, know, will, and reason or in one word the principle of 1 Dr. Reid's is the psychological definition. But the soul is something different from the ego, from any of its faculties, and from the sum of them all. Some have placed its essence in thought, as the Cartesians in sensation, as Locke and Condillac or in th will or activity, like Maine de Biran. A cause distinguished from its acts, distinguished from its modes or different degrees of activity, is what we call a force. The soul then is a force, one and identical. It is, as defined by Plato (De. Leg., lib. 10). a self-moving force. Understanding this to mean bodily or local motion. Aristotle has argued against this definition. De Anima, lib. i. cap. 3. But Plato probably meant self-active to be the epithet characteristic of the mind or soul. Ktvriais favrffv Ktvovaa. * Mind and the Latin mens were probably both from a root which is now lost in Europe. tut is. preserved in the Sanscrit mena. to know. The Greek voos or vov$, from the verb vofw, is of singular origin and import. Mind is more limited than soul. Soul, besides the rational principle, includes the living principle, and maybe applied to animals and vegetables. A r oluntary motion should not be denied to mind, as is very generalJy dona VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 477 SOTJL- thought. We know this inward principle as manifested through a system of bodily organization with which it is united, and by which it is in many ways affected. But "we are taught by nature," says Dr. Reid, " or it is a primitive belief, that the thinking principle is something different from the bodily organism, and when we wish to signalize its pecu- liar nature and destiny, we call it soul or spirit." Spirit, Mind, and Soul. " The first denoting the animating faculty, the breath of intelligence, the inspiring principle, the spring of energy and the prompter of exertion ; the second is the recording power, the preserver of impressions, the storer of deductions, the nurse of knowledge, and the parent of thought ; the last is the disembodied, etherial, self-conscious being, concentrating in itself all the purest and most refined of human excellences, every generous affection, every benevo- lent disposition, every intellectual attainment, every ennobling virtue, and every exalting aspiration." x "Animus, Anima, jtvtvfjia, and 4v>i ar e participles. Anima est ab Animus. Animus vero est a Graeco 'Avf^oj quod dici volunt quasi 'A^oj, ab 'Aw sive 'Aspi, quod est ytvw ; et Latinis a Spirando, Spiritus. Immo et ^u;^ est 4/v^w quod Hesychius exponit rtviu." Vossius quoted from Home Tooke in Stewart's Philosoph. Essays, essay v. "Indulsit mundi communis conditor illia Tantum Animas; nobis Animum, quoque." Juv., Sat. 9, v. 134. Anima, which is common to man and brutes, is that by which we live, move, and are invigorated ; whilst Animus in that which is peculiar to mankind, and by which we reason. The triple division of man into >otJj, tyzq, ow^ita, occurs fre- quently in ancient authors. Plato, Tim ecus; Aristotle, Pol. 1. The Hellenist Jews seemed to have used the term itvevfia. tc denote what the Greeks called rouj, with an allusion to Gen. ii. 7. Josephus, Ant. Jud., i., c. 2. Thence in the New Test we have, 1 Thess. v. 23, rtrfvpa, 4*1^*7, cw/ua. Hob. iv. 12, and Grotius, Note on Matthew xxvi. 41. 2 j, soul, when considered separately, signifies the prin- 1 The Purpose. / Existence., 12mo, 1850, p. 79. 9 Fiteaerald. Notes on Aristotle's Ethic, p. 179. 478 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SOUL- ciple of life ; No$, mind, the principle of intelligence. Or according to Plutarch, soul is the cause and beginning of motion, and mind of order and harmony with respect to motion. Together they signify an intelligent soul ty-jct]} which is sometimes called a rational soul ?.oytx>?). Hence, when the nature of the soul is not in ques- tion, the word ^t^jj is used to express both. Thus in the Pha'do the soul (<^v%r}} is said sometimes to use the body for the examination of things ; at which times, according to Plato, it forms confused and imperfect notions of things, and is in- volved in error. But, when it examines things by itself, it arrives at what is pure and always existing, and immortal, and uniform, and is free from error. Here the highest operations of vov$ "mind" are indisputably attributed to ilosoph. Allt.uande, torn, i., p. J 12. ' Hay wood, Crtt. of Pure Reason, p. 603. 480 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SPACE - visible world to be moved out of the place which it present! j occupies, into some other portion of space, beyond the limits of this universe, still it would be in the same space, provided the order and arrangement of the bodies, with respect to one another, was continued the same/ Now, it is true, that bodies placed in any kind of order, must necessarily be in space; but the order in which bodies are placed, and the space in which they are placed, must necessarily be distinct." ' "1. Space is not pure nothing, for nothing has no capacky ; but space has the capacity of receiving body. "2. It is not an ens rationis, for it was occupied by heaven and earth before the birth of man. " 3. It is not an accident inhering in a subject, i. e., body, for body changes its place, but space is not moved with it. "4. It is not the superficies of one body surrounding an- other, because superficies is an accident ; and as superficies is a quantity it should occupy space ; but space cannot occupy space. Besides, the remotest heaven occupies space, and has no superficies surrounding it. " 5. It is not the relation or order with reference to certain fixed points, as east, west, north, and south. For if the whole world were round, bodies would change place and not their order, or they may change their order and not their place, if the sky, with the fixed points, were moved by itself. " 6 and 7. It is not body, nor spirit. "8. It may be said with probability that space cannot b. distinguished from the divine immensity, and therefore from God. It is infinite and eternal, which God only is. He is the place of all being, for no being is out of Him. And although different beings are in different places externally, they are all virtually in the divine immensity." 2 Bardili argued for the reality of time and space from the fact that the inferior animals perceive or have notions of them. Yet their minds, if they can be said to have minds, are not subject to the forms or laws of the human mind. But if space be something to the mind, which has the idea Monboddo, Anc. Metaphys., book iv., chap. 1. Letters of (larkc and LeibntiJt. 9 Dwrodon, Physic., pars. 1. ch. 6. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY 181 SPACE - of it, and to the bodies which exist in it, what is it ? " Per- haps," says Dr. Reid (ut supra), " we may apply to it what the Peripatetics said of their first matter, that whatever it is, it is potentially only, not actually." This, accordingly, is the view taken of it by a great admirer of the Peripatetic philosophy. "Space," says Lord Monboddo, 1 "is but a relative; and it is relative to body, and to body only, and this in three respects, first, as to its capacity of receiving body ; secondly, as to its connecting or limiting body ; and lastly, as to its being the distance between bodies that are separated. . . . Place is space occupied by body. It is different from body as that which contains is different from that which is contained. . . . Space, then, is place, potentially ; and when it is filled with body, then it is place, actually." Space, as containing all things, was by Philo and others identified with the Infinite. And the text (Acts xvii. 28) which says that " in God we live, and move, and have our being," was interpreted to mean that space is an affection or property of the Deity. Sir Isaac Newton maintained that God by existing constitutes time and space. "Non est duratio vel apatium sed durat et adest, et existendo semper et ubique, spatium et durationem constituit." Clarke maintained that space is an attribute or property of the Infinite Deity. Reid and Stewart, as well as Cousin and Royer Collard, while they regard space as something real and more than a relation, have not posi- tively said what it is. As space is a necessary conception of the human mind, as it is conceived of as infinite, and as an infinite quality, Dr. Clarke 2 thought that from these views we may argue the exist- ence of an infinite substance, to which this quality belongs. Stewart, Act. and Mor. Pow. ; Pownall, Intellectual Physics ; Brougham, Nat. Theology. SPECIES (from the old verb, specio, to see) is a word of different signification, in different departments of philosophy. In Logic, species was defined to be, "Id quod predicatur de phtribus numero differentibus, in qucestione quid est?" And 1 Anc. Metaphys., book iv., chap. 2. * See his Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, with Butler's Letters tc Lim and the Answers. 42 2 G 482 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SPECIES - genus was defined to be, "Id quod predicatur de pluribus differ entibus specie, in qucestione quid est?" According to Derodon, 1 the adequate definition of genus is, "Res similes eodem nomine tubstantivo donates, et identificalce aim omnibus inferioribiis diverse* nomine substantivo donatis, et proprietate quadam inconv municabili distinctis." And of species, "Res similes eodem nimine substantivo donatce, et identificatce cum omnibus inferi- oribus diver so nomine mbstantivo donatis et omnes proprietates ita similes habentibus, ut quodlibet possit Jiabere attributa clio- rum, nullum tamen habeat actu idem sed tantum simile." In the process of classification (q.v.), the first step is the formation of a species. A species is a group of individuals agreeing in some common character, and designated by a common name. When two or more species are brought to- gether in the same way, they are called a genus. " In Logic, genus and species are relative terms ; a concep- tion is called in relation to its superior, species to its inferior, genus. The summum genus is the last result "of the abstracting process, the genus which can never in turn be a species. The infima species is the species which cannot become a genus ; which can only contain individuals, and not other species. But there can only be one absolute summum genus, whether we call it ' thing/ ' substance/ or ' essence/ And we can scarcely ever ascertain the infima species, because even in a handful of individuals, we cannot say with certainty that there are no distinctions on which a further subdivision into smaller classes might be founded." 2 In Mathematics, the term species was used in its primitive sense of appearance ; and when the form of a figure was given, it was said to be given in species. Algebra, in which letters are used for numbers, was called, at one time, the specious notation. In Mineralogy, species is determined by perfect identity of composition ; the form goes for nothing. In the organized kingdoms of nature, on the contrary, specitt is founded on identity of form and structure, both external and internal. The principal characteristic of species in animal* J^g., p. 293. Thomson. Outline of Laica of Thought. se>nil edition, sect. 27. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 483 SPECIES - and vegetables, is the power to produce beings like them selves, who are also productive. A species may be modified by external influences ; and thus give rise to races or varie- ties 5 * but it never abandons its own proper character to assume another. In Natural History, species includes only the following conditions ; viz., separate origin and distinctness of race evinced by a constant transmission of some character istk peculiarity of organization. 1 " Species," according to Dr. Morton (author of Crania Americana], " is a primordial organic form." See a descrip- tion of species in Ly ell's Geology.* " By maintaining the unity of the human species, says A. v. Humboldt, 3 we at the same time repel the cheerless assump- tion of superior and inferior races of men." " This eminent writer appears in the passage quoted to exaggerate the extent of uniformity implied in a common species. It is unques- tionable that mankind form one species in the sense of the natural historian ; but it does not follow from this fact that there are no essential hereditary differences, both physical and mental, between different varieties and races of men. The analogy of animal species would make it probable that such essential differences do exist ; for we see that, although all horses, dogs, oxen, sheep, &c., form respectively one spe- cies, yet each species contains varieties or races, which pos- sess certain properties in different degrees, which are more or less large, active, gentle, intelligent, hardy, and the like. If we are guided by the analogy of animal species, it is as probable that an Englishman should be more intelligent than a negro, as that a greyhound should be more fleet than a mas- tiff, or an Arabian horse than a Shetland pony." 4 Species in Perception. In explaining the process of external perception, or how we come to the knowledge of things out of and distant from us, it was maintained that these objects send forth species 01 images of themselves, which, making an impression on the Dr. Prichard. 3 Chap. 37. * Cosmos, vol. i.. p. 355, Engl. tran?. 4 E'r G. C. Lewis, On Politics, chap. 27,. sect. 10. 484 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY, SPECIES - bodily organs, next imprinted themselves on the mind and issued in knowledge. The species considered as the vicarious representative cf the . object, was called intentional. And as it affected both the intellect and the sense, was distinguished as sensible and intelligible. Species, as sensible, was distinguished as species impressa, as making an impression upon the sense and species expressa, in consequence of the sense or imagination, from the impres- sion, elaborating another species of the object. Species, as intelligible, was also distinguished into species impressa and species expressa. The species intelligibilis was called impressa, as it determined the facility to the apprehen- sion of this object, rather than of that. And it was called expressa, as in consequence of the operation of the faculty, knowledge of the object was attained to. According to some, the species as intelligible were conge- nite, and according to others they were elaborated by the in- tellect in the presence of the phantasms. The process of perception is thus described by Tellez. 1 Socrates by his figure, &c., makes an impression upon the eye, and vision follows then a species is impressed upon the phantasy, plianlasma impressum; the phantasy gives thephan- tasma expression, the intdlectus agens purifies and spiritualizes it, so that it is received by the intellectns patiens, and the knowledge of the object is elicited. " The philosophy schools teach that for the cause of vision, the thing seen sendeth forth on every side a visible species (in English), a visible show, apparition, or aspect, or a being seen, the receiving of which into the eye is seeing Nay, for the cause of understanding also the thing understood sendeth forth an intelligible species, that is, an intelligible being seen, which, coming into the understanding, makes it understood/' 2 For the various forms under which the doctrine of specie! has been held, see Reid. 3 * Summa Phil. Arist., Paris, 1645, p. 47. a Hobbes, Of Man, part i., chap. 1. 8 Intell. POVJ., essay ii., chap. 8, with notes by Sir W. Hamilton, and nota s VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 485 SPECIES The doctrine was not universally received during the Mid- dle Ages. " Scholasticism had maintained that between the exterior bodies, placed before us, and the mind of man, there are images which belong to the exterior bodies, and make more or less a part of them, as the SwXa of Democritus, images or sensible forms which represent external objects by the conformity which they have with them. So the mind was supposed to be able to know spiritual beings only through th j medium of intelligible species. Occam destroyed these chime- ras, and maintained that there is nothing real but spiritual or material beings, and the mind of man, which directly con- ceives them. Gabriel Biel, a pupil of Occam (born at Spire, and died 1495), exhibited with much sagacity and clearness the theory of his master. Occam renewed, without knowing it, the warfare of Arcesilas against the Stoics ; and he is in modern Europe the forerunner of Reid and of the Scotch school." Mons. Haureau 2 says of Durandus de St. Pourcain that he not only rejected intelligible species, but that he would not admit sensible species. To feel, to think, said he, are simple acts which result from the commerce of mind with an external object ; and this commerce takes place directly without any- thing intermediate. SPECIFICATION (The Principle of) is, that beings the most like or homogeneous disagree or are heterogeneous in some respect. It is the principle of variety or difference. Specification (Process of) ''is the counterpart of generaliza- tion. In it we begin with the most extensive class, and descend, step by step, till we reach the lowest. In so doing we are thinking out objects, and thinking in attributes. In generalization we think in objects and think out attributes." 1 SPECULATION (specular, to regard attentively). "To speculate is, from premisses given or assumed, but considered unques- tionable, as the constituted point of observation, to look abroad upon the whole field of intellectual vision, and thence * Cousin, Hist, of Mod. Phil., vol. ii., p. 26. * Exam, de Phil. Scholast., torn. i.. p. 416. 1 Spuldiug, Log., p. 15. 42* 486 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SPECULATION- to decide upon the true form and dimension of all which meets the view." l "Speculation stands opposed to reflection, a method of thought which has to do with something given, and appro- priates the same by continued analysis and synthesis of its elements. If speculative stand thus opposed to reflective think- ing, it must necessarily belong to the former not to set out from anything given as its subject, but from determinations which thought finds, in itself as the necessary and primary ground of all being as of all thinking. In this sense, all speculative thinking is of an d priori, and all reflective think- ing of an d posteriori nature." 2 It is that part of philosophy which is neither practical nor experimental. The speculative part of philosophy is meta- physics. The speculative part of mathematics is that which has no application to the arts. SPIRITUALISM (spiritus, spirit) is not any particular system of philosophy, but the doctrine, whether grounded on reason, sentiment, or faith, that there are substances or beings which are not cognizable by the senses, and which do not reveal themselves to us by any of the qualities of matter, and which we therefore call immaterial or spiritual. Materialism denies this. But spiritualism does not deny the existence of matter, and, placing itself above materialism, admits both body and spirit. Hence it is called dualism, as opposed to the denial of the existence of matter. The idealism of Berkeley and Malebranche may be said to reduce material existences to mere phenomena of the mind. Mysticism, whether religious or philosophical, ends with resolving mind and matter into the Divine substance. Mysticism and idealism tend to pan- theism, materialism to atheism. Spiritualism, grounded upon consciousness, preserves equally God, the human person, and external nature, without confounding them and without iso- lating the one from the other. 3 SPONTANEITY. Leibnitz 4 explains "spontaneity to mean the true and real dependence of our actions on ourselvee." Hei 1 Marsh, Prelim. Essay to Aids to Reflection, p. 13. 3 Miiller, Doctrine of Sin, Introd. 8 Diet, des Sciences Fldlosoph. * Opera, torn. i. p. 469. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 487 SPONTANEITY neccius calls it " the faculty of directing one's aim to a cer tain end." ' It is a self-active causality. SPONTANEOUS is opposed to reflective. Those operations of mind which are continually going on without any effort or intention on our part are spontaneous. When we exercise a volition, and make an effort of attention to direct our mental energy in any particular way, or towards any particular ob* ject, we are said to reflect, or to observe. STANDARD OF VIRTUE. Standard is that by which other things are rated or valued. " Labour alone, therefore, never varying in its own value, is alone the ultimate and real stand- ard by which commodities can at all times and places be es- timated and compared/' 2 A standard is something set up by which to measure the quantity or quality of some other thing. Now rectitude is the foundation of virtue. The standard of virtue is some law or rule by which rectitude can be measured. To the law of God, and to the testimony of an enlightened conscience, if they agree not, it is because there is no truth nor Tightness in them. Now the will of God, as declared by the constitution and course of nature, or as revealed by His Word, is a standard by which we may measure the amount of rectitude, in action or disposition. According as they agree, in a greater or less degree, with the indications of the divine will, in the same proportion are they right, or in accordance with rectitude. The standard of virtue, then, is the will of God, as declared in His Word, or some law or rule deduced from the constitu- tion of nature and the course of providence. The foundation of virtue is the ground or reason on which the law or rule rests. V. CRITERION. STATE (States of Mind). " The reason why madness, idiotism, &c., are called states* of mind, while its acts and operations are not, is because mankind have- always conceived the mind to be passive in the former and active in the latter/' 4 1 Turnbull, Trans., vol. i., p. 3o. 3 Smith, Wealth of Nat., b i . c. 5. * **The term ttait has. more especially of late years, and principr. ly by Necessitarian philosophers, been applied to all modifications of mind indifferently." Hamilton. * Keid's Correspondence, p. 85. 488 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. STATE - Such were the views of Dr. Reid. But since his day, a change has passed over the language of Scottish psychology. No change of phraseology, because no change of doctrine, is to be found in the writings of Mr. Stewart. But in those of I)r. Brown the difference is manifest. Instead of speaking of the mind as operating, or as acting, or as energizing, he de- lights rather to speak of it as exhibiting phenomena, and as passing through, or existing in, different states. This phrase- ology has been by many accepted and applauded. It is thought that by adopting it, we neither affirm nor deny the activity of the mind, and thus proceed to consider its mani- festations, unembarrassed by any questions as to the way in which these manifestations are brought about. But it may be doubted if this phraseology leaves the question, as to the activity of the mind, entire and untouched. If Dr. Brown had not challenged the common opinion, he would not, probably, have disturbed the language that was previously in common use ; although it must be admitted that he was by no means averse to novel phrases. At all events, the tendency of his philosophy is to represent the mind in all its manifestations as passive the mere recipient of changes made upon it from without. Indeed, his system of philosophy, which is sensational in its principles, may be said to take the bones and sinews out of the mind, and to leave only a soft and yielding mass, to be magnetized by the palmistry of matter. That the mind in some of its manifestations is passive, rather than active, is admitted ; and in reference to these, there can be no objection to speak of it as existing in certain stales, or passing into these states. But in adopting, to some extent, this phraseology, we must not let go the testimony which is given in favour of the activity of mind, by the use and structure of language. Language is not the invention of philosophers. It is the natural expression of the human mind, and the expo- nent of those views which are natural to it. Now, the phrase operations of mind, being in common use, indicates a common opinion that mind is naturally active. That opinion may bo erroneous, and it is open to philosophers to show, if they can, that it is so. But the observation of Dr. Reid is, that " until it is proved that the mind is not active in thinking, Vut merely VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 489 STATE - passive, the common language with regard tc its operations ought to be used, and ought not to give place tc a phraseology invented by philosophers, which implie* its being merely passive." And in another place, 1 he says, " There may be dis- tinctions that have a real foundation, and which may be ne- cessary in philosophy, which are not made in common lan- guage, because not necessary in the common business of life. But I believe no instance will be found of a distinc- tion made in all languages, which has not a just foundation in nature." If any change of phraseology were expedient, the phrase " manifestations of mind" would touch less upon the question of its activity. But in the language of Dr. Reid " The mind is from its very nature, a living and active being. Everything we know of it implies life and active energy ; and the reason why all its modes of thinking are called its operations, is, that . in all or in most of them, it is not merely passive, as body is, but is really and properly active. In all ages, and in all lan- guages, ancient and modern, the various modes of thinking have been expressed by words of active signification, such as seeing, hearing, reasoning, Avilling, and the like. It seems, therefore, to be the natural judgment of mankind, that the mind is active in its various ways of thinking ; and for this reason they are called its operations, and are expressed by active verbs." One proof of the mind being active in some of its operations is, that these operations are accompanied with effort, and followed by languor. In attention, we are conscious of effort ; and the result of long continued attention is languor and ex- haustion. This could not be the case if the mind was alto- gether passive the mere recipient of impressions made of ideas introduced. V. OPERATIONS OF MIND. STATISTICS. "The observation, registration, and arrange- ment of those facts in politics which admit of being reduced to a numerical expression has been, of late years, made the subject of a distinct science, and comprehended under the do 1 Jntell. l\nc, t essay i., chap. 1. 490 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. STATISTICS - signation of statistics. Both the name and the separate treat- ment of the subject were due to Achenwall, 1 who died in 1772. 2 This science, it is there remarked, does not discuss causes, nor reason upon probable effects; it seeks only to collect, arrange, and compare, that class of facts which alone. (?) can form the basis of correct conclusions with respect to social and political government. . . . Its peculiarity is, that it proceeds wholly by the. accumulation and comparison of facts, and does not admit of any kind of speculation. . . . The statist commonly prefers to employ figures and tabular exhibitions." 3 STOICS (from atod, a porch). Zeno opened a school at Athens, in the "variegated porch/' so called from the painting of Polygnotus, with which it was adorned, whence his adhert its were called "philosophers of the porch." Stoics. 4 " From the Tusculan Questions," says Bentham, 8 " I lean, t that pain is no evil. Virtue is of itself sufficient to confer happiness on any man who is disposed to possess it on these terms. . . . " This was the sort of trash which a set of men used to amuse themselves with talking, while parading backwards and . forwards in colonnades, called porches : that is to say, the Stoics, so called from otod, the Greek name for a porch. In regard to these, the general notion has been, that compared with our cotemporaries in the same ranks, they were, generally speaking, a good sort of men ; and assuredly, in all times, good sort of men, talking all their lives long nonsense, in an endless variety of shapes, never have been wanting ; but that from talking nonsense in this or any other shape, they or their successors have, in any way or degree, been the better, this is what does not follow." 1 Gock-froy Achenwall was born at Elbingen, in Prussia, in 1719. studied at Jen:i. Halle, and Leipsic. established himself at Marburg in 1746, and in 1748, where lie soon afterwards obtained a chair. He was distinguished as Professor of History and Static rios. But he also published several works on the Law of Nature and of Nations. 3 Upon the nature and province of the science of statistics, see the Introduction t' Mie Journal of the London Statistical Society, vol. i., 1839. 8 Sir G. C. Lewis, Method of Observ. in Polit., chap. 5, eect. 10. * Sc-hwegler, Hist, of Phil., p. 138. 8 DetmlriL, vol. i., p. 302. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 491 STOICS - Their philosophy of mind may be judged of by the motto assigned to them Nihil est in inteUectu nisi prius fuerit in sensu. Yet, along with this, they held that the mind had the power of framing general ideas, but these were derived from experience. Zeno compared the hand open to sensation ; half closed upon some object to judgment; fully closed upon it tc tyavtaciia, xatahyrtfixr,, comprehensive judgment, or synthesis of judgment. And when the one hand grasped the other to enable it to hold more firmly, this was universal and definitive (synthesis or science. In physics they said all things were made of cause and matter. In morals their maxim was " to live agreeably to nature." Mind ought to govern matter. And the great struggle of life was, to lift the soul above the body, and the evils incident to it. Their two great rules were av(%ov and ajtf%ov sustine, absti/ie. 1 Heinsius (Dan.), Philosoph. Stoica ; 2 Lipsius (Justus), Mamtductio ad Stoicam Philosoph.;* Gataker (Thomas), Dis- sertatio cle Disciplina Stoica, prefixed to his edition of .4/1- toninus.* SUBJECT, OBJECT, SUBJECTIVE, OBJECTIVE. "We frequently meet," says Dr. Reid, " with a distinction between things in the m ind and things external to the mind. The powers, faculties, and operations of the mind, are things in the mind. Everything is said to be in the mind, of which the mind is the subject Excepting the mind itself and things in the mind, all other things are said to be external." By the term subject Dr. Reid meant substance, that to which powers belong or in which qualities reside or inhere. The distinction, therefore, which he takes between things in the mind and things external to the mind, is equivalent to that which is expressed among continental writers by the ego and the non ego, or self and not self. The mind and things in the mind constitute the ego. "All other things," says Dr. Reid, " are said to be external." They constitute the non ego. " In the philosophy of mind, subjective denotes what is to be referred to the thinking subject, the ego ; objective, what be> longs to the object of thought, the non ego."* Diet. d>'S Sciences Plulosopfi. 4to, Leyd., 1627. 4to. A n t w., 1 (564. * 4 to, Camb., 1643. * Sir W". Hamilton, I)iscussiom t Lond., Svo, 1852, p. 5, note. 492 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SUBJECT- "The subject is properly, id in quo; the object, id citca quod Hence, in psychological language, the subject absolutely is the mind that knows or thinks, i. e., the mind considered as the subject of knowledge or thought the object, that which is known or thought about. The adjectives subjective and 06- jective are convenient, if not indispensable expressions." ' Sir Will. Hamilton 2 explains how these terms should have come into common use in mental philosophy. " All knowledge is a relation, a relation between that which knows (in scholastic language, the subject in which knowledge inheres) and that which is known (in scholastic language, the object about which knowledge is conversant) ; and the contents of every act of knowledge are made up of elements, and regu- lated by laws, proceeding partly from its object and partly from its subject. Now, philosophy proper is principally and primarily the science of knowledge its first and most important problem being to determine, What can we know? that is, what are the conditions of our knowing, whether these lie in the nature of the object, or in the nature of the subject of knowledge. " But philosophy being the science of knowledge ; and the science of knowledge supposing, in its most fundamental and thorough - going analysis, the distinction of the subject and object of knowledge ; it is evident that to philosophy the subject of knowledge would be by pre-eminence, the subject, and the object of knowledge, the object. It was therefore natural that the object and objective, the subject and subjective, should be employed by philosophers as simple terms, compendiously to denote the grand discrimination, about which philosophy was constantly employed, and which no others could be found so precisely and promptly to express." For a disquisition on subject, see Tappan. 3 V. OBJECTIVE. SUBJECTIVISM is the doctrine of Kant, that all human know- ledge is merely relative ; or rather that we cannot prove it to be absolute. According to him, we cannot objectify tht subjective; that is, we cannot prove that what appears true t: 1 Sir Will. Hamilton, Reid's Works, p. 221. note, * In note B to Reid's Wvrks, p. 108. 1 Log,, sect. 4. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 49ft SUBJECTIVISM- us must appear true to all intelligent beings ; or that with different faculties what now appears true to us might not appear true. But to call our knowledge relative is merely calling it human or proportioned to the faculties of a man ; just as the knowledge of angels may be called angelic. Our knowledge may be admitted to be relative to our faculties of apprehending it ; but that does not make it less certain. 1 SUBLIME (The). " In reflecting on the circumstances by which sublimity in its primitive sense is specifically distinguished, the first thing that strikes us is, that it carries the thoughts in a direction opposite to that in which the great and universal law of terrestrial gravitation operates." 2 A sense of grandeur and sublimity has been recognized as one of the reflex senses belonging to man. It is different from the sense of the beautiful, though closely allied to it. Beauty charms, sublimity moves us, and is often accompanied with a feeling resembling fear, while beauty rather attracts and draws us towards it. There is a sublime in nature, as in the ocean or the thunder in moral action, as in deeds of daring and self-denial and in art, as in statuary and painting, by which what is sublime in nature and in moral character is represented and idealized. Kant has accurately analyzed our feelings of sublimity and beauty in his Critique du Judgment ; Cousin, Sur le Beau, le Vrai, et le Bon; Burke, On the Sublime and Beautiful; Addison. 3 Dr. Parr addressed an Essay on the Sublime to D. Stewart. STJBSISTENTIA is a substantial mode added to a singular nature, and constituting a supposilum along with it. It means, 1. The thing itself, the suppositum ; hence we call the three persons of the Trinity three hypostases or subsistences. 2. The mode added to the singular nature to complete its existence ; this is the metaphysical sense. 3. The act of existing per se. " Subsistentia est 'substantial completio;' qua carent rerum naturalium paries a reliquis divulsce. Subsistens dicitur sup- positum aut hypostasis. Persona est suppositum ratione prce ditum." * Reid's Works, by Sir W. Hamilton, p. 513. Stewart, Phil. Essays, Essay on the Sublime. Spectator, vol. vi. 4 Hutcheson, Melaphys., pars 1, cp. 5. 43 194 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SUBSTANCE is " that which is and abides." It may be derived from subsistens (ens per se subsisfens), thai which subsists of or by itself; or from substans (id quod sufr stat), that which lies under qualities the vitoxti^vov of the Greeks. But in Greek, substance is denoted by ovtia, so that which truly is, or essence, seems to be the proper meaning of substance. It is opposed to accident; of which Aristotle has stiid 1 that you can scarcely predicate of it that it is anything. So also Augustine 2 derives substance from subsislendo rather than from svbstando. "Sicut ab eo quod est ex&e. appellalur essentia ; ita ab eo quod est subsistere, substantiam dicimus." But Locke prefers the derivation from substando. He says: 8 11 The idea, then, we have, to which we give the name of sub- stance, being nothing but the supposed but unknown support of these qualities we find existing, which we imagine cannot subsist, sine re substante, without something to support them, we call that support substantia ; which, according to the true import of the word, is, in plain English, standing under or upholding." Dr. Hampden 4 has said, "Substance, in its logical and meta- physical sense, is that nature of a thing which may be con- ceived to remain when every other nature is removed or ab- stracted from it the ultimate point in analyzing the complex idea of any object. Accident denotes all those ideas which the analysis excludes as not belonging to the mere being or nature of the object." Substance has been defined, ens per se existens; and accident, ens existens non in se sed in alio. Our first idea of substance is probably derived from the con- sciousness of self the conviction that, while our sensations, thoughts, and purposes are changing, we continue the same. We see bodies also remaining the same as to quantity or ex- tension, while their colour and figure, their state of motion or of rest, may be changed. Substances, it has been said, are either primary, that is, sin- gular, individual substances; or secondary* that is genera and : MetapJtys., lib. vii. a De Trinitate, lib. vii., a. 4. * Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., ch. 23. 4 Bampton Lect.. vii., p. 337. Hiiureau (Phil. ScJinlast., torn, i., p. 60). says that what h:is been called ttcond sitt 'Mnce is just one of its modes or n species. VOCABULARY - OF PHILOSOPHY. 495 SUBSTANCE - species of substance. Substances have also betn divided into complete and incomplete, finite and infinite, &c. But thes<> are rather divisions of being. Substance may, however, be pro- perly divided into matter and spirit, or that which is extended and that which thinks. V. ESSENCE. Substance (The Principle of) denotes that law of the human mind by which every quality or mode of being is referred to a substance. In everything which we perceive or can imagine as existing, we distinguish two parts, qualities variable and mul- tiplied, and a being one and identical ; and these two are so united that we cannot separate them in our intelligence, nor think of qualities without a substance. Memory recalls to us the many modes of our mind ; but amidst all these modes we believe ourselves to be the same individual being. So in the world around us the phenomena are continually varying ; but we believe that these phenomena are produced by causes which remain, as substances, the same. And as we know our- selves to be the causes of our own acts, and to be able to change the modes of our own mind, so we believe the changes of matter to be produced by causes which belong to the sub- stance of it. And underlying all causes, whether of finite mind or matter, we conceive of one universal and absolute cause, one substance, in itself persistent and upholding all things. SUBSTJMPTION (sub, under; sumo, to take). "When we are able to comprehend why or how a thing is, the belief of the existence of that thing is not a primary datum of conscious- ness, but a subsumption under the cognition or belief which affords its reason/' ' To subsume is to place any one cognition under another as belonging to it. In the judgment, " a?i norses are animals," the conception " horses" is subsumed under that of " animals." The minor proposition is a subsumption under the major when it is placed first. Thus, if one were to say, " No man is wise in all things," and another to respond, " But you are a man," this proposition is a subsumption under the former. And tho major being assumed ex concesso, and the minor subsumed n? evidence, the conclusion follows, "You are not wise in all things." 1 Sir Will. Hamilton, Reid's Works, note A. >19G VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY SUCCESSION. "By reflecting on the appearance of various ideas one after another in our understanding, we get the notion of succession." l He traces our notion of duration or time to the same origin ; or rather he confounds succession and dura* tion, the measure with the thing measured. According to Cousin and others, the notion of time is logically antecedent and necessary to the notion of succession. Events take place in time, as bodies exist in space. In the philosophy of Kant, time is not an empirical notion, but like space, a form of the sensibility. V. DURATION, TIME. SUFFICIENT REASON (Doctrine of). "Of the principle of the sufficient reason, the following account is given by Leib nitz, iu his controversial correspondence with Dr. Clarke : ' The great foundation of mathematics is the principle of contradiction or identity; that is, that a proposition cannot be true and false at the same time. But, in order to proceed from mathematics to natural philosophy, another principle is requisite (as I have observed in my Theodiccea), I mean, the principle of the sufficient reason; or, in other words, that nothing happens without a reason why it should be so, rather than otherwise. And, accordingly, Archimedes was obliged, in his book De Equilibria, to take for granted, that if there be a balance, in which everything is alike on both sides, and if equal weights are hung on the two ends of that balance, the whole will be at rest. It is because no reason can be given why one side should weigh down rather than the other. Now by this single principle of the sufficient reason, may be demonstrated the being of a God, and all the other parts of metaphysics or natural theology ; and even, in some measure, those physical truths that are independent of mathematics, such as the dynamical principles, or the principles of forces.' " V. REASON (DETERMINING). The principle of sufficient reason as a law of thought is stated by logicians thus - " Every judgment we accept must rest upon a sufficient ground or reason/' From this law follow such principles as these: 1. Granting the reason, we niusl grant what follows from it. On this, syllogistic inference depends. 2. If all the consequents are held to be true, the 1 Lorke, Essay on Hum. Understand., b. ii., ch. 14. a See Reid, Act. Pow., essay iv., ohap. &. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 497 SUFFICIENT - reason must be true. 3. If we rejecf. the consequent we must reject the reason. 4. If we admit the consequent, we do not of necessity admit the reason, as there may be other reasons or causes of the same effect. Thomson, Outline of Laics of ThougJit. 1 But according to Mr. Mansel, 2 *' The principle of sufficient reason is no law of thought, but only the statement that every act of thought must be governed by some law or other." SUGGESTION (suggero, to bear or place under, to prompt). " It is the received doctrine of philosophers, that our no- tions of relations can only be got by comparing the related ideas : but it is not by having first the notions of mind and sensation and then comparing them together, that we perceive the one to have the. relation of a subject or substratum, and tfre other that of an act or operation: on the contrary, one of the related things, viz., sensation, suggests to us both the correlate and the relation. " I beg leave to make use of the word suggestion, because I know not one more proper, to express a power of the mind, which seems entirely to have escaped the notice of philoso- phers, and to which we owe many of our simple notions which are neither impressions nor ideas, as well as many original principles of belief." 3 To this power Dr. Reid refers our natural judgments or principles of common sense. Mr. Stewart 4 has expressed sur- prise that Reid should have apologized for introducing a word which had already been employed by Berkeley, to denote those intimations which are the results of experience and habit. And Sir W. Hamilton 5 has shown that in the more extensive sense of Reid the word had been used by Tertullian ; who, speaking of the universal belief of the soul's immortality, has said, 6 " Natura pleraque suggeruntur, quasi de publicc sensu quo animam Deus ditare dignatus est." The word suggestion is much used in the philosophy of l>r. Thomas Brown, in a sense nearly the same as that as- signed to association, by other philosoj hers. He calls judg 1 P. 296. a Prolcgom. Log., p. 198. * Reid, Enquiry, ch. 2, s. 7. 4 Dissert., p, 167, second od * Reid's Works, p. 3, note. De Anima, c. 2. 43* 2 H 498 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SUGGESTION- ment, relative suggestion. Hutcheson 1 says, " Sensm est in ternus qui suggerit prcecipue intellcctiones pnras ; quce conscir entia, ant reflectendi vis dicitur." It is nor, so properly con- ' sciousness or reflection which gives the new ideas, but rather the occasion on which these ideas are suggested. It is when we are conscious and reflect on one thing, some other thing related to it, but not antecedently thought, is suggested. Locke 2 said, " Simple ideas, the materials of all our know- ledge, are suggested and furnished to the mind only by those two ways mentioned above, viz., Sen??-i. r ind Reflection. Cumberland 3 had said before him, "Utrobique inteUigimus propos it tones quasdam immutabilis veritatis. Hujusmodi ali- quot veritates a rerum hominumque natura mentibus humanis necessario suggeri, hoc est quod a nobis affirmatur, hoc idem ab adve) sariis non minus diserte denegatur." SUICIDE (sui and ccedes, self-murder) is the voluntary taking away of one's own life. The Stoics thought it was not wrong to do so, when the pains and inconveniences of our lot ex- ceeded its enjoyments and advantages. But the command, "Thou shalt not kill," forbids suicide as well as homicide. It is contrary to one of the strongest instincts of our nature, that of self-preservation and at variance with the submission which we owe to God, and the duties incumbent upon us to- wards our fellow-creatures. All the apologies that can be offered for it are futile. Aristotle; 4 Hermann, Disputatio de Autocheiria et philoso- phice et ex legibus Romanis consider ata, ; 6 Madame de Stael, Reflexwns sur le Suicide; Stoeudlin, Hist, des Opinions et des Doctrines sur le Suicide; 6 Tissot, Manie du Suicide; Adams, On Self-murder ; Donne, Biathanatos. SUPERSTITION (so called, according to Lucretius, quod sit superstantium rerum, i. e., ccelestium et divinarum quce supra nos stant, nimis et superfluiis timor, Aulus Gellius, 7 ) is not an "excess of religion" (at least in the ordinary sense of the word excess], "as if any one could have too much of true 1 Log. Compend., cap. 1. a Essay on Hum. Understand . b. ii., ch. 2, g 2. 1 De L?gy. Nat., c. i., sect. I. 4 Ethic., lib. iii., cap. 7, lib. v , cap. 11. * 4t.o, Leips., 1809. Svo, Goetting., 1S24. 1 Nod. Attic., lib. 10. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 499 SUPERSTITION - religion, but any misdirection of religious feeling; mani fested either in showing religious veneration or regard to objects which deserve none; that is, properly speaking, the worship of false gods ; or, in the assignment of such a degree, or such a kind of religious veneration to any object, as that object, though worthy of some reverence, does not deserve ; or in the worship of the true God through the me- dium of improper rites and ceremor "es." ' " Superstition," says Dr. Hartley, "may be denned a mis- taken opinion concerning the severity and punishments of God, magnifying these in respect to ourselves or others. It may arise from a sense of guilt, from bodily indisposition, or from erroneous reasoning." SUPRA-NATURALISM (supra, above ; natura, nature) is the doctrine that in nature there are more than physical causes in operation, and that in religion we have the guidance not merely of reason but of revelation. It is thus opposed to Naturalism and to Rationalism q. v. In Germany, where the word originated, the principal Supra-naturalists are Tho- luck, Hengstenberg, Guericke, &c. SYLLOGISM (cruMoyttfjUoj, a putting together of judgments, or propositions or reasonings). This word occurs in the writings of Plato, in the sense of judging or reasoning ; but not in the technical sense assigned to it by Aristotle. According to Aristotle, 2 " a syllogism is a speech (or enun- ciation) (a,6yo$) in which certain things (the premises) being supposed, something different from what is supposed (the con- clusion) follows of necessity ; and this solely in virtue of the suppositions themselves." " A syllogism is a combination of two judgments necessitating a third judgment as the consequence of their mutual relation/' 8 Euler likened the syllogism to three concentric circles, of which the first contained the second, which in its turn con- tained the third. Thus, if A be predicable of all B, anil B of all C, it follows necessarily that A is also predicable cf 0. * Whately, On Baco-i. p. 155. * Prior. Analyt., lib. L, cap. 1, sect. 7. 8 M tinsel, 1'rolegoni. Log., p. 61. 500 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SYLLOGISM - In a syllogism, the first two propositions are called the pre mises; because they are the things premised or put before, they are also called the antecedents: the first of them is called the major and the second the minor. The third proposition, which contains the thing to be proved, is called the con- clusion or consequent: and the particle which unites the conclusion with the premises is called the consequentia or con- x sequence.* In a syllogism, " the conclusion having two terms, a subject an d a predicate, its predicate is called the major fcrmfand its subject the minor term? In order to prove the conclusion, each of its terms is, in the premises, compared with tbe- third term^ called the middle term. By this means one of the premises will have for its two terms the major term and the middle term ; and this premise is called the major premise, or the .4^ t^ major proposition of the syllogism. The other premise must have for its two terms the minor term and the middle term ; and it is called the minor proposition. Thus the syllogism consists of three propositions, distinguished by the names of the major, the minor, and the conclusion; and although each of these has two terms, a subject and a predicate, yet there are only three different terms in all. The major term is always the predicate of the conclusion, and is also either the subject or predicate of the major proposition. The minor term is always the subject of the conclusion, and is also either the subject or predicate of the minor proposition. The middle term never 1 Thus : Every virtue is laudable; Diligence is a virtue; Wherefore diligence is laudable. "The two former propositions are the premises or antecedents, the *ast is the :&idtt lion or consequent, and the particle wherefore is the consequentia or consequence "The consequent may be true and the consequence false. "What has parts is divisible; The human soul has parts; Wherefore the human soul is divisible, "The consequent may be true although the consequence is false. "Antichrist will be powerful, Therefore he will be impious *His impiety will not flow from his power." VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 501 SYLLOGISM - enters into the conclusion, but stands in both premises, either in the position of subject or of predicate." 3 According to the various positions which the middle term may have in the premises, syllogisms are said to be of various figures. And as all the possible positions of the middle term are only four, the regular figures of the syllogisms are also four ; and a syllogism is said to be drawn in the first, second, third, or fourth figure according to the position of its middle term. There is another division of syllogisms according to their moods. The mood of a syllogism is determined by the quality and quantity of the propositions of which it consists. There are sixty-four moods possible in every figure. And the theory of the syllogism requires that we show what are the par- ticular moods in each figure, which do or do not form a just and conclusive syllogism. The legitimate moods of the first figure are demonstrated from the axiom called Dictum de omni, et de nullo. The legitimate moods of the other figures are proved by reducing them to some mood of the first. 2 According to the different kinds of propositions employed in forming them, syllogisms are divided into Categorical and Hypothetical. Categorical syllogisms are divided into Pure and Modal. Hypothetical syllogisms into Conditional and Disjunctive. In the Categorical syllogism, the two premisses and the con- clusion are all categorical propositions. One premiss of a conditional syllogism is a conditional pro- position ; the other premiss is a categorical proposition, and either asserts the antecedent or denies the consequent. In the former case, which is called the modus ponens, the conclu- sion infers the truth of the consequent; in the latter case, which is called the modus tollens, the conclusion infers the falsity of the antecedent. The general forms of these two cases are, "If A is, B is ; but A is, therefore B is ; and if A is, B is not ; but B is, therefore A is not." " If what we learn from the Bible is true, we ought not to do evil that good may come ; but what we learn from the Bible is true, therefore we ought not to do evil that good may come." * Keid, Acamnt of Aristotle's Logic, chap. 3, sect. 2. Christian Wolf. SmaUf Lw'c, ch. 6. 502 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SYLLOGISM - In the Disjunctive syllogism, we commence with a disjunct tive judgment, and proceed either by asserting the truth of one member of the division, and thence inferring the falsity of all the rest, which is called the modus ponens, or else by asserting the falsity of all the members but one, and hence inferring the truth of that one, which latter method is called the modus tollens. The general form of these two cases will be, "Either A is, or B is, or C is; but A is; therefore nei- ther B is, nor C is." And " Either A is, or B is, or C is ; but neither B is, nor C is ; therefore A is." Either the Pope is infallible, or there is at least one great error in the Romish Church ; but the Pope is not infallible, therefore there is at least one great error in the Romish Church. 1 Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand.; 2 Aldrich, Wallis, Watts, and other authors on Logic. SYMBOL. K MYTH. SYMPATHY ( Stcupf'w, to divide, to tear asunder) was used to denote the state of conviction or remorse in which the mind was when comparing what it had done with what it ought to have done. 2 SYNEIDESIS (ffvj/stSjyfftf, joint knowledge; from o\>v and tl8u). Conscience, as giving knowledge of an action in reference to the law of right and wrong, was called the Witness who accused or excused. The operations of conscience were repre- sented by the three members of a syllogism ; of which the first contained the law, the second the testimony of the wit- ness, and the third the decision of the judge. But conscience not only pronounces sentence ; it carries its sentence into effect. V. SFNDERESIS. He who has transgressed any of the rules of which con- science is the repository, is punished by the reproaches of his own mind. He who has obeyed these rules, is acquitted and rewarded by feelings of complacency and self-approbation. V. SYNTERESIS. SYNTERESIS (awfr^at,^ the conservatory; from owf^pew). Conscience, considered as the repository of those rules, or general maxims, which are regarded as first principles in morals, w r as called by this name among the early Christian moralists, and was spoken of as the law or lawgiver. SYNTHESIS (avvOtais, a putting together, composition) "consists in assuming the causes discovered and established as princi- ples, and by them explaining the phenomena proceeding from them and proving the explanation," 3 " Every synthesis which has not started with a complete analysis ends at a result which, in Greek, is called hypothesis; instead of which, if synthesis has been preceded by a sufficient analysis, the synthesis founded upon that analysis leads to a result which in Greek is called system. The legitimacy of every synthesis is directly owing to the exactness of analysis^ 1 Christ. Morals, chap. 9. a Aquinas, Summce Theolog., pars prima, qusest. 79, articulus 12. 8 Newton, Optics. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 502 SYNTHESIS - every system which is merely an hypothesis is u vain system : every synthesis which has not been preceded by analysis is a pure imagination : but at the same time every analysis which does not aspire to a synthesis which may be equal to it, is an analysis which halts on the way. On the one hand, synthesis without analysis gives a false science; on the other hand, analysis without synthesis gives an incomplete science. An incomplete science is a hundred times more valuable than a false science ; but neither a false science nor an incomplete science is the ideal of science. The ideal of science, the ideal of philosophy, can be realized only by a method which com- bines the two processes of analysis and synthesis." ' V. ANA- LYSIS, METHOD, SYSTEM. SYSTEM (ova-eyiM, ; from avviotypi,, to place together) is a full and connected view of all the truths of some department of know- ledge. An organized body of truth, or truths arranged under one and the same idea, which idea is as the life or soul which assimilates all those truths. No truth is altogether isolated. Every truth has relation to some other. And we should try to unite the facts of our knowledge so as to see them in their several bearings. This we do when we frame them into a system. To do so legitimately we must begin by analysis and end with synthesis. But system applies not only to our know- ledge, but to the objects of our knowledge. Thus we speak of the planetary system, the muscular system, the nervous system. We, believe that the order to which we would reduce our ideas has a foundation in the nature of things. And it is this belief that encourages us to reduce our knowledge of things into systematic order. The doing so is attended with many advantages. At the same time a spirit of systematizing may be carried too far. It is only in so far as it is in accord- ance with the order of nature that it can be useful or sound. Condillac has a Traite des Systemes, in which he traces their causes and their dangerous consequences. System, Economy, or Constitution. "A System, Economy, or Constitution, is a one or a whole, made up of several parts, but yet that the several parts even considered as a whole do 1 Cousin. Hist. Mod. PhU., vol. i., pp 277, 278 44 506 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. SYSTEM - not complete the idea, unless in the notion of a whole you include the relations and respects which these parts have to each other. Every work, both of nature and of art, is a system ; and as every particular thing, both natural and arti- ficial, is for some use or purpose out of and beyond itself, one may add to what has been already brought into the idea of a system, its conduciveness to this one or more ends. Let us instance in a watch suppose the several parts of it taken to pieces, and placed apart from each other ; let a man have ever so exact a notion of these several parts, unless he considers the respects and relations which they have to each other, he will not have anything like the idea of a watch. Suppose these several parts brought together and any how united : neither will he yet, be the union ever so close, have an idea which will bear any resemblance to that of a watch. But let him view these several parts put together, or consider them as to be put together in the manner of a watch ; let him form a notion of the relations which these several parts have to each other all conducive in their respective ways to this purpose, showing the hour of the day ; and then he has the idea of a watch. Thus it is with regard to the inward frame of man. Appetites, passions, affections, and the principle of reflection, considered merely as the several parts of our inward nature, do not give us an idea of the system or constitution of this nature ; because the constitution is formed by somewhat not yet taken into consideration, namely, by the relations which these several parts have to each other, the chief of which is the authority of reflection or conscience. It is from consider- ing the relations which the several appetites and passions in the inward frame have to each other, and, above all, the supremacy of reflection or conscience, that we get the idea of the system or constitution of human nature. And from the idea itself it will as fully appear, that this our nature, i. e., constitution, is adapted to virtue, as from the idea of a watch it appears that its nature, i. e., constitution or system, ia adapted to measure time." 1 F. METHOD, THEORY. Butler, Preface to Sermons. VOCABULARY OF PHI LOSOPLI V. 501 TABULA RASA (a tablet made smooth). The ancients* were in use to write upon tablets covered with soft wax, on which tho writing was traced with the sharp point of the stylus, or iron pen. When the writing had served its purpose, it was effaced by the broad end of the stylus being employed to make the wax smooth. The tablet was then, as at first, tabula rasa, ready to receive any writing which might be put upon it. In opposition to the doctrine of innate ideas (q. v.} the mind of man- has been compared to a tabula rasa, or a sheet of white paper having at first nothing written upon it, but ready to receive what may be inscribed on it by the hand of experience. This view is maintained by Ilobbes, Locke, and others. On the other hand, Lord Herbert of Cherbury com- pares the mind to a book all written over within, but the leaves of which are closed, till they are gradually opened by the hand of experience, and the imprisoned truths or ideas set free. Leibnitz, speaking of the difference between Locke and him, says: "The q-jestion between us is whether the soul in itself is entirely empty, like a tablet upon which nothing has been written (tabula rasa], according to Aristotle, 1 and the author of the Essay on Hum. Under, (book ii., ch. 1, sect. 2) ; and whether all that is there traced comes wholly from the senses and experience ; or whether the soul originally contains the principles of several notions and doctrines, which the external objects only awaken upon occasions, as I believe with Plato." Professor Sedgwick, instead of likening the mind to a sheet of white paper, would rather liken it to what in the art of dyeing is called a " prepared blank," that is, a piece of cloth so prepared by mordaunts and other appliances, that when dipped into the dyeing vat it takes on the colours intended, and comes out according to an expected pattern. " The soul of a child is yet a white paper unscribbled with observations of the world, wherewith, at length, it becomes a blurred note-book." 2 "If it be true that the mind be a blank apart from the external creation, yet how elaborately must that apparent blank be prepared, when oy simply bringing it into the light and w^nath of the objective, it glows with colours not of earth, 1 De Anima, lib. iii., cap. 4, sect. 14. 3 Bishop Earle. V 508 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TABULA RASA- and shows that from the first it had been written over witt a secret writing by the hand of God." ' TACT. " By tact we mean an inferior degree of talent a skill or adroitness in adapting words or deeds to circumstances, involving, of course, a quick perception of the propriety of circumstances. It is also applied to a certain degree of me- chanical skill." 2 TALENT. ''By talent, in its distinctive meaning, we understand the power of acquiring and adroitly disposing of the materials of human knowledge, and products of invention in their already existing forms, without the infusion of any new enlivening spirit. It looks no farther than the attainment of certain practical ends, which experience has proved attainable, and the dexterous use of such means as experience has proved to be efficient. " Talent values effort in the light of practical utility; genius always for its own sake, labours for the love of labour. Talent may be acquired. . . . Genius always belongs to the individual character, and may be cultivated, but cannot be acquired." 8 ' ' Talent describes power of acquisition, excellence of m emory ; yenius describes power of representation, excellency of fancy; intellect describes power of inference, excellence of reason." " Talent lying in the understanding is often inherited ; genius being the action of reason and imagination, rarely, or never." TASTE (POWERS, OR PRINCIPLES OF).- " His tasteful mind enjoys Alike the complicated charms, which glow Thro' the wide landscape." Cowper, Power of Harmony, b. ii. " That power of the mind by which we are capable of dis- cerning and relishing the beauties of nature, and whatever is excellent in the fine arts, is called Taste Like the taste of the palate, it relishes some things, is disgusted with others ; with regard to many, is indifferent or dubious ; Harris, Man Primeval, chap. 3. a Moffat, St-udy of ^Esthetics, p. 206. 1 Ibid, p. 204. . * Taylor, Synonyms. * 8. T. Coleridge. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 509 TASTE - and is considerably influenced by habit, by associations, and by opinion. . . . "By the objects of Taste, I mean those qualities and attri* butes of things which are, by nature, adapted to please a good taste. Mr. Addison 1 and Dr. Akenside 2 after him, has re- duced them to three to wit, Novelty, Grandeur, and Beauty." q.v. The best definition of Taste was given by the editor of Spenser (Mr. Hughes), when he called it a kind of extem- pore judgment. Burke explained it to be an instinct which immediately awakes the emotions of pleasure or dislike. Akenside is clear as he is poetical on the question : "What, then, is Taste but those internal powers, Active, and strong, and feelingly alive To each fine impulse? a discerning sense Of decent and sublime, with quick disgust From things deformed, or disarranged, or gross, In species? This, nor gems, nor stores of gold, Nor purple state, nor culture, can bestow, But God alone, when first his sacred hand Imprints the secret bias of the soul." Pleasures nf Imagin., b. iii., 1. 523. " We may consider Taste, therefore, to be a settled habit of discerning faults and excellencies in a moment the mind's independent expression of approval or aversion. It is that faculty by which we discover and enjoy the beautiful, the pic- turesque, and the sublime in literature, art, and nature." 4 The objects of Taste have also been classed as the Beauti- ful, the Sublime, and the Picturesque q. v. The question is whether these objects possess certain inherent qualities which may be so called, or whether they awaken pleasing emotions by suggesting or recalling certain pleasing feelings formerly experienced in connection or association with these obje3ts. The latter view has been maintained by Mr. AKson in hisr Essay on Taste, and by Lord Jeffrey in the article ' Beauty " in the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Lord Jeffrey has said, " It appears to us, then, that objects 1 Spectator, vol. vi. Pleasures of Imagination * Reid, Intell. Pow., essay viii., chap. 1 and 2. 'Pleasures, &c., of Literal -e, 12mo, London. 1851. pp. 55, 5. 44* f>10 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TASTE - are sublime or beautiful first, when they are the natural signs and perpetual concomitants of pleasurable sensations, aa the sound of thunder, or laughter, or, at any rate, of some lively feeling or emotion in ourselves, or in some other sen- tient beings; or secondly, when they are the arbitrary or ac- cidental concomitants of such feelings, as ideas of female beauty ; or thirdly, when they bear some analogy or fancied resemblance to things with which these emotions are neces- sarily connected. All poetry is founded on this last as silence and tranquillity gradual ascent and ambition gra- dual descent and decay. Mr. Stewart 1 has observed that "association of ideas can never account for a new notion or a pleasure essentially dif- ferent from all others." Gerard, Essay on Taste; Sir Joshua Reynolds, Discourses before Royal Society; Burke, On Sublime and Beautiful; Payne Knight, Enquiry into Principles of Taste; Hume, Essay on Standard of Taste; Brown, Lectures;* Stewart, Phi- losoph. Essays, 3 Relative to Taste; Sir T. L. Dick, Essay on Taste, prefixed to Price on the Picturesque. 4 V. ^ESTHETICS. TELEOLOGY (t&os, an end ; Jcoyoj, discourse) is the doctrine of Final Causes q. v. It does not constitute a particular department of philosophy ; as the end or perfection of every being belongs to the consideration of that branch of philo- sophy in which it is included. But teleology is the philoso- phical consideration of final causes, generally. TEMPERAMENT (tempera, to moderate, to season). " There are only two species of temperament. The four well-known varieties, and the millions which are less known, are merely modifications of two species, and combinations of their modi- fications. These are the active and the passive forms ; and every other variety may be conveniently arranged under them." 5 * Elements, ch. 5. part ii., p. 364. 4to. 7T. Part ii. 8vo. 1842. 5 Lavatcr. Zimmerman, and Von Hildebrandt adopt a similar classification. The author of the treatise on "Diet," included among the works of Hippocrates, takes th* same view of temperaments; as likewise the Brunonian school, which maintiiine-i twa antagonist, sthenic and asthenic, states VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 511 TEMPERAMENT - " As character comprises the entire sphere of the educat fcd will, so temperament is nothing else than the sum of our natural inclinations and tendencies. Inclination is the material of the will, developing itself, when controlled, into character, and when controlling, into passions. Temperament is, therefore, the root of our passions ; and the latter, like the former, may be dis- tinguished into two principal classes. Intelligent psycholo- gists and physicians have always recognized this fact ; the former dividing temperaments into active and passive, the latter classifying the passions as exciting and depressing. " We would apply the same statement to the affections or emotions. The temperament commonly denominated sanguine or choleric is the same as our active species ; and that known as the phlegmatic, or melancholy, is the same as our passive one." Bodily constitutions, as affecting the prevailing bias of the mind, have been called temperaments; and have been dis- tinguished into the sanguine, the choleric, the melancholic, and the phlegmatic. To these has been added another, called the nervous temperament. According as the bodily constitu- tion of individuals can be characterized by one or other of these epithets, a corresponding difference will be found in the general state or disposition of the mind ; and there will be a bias, or tendency to be moved by certain principles of action rather than by others. Mind is essentially one. But we speak of it as having a constitution, and as containing certain primary elements ; and, according as these elements are combined and balanced, there may be differences in the constitution of individual minds, just as there are differences of bodily temperaments ; and these differences may give rise to a disposition or bias, in the one case, more directly than in the other. According as intellect, or sensitivity, or will, prevails in any individual mind, there will be a correspondent bias resulting. But, it is in reference to original differences in the Primary desires, that differences of disposition are most observable. Any desire, when powerful, draws over tb' )ther tendencies 1 Feuchtersleben, TMetetics of the Soul, 12mo, Lon., 185i, p. 86. 512 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TEMPERAMENT- of the mind to its side ; gives a colour to the whole character of the man, and manifests its influence throughout all his temper and conduct. His thoughts run in a particular channel, without his being sensible that they do so, except by the result. There is an under-current of feeling, flowing continu- ally within him, which only manifests itself by the direction in which it carries him. This constitutes his temper. 1 Dis- pwition is the sum of a man's desires and feelings. IL. the works of Galen 2 is an essay to show, Quod animt mores corporis temperamenta sequuntur. See also Feuchtersleben, Medical Psychology. TEMPERANCE (temperantia] is moderation as to pleasure. Aristotle 3 confined it chiefly to the pleasures of touch, and of taste in a slight degree. Hence, perhaps, Popish writers in treating of the vices of intemperance or luxury, dwell much on those connected with the senses of touch and taste. By Cicero the Latin word temperantia was used to denote the duty of self-government in general. Temperantia est qucK ut in rebus expetendis aut fugiendis rationem sequamur monet. Temperance was enumerated as one of the four cardinal virtues. It may be manifested in the government and regu- lation of all our natural appetites, desires, passions, and aflec- tions, and may thus give birth to many virtues, and restrain from many vices. As distinguished from fortitude, it may be said to consist in guarding against the temptations to pleasure and self-indulgence; while fortitude consists in bearing up against the evils and dangers of human life. TENDENCY (tendo, to stretch towards)." He freely moves and acts according to his most natural tendence and inclination." 4 "But if at first the appetites and necessities, and tendencies of the body, did tempt the soul, much more will this be done when the body is miserable and afflicted." 5 V. INCLINATION. TERM (opoj, terminus, a limit). A term is an act of appre- 1 The balance of our animal principles, I think, constitutes what we call a man ! natural temper. Reid, Act. fow., essay iii^ part ii., chap. 8. * Tom. iv., Leips., 1822. JEtMc^ lib. iii., cap. 1'J. Scott, Christ. Life, pt. i., c. 1. 1 Taylor, Of Kepeni., c. 7, 2 1. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 513 TERM- hension expressed in language ; also the subject or predicate of a proposition. " I call that a term into which a proposition is resolved, as for instance, the predicate and that of which it is predicated." ' " As lines terminate a plane and constitute figure, so its terms are the limits of a proposition. A proposition consists of twi; terms ; that which is spoken of is called the subject; that which is said of it the predicate ; and these are called the terms (or extremes), because logically the subject is placed first and the predicate last. In the middle is the copula, which indicates the act of judgment, as by it the predicate is affirmed or denied, of the subject." Whately. V. PROPO- SITION, SYLLOGISM. Term (An Absolute or Non-Relative), one that is considered by itself, and conveys no idea of relation to anything of which it is a part, or to any other part distinguished from it. -46- solute terms are also named non-conn otative, as merely denoting an object without implying any attribute of that object; as "Paris," "Romulus." Term (An Abstract) denotes the quality of a being, without regard to the subject in which it is; as "justice," " wisdom." Abstract terms are nouns substantive. Term (A Common), such as stands for several individuals, which are called its significates ; as "man," "city." Such terms, and such only can be affirmatively predicated of seve- ral others, and they are therefore called predicables. Terms (Compatible or Consistent) express two viewu which can be taken of the same object at the same time ; as " white and hard." Term (A Complex) is a proposition q. v. Term (A Concrete) denotes the quality of a being, and jither expresses, or must be referred to, some subject in whici it is ; as "fool," "philosopher," "high," "wise." Concrete terms are usually, but not always, nouns adjective. Terms (The Contradictory Opposition of) is, when they differ only in respectively wanting and having the particle " .lot," or its equivalent. One or other of such terms is applicable W every object. 1 Arist., Prior. Analyt., lib. i. cap 1. 2l 514 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TERM- Terms (Contrary) come both under some one class, but are th most different of all that belong to that class; as "wise" and " foolish/' both coming under the class of mental qualities. There are some objects to which neither of such terms is applicable ; a stone is neither wise nor foolish. Term (A Definite), one which marks out an object or class of beings ; as " Caesar," " corporeal." Positive terms are definite. Term (An Indefinite), one which does not mark out, but only excludes an object; as, " not-Caesar," " incorporeal." Priva- tive and negative terms are called indefinite. Term (A Negative) denotes that the positive view could not be taken of the object; it affirms the absence of a thing from some subject in which it could not be present; as, "a dumb statue" (you would not say "a speaking statue"). "A life- less corpse" (you would not say "a living corpse"). The same term may be negative, positive, or privative, as it is viewed with relation to contrary ideas. Thus "immortal" is privative or negative viewed with relation to death, and posi- tive viewed with relation to life. Terms (Opposite) express two views which cannot be taken of one single object at the same time ; as "white and black." Term (A Positive) denotes a certain view of an object, as being actually taken of it; as "speech," "a man speaking." Term (A Privative) denotes that the positive view might con- ceivably be taken of the object, but is not; " dumbness," " a man silent" (you might say, "a man speaking"). "An un- buried corpse" (you might say, "a buried corpse"). Term (A Relative), that which expresses an object viewed in relation to the whole, or to another part of a more complex object of thought; as "half" and "whole," "master and ser- vant." Such nouns are called correlative to each other ; nor can one of them be mentioned without a notion of the other being raised in the mind. Term (A Simple) expresses a completed act of apprehension, but no more ; and may be used alone either as the subject or predicate of a proposition. "Virtue is its own reward." Virtue is a simple term, and its own reward is also a simple VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 515 TERM- Term (A Singular), such as stands for an Individ aal; as "So crates," ''London/' "this man," "that city." Such term* cannot be predicated affirmatively of anything but themselves. But general terms, as "fowl," "bird," may be truly affirmed of many. TERMINISTS. F. NOMINALISM. TESTIMONY " is the declaration of one who professes to know the truth of that which he affirms." "The difficulty is, when testimonies contradict common experience, and the reports of history and witnesses clash with the ordinary course of nature, or with one another." ' If testimony were not a source of evidence, we must lose all benefit of the experience and observation of others. Much of human knowledge rests on the authority of testimony. According to Dr. Reid, 2 the validity of this authority is resolvable into the constitution of the human mind. He main- tains that we have a natural principle of veracity, which has its counterpart in a natural principle of credulity that is, while we are naturally disposed to speak the truth, we are naturally disposed to believe what is spoken by others. But, says Mr. Locke, 3 " Testimony may be fallacious. He who declares a thing, 1. May be mistaken, or imposed upon. 2. He may be an impostor and intend to deceive." The evidence of testimony is, therefore, only probable, and requires to be carefully examined. The nature of the thing testified to whether it be a matter of science or of common life the character of the person testifying whether the testimony be that of one or of man} 7 whether it be given voluntarily or compulsorily, hastily or deliberately, are some of the circumstances to be attended to. Testimony may be oral or written. The coin, the monu- ment, and other material proofs have also been called iesti* mony. So that testimony includes tradition and history. Mr. Hume maintained that no amount of testimony can be sufficient to establish the truth of a miracle. See reply to him * Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., hook iy., chap. 16. a Inquiry, ch. 6, sect. 24. 8 Essay on Hum. Understand., book iv., ch. 15, 16. 616 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TESTIMONY- by Dr. Adams, 1 in his Essay on Miracles, and Dr. Campbell OR Miracles, and Dr. Douglas on Miracles. It was maintained by Craig, a celebrated English geometri- cian, and by Petersen, that the value of testimony decreases by the lapse of time. And Laplace, in some measure, favoured this view. But if the matter of fact be well authenticated in the first instance, lapse of time and continued belief in it may add to the validity of the evidence. V. EVIDENCE. THEISM (0*05, God) is opposed to atheism. It is not absolutely opposed, by its derivation, to Pantheism, or the belief that the universe is God ; nor to Polytheism, or the belief that there are many Gods ; nor to Ditheism, or the belief that there are two divine principles, one of good and another of evil. But usage, penes quern est arbitrium et norma loquendi, has re- stricted this word to the belief in one intelligent and free spirit, separate from his works. "To believe that everything is governed, ordered, or regulated for the best, by a designing principle or mind, necessarily good and permanent, is to be a perfect Theist."* " These are they who are strictly and properly called Theirs, who affirm that a perfectly conscious, understanding being, or mind, existing from eternity, was the cau.se of all other things ; and they, on the contrary, who derive all things from senseless matter, as the first original, and deny that there is any con- scious, understanding being, self-existent or unmade, are those that are properly called Atheists." 3 " Though, in a strict and proper sense, they be only Theixts who acknowledge one God perfectly omnipotent, the sole original of all things, and as well the cause of matter as of anything else; yet it seems reasonable that such consideration should be had of the infirmity of human understandings, as to extend the word further, that it may comprehend within it 1 ' Hume told Caddell the bookseller, that he bad a great desire to be introduced tc as many of the persons who had written against him as could be collected; and ie quested Caddell to bring him and them together. Accordingly, Dr. Dou-rlas. I>r Adams. &c., were invited by Caddell to dine at his house in order to meet Hume. Thej cami;; and Dr. Price, who was of the party, assured me that they weie all delighted with David." Kogers's Table Talk: f * Shaftesbury, Inquiry, book i., pt. i., secv. 2. Cudworth, Intdl. Syst., book i., ch. 4, sect. 4. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 517 THEISM - those also who assert one intellectual self-existent from eter- nity, the framer and governor of the whole world, though not the creator of the matter ; and that none should be condemned for absolute Atheists merely because they hold eternal uncre- ated matter, unless they also deny an eternal unmade mind, ruling over the matter, and so make senseless matter the sole original of all things." ' T heist and Deist both signify simply one who believes in God ; and about the beginning of last century both were employed to denote one who believes in God independently of revelation. "Averse as I am to the cause of Theism or name of Deist, when taken in a sense exclusive of revelation, I consider still that, in strictness, the root of all is Theism ; and that to be a settled Christian, it is necessary to be first of all a good Theist." 2 But from about the time of Shaftes- bury, the term Deist has generally been applied to such as are indifferent or hostile to the claims of revelation. Bal- guy's First Letter to a Deist was against Lord Shaftesbury. His Second Letter to a Deist was against Tindal. All the Deistical writers noticed by Leland were unfriendly to reve- lation. " The words Deist and jffieist are, strictly speaking, perhaps synonymous ; but yet it is generally to be observed that the former is used in a bad, and the latter in a good sense. Cus torn has appropriated the term Deist to the enemies of revela- tion and of Christianity in particular ; while the word Theist is considered applicable to all who believe in one God/ 73 " Theistae generatim vocantur, qui Deum esse tenent, sive recw sive prave cceteroquin de Deo seiitiant. Deistee I'ocabantur pro.- sertim scectdo proxime elapso philosophi, qui Deum quidem esse affirmabant, providentiani vero, revelationem, miracida, uno verbo, quidqttid supernaturale audit, tollebant."* THEOCRACY (@6$, God ; xpafoj, rule). Government under the Mosaic dispensation is called theocracy. " It will easily appear," says Lowman, 5 " that the genera] 1 Cudworth. Intdl. Syst., sect. 7. a fcfhiiftesbury, The Moralists, part i., sect. 2. * Irons, On Final Causes, A pp., p. 207. 4 Ubaghs, Theodicece Ele.me.nta, p. 11. * On Civil Government of the Hebrews, chap. T. 45 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. THEOCRACY union of the tribes as one body may be conceived after this manner that the congregation of Israel, or the whole people enacted by themselves or their representatives ; that the great council advised, consulted, proposed ; that the judge presided in their councils, and had the chief hand in executing what was resolved in them ; and that Jehovah, by the oracle, was to assent to and approve what was resolved, and authorize the execution of it in matters of the greatest importance to the whole state, so that the general union of the whole nation may not improperly be thus expressed. It was by the com- mand of the people and advice of the senate, the judge pre- siding and the oracle approving." Egypt, down to a certain period, was governed by priests in the name of their gods, and Peru by Incas, who were regarded as the children of the sun. Mahomet, speaking in the name of God, exercised a theocratic sway, and that of the Grand Lama in Thibet is similar. " In the Control Social of Rousseau, the sovereignty of number, of the numerical majority, is the fundamental prin- ciple of the work. For a long time he follows out the con- sequences of it with inflexible rigour ; a time arrives, how- ever, when he abandons them, and abandons them with great eifect ; he wishes to give his fundamental laws, his constitu- tion, to the rising society ; his high intellect warned him that such a work could not proceed from universal suffrage, from the numerical majority, from the multitude : ' A God/ said he, ' must give laws to men.' It is not magistracy, it is not sovereignty It is a particular and supe- rior function, which has nothing in common with humar empire.' 7 ! The term theocracy has been applied to the power wielded by the Pope during the Middle Ages ; and Count de Maistre, in his work Du Pape, has argued strenuously in support of the supreme power, temporal and spiritual, of the sovereign pontiff. But the celibacy of the Romish priests is an obstacle to their theocratical organization. " Look at Asia, Egypt ; alJ the great theocracies are the work of a clergy, which is a con* 1 Ouizot, Hist, of Cirilixitifm. vol. i., j>. 3*7. Cnntrat fticfal, b. ii., ch. 8. VOCABULARY OF PHI1 OSOPHY. 519 IHEOCRACY- plete society within itself, which suffices for its DWII wants, and borrows nothing from without." l THEODICY (5o$, God; & X yj, a pleading or justification), a vindication of the ways of God. This word was employed by Leibnitz, who 2 maintained that the existence of moral evil has it? origin in the free will of the creature, while metaphy eical evil is nothing but the limitation which is involved in the essence of finite beings, and that out of this both physical and moral evil naturally flow. But these finite beings are designed to attain the utmost felicity they are capable of en- joying, while each, as a part, contributes to the perfection of the whole, which, of the many worlds that were possible, ia the very best. On this account it has been called the theory of optimism q. v. In Manuals of Philosophy the term theodicy is applied to that part which treats of the being,. perfections, and government of God, and tho immortality of the soul. In the Manuel de Philosophic, d I' usage des Colleges? Theo dic.ee, which is written by Emille Saisset, is called rational theology, or the theology of reason, independent of revelation. " It proposes to establish the existence of a being infinitely perfect, and to determine his attributes and essential relations to the world/' It treats of the existence, attributes, and providence of God, and the immortality of the soul which were formerly included under metaphysics. According to Kant, the objections which a theodicy should meet are : 1. The existence of moral evil, as contrary to the holiness of God. 2. Of physical evil, as contrary to his good- ness. 3. The disproportion between the crimes and the pun- ishments of this life as repugnant to his justice. He approves of the vindication adopted by Job against his friends, founded on our imperfect knowledge of God's ways. " When the Jewish mind began to philosophize, and endea- voured to produce dialectic proofs, its theodicean philosophy, or justification of God, stopj ed, in the book of Job. at thu avowal of the incomprehensibility of the destinies of mankind." 1 Guizot. Hist. .:/ Civilization, vol. i., p. 182. * In his Essais de Theodicee, sur la bonte de Dieu, la liberte de Vhomme et I 1 origin.' ih Wil, published in 1710. J 8vo. Paris. 1846. Birisen, Hippolytus, vol. ii., p. 7 520 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. THEODICY- Butler, Analogy, part i., ch. 7, treats of the government of God ; considered as a scheme or constitution imperfectly com- prehended, part ii., ch. 4. IHEOGONY (oj, God ; yovii, generation) is that part of Pagan theology which treats of the genealogy and filiation of their deities. It is the title of a celebrated Greek poeni by Hesiod, which has been commented on by M. J. D. Guigniaut. 1 The Works and Days, and Theogony of Hesiod were translated from the Greek, with remarks by Thomas Cooke. 2 THEOLOGY (0eo$, God; h6yo$, discourse). " Theology, what is it but the science of things divine ? What science can be attained unto without the help of natural discourse and rea- son?" 8 " I mean theology, which, containing the knowledge of God and his creatures, our duty to Him and to our fellow-creatures, and a view of our present and future state, is the comprehen- sion of all other knowledge directed to its true end, i. e,, the honour and veneration of the Creator, and the happiness of mankind. This is that noble study which is every man's duty, and every one that is a rational creature is capable of.'' 4 The word theology as now used, without any qualifying epithet, denotes that knowledge of God and of our duty to him which we derive from express revelation. In this re- stricted sense it is opposed to philosophy, and is divided into speculative or dogmatic and moral or practical, according as it is occupied with the doctrines or .the precepts w^ich have been revealed for our belief and guidance. But tL Greeks gave the name of (flsoXoyot) to those who, like H-jsiod and Orpheus, with no higher inspiration than that of the poet, sang of the nature of the gods and the origin of aJ things. Aristotle 6 said that of the three speculative sciences, physics, mathematics, and theology the last was the highest, as treat- ing of the most elevated of beings. Among the Romans, from the time of Numa Pompilius to that of the oinperois, the knowledge and worship of the gods was made subservie i! x De la Theogonie d'Hcslode. Paris, 1835. 3 2 voK, 4to, Lond., 1728. Hooker, Eccles. Pol., b. iii s< et. 8 * Locke. On th,\ Cond. nf the Understand., sect. 22. 1 Metaphys., lil . xi., ch. 6. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 521 THEOLOGY - to the interests of the state. So that, according to Augustin, 1 there were three kinds of theology the poetical, or that of the poets the physical, or that of the philosophers and the po* litical, or that of the legislator. Among the Greeks and Romans, there being no divine revelation, the distinction between faith and reason was not taken. Christians were long unwilling to admit that any satis- factory knowledge of God and his attributes, and of the relations between Him and his creatures, could be had inde- pendently of revelation. And it was not till after Descartes that the distinction of theology, as natural, and positive or revealed, was commonly taken. The distinction is rather obscured in the Essais de Theodicee of Leibnitz, but clearly expressed by Wolf in the title of his work, Theologia Natu- ralis Methodo Scientific*} Pertractata." 1 He thinks it is demon- strative, and calls it 3 " The science which has for its object the existence of God and his attributes, and the consequences of these attributes in relation to other beings, with the refu- tation of all errors contrary to the true idea of God ; in short, all that is now commonly included under natural theology or theodicy, or both. Natural Theology. This phrase has been very commonly em- ployed, but it has been challenged. " The name natural theology, which ever and anon we still hear applied to the philosophical cognition of the Divine Being and his existence, ought carefully to be avoided. Such a designation is based on a thorough misconception and total inversion of ideas. Every system of theology that is not super- natural, or at least that does not profess to be so, but pre- tends to understand naturally the idea of God, and regards the knowledge of the divine essence as a branch of natural science, or derives the idea simply from nature, is even on that account false Missing and entirely mistaking its proper object, it must, in short, prove absolutely null and void. Properly, indeed, this inquiry needs no peculiar word, nor special divi- sion, and scientific designation. The name generally of phi- losophy, or specially of a philosophy of God, is perfectly 1 De Civitate, lib. vi., c. 1. a 2 vols., 4to, Frankfort and Leipzig, 1736-37. " Prdegmn., sect. -L 45* 522 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. THEOLOGY - sufficient to designate the investigation into science and faith, and their reciprocal relation their abiding discord, or ita harmonious reconciliation and intrinsic concord." ' In Coleridge's Aids to Reflection, natural is opposed to spiritual, as sensuous to super-sensuous or super-natural. This objection might be obviated by calling that knowledge of God and of his attributes and administration which the light ^ reason furnishes, rational theology. But this phrase has been of late years employed in a different sense, especially in Germany. Natural theology confines itself exclusively to that knowledge of God which the light of nature furnishes, and does not intermeddle with the discoveries or the doctrines of positive or revealed theology. It prosecutes its inquiries by the unassisted strength of reason within its own sphere. But rational theology carries the torch or light of reason into the domain of revelation. It criticises and compares texts ana- lyzes doctrines examines traditions and brings all the in- struments of philosophy to bear upon things divine and spi ritual, in order to reduce them to harmony with things human and rational. V. RATIONALISM. THEOPATHY (0-o$, Deity ; xados, suffering or feeling). A word used by Dr. Hartley as synonymous with piety, or a sense of Deity. THEORY (focopt'a, contemplation, speculation). Theory ar.d theoretical are properly opposed to practice and practical. Theory is mere knowledge ; practice is the application of it. Though distinct they are dependent, and there is no opposi- tion between them. Theory is the knowledge of the principles by which practice accomplishes its end. Hypothetical find theoretical are sometimes used as synonymous with conjectu- ral. But this is unphilosophical in so far as theoretical is con- cerned. Theory always implies knowledge knowledge of a thing in its principles or causes. " Theory is a general collection of the inferences drawn frcic facts and compressed into principles." 2 " With Plato, Ofupuv is applied to a deep contemplation n/ 1 Schlegel, Philosoph. of Life, &c., Bohn's edit., p. 194. * Pan , Sequel to a Printed Paper. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 523 THEORY- the truth. By Aristotle it is always opposed to it\. tttsiv, and to rtoiftv, so that he makes philosophy theoretical, practical, and artistical. The Latins and Boethius rendered fowpttv by specu- lari. With us it means a learned discourse of philosophers of speculative use." * " Theory denotes the most general laws to which certain facts can be reduced." Mackintosh; 2 and 3 the distinctions between hypothesis and theory are thus stated : 1. The principles employed in the explanation (of the phe- nomena) should be known really to exist ; in which consists the main distinction between hypothesis and theory. Gravity is a principle universally known to exist ; ether and a nervoua fluid are mere suppositions. 2. These principles should be known to produce effects like those which are ascribed to them in the theory. This is a further distinction between hypothesis and theory ; for there are an infinite number of degrees of likeness, from the faint resemblances which have led some to fancy that the functions of the nerves depend on electricity, to the remarkable coincidences between the appearances of pro- jectiles on earth, and the movements of the heavenly bodies, which constitute the Newtonian system ; a theory now perfect, though exclusively founded on analogy, and in which one of the classes of phenomena brought together by it is not the subject of direct experience. 3. It should correspond, if not with all the facts to be explained, at least with so great a majority of them as to render it highly probable that means will in time be found of reconciling it to all. It is only on this ground that the Newtonian system justly claimed the title of a legitimate theory during that long period when it was unable to explain many celestial appearances, before the labours of a century and the genius of Laplace at length com- pleted the theory, by adapting it to all the phenomena. A theory may be just before it is complete. "Theory and hypothesis may be distinguished thus: a hjp<~ thesis is a guess or supposition, made concerning the cause of some particular fact, with the vieAV of trying experiments or making observations to discover the truth. A theory is a coin- 1 Trendelenburg, Elementa Log. Arist , p Ttt. *Prd. />/.., p. 61. Uliewell's edit. s At p. S67 524 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY THEORY- plete system of suppositions put together for the purpose cf explaining all the facts that belong to some one science. Foi example astronomers have suggested many hypotheses, in order to account for the luminous stream which follows comets. They have also formed many theories of the heavens ; or in other words, complete explanations of all the appearances of the heavenly bodies and their movements. When a theory has been generally received by men of science, it is called a system ; as the Ptolemaic system; the Copernican system; the New- tonian system." l See a paper on Theory in Blackwood's Mag. for August, 1830. V. HYPOTHESIS. THEOSOPHISM or THEOSOPHY (0*05, God; ao&a, know- ledge). " The Theosophists, neither contented with the natural light of human reason, nor with the simple doctrines of Scripture understood in their literal sense, have recourse to an internal supernatural light superior to all other illuminations, from which they profess to derive a mysterious and divine philoso- sophy manifested only to the chosen favourites of heaven/' a See Tholuck (F. A. D.), Theosophia Persarum Pantheistical Theosophia seems at one time to have been used as synony- mous with theologia. Thus in John Major's Commentary on the First Book of the Sentences, published in 1510, Mr. David Cranston is styled In Sacra Theosophia Baccalaurens. The theosophists are a school of philosophers who would mix enthusiasm with observation, alchemy with theology, metaphysics with medicine, and clothe the whole with a form of mystery and inspiration. It began with Paracelsus at the opening of the sixteenth century, and has survived in Saint Martin to the end of the eighteenth. Paracelsus, Jacol' Boehm, and Saint Martin, may be called popular, while Cor- nelius Agrippa, Valentine Weigelius, Robert Fludd, and Van Kelmont, are more philosophical in their doctrines. The Rev. Will. Law was also a theosophist. But they all hold different doctrines ; so that they cannot be reduced to a system. 1 Taylor, Elements of Thought. Enfield, Hist, of Phil., vol. ii. 8vo, Berlin, 1821. App. 1838. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 525 THEOSOPHISM- " The theosophist is one who gives you a theory of God, or of the works of God, which has not reason, but an inspiration of his own for its basis." ' "Both the politics .and the theosophy of Coleridge were at *he mercy of a discursive genius, intellectually bold, educa- tionally timid, which, anxious, or rather willing, to bring conviction and speculation together, mooting all points as it went, and throwing the subtlest glancing lights on many, ended in satisfying nobody, and concluding nothing." 2 THESIS (deai$, from ti9rj/j.i, to lay down) is a position or propo- sition, the truth of which is not plain from the terms, but requires evidence, or explanation, or proof. In the schools it was especially applied to those propositions in theology, philo- sophy, law, and medicine, which the candidates for degrees were required to defend. THOUGHT AND THINKING " are used in a more, and in a less restricted signification. In the former meaning they are limited to the discursive energies alone; in the latter, they are co-extensive with consciousness." 3 Thinking is employed by Sir Will. Hamilton 4 as compre- hending all our cognitive energies. By Descartes, 6 cogitatio, penste, is used to denote or com- prehend "all that in us of which we are immediately con- scious. Thus all the operations of the will, of the imagination and senses, are thoughts." Again, in reply to the question. What is a thing which thinks ? he says,' "It is a thing which doubts, understands, conceives, affirms, desires, wills, and does not will, which imagines, also, and feels." " Though thinking be supposed ever so much the proper action of the soul, yet it is not necessary to suppose that it should be always thinking, always in action." 7 " Thought proper, as distinguished from other facts of con- Vaughan, Hours with Mystics, vol. i , p. 45. 4 Hunt, Imagination and Fancy, 12mo, 1844, p. 276. 8 Sir Will. Hamilton, Reid's Works, p. 222, note. 4 .Discussions. &c.. Append, i., p. 578. Resp. ad Sec. Obj., p. 85, Ed., 1663- Medit. ii.. p. 11. ' Locke, Essay on Plum. Understand., book i!., ch. 1 626 VOCABULARY OF PH1LOSOIHY. THOUGHT - sciousness, may be adequately described as the act of knowing or judging of things by means of concepts. " l ---V. TRAIN o? THOUGHT. TIME (iempus}. Continuation of existence is duration: duration unlimited is eternity ; duration limited is time. By Aristotle, time was denned to be " the measure of mo- tion, secnndiim prius et postering. We get the idea of time on the occasion when we observe first and last, that is succession. Duration without succession would be timeless, immeasurable. But how are we to fix what is first and last in the motion of any body ? By men in all ages the motions of the heavenly bodies have been made the measure of duration. So that the full definition of time is 'It is the measure of the duration of things that exist in succession, by the motion of the hea- venly bodies/ " 2 "As our conception of space originates in that of body, and our conception of motion in that of space, so our conception of time originates in that of motion; and particularly in those ic^ular and equable motions carried on in the heavens, the parts of which, from their perfect similarity to each other, are correct measures of the continuous and successive quantity called time, with which they are conceived to co-exist. Time, therefore, may be defined the perceived number of successive movements ; for as number ascertains the greater or lesser quantity of things numbered, so time ascertains the greater or lesser quantity of motion performed." 3 According to Mr. Locke, 4 "Reflection upon the train of ideas, which appear one after another in our minds, is that which furnishes us with the idea of succession ; and the distance between any two parts of that succession, is that we call du- ration." Now by attending to the train of ideas in our minds we may have the idea of succession but this presupposes the idea of duration in which the succession takes place. "We may measure duration by the succession of thoughts in thb mind, as we measure length by inches or feet, but the notion 1 Mansel, Proltgnm. Log., p. 22. a Moiiboddo, Ancient Metaphys., book ir., chap. 1. 1 Gillies, Analysis of Aristotle, chap. 2. 1 Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., chap. 14. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 527 TIME- or idea of duration must be antecedent to the mensuration oi it, as the notion of length is antecedent to its being mea- sured." 1 See also Cousin (On Locke) Cours de Philosoph.; 2 Stewart, Phil. Essays ; 3 see also the Fragments of Royer Collard. 4 Dr. Reid 5 says, " I know of no ideas or notions that have a better claim to be accounted simple and original than those of space and time The sense of seeing, by itself, gives us the conception and belief of only two dimensions of extension, but the sense of touch discovers three; and reason, from the contemplation of finite extended things, leads us neces- sarily to the belief of an immensity that contains them. " In like manner, memory gives us the conception and belief of finite intervals of duration. From the contemplation of these, reason leads us necessarily to the belief of an eternity which comprehends all things that have a beginning and an end." In another passage of the same essay, 6 he says, " W(, are at a loss to what category or class of things we ought t(. refer them. They are not beings, but rather the receptacles of every created being, without which it could not have had the possibility of existence. Philosophers have endeavoured to reduce all the objects of human thought to these three classes, of substances, modes, and relations. To which of them shall we refer time, space, and number, the most common objects of thought?" In the philosophy of Kant, " Time is a necessary repre- sentation which lies at the foundation of all intuition. Time is given, d priori it is the form of the internal sense, and the formal condition, d priori, of phenomena in general. Hence it will be seen that all intuition is nothing but the re- presentation of phenomena; that the things we see or en- visage are not in themselves what they are taken for ; that if we did away with ourselves, that is to say, the subject or sub- jective quality of our senses in general, every quality that we discover in time and space, and even time and space them- selves, would disappear. What objects maybe in themselves, 1 Reid, Intell. Pow., essay ii., chap. 5. Lemons, 17, 18. 3 Essay ii., oh. 2. 4 At the end of torn. iv. of (Euvres de Reid. 5 Vt suvra. * Chap. 3. 628 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TIME- separated from the receptivity cf our sensibility, is quite un- known to us." ' " One of the commonest errors is to regard time as an agent. But in reality, time does nothing, and is nothing. "We use it as a compendious expression for all those causes which ope- rate slowly and imperceptibly ; but unless some positive cause is in action, no change takes place in the lapse of 1,000 years: e. g., a drop of water encased in a cavity of silex." 2 V. SPACE. TOPOLOGY. V. MEMORIA TECHNICA. TRADITION (trado, to hand down) " is any way of delivering a thing or word to another." Bp. Taylor. 8 "Tradition is the Mercury (messenger) of the human race." Tiberghien. 4 "Tradition! oh tradition! thou of the seraph tongue, The ark that links two ages, the ancient and the young." idam Mickiewitz. Nescire quid antea quam natus sis accuk. it, id est semper esse puerum. 6 When we believe the testimony of others not given by them- selves directly, but by others, this is tradition. It is testimony not written by the witness, nor dictated by him to be written, but handed down memoriter, from generation to generation. " According to the principle of tradition (as the ground of certainty), it is supposed that God himself first imparted truth to the world, pure and unmixed from heaven. In the para- disiacal state, and during the whole period from the first man down to the Christian era, it is said by these philosophers there was a channel of divine communication almost perpe- tually open between the mind of man and God. Here accord- ingly, it is thought we lay hold upon a kind of truth which is not subject to the infirmity of human reason, and which coming down to us by verbal or documental tradition from the mind of Deity itself, affords us at once a solid basis for all truth, and a final appeal against all error." 6 * Analysis of Kanffs Criticism, of Pure Reason. By the Translator, 8vo, Lomi, 1844, p. 10. * Coplestone, Remains, p. 123. * Dissuasive from Popery, 4 Essai des Connaiss. Humaines. p. 50. * Cicero, Orator., cap. 14. M ;rell, Philosopfi. Tenden., p. 17. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 529 TRADITION - See Molitor (J. F.), Philosophic de la tradition. 1 On the necessity of Tradition, see Ireticeits* TRAIN OF THOUGHT. " The subject of the association of ideas," says Mr. Stewart, 3 " naturally divides itself into two parts. The first relates to the influence of association in re- gulating the succession of our thoughts ; the second, to its in- fluence on the intellectual powers, and on the moral character, by the more indissoluble combinations which it leads us to form in infancy and early youth." V. COMBINATION OP IDEAS. While we are awake a constant succession of thoughts is passing through the mind. Hobbes calls it the con-sequence or train of imaginations, the train of thoughts and mental dis- course. He says it is of two sorts. The first is unguided, without design, and inconstant. The second is more constant, as being regulated by some desire and design. That is, it is spontaneous or intentional. In the Train of Thought, or the succession of the various modes of consciousness, it has been observed that they succeed in some kind of order. " Not every thought to every thought succeeds indifferently," says Hobbes. And it has long been matter of inquiry among philosophers to detect the law or laws according to which the train or succession of thought is determined. According to Aristotle, the consecution of thoughts is either necessary or habitual. By the necessary consecution of thoughts, it is probable that he meant that connection or dependence subsisting between notions, one of which cannot be thought without our thinking the other ; as cause and effect, means and end, quality and substance, body and space. This conse- cution or connection of thoughts admits of no further expla- nation, than to say, that such is the constitution of the human mind. The habitual consecution of thoughts differs in different in- dividuals : but the general laws, according to which it is regu- lated, are chiefly three, viz.: The law of similars, the law of contraries, and the law of co-adjacents. From the time of 8vo, Paris, 1837. I., 10. 3 Elements, vol. i., chap. 5 4fi 2K 530 "VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TRAIN OF THOUGHT - Aristotle, these laws have been noticed and illustrated by all writers on the subject. But it has been thought that those may be reduced to one supreme and universal law ; and Sii James Mackintosh 1 expresses his surprise that Dr. Brown should have spoken of this as a discovery of his own, when the same thing had been hinted by Aristotle, distinctly laid down by Hobbes, and fully unfolded both by Hartley and Condillac. The brief and obscure text of Aristotle, in his Treatise on Memory and Reminiscence, has been explained as containing the universal law as to the consecution of thoughts. 2 It is proposed to call this the law of Redintegration. " Thoughts which have, at any time, recent or remote, stood to each other in the relation of co-existence or immediate consecution, do, when severally reproduced, tend to reproduce each other." In other words, "The parts of any total thought, when sub- sequently called into consciousness, are apt to suggest, imme- diately, the parts to which they were proximately related, and mediately, the whole of which they were constituent." Hobbes, Leviathan; 3 Human Nat.;* Reid, Intell. Pow. 6 TRANSCENDENT, TRANSCENDENTAL (transcendo, to go beyond, to surpass, to be supreme). "To be impenetrable, discerptible, and unactive, is the nature of all body and matter, as such ; and the properties '.if a spirit are the direct contrary, to be penetrable, indis- cerptible, and self-motive; yea, so different they are in all things, that they seem to have nothing but being and the transcendental attributes of that in common." 6 Transcendental is that which is above the prsedicamental. Being is transcendental. The prcedicamental is what belongs to a certain category of being ; as the ten snmma genera. As being cannot be included under any genus, but transcends them all, so the properties or affections of being have also been oalled transcendental. The three properties of being commonly enumerated are itnum, veriim, and bonum. To these som* add 1 Dissert., p. "48, Edit. Whewell. * Sir W. Hamilton, ReuTs Works, p. 897. 8 Part i.. chap. 3. * P. IT. ' Ewy J-. c aianvill. , .. VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 531 TRANSCENDENT - aliquid and res: and these, with ens, make the six tranxcen- dentals. But res and aliquid mean only the same as ens. Thn first three are properly called transcendentals, as these OP?} are passions or affections of being, as being. V. UNM-Y, TRUTH, GOOD. "In the schools, transcendentalis and transcendens were convertible expressions employed to mark a term or notion which transcended, that is, which rose above, and thus con- tained under it, the categories or summa genera of Aristotle. Such, for example, is being, of which the ten categories are only subdivisions, Kant, according to his wont, twisted these old terms into a new signification. First of all, he distin- guished them from each other. Transcendent (transcendens) he employed to denote what is wholly beyond experience, being neither given as an a posteriori nor a priori element of cognition what therefore transcends every category of thought. Transcendental (transcendentalis) he applied to sig- nify the d priori or necessary cognitions which, though mani- fested in, as affording the conditions of, experience, transcend the sphere of that contingent or adventitious knowledge which we acquire by experience. Transcendental is not therefore what transcends, but what in fact constitutes a category of thought. This term, though probably from another quarter, has found favour with Mr. Stewart, who proposes to exchange the expression principles of common sense, for, among other names, that of transcendental truths." ' In the philosophy of Kant all those principles of knowledge which are original and primary, and which are determined a priori are called transcendental. They involve necessary and universal truths, and thus transcend all truth derived from experience which must always be contingent and particular. The principles of knowledge, which are pure and transcen- dental, form the ground of all knowledge that is empirical or determined a posteriori. In this sense transcendental is op- I'Oscd to empirical. " There is a philosophic (and inasmuch as it is actualized by an effort of freedom, an artificial] consciousness which lies beneath, or (as it were) behind the spontaneous consciousness 1 Sir Will. Hamilton, Reid's Works, note A, sect, n- 532 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TRANSCENDENT- natural to all reflecting beings. As the elder Romans distiu guished their northern provinces into Cis-Alpine and Trans- Alpine, so may we divide all the objects of human knowledge into those on this side, and those on the other side of thf spontaneous consciousness; citra et trans conscientiam commit nem. The latter is exclusively the domain of pure philosophy, which is, therefore, properly entitled transcendental in ordei to discriminate it at once, both from mere reflection and representation on the one hand, and on the other from those flights of lawless speculation, which, abandoned by all dis- tinct consciousness, because transgressing the bounds and purposes of our intellectual faculties, are justly condemned as transcendent." ' Transcendent is opposed to immanent q. v. Transcendental is opposed to empirical q. v. TRANSFERENCE and TRANSLATION are terms employed by the author of the Light of Nature Pursued, to denote the fact that our desires are often transferred from primary objects to those which are secondary or subservient; as from the desire of greatness or honour may arise, in a secondary way, the desire of wealth as a means of greatness or power. 2 V. DESIRE. TRANSMIGRATION. V. METEMPSYCHOSIS. TRANSPOSITION. V. CONVERSION. TRIVIUM. The seven Liberal Arts were Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic, Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy, and Music. Lingua, Tropus, Ratio, Numerus, Tonus, Angulus, Astra Grammar, Logic, and Rhetoric, constituted the Trivium tres vice in unum, because they all refer to words or language. Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, and Astronomy, constituted the Quadrivium quatuor vice in unum, because they all refer to quantity. "Gramm. loquitur, Dia. yerba /beet, Rhet. verba colorat; Mus. canit., Ar. numsrat, Geo. ponderat, Ast. colit astra." The Mechanical Arts were Rus, Nemus, Arma, Faber, Vul- nara, Lana, Rates; or, Agriculture, Propagatior of Trees, 1 Coleridge, Biograph. Liter., p. 143. Tucker, Light of Nature; chapter on Transference or Tranalatic\. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 533 TEIVIUM- Manufacture )f Arms, Carpenters' work, Medicine, Weaving, and Ship-bull ling. TRUTH has been distinguished by most metaphysical writers, according as it respects being, knowledge, and speech, into veritas entis, cognitionis, et signi. By others, truth has been distinguished as entitative, objective, and formal, the truth of signs being included under the last. Veritas entis Transcendental or Metaphysical Truth, The pillar and ground of all truth is in truth of being that truth by which a thing is what it is, by which it has its own nature and properties, and has not merely the appearance but reality of being. Thus gold has truth of being i. e., is real gold, when it has not only the appearance, but all the pro- perties belonging to that metal. Philosophy is the knowledge of being, and if there were no real being, that is, if truth could not be predicated of things, there could be no know- ledge. But things exist independently of being known. They do not exist because they are known, nor as they are known. But they are known because they are, and as they are, when known fully. Veritas Cognitionis. Truth, as predicated of knowledge, is the. conformity of our knowledge with the reality of the object known for, as know- ledge is the knowledge of something, when a thing is known as it is, that knowledge is formally true. To know that fire is hot, is true knowledge. Objective truth is the conformity of the thing or object known with true knowledge. But there seems to be little difference whether we say that tnith consists in the conformity of the formal conception to the thing known or conceived of, or in the conformity of the thing as it is to true knowledge. Veritas Signi. The truth of the sign consists in its adequateness or con- formity to the thing signified. If falsity in those things which imitate another consists not in so far as they imitate, but in so far as they cannot imitate it or represent it adequately or fully, so the truth of a representation or sign consists in its being adequate to the thing signified. The truth and ade- quacy of signs belongs to enunciation in logic. 46* 534 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TRUTH - " Independent of the truth which consists in the conformity of thoughts to things, called scientific and of that which lies in the correspondence of words with thougths, called moral truth there is a truth called logical, depending on the self- consistency of thoughts themselves Thought ia valueless except in so far as it leads to correct knowledge of things ; a higher truth than the merely logical, in subser- vience to which alone the logical is desirable. The reason that we sedulously avoid the purely logical error of holding two contradictory propositions is, that we believe one of them to be a fair representation of facts, so that in adopting the other we should admit a falsehood, which is always abhorrent to the mind. If we call the logical truth, subjective, as con- sisting in the due direction of the thinking subject, we may call this higher metaphysical truth, objective, because it de- pends on our thoughts fairly representing the objects that give rise to them." ' Verilas est adcequatio intellectus et rei, secvndum quod intel- lectus dicit esse quod est, vet non esse quod non est." 2 Truth, in the strict logical sense, applies to propositions and to nothing else ; and consists in the conformity of the declara- tion made to the actual state of the case ; agreeably to Al- dricb/s definition of " a true" proposition vera est quce quod res est dicit. In its etymological sense, truth signifies that which the speaker "trows," or believes to be the fact. The etymology of the word far t 9( j, TO py ^.rjOov, seems to be similar ; denoting non-concealment. In this sense it is opposed to a lie; and may be called moral, as the other may be called logical truth. " Truth is not unfrequently applied, in loose and inaccurate language, to arguments; when the proper expression would be ' correctness/ ' collusiveness/ or ' validity/ " Truth again, is often used in the sense of reality, to ov. People speak of the truth or falsity of facts; properly speaking, they are either real or fictitious : it is the statement that i Thomson, Outline of Laws of Though', sect. 81, 82. 1 Aquinas, Contra. Gent., i.. 49. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 535 TBTTH 'true 7 or 'false.' The 'true' cause of anything, is a common expression ; ' meaning that which may with truth be assigned as the cause.' The senses of falsehood correspond." 1 " Necessary trutJis are such as are known independently oi inductive proof. They are, therefore, either self-evident pro positions, or deduced from self-evident propositions/' 2 Necessary truths are those in which we not only learn thai * the proposition is true, but see that it must be true ; in which the negation is not only false, but impossible ; in which we cannot, even by an effort of the imagination, or in a supposi- tion, conceive the reverse of what is asserted. The relations of numbers are the examples of such truths. Two and three make five. We cannot conceive it to be otherwise. "A necessary truth or kw of reason, is a truth or law the opposite of which is inconceivable, contradictory, nonsensical, impossible ; more shortly, it is a truth, in the fixing of which nature had only one alternative, be it positive or negative. Nature might have fixed that the sun should go round the earth, instead of the earth round the sun ; at least we see nothing in that supposition which is contradictory and absurd. Either alternative was equally possible. But nature could not have fixed that two straight lines should, in any circumstances, enclose a space ; for this involves a contradiction." 3 Contingent truths are those which, without doing violence to reason, we may conceive to be otherwise. If I say "Grass 13 green," " Socrates was a philosopher," I assert propositions which are true, but need not have been so. It might have pleased the Creator to make grass blue and Socrates might never have lived. " There are truths of reasoning (reason) and truths oi fact. Truths of reason are necessary, and their contradictory is im- possible those of fact are contingent, and their opposite ia possible. When a truth is necessary you can find the reason by analysis, resolving it into ideas and trutJis more simple, til! you come to what is primitive." * 4 Wbately, Log., Appendix i. a KidJ. Principles of Reasoning, chap. 7. 8 Ferrier, Inst. of MetapJtys., p. 19. 4 Leibnitz, Nouveaux Essais, iv., 2; Monadologie, sect. 33. 36 VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. TRUTH - " Though the primary truths of fact and the primary truth* of intelligence (the contingent and necessary truths of Reid) form two very distinct classes of the original beliefs or intui- tions of our consciousness, there appears no sufficient ground to regard their sources as different, and therefore to be distin- guished by different names. In this I regret that I am unable to agree with Mr. Stewart. See his Elements, vol. ii., chap. 1, and his Account of Reid, supra, p. 27, b." ' " Truth implies something really existing. An assertion respecting the future may be probable or improbable, it maj be honest or deceitful, it may be prudent or imprudent, it may have any relation we please to the mind of the person who makes it, or of him who hears it, but it can have no relation at all to a thing which is not. The Stoics said, Cicero will either be Consul or not. One of these is true, therefore the event is certain. But truth cannot be predicated of that which is not/ 72 "Truth implies a report of something that is; reality denotes the existence of a thing, whether affirmed and reported of or not. The thing reported either is or is not; the report ia either true or fah-e. The things themselves are sometimes called truths, instead of facts or realities. And assertions con- cerning matters of fact are called facts. Thus we hear of false facts, a thing literally impossible and absurd." 3 " No pleasure is comparable to the standing upon the van- tage-ground of truth (a hill not to be commanded, and where the air is always clear and serene), and to see the errors and wanderings and mists and tempests in the vale below ; so always that this prospect be with pity, arid not with swelling or pride/' 4 F. FALSITY, REALITY. TRUTHS (First) are such as do not depend on any prior truth They carry evidence in themselves. They are assented to as soon as they are understood. The assent given to them is GO full, that while experience may confirm or familiarize it, it can scarcely be said to increase it, and so clear that no proposition 1 Sir William Hamilton, Reid's Works, note A, p. 74?.. J Coplestone. Enquiry into Necessity, Preface, p. 15, * Ibid., Remains, p. 105. 1 Bacon's Essay on Truth. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 537 TRUTHS - contradicting them can be admitted as more clear. That a whole is greater than any of its parts ; that a change implies the operation of a cause ; that qualities do not exist without a substance ; that there are other beings ' the world besides ourselves; may be given as examples Q^L first truths. These truths are and must be assented to by every rational being, as soon as the terms exj.-essing them are understood. They have been called xoivo* twouu, communes notitice, natural judg- ments, primitive beliefs, fundamental laws of the human mind, principles of common sense, principles of reason, prin- ciples of reasoning, &c. . . . "To determine how great is the number of these propositions is impossible ; for they are not in the soul as pro- positions ; but it is an undoubted truth that a mind awaking out of nothing into being, and presented with particular ob- jects, would not fail at once to judge concerning them accord- ing to, and by the force of, some such innate principles as these, or just as a man would judge who had learnt these ex- plicit propositions ; which indeed are so nearly allied to its own nature, that they may be called almost a part of itself. . . . . Therefore I take the mind or soul of man not to be so perfectly indifferent to receive all impressions as a rasa tabula, or white paper. . . . " Hence there may be some practical principles also innate in the foregoing sense, though not in the form of propositions." > "From the earliest records of time, and following the course of history, we everywhere find the principles of common sense. as universal elements of human thought and action. No vio- lence can suppress, no sophisms obscure them. They steadily and unerringly guide us through the revolutions and destruc- tion of nations and empires. The eye pierces with rapid glance through the long vista of ages amid the sanguinary conflicts, the territorial aggrandizements, and chequered fea- tures of states and kingdoms ; and from the wreck of all that is debasing, glorious, or powerful, we still recognize the great and universal truths of humanity. One generation passes away after another, but they remain for ever the same. They are the life-blood of human nature ; the intellectual air wo Watt?, Philosopl'. Essays, sect. 4 and 3. 538 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. TRUTHS - breathe. Without them society could not for a single hour subsist ; governments, laws, institutions, religion, the man- ners and customs of men, bear the indelible imprint of their universality and indestructibility. They are revealed in the daily and hourly actions, thoughts, and speech of all men ; and must ever fo-m the basis of all systems of philosophy ; for without them it can only be a phantom, a delusion, an unmeaning assemblage of words. " Van de Weyer. On the nature, origin, and validity of first truths, the fol- lowing authors may be consulted: Lord Herbert, De Veri- tate ; Burner, Treatise of First Truths; Reid, Inquiry and Essays on Intell. Pow. ; Sir Will. Hamilton, Reid's Works. 1 V. COMMON SENSE, REMINISCENCE. TYPE (rvrtoj, typus, from tvrttu, to strike). " Great father of the gods, when for our crimes Thou send'st some heavy judgment on the times, Some tyrant king, the terror of his age, The type and true -vicegerent of thy rage ! Thus punish him." Dryden, Persius, sat. 3. " So St. Hierome offered wine, not water, in the type of his blood." 2 Among the Greeks the first model which statuaries made m clay of their projected work was called fvn.o$. Type means the first rude form or figure of anything an adumbration or shadowing forth. The thing fashioned according to it was the ectype, and the type in contrast the protype. But archetype was applied to the original idea, model, or exemplar, not copied, but of which other things were copies. "A type is an example of any class, for instance, a species of a genus, which is considered as eminently possessing the characters of the class." 3 For the meaning of a type in the arts of design, soe Si! Edmund Head. Hist, of Painting. 4 V. HOMOTTPE. * Appendix, note A. a Bishop Taylor, Of Real Presence, sect. 6. 8 Whewell, Induct. Sciences, viii., li., 10. 4 Preface, p. 39. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 5o9 UBIETY (ubi, where) is the presence of one thing to another, 01 the presence of a thing in place. The schoolmen distinguished ubiety as 1. Circumscriptivc, by which a body is so in one place that its parts are answerable to the parts of space in which it IK, and exclude every other body. 2. Definitive, as when a human spirit is limited or defined in it- presence to the same place as a human body. 3. Repletiee, as when the Infinite Spirit is present through every portion of space. This last is sometimes called ubiquity, and means the Divine Omnipresence. 1 UNCONDITIONED. " This term has been employed in a two fold signification, as denoting either the entire absence 'of all restriction, or more widely, the entire absence of all relation. The former \ve regard as its only legitimate application." 2 In the philosophy of Kant it is that which is absolutely and in itself, or internally possible, and is exempted from the con- ditions circumscribing a thing in time or space. V. ABSO- LUTE, INFINITE. UNDERSTANDING. " Perhaps the safer use of the term, for general purposes, is to take it as the mind, or rather as the man himself considered as a concipient as well as a percipient being, and reason as a power supervening." 3 " In its wider acceptation, understanding is the entire power of perceiving arid conceiving, exclusive of the sensibility ; the power of dealing with the impressions of sense, and composing them into wholes according to a law of unity ; and in its most comprehensive meaning it includes even simple apprehension. Thus taken at large it is the whole spontaneity of the repre- senting mind; that which puts together the multifarious materials supplied by the passive faculty of sense, or pure re- ceptivity. But we may consider the understanding in another point of view, not as the simple faculty of thought, which pro- duces intuitions and conceptions spontaneously, and conies into play as the mere tool or organ of the spiritual mind : but as a 1 Leibnitz, Nouv. Essais. liv. ii.. chap. 23, sect. 21. a Calderwood. Phil, of the Infinite, p. 36. 51 Coleridge, Statesman's Manual App. B. p. 264. 540 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. UNDERSTANDING - power that is exercised on objects which it supplies to itselt which does not simply think and reflect, but which examines its thoughts, arranges and compares them ; and this for scien- tific, not for directly practical, purposes. To intellectualii.e upon religion, and to receive it by means of the understand! tit) are two different things, and the common exertion of this faculty should of course be distinguished from that special use of it, in which one man differs from another, by reason of stronger original powers of mind, or greater improvement of them by exercise." ! " The understanding is the medial faculty, or faculty of means, as reason on the other hand is the source of ideas or ultimate ends. By reason we determine the ultimate end ; by the understanding we are enabled to select and adopt the appropriate means for the attainment of, or approximation to, this end, according to circumstances. But an ultimate end must of necessity be an idea, that is, that which is not repre- sentable by the senses, and has no correspondent in nature, or the world of the senses Understanding and sense constitute the natural mind of man, mind of the flesh, ^por^a oapxoj, as likewise ^v%(,xr] ovvtaig, the intellectual power of the living or animal soul, which St. Paul everywhere contradis- tinguishes from the spirit, that is, the power resulting from the union and co-influence of the will and reason oo^to or wisdom." 2 " The reason and the understanding have not been steadily distinguished by English writers To underhand anything is to apprehend it according to certain assumed ideas and rules ; we do not include in the meaning of the word an examination of the ground of the ideas and rules by reference to which we understand the thing. We understand a language, when we apprehend what is said, according to the established vocabulary and grammar of the language ; without inquiring how the words came to have their meaning, or what is the ground of the grammatical rules. We understand the sense without reasoning about the etymology and syntax. " Reasoning may be requisite to understanding. We may 1 Coleridge, Aids to Reflection, vol. ii., p. 38. Ibid.. Notes on English Div., vol. ii., p. 338. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY 541 UNDERSTANDING - have to reason about the syntax in order tt understand the sense. But understanding leaves still room for reasoning. Also we may understand what is not conformable to reason ; as when we understand a man's arguments, and think them unfounded in reason. "We reason in order to deduce rules from first principles, or from one another. But the rules and principles which must be expressed when we reason, may be only implied when we understand. We may understand the sense of a speech without thinking of rules of grammar. " The reason is employed both in understanding and in reasoning ; but the principles which are explicitly asserted in reasoning, are only implicitly applied in understanding. The reason includes both the faculty of seeing first principles, and the reasoning faculty by which we obtain other principles. The understanding is the faculty of applying principles, how- ever obtained." ' Anselm considered the facts of consciousness under the fourfold arrangement of Sensibility, Will, Reason, and Intel- ligence ; and showed that the two last are not identical. 2 " ' There is one faculty/ says Aristotle, 3 ' by which man comprehends and embodies in his belief first principles which cannot be proved, which he must receive from some authority; there is another by which, when a new fact is laid before him, he can show that it is in conformity with some principle possessed before. One process resembles the collection of materials for building the other their orderly arrangement. One is intuition, the other logic. One vous, the other iftcafqpif/ Or to use a modern distinction, one Ls reason in its highest sense, the other understanding"* " I use the term understanding, not for the noetic faculty, intellect proper, or place of principles, but for the dianoetic, or discursive faculty in its widest signification, for the faculty Whewell, Elements of Morality, Introd., sect. 11. 9 Matter, Hist, de la Philosoph. dans ses Kapporti avec Religion, p. 148. ?aria ^4. Eth., lib. 6. Sewell, Christ. Mor., chap. 21. 47 542 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. UNDERSTANDING of relations or comparisons ; and thus in the meaning is which Versiand is now employed by the Germans." ' " Understanding, intellect ( Vcrstand ) is the faculty which conjoins the diversity which is furnished us by the senses. and forms into a whole the sensible representations which are given to us. The word Verstand is used occasionally n being synonymous with Verimnft (reason), and is the faculty of cognition in general, and in this sense the critic of pure reason might be termed also the critic of pure understanding, The discursive understanding is the faculty of cognizing ob- jects, not immediately, but through conceptions. And as intuition belongs to cognition, and as a faculty of a complete spontaneousness of intuition, or which perceives the intuition not passively, but produces spontaneously from itself, a cog- nition-faculty different frojn, and independent of, what is the sensibility, would be, consequently, understanding in the widest sense ; we might think such an intuitive, envisaging understanding (intellectus intuitimis] negatively, as a non- discursive understanding. The gemeiner Menscken Verstand and the Gemeinsinn are sensus communis logicus, or common sense ; and the gesunder Verstand, sound sense. Sir J. Mack- intosh prefers the term intellect to that of understanding as the source of conceptions."' 2 V. REASON, INTELLECT. UNIFICATION is the act of so uniting ourselves with another as to form one being. Unification with God was the final aim of the Neo-Platonicians. And unification with God is also one of the beliefs of the Chinese philosopher, Lao Tseu. UNITARIAN (A) is a believer in one God. It is the same in meaning as Monotheist. In this large- sense it is applicable to all Christians, for they all believe in the unity of the Divino nature ; and also to Jews and Mahommedans. It may even include Deists, or those who believe in God on grounds of reason alone. But the name is commonly opposed to Trini tarian, and is applied to those who, accepting the Christian revelation, believe in God as existing in one person, and * acknowledge Jesus Christ as his messenger to men. UNITY or ONENESS (unum, one) is a property of being. If anything is, it is one and not many. Oinne ens est uinim. 1 Sir \V. Hamiifin. Ditcusgims. fie., Svo . Lond.. 1852. p. 4, nu'.c. a Haywoorl. frit, nf Pure. I?eaxf>n. p, C05. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 543 UNITY- Unity is defined to be that property, qua ens est i'ldh isum in se et divisum ab omni alio. Locke 1 makes unity synonymous with number. But Aris> totle* more correctly makes unity the element of number, and says that unity is indivisibleness. That which is indivisible, aul has no position, is a monad. That which is indivisible, but has a position, is a point. That which is divisible only in one sense is a line. That which is divisible in two senses is a plane. And that which is divisible in three senses is a body in respect of quantity. According to Aristotle, 3 the modes of unify are reducible to four, that of continuity, especially natural continuity, which is not the result of contact or tie that of a whole naturally, which has figure and form, and not like things united by vio- lence that of an individual or that which is numerically indivisible and that of a universal, which is indivisible in form and in respect of science. Unity has been divided into transcendental or entitative, by which a being is indivisible in itself logical, by which things like each other are classed together for the purposes of science and moral, by which many are embodied as one for the pur- poses of life, as many citizens make one society, many soldiers one army. Unity is opposed to plurality, which is nothing but plures entitates ant unitates. Unity is specific or numerical. The former may rather be called similitude, and the latter identity. 4 " The essential diversity of the ideas unity and sameness \vas among the elementary principles of the old logicians ; and the sophisms grounded on the confusion of these terms have been ably exposed by Leibnitz in his critique on Wissowatius." 6 V. DISTINCTION, IDENTITY. (TNIVERSALS. "The same colour being observed to-day in chalk or snow, which the mind yesterday received from milk, it considers that appearance alone, makes it a representative * Essay nt. Hum. Understand., b. ii., ch. 16. 9 Jlfetapltys., lib. iv., cap. 6, lib. x., cap. 1. 8 I hid , lib. x., cap. 1. * Hulcheson, Metaphys.. pars 3, *p. & Coleridge. Sc.cnnd Lay Sermon, p. 367. See also, Aids to Refaction. v>. l.VT. 43 544 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. UNIVERSALS - oi all of that kind, and having given it the naiae of whitenesHj it by that sound signifies the same quality, wheresoever to b imagined or met with, and thus universals, whether ideas ox terms, are made." ' Universal terms may denote, 1. A mathematical universality as all circles (no exception) have a centre and circumference. 2. A physical universality, as all men use words to expresa their thoughts (though the dumb cannot). 3. A moral univer- sality, as all men are governed by affection rather than by reason. Universal (umtm versus alia] means, according to its composi- tion, one towards many. It is defined by Aristotle, 2 " that which by its nature is fit to be predicated of many." And 3 " that which by its nature has a fitness or capacity to be in many." It implies unity with community, or unity shared in by many. Universals have been divided into, 1. Metaphysical or uni- versalia ante rein. 2. Physical, or universalia in re. 3. Logical, or universalia post rem. By the first are meant those archetypal forms, according to which all things were created. As existing in the Divine mind and furnishing the pattern for the Divine working, these may be said to correspond with the ideas of Plato. By universals in the second sense are meant certain common natures, which, one in themselves, are diffused over or shared in by many as rationality by all men. By universals in the third sense are meant general notions framed by the human intellect, and predicated of many things, on the ground of their possessing common properties as animal, which may be predicated of man, lion, horse, &c. Realists give prominence to universals in the first and second signification. Nominalists hold that the true meaning of uni- versals is that assigned in the third sense. While concep- tualists hold an intermediate view. 4 In ancient philosophy the universals were called prtedicablen 1 Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand., book ii., ch. 6. 3 Lib. de Interpret., cap. 5. Metaphys., lib. v., cap. 13. * Roid, Intdl. Pew., essay v., chap. 6; Thomson, Outline of Laws of Thought, 2J edit >ect. 23. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 545 UNIVERSALS- (q. y.), and were arranged in five classes, genus, species, dif* ferentia, proprium, and accidens. It is argued that there can be neither more nor fewer. For whatever is predicated of man j is predicated essentially or accidentally ; if essentially, either of the whole essence, and then it is a species ; of a common part of the essence, and then it is a genus ; or of a proper part of the essence, and then it is the differentia essentialis ; if accidentally, it either flows from the essence of the subject, and is its pro- prium, or does not flow from its essence, and is its accidens. Or it may be argued thus universality is a fitness of being predicated of many, which implies identity or sameness, or at least resemblance. There will therefore be as many classes of universals as there are kinds of identity. Now, when one thing is said to be the same with another, it is so either essentially or accidentally ; if essentially, it is so either completely or in- completely ; if completely, it gives a species; if incompletely, it is so in form, and gives the differentia, or in matter and gives the genus; if accidentally, it is the same either necessarily and inseparably, and constitutes the proprium or contingently and separably, and is the accidens. Tellez. 1 But the fivefold classification of universals is censured by Derodon. 2 UNIVOCAL WORDS (una, one; vox, word or meaning) "are such as signify but one idea, or at least but one sort of thing ; the words book, bible, fish, house, elephant, may be called univocal words, for I know not that they signify anything else but those ideas to which they are generally affixed/' 3 " I think it is a good division in Aristotle, that the same word may be applied to different things in three ways : uni~ vocally, analogically, and equivocally. Univocally, when the things are species of the same genus ; analogically, when the things are related by some similitude or analogy ; equivocally, when they have no relation but a common name." 4 In Logic a common term is called univocal in respect of those things or persons to which it is applicable in the same signifi- cation, as the term " man." Whately observer lhat the " usual Sununa, pars 1, dis. v., sect. 1. 1 Log., pars. 2, cap. 6. See also Thomson, Outline of Laws of Tlivught, sect. 37. 8 Watts. Log., b. i., c. 4. 4 Keid, Correspondence, p. 75. 47* 2L 546 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. UNIVOCAL- division of nouns into univocal, equivocal, and analogous, and into nouns of the first and second intention, are not, strictl) speaking, divisions of words, but divisions of the manner of employing them; the same word may be employed either uni vocally, equivocally, or analogously ; either in the first inten tion or the second." * V. ANALOGOUS, EQUIVOCAL, INTENTION. UTILITY, said Kant, 2 "is nothing scarcely but a frame or case which may serve to facilitate the sale 'of a picture, or draw to it the attention of those who are not connoisseurs ; but cannot recommend it to true lovers of the art, or determine its price." " What is useful only has no value in itself; but derives all its merit from the end for which it is useful." 3 "Utility is an idea essentially relative, which supposes a higher term." 4 The doctrine of utility in morals is, that actions are right because they are useful. It has been held under various forms. Some who maintain that utility or beneficial tendency is what makes an action right, hold that a virtuous agent may be prompted by self-love (as Paley), or by benevolence (as Ru- therforth), or partly by both (as Hume). And the beneficial tendency of actions has by some been viewed solely in refer- ence to this life (as Hume and Bentham), while by others it has been extended to a future state (as Paley), and the obli- gation to do such actions has been represented as arising from the rewards and punishments of that future state, as made known by the light of nature and by revelation (as D wight). The fundamental objection to the doctrine of utility in all its modifications, is that taken by Dr. Reid, 5 viz., "that agreeableness and utility are not moral conceptions, nor have they any connection with morality. What a man does, merely because it is agreeable, is not virtue. Therefore the Epicurean system was justly thought by Cicero, and the best moralists among the ancients, to subvert morality, and to substitute another principle in its room ; and this system it 1 Whately, Log., b. ii., ch. 5, g 1. a Metaphys. des Mceurs, p. 15. * I : <.>id. Act. Pw.. essay v., oh. 5. 4 Manuel de Philosajih , p. 334. * Act. Pow., essay v., ch. 5. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 547 UTILITY - liable to the same censure." " Honestum, igitvr, id inielligi miis. auod tale est, ut, detracta omni utilitate, sine ullis premiii fructibusve, per seipsum jure possit laudari." * VELLEITY (volo, to will) is an indolent or inactive wish or, inclination towards a thing, which leads to no energetic effort to obtain it, as when it is said, " The cat likes fish but will not touch the water/' " The wishing of a thing is not properly the willing it, but it is that which is called by the schools an imperfect velleily, and imports no more than an idle inoperative complacency in, and desire of the end, without any consideration of the means." 2 "A volition which cannot carry itself into execution." Mliller. V. VOLITION. VERACITY is the duty of preserving the truth in our conver- sation. It is natural for us to speak as we think, and to believe that others do the same. So much so that Dr. Reid enumerates an instinct of veracity and a corresponding instinct of credulity as principles of human nature: Children do not distrust nor deceive. It is not till interest or passion prompts men, that they conceal or disguise the truth. The means employed for this purpose are either saying what is false, or equivocation and reservation q. v. VERBAL is opposed to real (q. v.}, 1. As name is opposed to thing: and 2. As insincere is opposed to sincere. "Great acclamations and verbal praises and acknowledgments, without an honest and sincere endeavour to please ai;d obey him, are but pieces of mockery and hypocritical compliment."* " Sometimes the question turns on the meaning and extent of the terms employed ; sometimes on the things signified by thorn. If it be made to appear, therefore, that the opposite sides of a certa-n question may be held by parties not differing in their opinion of the matter in hand, then that question 1 De, Finibus, ii., 14. * Soutlv, 8 Hale, Cont. Of Afflictnms. 548 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY VERBAL - may be pronounced verbal; or depending on the different senses in which they employ the terms. If, on the contrary, it appears that they employ the terms in the same sense, but still differ as to the application of one of them to the other, then it may be pronounced that the question is real that they differ as to the opinions they hold of the things or questions." 1 VIRTUAL is opposed to actual. " It is not, in this sense, the foundation of Christian doctrine, but it contains it all ; not only in general, but in special ; not only virtual, but actual; not mediate, but immediate ; for a few lines would have served for a foundation general, virtual, and mediate." 2 A thing has a virtual existence when it has all the con* ditions necessary to its actual existence. The statue exists virtually in the brass or iron, the oak in the acorn. The cause virtually contains the effect. In the philosophy of Aristotle, the distinction between &vva/jii$, and ivtstixtw,, or f>spyfta, i. e., potentia or virtus, and actus is frequent and fundamental. " A letter of credit does not in reality contain the sum which i represents ; that sum is only really in the coffer of the banker. Yet the letter contains the sum in a certain sense, since it holds its place. This sum is in still another sense, contained ; it is virtually in the credit of the banker who subscribes the letter. To express these differences in the language of Descartes, the sum is contained formally in the coffer of the banker, objectively in the letter which he sub- scribed, and eminently in the credit which enabled him to subscribe ; and thus the coffer contains the reality formal of the sum, the letter the reality objective, and the credit of the banker the reality eminent." 3 VIRTUE. " For if virtue be an election annexed unto our nature, and consisteth in a mean, which is determined by reason, and that mean is the very myddes of two things vicious, the one is surplusage, the other in lacke," * &c. 1 Whately. 2 Bp. Tayjor, Dissuas.from Popery, sect. 3. * TCoyer Collard. CEuvre.s de Reid, torn. ii.. p. 356. * Sir T. Elyot, The Governour, b. ii., c. 10. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 549 VIRTUE- Virtus, in Latin, from vfr, a man, and dpf-r^ in Greek, from v Apjs, Mars, give us the primary idea of manly strength. Virtue then implies opposition or struggle. In man, the struggle is between reason and passion between right and wrong. To hold by the former is virtue, to yield to the latter is vice. According to Aristotle, virtue is a practical habit acquired by doing virtuous acts. He called those virtues intel- lectual, by which the intellect was strengthened, and moral, by which the life was regulated. Another ancient division was that of the cardinal virtues which correspond to the moral virtues. The theological virtues were faith, hope, and charity. The opposite of virtue is vice. Aristotle is quoted by Bacon in Seventh Book Of the Ad- vancement of Learning, as saying, "As beasts cannot be said to have vice or virtue, so neither can the gods ; for as the condition of the latter is something more elevated than virtue, so that of the former is something different from vice." ' As virtue implies trial or difficulty, it cannot be predicated of God. He is holy. Kant frequently insists upon the distinction between virtue and holiness. In a holy being, the will is uniformly and without struggle in accordance with the moral law. In a virtuous being, the will is liable to the solicitations of the sensibility, in opposition or resistance to the dictates of reason. This is the only state of which man is capable in this life. But he ought to aim and aspire to the attainment of the higher or holy state, in which the will without struggle is always in accordance with reason. The Stoics thought the beau ideal of virtue, or the complete subjection of sense and appetite to reason, attainable in this life. V. DUTY, MERIT, OBLIGA- TION, RECTITUDE, STANDARD, NATURE OF THINGS. VOLITION (volo, to will) " is an act of the mind knowingly exerting that dominion it takes itself to have over any part of the man, by employing it in, or withholding it from, any par- ticular action." 2 1 Moffet, Trans., p. 200. 2 Lofke. Kxsay <>n Ham. Understand., book ii., chap. 21, sect. 16. 550 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. VOLITION - "There is an error which lies under the word volition, Under that word you include both the final perception of the understanding which is passive, and also the^r.s-tf operation or exertion of the active faculty of self-motive power. These two you think to be necessarily connected. I think there ia no connection at all between them ; and that in their not being connected lies the diiference between action and pas- sion ; which diiference is the essence of liberty." ] Things are sought as ends or as means. The schoolmen distinguished three acts of will, circa finem, Veil-city, Intention, and Fruition. Gen. iii. 6: When the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise (this is velleity), she took thereof (this is intention] and did eat (this is fruition]. There are also three acts, circa, media, viz., consent, approving of means election, or choosing the most fit, and application, use, or employing of them. V. ELECTION, WILL. WELL-BEING." This is beyond all doubt, and indisputable/' says Leighton in his Theological Lectures, "that all men wish well to themselves ; nor can the mind of man divest itself of this propensity, without divesting itself of its being. This is what the schoolmen mean when in their manner of expression they say that ' the will (voluntas, not arbitrium) is carried towards happiness, not simply as will, but as nature.' ' No man hateth his own flesh.' " " One conclusion follows inevitably from the preceding posi- tion," says Coleridge, 2 "namely, that this propensity can never be legitimately made the principle of morality, even because it is no part or appurtenance of the moral will : and because the proper object of the moral principle is to limit and control this propensity, and to determine in what it may be, and in what it ought to be, gratified ; while 'it is the business of 1 Dr. Sam. Clarke, Second Letter to a Gentleman, p. 410. a Aids in Reflation, vol. i., p. 20, edit. 1848. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 551 WELL-BEING- philosophy to instruct the understanding, and the office of re- ligion to convince the whole man, that otherwise than as a regulated, and of course therefore a subordinate, end, this propensity, innate and inalienable though it be, can never be realized or fulfilled." F. HAPPINESS. WHOLE (6*105). "There are wholes of different kinds ; for, in the jirst place, there is an extended whole, of which the parts lie contiguous, such as body and space. Secondly, There is a whole, of which the parts are separated or discrete, such aa number, which, from thence, is called quantity discrete. Thirdly, There is a whole, of which the parts do not exist together, but only by succession, such as time, consisting of minutes, hours, and days, or as many more parts as we please, but which all exist successively, or not together. Fourthly, There is what may be called a logical whole, of which the several specieses are parts. Animal, for example, is a whole, in this sense, and man, dog, horse, &c., are the several parts of it. Andjtfthly, The different qualities of the same substance, may be said to be parts of that substance/ 7 ' A whole is either divisible or indivisible. Every whole as a whole is one and undivided. But though not divided, a whole may be divisible in thought, by being reduced to its elements mentally, or it may be altogether indivisible even in thought. This latter is what metaphysicians call Totum perfectionale, and it is only applicable to Deity, who is wholly in the universe, and wholly in every part of it. A divisible whole is distinguished as potential, or that which is divisible into parts by which it is not constituted, as animal may be divided into man and brute, but is not constituted by them ; and actual, or that which is divisible into parts by which it is constituted, as man may be divided into soul and body. An actual whole is either physical or metaphysical. A physical whole is constituted by physical composition, and is integral when composed of the integrant parts of matter, or essential when composed of matter and f 5rm. A metaphysical whole is constituted by metaphysical composition, which ?s Mou 'wdclo, Ancient Mdaphys., book ii., chap. 12. 652 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. WHOLE - fourfold : 1. A whole made up of genus and differentia is aB essential specific whole as man, in so far as he is a species of animal, is made up of the genus (animal) and the differentia (rational). 2. A whole made up of the specific nature and the individual differentia, is an essential numerical whole. 3. A whole of existence contains a singular essence and existence added. 4. A whole of subsistence has subsistence added to existence. 1 According to Derodon, 2 an essential whole is that from which if any part be taken the being perishes as man in respect of his body and soul. An integral whole is that from which, if any part be taken, the being is not entire but mutilated. Man with all his members is an integral whole; cut off a limb, he is not an integral, but still an essential whole. "A whole is composed of distinct parts. Composition may be physical, metaphysical, or logical. "A physical whole is made up of parts distinct and sepa- rate, and is natural, as a tree, artificial, as a house, moral, or conventional, as a family, a city, &c. "A metaphysical whole arises from metaphysical composi- tion, as potence and act, essence and existence, &c. "A logical whole is composed by genus and differentia, and is called a higher notion, which can be resolved into notions under it, as genus into species, species into lower species. Thus, animal is divided into rational and irrational, knowledge into science, art, experience, opinion, belief. " Of the parts into which a whole is divisible, some are es- sential, so that if one is wanting the being ceases, as the head or heart in man ; others are integral, of which if one or more be wanting the being is not entire, as in man, an eye or arms ; others are constituent, such as concur to form the substance of the thing, as oxygen and hydrogen in water." 3 WHY? As an interrogative, this word is employed in three senses, viz., " By what proof (or reason) ?" " From what c.iuse ?" " For what purpose ?" This last is commonly called the "final cause" e. g., "Why is this prisoner guilty of the crime?" 'Why does a stone fall to the earth?" "Why Mttaphys. tteneralis, sect. 15. a Loff~, 3 pars., p. 70. J Peemans. Introtl. ad Philwovh.. P. 72. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 553 WHY?- did you go to London ? " Much confusion has arisen from not distinguishing these different inquiries. 1 WILL. Some modern philosophers, especially among the French, have employed the term activity as synonymous with will. But the former is of wider signification than the. latter. Acti- vity is the power of producing change, whatever the change may be. Will is the power of producing acts of willing. V. VOLITION. " Every man is conscious of a power to determine/ 7 says Dr. Reid, a " in things which he conceives to depend upon his determination. To this power we give the name of will" " Will is an ambiguous word, being sometimes put for the faculty of willing ; sometimes for the act of that faculty, besides other meanings. But volition always signifies the act of willing, and nothing else. Willingness, I think, is opposed iO unwillingness or aversion. A man is willing to do what he &as no aversion to do, or what he has some desire to do, though perhaps he has not the opportunity ; and I think this is never called volition." 3 " By the term will I do not mean to express a more or less highly developed faculty of desiring ; but that innate intellec- tual energy which, unfolding itself from all the other forces of the mind, like a flower from its petals, radiates through the whole sphere of our activity a faculty which we are better able to feel than to define, and which we might, perhaps, most appropriately designate as the purely practical faculty of man." 4 "Appetite is the will's solicitor, and the will is appetite's controller ; what we covet according to the one, by the other we often reject." 5 On the difference between desiring and willing, see Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand.; 6 Reid, Act. Paw.; 1 Stewart, Act. and Mor. Pow. s By some philosophers this difference has been overlooked and they have completely identified desire and volition. Whately, Log., Appendix 1. a Act. Pow., essay ii., ch. 1. Correspondence of Dr. Reid, p 79. 4 Feuchtersleben, Dietetics of the Soul Hooker, Eccles. Pol., book i. Book ii., ch. 21. Ks-say ii., ch. 2. Append., p. 471. 48 554 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY WILL- " What is desire," says Dr. Priestley, 1 "besides i. wish to obtain some apprehended good? And is not every wish a voli- tion? Every volition is nothing more than a desire, viz., a dosire to accomplish some end, which end may be considered as the object of the passion or affection/' " Volition/' says Mr. Belsham, " is a modification of the passion of desire." Mr. James Mill, in his Analysis of the Hum. Mind, holds that the will is nothing but the desire that is most powerful at the time. Dr. Thomas Brown, in his Lec- tures on Mor. Philosophy, has not spoken of the faculty of will or of acts of volition as separate from our desires. And in his Essay on Cause and Effect, 2 he has said, "Those brief feelings which the body immediately obeys are commonly termed voli- tions, while the more lasting wishes are simply denominated desires." The view opposed to this is strongly asserted in the follow- ing passage: "We regard it as of great moment that the will should be looked on as a distinct power or energy of the mind. Not that we mean to represent it as exercised apart from all other faculties ; on the contrary, it blends itself with every other power. It associates itself with our intellectual decisions on the one hand, and our emotional attachments on the other, but contains an important, element which cannot be resolved into either the one or the oilier, or into both com- bined. The other powers, such as the sensibility, the reason, the conscience, may influence the will, but they cannot consti- tute it, nor yield its peculiar workings. We have only by consciousness to look into our souls, as the will is working, to discover a power, which, though intimately connected with the other attributes of mind, even as they are closely related to each other, does yet stand out distinctly from them, with its peculiar functions and its own province. We hold that there cannot be an undertaking more perilous to the best inte- rests of philosophy and humanity, than the attempt to resolve the will into anything inferior to itself. In particular it may be. and should be distinguished from that with which it has been so often confounded, the emotional part of man's nature." Ptiilnsnph. N'.cess., p. 35 Sect. 3 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 555 WILL- A Cording to Hitter, 1 " it was a principle with the Stoics that will and desire are one with thought, and may be resolved into it." Hence their saying, Omne actem est in intellectu. And hence they maintained that passion was just an erro- neous judgment. But this is to confound faculties which are distinct. By the intellect we know or understand, by the sea sitivity we feel or desire, and by the will we determine to do or not to do, to do this or to do that. Intellectus est prior vohnttate, non enim est voluntas nisi de bono intelkcto. Thomas Aquinas.* Ea qnce sunt in, intelleciu sunt principia eorum qncB sunt tn affectv, in quantum scilicet boniim intellectum movet affectum? In what sense the understanding moves the will is shown by Aquinas. 4 "Whether or no the judgment does certainly and infallibly command and draw after it the acts of the will, this is certain, it does of necessity precede them, and no man can fix his love upon anything till his judgment reports it to the will as amiable/' 5 On the question, whether the connection between the intel- lect and the will be direct or indirect, see Locke, Essay on Hum. Understand.; 6 Jonathan Edwards, Inquiry ; 7 Dr. Turn- bull, Christ. Philosoph? Will (Freedom of). " This is the essential attribute of a will, and contained in the very idea, that whatever determines the will acquires this power from a previous determination of the will itself. The will is ultimately self-determined, or it is no longer a will under the law of perfect freedom, but a nature under the mechanism of cause and effect." 9 " We need only to reflect on our own experience to be con- vinced tha f the man makes the motive, and not the motive the man. What is a strong motive to one man, is no motive at all to another. If, then, the man determines the motive, what determines the man to a good and worthy act, we will say, or a virtuous course of conduct? The intelligent will, or the self-determining power ? True, in part it is ; and therefore HiM. of Anc Philosnph.^ yol. Hi., p. 555. Sum. T/.eol, ii., 1. qusest. 83. 8 Ibi'lem, ii.. 2. qufcst. 7. art. 2. Ibid., ii.. 1, quaest. 9, art. 1. * S'tutli. Per mm on Matt, x., 37. B. i.. ch. 21. r Parti., sect. 2. * P- 1 06. Coleridge, A ids to Reflection, TO], i . p. 227. 556 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. WILL- the will is pre-eminently, the spiritual constituent in our being. But will any man admit, that his own will is the only and sufficient determinant of all he is, and all he does ? Is no- thing to be attributed to the harmony of the system to which it belongs, and to the pre-established fitness of the objects and agents, known and unknown, that surround him, as act- ing on the will, though, doubtless, with it likewise ? a process which the co-instantaneous, yet reciprocal action of the air and the vital energy of the lungs in breathing, may help to render intelligible/' 1 " It is very true that in willing an act, or in any act of self- determination, I am or may be induced by a variety of motives or impulses my will may be moved ; but this does not exclude the power of origination, for the consent even to the outward inducement or stimulus, still requires this unique act of self- determination in order to the energy requisite to the fulfilment of the deed. That it is so, who shall doubt who is conscious of the power? or if he believes that he has not this conscious- ness he belies his own nature. The actuation of the individual will not only does not exclude self-determination, but implies it implies that, though actuated, but actuated only because already self-operant, it is not compelled or acting under the law of outward causation. How often do we not see that a stern resolve has produced a series of actions, which, sustained by the inward energy of the man, has ended in its complete achievement? Contrast this with the life and conduct of the wayward, the fickle and the unsteady, and it is impossible not to find the inward conviction strengthened and confirmed, that the will is the inward and enduring essence of man's being." 2 " The central point of our consciousness that which makes each man what he is in distinction from every other man that which expresses the real concrete essence of the mind apart from its regulated laws and formal processes, is the will. Will expresses power, spontaneity, the capacity of acting in- dependently and for ourselves." 3 " Will may be defined to be the faculty which is apprehended in the consciousness, as the originating power of the personal 1 Coleridge. Aids to Reflection, vol. i., p. 44. Green, Mental Dynamics, p. 54. Morell, Phil, nj Rflig., p. 3. VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. 557 sclf. Not that it can be seen to be an absolute power cf self origination ; it is possible that it may always be determine*] by subtile forces which do not fall within the sphere of con- sciousness. But so far as apprehension can reach, the phe- nomena of the ivill appear to have their origin in an activity of the personal self/' 1 V. NATURE, FREE-WILL, LIBERTV, NECESSITY. WISDOM, says Sir W. Temple, " is that which makes man judge what are the best ends, and what the best means to attain them." "Wisdom," says Sir J. Mackintosh, "is the habitual em- ployment cf a patient and comprehensive understanding in combining various and remote means to promote the happi- ness of mankind." Wisdom is the right use or exercise of knowledge, and differs from knowledge, as the use which is made of a power or faculty differs from the power or faculty itself. Proverbs ch. xv., v. 2, The tongue of the wise useth know- ledge aright. Knowledge puffeth up. Knowledge is proud that he hath learned so much. Wisdom is humble that he knows no more. The word corresponding to wisdom was used among the Greeks to designate philosophy. And in our translation of the Scriptures, the word wisdom frequently denotes the reli- gious sentiment, or the fear and love of God. WIT (wife, to know) originally signified knowledge or wisdom. We still say, in his wits, out of his wits, for in or out of a sound mind. Mr. Locke 2 says, " Wit lies most in the assemblage of ideas, and putting those together with quickness and variety, wherein can be found any resemblance or congruity, thereby to make up pleasant pictures, and agreeable visions in the fancy. Judgment, on the contrary, lies quite on the other side, in separating carefully one from another, ideas, wherein can be found the least difference, thereby to avoid being mis- led by similitude, and by affinity to take one thing for another. This is a way of proceeding quite contrary to metaphor and allusion, wherein, for the most part, lies that entertain men* and pleasantry of wit, which strikes so lively on the fancy, 1 Thompson, Christ. Theism, book i., ch. 3. Estay, b. ii , cb 11 4** 558 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. WIT - and therefore is so acceptable to all people ; because its beauty appears at first sight, and there is required no labour of thought to examine what truth or reason there is in it." "This," says Mr. Addison, 1 "is, I think, the best and most philosophical account that I ever met with of ivit, which gene- rally, though not always, consists in such a resemblance and congruity of ideas as this author mentions. I shall only add to it, by way of explanation, that every resemblance of ideas is not that which we call wit, unless it be such an one that gives delight and surprise to the reader: these two properties seem essential to wit, more particularly the last of them. . . . Mr. Locke's account of wit, with this short explanation, com- prehends most of the species of wit, as metaphors, similitudes, allegories, enigmas, mottoes, parables, fables, dreams, visions, dramatic writings, burlesques, and all the methods of allu- sion ; as there are many other pieces of wit, how remote soever they may appear at first sight, from the foregoing description, which, upon examination, will be found to agree with it." " It is the design of wit," says Dr. Campbell, 2 "to excite in the mind an agreeable surprise, and that arising, not from anything marvellous in the subject, but solely from the imagery she employs, or the strange assemblage of related ideas presented to the mind. This end is effected in one or other of these three ways: first, in debasing things pompous or seemingly grave : I say seemingly grave, because to vilify what is truly grave, has something shocking in it, which rarely fails to counteract the end ; secondly, in aggrandizing things little and frivolous ; thirdly, in setting ordinary objects, by means not only remote but apparently contrary, in a par- ticular and uncommon point of view." Dr. Barrow, 3 speaking of facetious-ness, says, "Sometimes ifc lieth in pat allusion to a known story, or in seasonable appli- cation of a trivial saying, or in forging an apposite tale : sometimes it playeth in words and phrases, taking advantage from the ambiguity of their sense, or the affinity of their sound: sometimes it is wrapped in a dress of humoroua expression ; sometimes it lurketh under an odd similitude ; ' Spectator, 62. a pf t il. of Rhd.< b i x ch 2. sect. 1. * Sermon ayainut Fnol.'sh Talkinf, VOCABULARY OP PHILOSOPHY. 559 WIT sometimes it is lodged in a sly question, in a smart answer, in a quirkish reason, in a shrewd intimation, in cunningly diverting or cleverly retorting an objection : sometimes it is couched in a bold scheme of speech, in a tart irony, in a lusty hyperbole, in. a startling metaphor, in a plausible reconciling of contradictions, or in acute nonsense : sometimes a scenical representation of persons or things, a counterfeit speech, a mimical look or gesture passeth for it : sometimes an affected simplicity: sometimes a presumptuous bluntness giveth it being ; sometimes it riseth from a lucky hitting upon what is strange : sometimes from a crafty wresting obvious matter to the purpose : often it consisteth in one knows not what, and springeth up one can hardly tell how." "True wit is like the brilliant stone Dug from the Indian mine; Which boasts two various powers in one To cut as well as shine. "Genius, like that, if polished bright, With the same gifts abounds, Appears at once both keen and bright, And sparkles while it wounds." ANON. WIT and HUMOUR commonly concur in a tendency to provoke laughter, by exhibiting a curious and unexpected affinity ; the first generally by comparison, either direct or implied, the second by connecting in some other relation, such as causality or vicinity, objects apparently the most dissimilar and hetero- geneous ; which incongruous affinity gives the true meaning of the word oddity, and is the proper object of laughter." 1 " The feeling of the ludicrous seems to be awakened by the discovery of an unexpected relation between objects in other respects wholly dissimilar." 2 i)r. Trusler says that wit relates to the matter, humour to the manner ; that our old comedies abounded with wit, and our old actors with humour; that humour always excites laughter, but wit does not ; that a fellow of humour will set a whole company in a roar, but that there is a smartness in wit, which cuts while it pleases. Wit, he adds, always implies sense and abilities, 1 Campbell, Phil, of Rhet., b. i., chap. 2, sect. 2. a M-Cosb, Typical Forms, b. iii., chap. 2, \ 5. 560 VOCABULARY OF PHILOSOPHY. WIT and HUMOUR- while humour does not; humour is chiefly relished by the vulgar, but education is requisite to comprehend wit. 1 Lord Shaftesbury has an Essay on the Freedom of Wit and Humour* ZOONOMY (ww, animal; vo^oj, law). That department of knowledge which ascertains the laws of organic life. Dr. Darwin published a well-known work under this title, in which he classifies the facts belonging to animal life, and by comparing them seeks to unravel the theory of diseases. Taylor, Sywnymi. * CharacUritKck*, rol. L YOCABULAKY OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES. A. 1. In Logic, the Symbol of general affirmative propositions. Asserit A, negat. E, verum generaliter ambo ; Asserit I, negat. O, sed particulariter ambo. A and I are the vowels of affirmo : E and O of nego. See Barbara, Proposition and Syllogism. 2. In Complex and Modal propositions, the affirmation of the mode and of the proposition. Aristotle. 1 Port Royal Logic. 2 3. Symbol of the Absolute. A = A expresses the prin- cipal of Absolute Identity. ABDERITISM, from the citizens of Abdera, renowned for their stupidity : in Kant, 3 moral A., the theory that the human race will never advance beyond its present moral state. *ABDUCTION, in Logic. ABERRANCE, ABERRANCY, ABERRANT (in Biology), ABERRATION (Lat.), all mark wandering, deviation from what is sound, normal, typical, or standard. Sir T. Browne, 4 Ch. Darwin, 5 Glanville, 6 Sir H. Holland, 7 T. V. Wollaston. 8 ^ABILITY and INABILITY (NATURAL AND MORAL). ^Ability Natural. ^Inability Natural. * Ability Moral." Sufficiency of ethical motive for the fulfil- ment of all ethical law." C. F. V. ^Inability Moral. " Deficiency in ethical motive consequent upon want of harmony between personal inclination and moral requirements." C. F. V. * Prior Analytics. * TransL by J. S. Baynes, p. ii., ch. 3. s streit d. FncuMtf.n, 134, seq. * Vulgar Errors, 189, iv. 12. * Origin of Species, ch. IP,, vi. 202. * Scepsis Scien- tifica, ch. 11. 16. i Mental Physiology, vi. 114. 117. 8 Variation of Species, 2, 3. 15. 563 564 ABNORMAL. ABNORMAL (Lat.), departing from a law, type, or standard. Darwin. 1 ABORIGINAL (Lat.), in Psychology, original, in the primitive condition. Herbert Spencer. 2 ABORTIVE (Lat.); in Biology, prematurely born, failing of its ends, or of complete development. Whewell. 8 ABROGATION (abrogo, to recall) is the annulling or recalling of a law. F. V. 3. *ABSCISSIO INFINITL Bacon. 4 *ABSOLUTE. "Properly, self-sufficient, independent both in nature and in action." C. F. V. " The term absolute is of twofold (if not threefold) antiquity, cor- responding to the double (or treble) signification of the word in Latin. 1. Absolutum means what is freed or loosed; in which sense the absolute will be what is aloof from relation, comparison, limita- tion, dependence, etc., and is thus tantamount to rd an6\vrov of the lower Greeks. In this meaning the Absolute is not opposed to the Infinite. 2. Absolution means finished, perfected, completed; in which sense the Absolute will be what is out of relation, etc., as finished, perfect, complete, total, and thus corresponds to TO '6\ov, and TO riXciov of Aristotle. In this acceptation (and it is that in which I invariably use it) the Absolute is diametrically opposed to, is contra- dictory of, the Infinite." Sir W. Hamilton. 5 " By the Absolute, is meant that which exists in and by itself, having no necessary relation to any other being. By the Infinite is meant that which is free from all possible limitation ; that than which a greater is inconceivable, and which, consequently, can re- ceive no additional attribute or mode of existence, which it had not from all eternity." Mansel. 6 " The plain and etymological meaning of the term is freed or loosed, and hence it means freed from restriction or condition. In this sense it is evident that the Infinite must be absolute, for that which is not limited does not afford the possibility of restriction. This is the sense in which philosophers have uniformly used the word; and in this sense Sir W. Hamilton admits that 'the Absolute is not opposed to the Infinite.' " Calderwood. 1 ^Absolute (Unconditioned, Infinite). See Reid, 8 J. S. Mill, 9 Tennemann, 10 Whewell. 11 *Abstinence. i Originnf Species, ch.l. * Psychology, yi. 130. a Hist, of Scientific ldeas,\). vii.,ch.l. *N'ovum Organon, bk. ii., 26. * Discussions, p. 14, note. Limits of Religious Thought, p. 45. i Phil, of Infinite, 2 ed., p. 165. 8 Intellectual Powers, essay v., ch. 3. Logic, i. 2, 7. 10 Hist. Phiios. (Johnson's Translation), g 390. " Hist. Scientif. Ideas, 60. ACCIDENTIS F. 565 *ABSTEACT, ABSTRACTION. "Abstract is applied to a quality considered in itself apart from the object in which it exists. Abstraction is the exercise of mind by which attention is withdrawn from certain qualities in an object, or from certain objects among many, and concentrated upon others/' C. F. V. ^Abstraction (Logical). * Abstraction (Psychological). ^ABSTRACTIVE (Knowledge) and INTUITIVE. " Cognitio abstractiva, Cognitio intuitiva : in the Scholastic Philosophy, the former applies to all representations of objects by the imagination or memory, as well as to what is more properly abstract knowledge." See Hamilton, 1 Mill. 2 F. V. 3. *Absurd. ACADEMICAL DISPUTATION.-See Disputation, Academ- ical. ""ACADEMICS. " 'Anadjifieia, or 'A/cady/iia, academy, the name of the garden or gymnasium in which Plato taught, has been used to describe his philosophy. The successive Pla- tonic Schools have been named the Academies, their teach- ers the Academics." C. F. V. See Archer Butler, 3 Foucher, 4 Gerlach, 5 Vossius. 6 ACADEMISM, Doctrine of the Academy. And. Baxter. 7 *Academy. ^Acatalepsy. ACCENT (Fallacy of). The ambiguity arising from a mis- placed emphasis, or from the separation of words from their context, or by italicising what was not meant to be itali- cised. Jevons. 8 ^Accident. ^Accidental. ACCIDENTAL DEFINITION assigns the properties of a spe- cies, or the accidents of an individual; description. ACCIDENTALLY, in Scholastic Logic, is applied to an attri- bute which is not indeed part of the essence, but which is a consequence of it, and is therefore inseparably attached to the species. Mill. 9 ACCIDENTIS FALLACIA. See Fallacy. Reid, 812. * Examinat. of Hamilton's Phtt., 336, 3d edit., 392, note, a Lect. on Anc. Phil, 4th series. Dissertalio de Phil. Academ., Par. 1692. Commentatio exhibens de l^dbabilitate Disputatinnef, 4to Goett. * De Pkilosophorum, sectis. 1657. "*Nat. of Soul, ii. 275. 8 Elem. Less, in Logic, 174. a Logic, b. ii., ch. 7, 7. 49 566 ACHILLES. ACHILLES (and the Tortoise). In Logic, a sophism used by the Eleatic School to demonstrate the impossibility of movement. Aristotle, 1 Diogenes Laertius. 2 ACOSMIST. "One who theoretically denies the existence of the Universe, as distinct from the Absolute Being." C. F. V. *ACROAMATICAL. " Designed for the hearing of the initi- ated ; applied to the lessons which were Esoteric (ioureptitbc ), in contrast with the Exoteric ; those given to general audi- ences (et-urepiKbs)." C. F. V. *ACT. " In its widest sense, any exercise of Vital Energy." C. F. V. *Action. * Action and Act. *Action, Moral, "Self-directed Action, which comes under the scope of moral law. An overt action which possesses moral quality must have motive, act, and end." C. F. V. *Active. * Activity. See Will. ACTUAL marks what is now in being, or in act opposed to Potential. ACTUATION, in Psychology, operation of the faculties of the soul. Glanville. 3 *Actus Primus. *Actus Secundus. *Adage. ADEPT (adipiscor, to attain). Among Alchemists, those who were said to have found the Panacea, a universal medicine, and the Philosopher's Stone, were called Adepts, Adepti. C. F. V. ADEQUATE (adequo, to equal) is applied to our cognitions and ideas. Our knowledge of an object is adequate or complete when it extends to all the properties of that object. An idea is adequate when it is conformable to the nature of the object which it represents. F. V. 3. Adequate. 1. (Idea), conformed to the nature of the objects represented. Applied by Spinoza 4 especially to our knowl- edge of God. Watts : * " Those are adequate ideas which perfectly represent their archetypes or object; Inadequate are but a partial or in- complete representation of those archetypes to which they are re- ferred.".. iPhysica, iv., ch. 9. ix., xxiii., xxix. * &e-extstence of Souk, 110. * Eth., Part II. de Anima. 5 Logick. AESTHETICS. 567 Locke : l " All our simple ideas are adequate, because, being toothing but the effects of certain powers in things, fitted and or- dained by God to produce such sensations in us, they cannot but be correspondent and adequate to those powers." 2. (Definition) in Logic. Whately : " Neither too extensive nor too narrow for the thing defined ; e. g. t to define 'fish, an animal that lives in the water,' would be too extensive, because many insects live in the water; to define it ' an animal that has an air-bladder,' would be too narrow, because many fishes are without any." a ADHERENT, united with. In Logic, applied to modes as im- proper or accidental ; opposed to inherent or proper. ADHESION, ADHESIVENESS (Lat.), clinging to. In Psy- chology, connection on a basis of association. Bain. 3 A DICTO.-See Fallacy. ^ADJURATION, a solemn appeal under sanction of the forms of justice. C. F. V. ^ADMIRATION, delight in contemplation of an object. Buckle. 4 C. F. V. * Adoration. *Adscititious. JEQUIPOLLENT, JEQUIPOLLENCK- See Equipollent, Equi- pollency. JESTHEMA, AISTHEMA (Gr.), the thing perceived by the senses; the sensation of any object; sense or perception of a thing. Aristotle. 5 JESTHESIS, AISTHESIS (Gr.), perception by the senses, espe- cially by feeling, but also by seeing, hearing, etc. ; a sensa- tion, sense of a tiling, as visions of the gods ; also of the mind, observation, knowledge. Plato, 6 Hamilton. 7 JESTHETIC, a. and s. JESTHETICAL, ESTHETIC, ES- THETICAL.-See JEsthetics. ESTHETICS, ESTHETICS (Ger. JEstketik), in the Critical Philosophy, doctrine of the senses, theory and science of the sensitive faculty. It is divided into 1. The Physiological the sensations in general; 2. The Physical the bodily organs; 3. Practical pleasure and pain in sensation; 4. Transcendental, pure, a priori the distinguishing between presentations of the senses and the intellect. As a Cri- i Hum. Undent., b. ii., ch. 31. 2 Logic, v., 6. 3 The Senses and The Intellect, b. ii., ch. i., 320-325. 4 Hist, of Civilization, ii. 188. 6 4 n al. Post , 2, 19, 3. 6 Fluid., Ill C., 240 C. Theatxt., 192 B. T Metaphys. (Am. ed). 563. 568 jESTHETICAL. tique of Taste, ^Esthetics may be styled Psychological, but is not to be confounded with the Critique of the ^Esthetic Power of Judgment, which investigates the possibility of Taste, and shows that Taste involves no principle of reason. JEsthetics of Morals is a subjective exhibition of the Meta- physics of Morals. JESTHETICAL is applied to a presentation to which the form of sense is necessarily attached, and the subject grasps the object as phenomena. Kant. 1 See Dippel (1871 ) ; Honvicz (1869); Kirchmann (1868); Karl Kostlin (1869); Lemcke (3d. ed. 1870); Mundt (new ed. 1868); Schasler (1871); Stockl (1871). JETIOLOGICAL, ETIOLOGICAL, AETIOLOGY, ETIOL- OGY, in Rhetoric, applied to the form of speech in which the reason is given, along with a statement made. F. V. 3. In Whewell, 2 applied to the sciences which treat of causes as well as of effects Philosophical History. See Palaetiological. AFFECT (Ger. afficiren), to make immediate impressions, origi- nate a new state of mind. " The mode in which we are affected by objects is called sensitivity." Kant. 3 * AFFECTION. " Inclination of the nature towards another, regarded either as good or evil. The term is sometimes used in the general sense, conscious sensibility, the experience of the mind, as when the physical nature is affected by some external object." C. F. V. AFFILIABLE, AFFILIATE, AFFILIATION, applied in Herbert Spencer 4 to connection in the way of descent, of paternity and filiation. * Affinity. ^Affirmation. AFFIRMATIVE, in Logic, positive, opposed to negative. Herbert Spencer. 5 *A FORTIORI. Argument from the greater to the less. F.V. 3. *Agent. AGGLUTINATION, AGGLUTINATIVE, to mark union, co- inciding actions. Bain. 6 AGGREGATE, s. (Lat.),amass, complex result of conjunction. Herbert Spencer. 7 i Rein. Vtrn., 35, 76. Urtheilskraft, Pref. viii., 4. Jugendlehre, 48. 2 Hist, of Scientif. Ideas, b. x.. rh. 1, and note, ii. 274-. 3 Rein. Vf.rn. Transc. ^Sstliet. 1. 4 First Principles, ch. 17. Principles of Psychology, pt. iii., ch. 8, 12. 5 Principles of Psychology, ch. 1. 6 The Senses and the Intellect, b. ii., ch. 1. * Principles of Psychology, pt. i., ch. 2. AMBIGUOUS. 569 *Agniology. AGNITION (Lat.), acknowledgment. AGREEABLE. The quality of an object in virtue of which it pleases and satisfies. It may coincide with the good, but is not to be confounded with it. Kant. 1 AGREEMENT, in Logic, the method which compares the dif- ferent instances in which a phenomenon occurs. Opposed to difference, method of. Mill. 2 *ALCHEMY (al and Mmia, black, the black art). See Alber- tus Magnus. 8 ALGEBRA (Arab.), called by Newton, "Universal Arithmetic;" the abstract science of magnitudes. Computing by symbols instead of numbers. See Mathematics, ALIQUOT (Lat.), part of a number or quantity which will ex- actly measure it without any remainder. Clarke: 4 "Ali- quot or constituent parts of infinite," ALL, in Logic. 1. All taken together, the whole of. 2. All, severally, every one; involving, if the distinction is not marked, the fallacies of composition and division. Fowler. 5 ALL-PERFECTNESS, absolute perfection. In Dr. H. More, 6 to translate Travre/ieta, consummation, the Pythagorean name of the number Ten. * Allegory. ALONENESS. Applied, by Bishop Mountagu, 7 to the state of God prior to creation ; " alone himself and beside himself nothing." ALPHABET OF HUMAN THOUGHT, in Hamilton, 8 a sys- tematised view of the condition of the thinkable. ALTERANT, in Bacon, producing alterations, opposed to altered. AM, I AM, EGO SUM, the primary, self-affirmation of exist- ence involved in self-consciousness. Des Cartes, Herbert Spencer. 9 AMBIGUOUS (Lat.), driftingto both sides ; uncertain. In Logic, applied in the fallacy arising from different senses of the same words. tltein. Vern., 576. Metaph. d. Silten, 38. Scruple's Translat. (1836), 27 (1869), 21. Uftheilskr. /., gg 3-7. "-Logic, b. iii., ch. 8, 2. *"De Alchemia." Dem. of Being and Attrib. of God, p. 36. * Deduct. Logic, 145. 6 Conjectura Cabalistica, p. 153. i Appeal to Cxsar t p. 61. 8 Discussions (Am. ed.), 567. I'rin. of Psychol., b. iii.. ch. 2. 49* 570 AMBITION. *Ambition. *AMPHIBOLOGY, *AMPHIBOLY. - Kant. 1 AMPLIATE, AMPLIATION, AMPLIATIVE, in Logic and Mental Philosophy, applied to judgments which attribute to the subject something not directly implied in it. They are ampliative, because they enlarge or increase our knowl- edge. They are also called Synthetic, g. v. Hamilton, 2 Thomson. 5 ANALOGICAL, applied to reasoning by analogy, q. v. ; opposed to demonstrative. Herbert Spencer. 4 ANALOGOUS.-See Analogue. ^Analogue. * ANALOGY. "An argument from A. is a defensive argument drawn from similarity of phenomena recognized in different relations. It is not constructive in nature, being competent only for defence, not for proof." C. F. V. *Analogy and Metaphor. ^Analogy and Example. ^Analogy and Experience. ^Analogy and Induction. ^ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS, in Mental Philosophy, the resolution of our experience into its simple or origi- nal elements, and the reconstruction of these with full regard to their relations in the mental state to which they belong. Analysis is psychological when we distin- guish the elements which constitute a state of conscious- ness. C. F. V. ANALYST, ANALYTIC, ANALYTICAL, ANALYTICAL- LY, AN AL YZABLE. Associated with Analysis, g. v. See Craik, 5 Hamilton, 6 Herbert Spencer, 7 Whately, 8 Whe- well. 9 *Analyties. AN AMNESTIC (Gr.), able to recall to mind readily. Aris- totle. 10 See Mnemonic. *Angelology. ANIMA (Lat.), air; breath; the vital principle; life; the ra- tional soul of man ; the mind. See Animus. *Anima Mundi. l Critique of Pure Reason, Transc. Analytic, ch. iii. (p. 326, seq.) 2 Discussions, p. 529. Laws of Tliougltt, \ 81. * Princip. of Psychnl., pt. ii., ch. 6. 5 Eng. Lit., i. 137, 138. Logic, lect. i., i. 8; ii., i. 21, 44. ? Elements of Psychology, part ii., ch.i.,ii., iii. 8 Logic, Introd. ^ Hist, of Scientific Ideas, l>. ii., ch. 12. D e Memor., i. 1. ANSCHAUUNG. 571 ANIMADVERSION, ANIMADVERSIVE, applied in Glan- ville to perception ; power of the soul to notice. ANIMAL (Lat.), endowed with sensitive life. Contrasted with vegetable, as less than animal; with spiritual, as more. Owen, 1 Whewell. 2 ANIMALITY, ANIMALISH, ANIMALIST, ANIMANT, in Cudworth, 3 to mark the possession of life, or imparting life. ANIMISM (Lat.), a doctrine of soul as distinct from body, and separated from it at death. ' For the extent to which such a doctrine is believed among uncivilized tribes, v. Tyler. 4 C. F. V. Animism attributes to the soul not only the opera- tion in mental phenomena, but all the vital functions. It is opposed to Vitalism and Organicism. See Saisset, Lemoine, Lelat, Bouillier, Eavaisson, H. Martin. ANIMUS (Lat.), akin to Anima, q. v. The rational soul or in- tellectual principle of life in man, in opposition to the body and physical life; the thinking faculty; the mind; the in- tellect. Though in actual use there is some interchange of anima and animus, animus is the higher and less ambiguous term for the soul proper, as the seat of cognition, emotion, and volition. ANNIHILATION, reduction to Nothing, q. v. Hamilton. 5 ANSCHAUUNG (Ger.), looking at, looking on. In Kant, sense- presentation, sense-perception, direct, immediate, or intui- tive presentation, external or internal ; intuition. It is of individual objects, primary, antecedent to logical thinking; the object is given to it purely as phenomenon, immediately. Empirical intuition (empirische Anschauung] is that in which the mind is linked with the object by sensation, as of the watch which lies before me. Pure intuition is apart from sensation, as of a triangle in pure geometry. To make an intuition intelligible (verstdndlich}, is to bring it under con- cepts, as to explain the music I hear by the laws of sound or the principles of melody. Anschauungsvermogen is the intui- tive faculty or power. Mellin, 6 C. C. E. Schmid. 7 A. is rendered by Morell, 8 "intuitional and sensational 1 Led. on Comparat. Anatomy, Introd. iv. 2. 2 Hist, of Scientific Ideas, b. ix., ch. 6, 1 15. 3 intell. System. * Primitive Culture. 6 Metaphys. (Am. ed.), 552. 6 Kunst- sprache : Encyclop. Worterbuch, a. v. T WVrterbuch. 8 Tennemann's Manual. 572 AN SICH. perception," and is said to "give immediate representations of things." " We are in want," says Hamilton, 1 " of a general term to express what is common to the presentations of Perception and the representations of Phantasy, that is, their individu- ality and immediacy. The Germans express this by the term Anschauung, which can only be translated by intuition (as it is in Latin by Germans), which literally means a looking at" <( the intuitive presentations of Sense and repre- sentations of Imagination." See Wallace. 2 AN SICH (Ger.), per se, in itself, in themselves. In Kant, 3 without reference to our sensitive faculty. " Space is an s/ch, in itself, nothing ; it has its ground merely in the character of our sensitive faculty. If the faculty falls away, space falls away with it." Mellin.* In Hegel, "implicit, natural; in, at, or by self; which is given in germ, but undeveloped ; which is for others to see, feel, and recognize. It is what is native and spontaneous, as opposed to what is imparted ; latent, as opposed to what is developed and realized; potential, as opposed to what is actual ; natural," as opposed to artificial ; abstract, as op- posed to concrete." Wallace. 5 See Fur sich, and An und fur sich. Ding" an sich, thing or object in itself, is the noumenon, as opposed to the phenomenon. Fur sich (Ger. for self). Explicit; actual, whether native or not; the result of an an sich when developed, looked at, apart from the process ; what has been acquired and made our own, as opposed to what is merely given. Man is abstractly rational an sich in capacity ; he should be ra- tional in fact, become rational fur sich. Wallace. 6 An und fur sich (Ger. in and for self). In Hegel, absolute; pure and entire; spontaneous and independent; taken in the entirety of development; due to the evolution of its own native forces. * ANTECEDENT, in Logic. Hamilton. 7 ANTEMUNDANE (Lat.), before the world; before creation. l Logic, lect. vii., xx., lect. x., xxx. field's Work*, 291, 365, 407, 412. 2 Logic of Htgd, Prnleffom-ena, c\\. 23. 3 Jtrin. Vernuiift, 44. 4 Kunstspr tch?., s. v. 6 Logic of Hegel, 2*roleg., ch. 23. 6 Hegel's Logic, Prol&gom., cb. 23. 7 Lect. xiii., i. 238. ANTINOMY. 573 ANTEPREDICAMENTS (Lat.), before predicaments; terms which must be defined and understood in order that the predicaments and categories may be understood, as Ho- monyms, Synonyms, Paronyms; opposed to Postpredica- ments. * ANTHROPOLOGY. On man, his spirit, and its develop- ment and immortality; his place in the world; as micro- cosm. Set Engelken (1868) ; I. H. Fichte (1869) ; Cant (m PMl Bibliothek, 1869, with Kirchmanu's Notes, 1870) ; Lotze (1869); C.Werner (1870). * ANTHROPOMORPHISM, a theory which represents divine attributes as only human attributes enlarged. In modern times, the name has been restricted to theories which attri- bute the characteristics of the human mind to the divine mind. ANTHROPOPATHY (Gr.), human passion, or suffering, attrib- uted to God. * ANTICIPATION, the power of the mind to project itself from the known into the unknown, in expectation of finding what it is in search of. See Thomson, 1 J. S. Mill, 8 Whe- well. 3 * Anticipation of Nature. ANTIMORALISTS, opposers of morality, applied by Warbur- ton 4 to a " sect who have our Hobbes and the French duke de la Rouchefoucault for their leaders." ^ ANTINOMY, in Kant's philosophy, the conflict or self-con- tradiction (held by him to be inevitable) which emerges when the Reason deals with problems concerning the Uni- verse. The Conflict is complete, and the Reason is unable to settle the dispute. Kant treats of the Antinomies in the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der Reinen Vernunft) under Transcendental Dialectic. 5 C. F. V. The Antinomy is 1. Of the purely speculative Reason. This Antinomy Kant meets by the transcendental Idealism, and by correcting the notion in regard to the range of deter- mination which pertains to reason. These Antinomies are 1 Laws of Thought. 2 Exam, of Hamilton's P,,ilosophy, ch. 11. 3 Hist, of Scientific ILogik,$H. 576 APPREDICATE. APPREDICATE, Lat. apprcedicatum, after the Gr. yopov/ievov. In Logic, addition to the predicate ; the Copula, in the Greek Logicians after Aristotle. Hamilton. 1 *APPREHEND and COMPREHEND. -Farrar. a Apprehend. See Apprehension. * APPREHENSION, (Ger. Die Apprehension,) simple cognition ; knowledge of fact, simple or complex. 0. F. V. * APPROBATION (Moral), applies properly to the moral agent, whether self or another. It is a judgment of commendation on account of well-doing. C. F. V. Approximative. Approximate. Herbert Spencer. 3 *A PRIORI and A POSTERIORI, commonly, reasoning from a general principle, held to be self-evident, to its application ; and reasoning from observed facts to a general principle. Sometimes from cause to effect, and from effect to cause. According to Kant, the first applies to forms of knowledge which are not ingathered, but are prior in logical order to experience ; the second, to knowledge consequent upon experience. C. F. V. ARBITRITJM (Lat.), presence, persons present, judgment, defini- tive sentence, decision ; power, will, mastery, dominion, free will. The derivatives arbitrariness, arbitrary, reftr to an abuse of the will will uninfluenced by reason or principle. *ARBOR PORPHYRIANA, ladder of the prsedicaments (scala prccdicamentalis), consists of three lines; the middle line is called recta, or direct ; the two at either side are called col- lateral, or indirect. The direct is considered the trunk (genera and species, nouns), the collateral as the branches (differences, adjectives). 1 I 1 Cogitant SUBSTANCE Extended 2 II. 2 Inanimate BODY Animate 3 III. 3 Irrational ANIMAL National 4 IV. 4 This MAN That V. PLATO See Chauvin 4 , Lossius. 5 iLttgic, li. 228. z'Bawpt. Lt<-t., 5'21. * Princ. of Psycho!., pt. iii., ch. 8. * Lexicon Ftttiosoph., s. v. 5 ritilnsoph. Real-Lexik., . v. A UTILISE. 577 ARCANE (Lat. arcanum] , secret, mysterious. Berkeley. 1 ARCH A, ARCHJE (Gr.), in composition, ancient. ARCHJEOLOGY, ARCHAEOLOGISTS OF NATURE, applied by Kant to the science of the ancient condition of the globe. *Archaeus. ARCH- ARCHITECT, Supreme Architect, God. ARCHE (Gr.), in composition, marks beginning, the primal, original, the model or pattern, the chief. *Archelogy. ARCHETYPAL (Gr.), first moulded; related to an Archetype, g.v. ARCHICAL (Gr.), belonging to rule, royal; applied to reason, us properly controlling the passions. ^"Architectonic. ^Argument. * Argument (The Indirect). "-ARGUMENTATION.-Hamilton. 2 ARGUMENTTJM, argument, q. v. Argumentum per Impossibile or Reductio ad Absurdum. ARISTOTELIAN, ARISTOTELIC, ARISTOTELIANISM, related to the philosophy of Aristotle. As Aristotelian ques- tions. See Bibliographical Index. *ART, skill in practice. More especially skill in giving embodi- ment or representation to the ideal. C. F. V. ee Hamil- ton, 3 Sir G. C. Lewis. 4 Arts (The Fine), those which appeal to the love of the beau- tiful and sublime. ARTICULATION, applied by Kant B to systematic unity. ARTIFICIAL, in classification, opposed to natural. " The dia- taxis, or plan of the system, may aim at a natural or at an Artificial system. But no classes can be absolutely Artificial, for if they were, no assertions could be made concerning them. An Artificial system is one in which the smaller groups (the genera) are natural, and in which the wider divisions (classes, orders) are constructed by the peremptory association of selected characters (selected, however, so as not to break up the smaller groups)." Whewell. 6 ARTILISE, to render artificial. i Siris, 269. * Logic, i. 276. * Logic, i. 9. * Authority in Matters of Opinion, eh. iii., 48. 5 Rein. Vern., 862. 6 jVbv. Org. Renoval. Axioms, 89-92. 50 2.N 578 ASCETICISM. ^ASCETICISM. The practice of self-denial beyond the require- ments of moral law, avowedly for the attainment of a higher moral life. C. F. V. *Assent. * Assertion. ASSERTIVE, *ASSERTORY, affirmative. ASSISTANCE (of God), in the commerce of soul and body. Cartesian theory of Occasional Causes. ^ASSOCIATION, applied to laws of mental combination which facilitate recollection. The philosophy which traces all knowledge to experience, regards association as also a means of developing higher powers. C. F. V. See Hamilton, 1 J. S. Mill 2 (specially on "insolubility, the revivability, and the assoeiability" of feelings). Herbert Spencer, 3 Bain, 4 Krauth. 5 ASSTIEF ACTION (Fr., Lat.), rendering accustomed. Sir T. Browne. L. J. ASSTJETUDE (Lat.), custom, habit. Bacon. L. J. * AS SUMPTION. The major is sometimes called t\\e Presumption. ASSURANCE, the highest degree of faith and of expectation. ASTIPULATE, ASTIPULATION, agree, agreement. ASTRICT, constrain, bind up. Hamilton. 6 ASTROTHEOLOGY. The part of Natural Theology which draws its arguments and illustrations from Astronomy. Derham. 7 ASTUTE (Lat.), furnished with astues, craft; shrewd, sagacious, expert, sly, cunning. ASYMMETRAL, ASYMMETRICAL, lacking symmetry, agreement, harmony ; incommensurate. " A. or unsociable, that is, such as we see not how to reconcile with other things evidently and confessedly true." Boyle, in Norris. 8 ASYMPTOTE (Gr.), not falling together; never reaching coin- cidence ; applied to lines which, " though they may approach still nearer together, till they are nearer than the least as- signable distance, yet, being still produced infinitely, will never meet." (Grew.) Everlasting approximation and im- possible concourse. Bp. Ward. L. J. Reid, Notes D** and D***, p. 889. Lects. in Metaph. ii., p. 223. * Exam, of Hamil- ton's Philosoph. 3 ed., p. 219. 3 Principles of Psychology, i. 228. * Senses and Intellect, 2 ed., 327. 5 Art. Association of Ideas, (Johnson's Univ. Cyclop.) 6 Discuss. (Am. ed.), 581. 7 Physico-Theology. 8 Reason and Faith. ATTENTION. 579 ATARAXIA (Or.), impassiveness, coolness, calmness, in the Skeptical System, " freedom from passionate disturbances." Glenville. 1 *ATHEISM is a term properly applied to every system of the universe which does not postulate an Intelligent First Cause. See Farrar. 2 The term " Ethical Atheism " has been ap- plied to Schopenhauer's view, by Thilo. 3 ATHEIST. By the theological writers of the sixteenth century, it is applied to the unbelief of such persons as Pomponatius ; and in the seventeenth it is used by Bacon, 4 Milton, 5 and Bunyan, 6 to imply general unbelief. Toward the end of the same century it is found e. g., in Kortholt, 7 to include Deism such as that of Hobbes, as well as blank Pantheism like Spinoza's. Tillotson 8 and Bentley 9 use the word more ex- actly ; and the invention of the term Deism induced in the writers of the eighteenth century a more limited and exact use of the former term. But in Germany, Reimarrus 10 and Buddeus 11 use it most widely, and make it include disbelief of immortality. Walch 12 uses it to include the Pantheism of Spinoza. The term was subsequently applied to the French writers, such as D'Holbach, who did not see the necessity of believing in a personal First Cause. It is now applied to such writers as Comte, who refuse to entertain the question of a Deity as not discernible by science. Farrar. 13 ATHEIZE, to reason or conclude atheistically (Cudworth) ; to render others atheistic (Berkeley). ATHEOLOGY, a body of atheistic doctrine. Contrasted with theology (Swift). ATHEOUS, atheistic. Milton, Bp. Hall. L. J. *ATOM, ATOMIC PHILOSOPHY, A. THEORY, ATOMISM. Atoms are the ultimate particles of matter. The atomic theory is that which accounts for existence by the action, interaction, and combination of atoms. C. F. V. See Ham- ilton, 14 Hegel, 15 Whewell, 16 Wiener. 17 * ATTENTION, concentrated observation. C. F. V. *Attention and Thought. *Attribute. Seeps. Scientific. 2 Bampton Led., p. 586, 3 ZeitscJir.f. exacte Philos., 1868. 4 Essay on Atheism. & Par. Lost, bk. vi. 6 Pilgrim. 7 De Tribits Imposton'bus (1680). 8 Serm. on Atheism. Bnyle Lect. flixt. Univ. Aiheismi, 1725. " De Atheismi ct Super- >titiom, 1723. 12 Bibl. Theol Selecta, 1757. Bampton Lect., p. 586. " MetapJiys., ii., App. 527. 15 Logic, \ 98. w Hist, of Scientific Ideas, b. vi., ch. 5. " Wdtordnung, Ato- menlehre, 18G&. 5SO ATTRIBUTIVE, ATTRIBUTIVE, in Logic, applied to terms which mark attri- butes; connotative, q. v. Whately, 1 Mill. 2 AUFHEBEN (Ger.), suspend; set aside; absorb; put in abey- ance; abrogate. In Hegel, it denotes: 1. That something, having been deprived of its independent existence, is for practical purposes lost and gone. But, 2. What has thus disappeared is retained as an element or factor in the result to which it has led. Thus, the seed is aufgehoben in the plant which has grown from it ; it has perished and disap- peared as a seed, but it is transfigured and retained. W. Wallace. 3 See Setzen. AUTARCHY (Gr.), the state of sufficiency in oneself; indepen- dence. Aristotle, 4 Plato. 5 ^AUTHENTIC (av6evTi K 6s), trustworthy ; reliable. * Authority (The Principle of). *Authority (The Argument from). * AUTOCRACY, AUTOCRASY, underived power; absolute power within the thing itself. C. F. V. AUTOGENEAL (Gr.), self- begotten; applied to the Supreme Power. *Automatic. Automatal. Automatons. Automatism. * AUTOMATON, a self-acting machine. C. F. V. AUTONOMOUS, under Autonomy, g. v. *AUTONOMY of the will is Kant's 6 phrase for the doctrine that the human will is a law unto itself, or carries its guid- ing principle within itself. This, with him, implies the es- sential unity, if not identity, of reason and will, the law- revealing and the law-executing powers. C. F. V. *AUTOTHEISTS, those who make themselves God. C. F. V. * AXIOM. " Bacon's way of using the word ' axioma ' as if it were equivalent to ' enuntiatum ' or ' propositio,' he derived from Peter Eamus. Hasse, an early commentator on Eamus, remarks that the word is used in the same way by Cicero, who probably took it from the Stoics." Bain. 7 Axiom of the Antiphrasis, a name applied by Ammonius and Philoponus to the principle or law of contradiction. Ham- ilton. 8 l Logic, b. ii., ch. 5, g 1. 2 Logic, b. i., ch. 3, g 6. 3 Logic of Hegel, Prohyom. clxxviii. * Eth. Nic., i., 7, 5. 5 pfct'Z., 67 A. 6 Groundwork of the Metaph. of Ethics, end of ch. 2 and beginning of ch. 3. 7 Works, ed. 1857, vol. i., p. 136. 8 Logic (Am. ed.), 63. BARBARA. 581 B. In Logic, 1. indicates that all the modes of the three other figures in Syllogism which begin with B, can be reduced to the first mode marked with B. Barbari and Baraco can, by different methods of conversion, be reduced to Barbara. 2. It marks the predicate in a judgment. A is B; A is not B; unless the subject and predicate are identical, A = A. BACCALAURIUS, (BACILLARIUS, BACULABIUS, BAT- TALARITJS), Bachelor of Philosophy, an ancient academic degree which preceded the mastership and doctorate. BACONIAN METHOD and Philosophy, Baconism, from Fran- cis Bacon, 1 the method and philosophy of experience and experiment; not "anticipating nature" but collecting and systematizing facts. See Buhle, 2 De Morgan, 3 Dorner (1868). BACTILTTS stat in angulo, ergo pluit the staff is standing in the corner, therefore it rains a sportive exposure of the fallacy post hoc, or of a non causa. BAD (Ger. Boses), the broadest designation of the evil, natural or moral ; the wrong, the opposite of good. It is applied to things and persons, thoughts and acts. See Plato. 4 Kant 5 defines the bad (morally) as " the object of abhorrence, necessarily such, in accordance with a principle of reason." For the views from Spinoza to the present, see Steudel. 8 BAMALIP or BRAMANTIP. Mnemonic of the first word of the fourth figure. BANAUSIC (Gr.), mechanical, base, ignoble, vulgar, selfish. BARALIPTON or BARALIP, in Logic, a mnemonic term to indicate the first indirect number of the first of the three figures in Syllogism, recognized by Aristotle. In it the first two propositions are universal affirmatives; the third is a par- ticular affirmative, and the middle term the subject in the first proposition, and the predicate in the second. The last syllable is simply added to make the line metrical. Barbara, Celarent, Darii, Ferio, Baralipton. BARBARA, in Logic, a mnemonic term to designate the first mode of the first figure of Syllogism, and the type of all the others. In it all the propositions are universal affirmatives, l Novum Organon. 2 Geschichte d. Phil., II., 950-968. Lehrbuch, vi. 493-520. 3 Budget of Paradoxes, 49-57. *De legg., ix. 17 ; x. 106. Phxdrus, 301. Alcibiad. II., 87, 94. De rep., viii. 205. Gorgias,i8. Meno, 342. Symp., 234. Theset. 122. $ Pract. Vern., 103-106. Philosophic, im Umriss. Zweit. TheU. Erst. Abtheil, 169-182. 50* 582 BARBARI. the middle term being the subject of the first proposition, and the predicate in the second. Jevons. 1 BARBARI, in Logic, a mnemonic term to designate one of the modes of the fourth figure in Syllogism. BAROCO, in Logic, a mnemonic term designating the fourth mode of the second figure in Syllogism. In it the first proposition is a universal affirmative, the second and third are particular negatives, and the middle term is the predicate in the first two propositions. BASEOLOGY (Gr.), fundamental philosophy. BASIC, relating to the basis, furnishing a basis. BATHOS (Gr.), depth. The name given by some of the later Greek logicians to the intensive quantity of concepts. Ham- ilton. 2 BATHOLOGY (Gr.), empty repetition of words. BEAUTIFUL.-See Beauty, Sublime. *BEAUTY (Fr. Beau; Ger. Schon, Schonheit}. See Esthetics, Sublime. Bacon, 3 Plato, 4 A. G. Baumgarten, 5 Crousaz 6 , Home, 7 Kant. 8 BECOME, BECOMING (Ger. Werden), mark : 1. The coming into being ; genesis. 2. The transition from state to state. Spinoza. 9 3. In Hegel, 10 the unity of Being and of Nothing, or rather of Non-being. Becoming, the Principle of, in Heraclitus, is " that the total- ity of things is in eternal motion and mutation." u BEGGING THE QUESTION (Petitw Prindpii} See Fallacy. Reid. 12 BEGINNING, absolute, the transition from non-being into being; the result of the transition. "In its beginning, the thing is not yet, but it is more than merely nothing, for its being is already in the beginning." Hegel. 13 BEGRIFF (Ger.), conception; concept; notion. "In conse- quence of the establishment of this distinction (between symbolical and intuitive knowledge) by Leibnitz, a pecu- liar expression (BegrifF, Conceptus) was appropriated to the 1 Elem. Less, in Logic, Less. xvii. 2 Logic, 100. 3 Essays, xliii. * Tlie Grfater Hip- pias. 5 ^fthetica. 6 Traite du Beau, 172k 1 Elfments of Criticism. 8 Crit. d. Urtlinls- Tcraft Einl,, vii., % f>-62. ^Jiwfghr Hint. (Stirling}, 242-425. 9 Bultle. GV.*-//., ii:. 519. 10 Logic, Wallace, $ 88. Schixpf/ler-StirJiitff, "24. " Rclnoegler-Stirling, 20. Annotat., oil. 12 Hamilton's ?., 707. 13 Loyic, Wallace, \ 88. BELIEF. 583 symbolical notions of the understanding, in contrast to the intuitive presentations of sense and representations of imagi- nation, which last also are furnished with the distinctive ap- pellations of intuitions (Anschauungen, intuitus.)" Hamil- ton. 1 On the science of the Begriff, see Biederinann (1869, 1870.) Jordanus Brunus. 2 BEENT and NOW-BEEN!. Stirling's translation of Seiend and Nicht-Seiend, used by Schwegler 3 in his account of Parmenides, the Eleatic. The Beent is strictly the non- existent; the Non-beent is the existent. The Beent is pos- sessed of identity or affirmation alone. Things themselves, as mere becoming and perpetual change, were but the non- bee'nt, the simply existent. 4 *BEING (Fr. Etre, Essence; Ger. Sein, 8eyn).It has been classi- fied as absolute, logical, possible, real : in Hegel, 5 as deter- minate, Being-by-self, Being-for-self. Being-for-self (Ger. Fur-sich-sein}, in Hegel's Quality in the doctrine of Being (Sein}, the reference to self which is con- ditioned by negative relation to another ; independent, self- contained individuality. Schwegler, Stirling. 6 *BELIEF (Gr.TT/ffrtf ; Lat. Fides, Fiducia; Fr. Fol; Ger. Glaube}. " The recognition of the reality of an object which is neither present in consciousness nor discovered by the senses. Also, the mind's assent to the truth of a proposition." C. F.V. " Sir W. Hamilton 7 says: "The sphere of our belief is much more extensive than the sphere of our knowledge, and, therefore, when I deny that the Infinite can by us be known, I am far from denying that by us it is, must, and ought to be believed. In the order of nature, belief always precedes knowledge." See Hamilton. 8 The meaning is, that knowl- edge has in each particular instance faith as its basis, and all human knowledge finds its resting-place on necessary be- lief. Calderwood, 9 Bailey. 10 Belief, in contradistinction to knowledge, always ought to indicate some case in which the objective evidence is in- complete, and of which the opposite does not imply either 1 Logic, 129. 2 j)r. umbris ideartim, ed Nov., Juguri, 1868. 3 Gesch. d. Philosoph., # 6, 3. * Stirling's Translat. of Schwegbr, Annotat., 359. & Logic, Wallace, 144-151. eg 45, i. 1. 7 Letter to Mr. Caldfrwnod in App. to Lect. ii., 500. 8 wtaph., i. 44. 9 PMl. of Inf., 2d ed., p. 29. 10 ssa ys on Formation of Opinion, 8vo, 1831. 584 BENEFICENCE. impossibility or absurdity. We cannot accordingly, in pro- priety of language, say, " I believe I have a pen in my hand and a sheet of paper before me," or "I believe that two and two make four," or " I believe in my own existence or the law of gravitation." These are things which we know. We have used the adjective natural, in connection with the word belief, to indicate that state of rational intelligence which comes next of all to knowledge ; which forms the transition point between positive knowledge and personal conviction. Morell. 1 See Thomson. 2 BENEFICENCE (Lat. ; Ger. Wohthdtigkeit], the quality of the beneficus, the generous, liberal person ; noble goodness and noble giving. BENEPLACIT, BENEPLACITURE (Lat.), good pleasure. Sir T. Browne, 3 Glanville. 4 ^BENEVOLENCE, the motive which prompts us to seek the good of others for its own sake. C. F. V. BIBLIOLATE-Y (Gr.), book-worship; excessive reverence for authority embodied in the writings especially of the great thinkers, as Plato, Aristotle, Hegel. BIEN (Fr.), good. BILATERAL (Lat), two-sided; applied to arguments which can be used on either side. BINDEGEWEBE (Ger.), the connective tissue ; the main prin- ciple in the physiology of Virchow. "This tissue so runs through all the anatomical frame, that the rest of it (organs and all) are but contained in or even constituted by it. Phil- osophyin priority to Virchow had endeavored to de- monstrate the sustentation of the whole crass universe in even such a diamond net of connective tissue, under the name of ' Logic.' " Stirling. 5 BIO (Gr.), life (not existence, but the time or course of life}. In combinations, it is confounded in a number of cases with fai]. See Biology. BIODYNAMICS (Gr.), doctrine, system of the vital forces; dy- namics of life. BIOLOGY (ptoc Adyo?, the science of life). See Whewell." Ba- den Powell 7 protests against the use of the term Biology, i Mental PMos.,p.325. 2 Laws of Thought, 118. 3 jt^ig. Med., 59. 4 Pre-exist, of Souls, ch. 4. 5 Scltweghr, Annolut., 359. 6 Hist, of Scientific Ideas, ii. 174. * Order of Natiire, essay i.. 4. BRACHYLOGY. 585 on the ground that ptos does not mean vitality, but life as progressing in time. F. V. 3. See Herbert Spencer, 1 Whewell. 2 BIOMAGNETIC, relating to Biomagnetism, animal magnetism. BIOMANTICS, BIOMANTY (Gr.), ascertaining from symp- toms the extent of life; foretelling the duration of life. BIOMETRY (Gr.), measure of life; probable calculation of human life; calculation of time for the purposes of a wise and happy life. See B. Franklin. 3 BIONOMY (Gr.), doctrine, science of the laws of life. BIOSOPHY (Gr.), wisdom applied to practical life ; Biology. Troxler, 1807-1808. BIOTOMY (Gr.), the science of the natural division of the life of man according to its periods. Butte (1829). BIRD-WITTED, without the faculty of attention. Bacon. 4 BITHEISM, DITHEISM (Gr.), doctrine of the existence of two gods. See Dualism, Polytheism. BIZARRE, in ^Esthetics, odd, fanciful. ^Blasphemy. BOCARDO, in Logic, a mnemonic term designating the fifth mode of the third figure in Syllogism. In it the major and conclusion are particular negatives, the minor is a universal affirmative. *BODY (Fr. Corps, Matttre; Ger. Korper, Materie). Classified as atomic, indivisible, insectile, minimum, organic, organized. *BONTTM (Good). Wolff: Whatever tends to perfect us and our state. Bonum Apparens. Wolff : What only seems to perfect us and our state. Bonum Internum. Wolff: That which tends to perfect our internal state. *Bonum Morale. *Bonum Summum Wolff or Beatitude (to wit, philosophic or natural), is the perpetual or unimpeded progress to higher forms of perfection. Bonum Verum. Wolff: That which really renders us and our state more perfect. Baumeister. 5 BRACHYLOGY (Gr.), brevity in words. It is a distinguishing 1 First Principles, Biology, ch. 7. 2 Hist, of Scietit. Ideas, ii. 170. 3 Essays. * Adv. of Learn., b. ii. ( Works, i. 218). & Fhilosophia defiw'tiva hoc est Definitiones Philo- sophies ex Systemate Wbljii., Ed. Sept. Vitembergse, 1746 ; 150, 151, 199. 586 BRAHMA. trait of Aristotle, whom Lessing called "the greatest sparer of words." Plato is an illustration of excellence in the opposite direction. BRAHMA, in the later Hindoo Philosophy, the divine sub- stance in general, unpersonined. BRAIN. The central organ of sensation and motion, and chief instrument of the intellectual faculties; hence, the un- derstanding, reason, the intellect. See Keid, 1 Gall (1833), Combe (1833), Chenevix (1838), Engeldue and Elliotson (1846). -See Craniology, Phrenology. BREADTH, the extensive quantity of concepts. See Bathos. Hamilton. 2 BROAD, in Logic. A definition is too broad when it includes more than the objects covered by what is denned. Atwater. 3 BRODWISSENSCHAFTEN (Ger.), the professional or lucrative sciences; "the bread and butter sciences." Hamilton. 4 BUDDHA, BOUDDHA, literally, wise, learned. The name of several of the Sages deified by the Buddhists. The most re- nowned of these lived, it is generally supposed, about ]00() B. c. The Brahmins consider him as the ninth incarnation of Vichnu. BUDDHISM. The system founded by Buddha (about six centu- ries B. c.). See Bastian (1870), Max Muller (1869), Schopen- hauer, 5 Taranatha. 6 BURDEN OF PROOF, onus probandi, in Logic, the obligation to give some reason for a view which conflicts with another which has a presumption of some kind in its favor. Whately. 7 BURIDAN, ASS OF, a form of the Sophisma Heterogeteseos. Hamilton. 8 The illustration is not found in Buridan. De Morgan 9 gives it thus : " An ass is equally pressed by hunger and thirst; a bundle of hay is on one side, a pail of water on the other." In the common statement, it is a hungry ass between two bundles of hay. C., in Logic, in the conversion of judgments, marks contraposi- tion. 1 Intellect. Powers, Ess. If. 2 Logic, 100. 3 Logic, 73. * KMapli., 5, 15. 6 S. Lexicon, Frauensladt, BuMliaismus. 6 De doctr. Buddhicx propagat. ed. Schiefntr, 1S68, transl., 1869, into German. ? Rhetoric, pt. i., ch. 3, 2. 8 Logic, o33. Biulgd of Paradoxes, 28. CALUMNIATION. 587 CABAL, CABALA, CABBALA. See Kabala. Hence Cabal- ism, science of the Cabala, Cabalist, n., Cabalistic, Caba- listical, Cabalistically, Cabalize. H. More: 1 " St. John seems to cabbalize . . that is, to speak in the language of the learned of the Jews." CADENTES. See Calentes, *Caenesthesis, Ccenesthesis. CALCULUS (Lat.), a small stone, a pebble or counter used in reckoning; fluxions; a method of investigating indefinitely small quantities. See Berkeley, 2 Playfair, 3 Ueberweg, 4 Whe- well. 6 C. in General, in Wolff: 6 " The invention of any signs or characters, from others, whether they be primitive or deriv- ative, by the continuous substitution of equivalents." Calculus Differential. See Differential. Calculus Infinitesimal. See Infinitesimal. Calculus Integral. See Integral. Calculus in Logic, used by Boole, 7 as furnishing symbolical language for the fundamental laws of reasoning, and a form for Logic. CALENTES or CADENTES, third mode of Syllogism in the fourth figure; the major is a universal affirmative, the minor and conclusion are universal negatives. CALL^STHETIC, CALLJESTHETICS, .Esthetics. The science of the perception of beauty ; a term proposed by Whewell 8 for ^Esthetics, reserving that term for the doctrine of perception in general, as Kant has done. CALORIC (Fr.), from the Latin Calor, heat; heat or the cause of heat as a physical force, distinguished from heat or warmth as a sensation. The school of Descartes defined Calor as "a motion of insensible corpuscles." Chauvin. 9 Wolff 10 defines it as " consisting in the motion of some pecu- liar subtle fluid, passing from one body into another." CALUMNIATION, CALUMNY (Lat. Calumnia; Fr. Calom- nie ; Ger. Verleumdung, Lcisterung], in Ethics, a false state- i Mystery of Godliness, I., 8. * Principles, % 130-132. 3 p,- e l. Dissert. Enc. Brit., 650. 4 A nnotut. on Berkeley's Principles (Krauth's Transl.), 109, 110. & Hist, of Scie.ntif. Ideas, i. 153-163. 6 Psychologia Empirica, \ 298. T Laws O f Thought, 1854, ch. 1. *Novum Or- gannn renovat., p. 345. 9 Lexicon Philosophic urn, s, v. 10 Haumeister : Pkilosophia De- finitiva, 227. 588 CAMESTRESS. ment involving the reputation of the person slandered. Hence Calumniate, Calumniator, Calumniatory, Calumni- ous, Calumniously. CAMESTRESS, in Logic, mnemonic term for the second mode of Syllogism, in the second figure. The major is a univer- sal affirmative, the minor and conclusion are universal nega- tives. cAm : every A is B : Es : no C is B : trEs : no C is A : Every true philosopher (A) reckons virtue a good in itself (B). The Epicureans (C) do not reckon virtue a good in itself (B). Therefore, no Epicurean (C) is a true philosopher (A). Cicero, 1 Whately. 2 CANDOR (Lat., literally, whiteness ; Fr. Ingenuite; Ger. Offenhert- zigkeit], in Ethics, open-hearted, simple truthfulness, frank- ness, opposed to the disingenuous and the evasive. CANON (from the Lat., a rule). In the Critical Philosophy, the science of the right use of our faculty of cognition. Epicu- rus uses this name in his Canonics. In Kant, the Canon ex- poses the causes of false conclusions. He has : 1. A Canon of the understanding and of the reason, according to their form. This is universal, pure Logic. 2. A Canon of the pure understanding. This is transcendental Analytics. 3. A Canon of the practical reason, for the pure speculative rea- son, which as such can have no Canon. The Canon for the pure reason involves: 1. The ultimate aim of the pure use of reason ; 2. the ideal of the supreme good, as a determining cause of the ultimate aim of the pure reason; 3. Opinion, cognition, and belief. 3 Canon Supreme, in Hamilton, a new law of the syllogism by which the validity of all its forms may be tested. See Worse Relation. CANONICS (Fr. Canonique), in the Epicurean philosophy, Logic, not as a distinct science, as in Aristotle's Organon, but as a summary in ten rules, forming a Canon. CANONS OF SYLLOGISM, its fundamental principles or self- evident truths. Jevons. 4 i De Offic. I., iii. 2 jr^^ c h. a, 4. 3 Or it. d. Rein. Vernunft, 26, 170, 823-859. 4 Elcm. Less, in Logic, 121. CATEGORY. 589 CAPABILITY, capacity ; ability ; used of men and things. ^CAPACITY (Fr. Capacite; Ger. Fahigkeit), allied with Abil- ity, Faculty, Power, Talent. " Receptive power. Taking a twofold view of human power, faculty is power of acting; capacity is power of receiving impression." C. F. V. ^CARDINAL (THE) VIRTUES (Fr. Vertus Cardinal*; Ger. Cardina Itugenden , Haupttugendeii) . CARTESIANISM. The system of Des Cartes, whose points in- volve cause, certitude, consciousness, doubt, the ego, egoism, form, innate ideas, method, notion, perception, soul. CASTLE-BUILDING (in the air), visionary play of the imagi- nation in scenes in which we or those we love take an im- portant part. Reid. 1 CASUALISM, the assumption that all things are originated and controlled by casus, accident, or chance. CASUALIST, one who holds the theory of Casualism. Ulrici. 2 ^CASUISTRY (Ger. Casuistik. See Collision)." Disputation as to conflicting duties. In the best sense, a system of the rational grounds for adjustment of such conflict. It does not imply dispute as to right and wrong, but presupposes the absence of dispute on the fundamental moral distinc- tions." C. F. V. "A sort of dialectic of the conscience." Kant. "The Jurisprudence of Theology," Sir G. C. Lewis. CASUS (Lat.), in Cosmology, chance; as, casus purus, pure chance. In Psychology, case; as, "expectation of similar cases," (casuum similium.) ACATALEPSY (Gr.), grasping. 1. In Stoic philosophy, com- prehension; apprehension; in the plural, perceptions. 2. " Sudden physical prostration, affecting the whole nervous system, and involving loss of sensibility and voluntary mo- tion." C. F. V. CATEGOREM, CATEGOREMA (from Gr. predicate). In the Aristotelian Logic, something asserted of a subject. Shed- den : 3 Names are called categorematic words, or categorems, because they can be predicated independently of any other word. Some logicians would exclude adjective names from the class of Categorems. CATEGORY, CATEGORIES, the Hindoo. There are two sys- Works (Hamilton), 381. 2 Strauss (KrautlTs Tr.), 103. Elements of Logic, ch. 2. 51 590 CATEGOREMATIC. terns of these : I. The System Vaisechica ; II. The System Nyaija. I. The Categories of the System Vaisechica, of which Kanadais the author, are six: 1. Substance; 2. Qual- ity; 3. Action; 4. The Common, comprising genus and species ; 5. The Proper ; 6. Intimate Relation, or Aggrega- tion. These approximate the Categories and Categorems of Aristotle. II. The Categories of the System Nydya, of which Gotama is the author, are sixteen : 1. Evidence ; 2. Object or Matter of Evidence; 3. Doubt; 4. Motive; 5. Example; 6. Demonstrated Truth; 7. Regular Argument or Syllogism ; 8. Reductio ad Absurdum ; 9. The Acquisi- tion of Certitude; 10. Discussion; 11. Investigation or In- terlocution ; 12. Controversy; 13. Fallacious Assertion; 14. Fraud or Evil Construction; 15. Futile Answer; 16. De- fect in Argument. The Categories of Gotama are merely the heads of a Logic, and should be completed by uniting them with those of Kanada. D. A. C. *Categorematic. Categorematical. ^CATEGORICAL, adj. See Proposition. Whately: 1 "Prop- ositions, as sentences, are distinguished into categorical and hypothetical. The categorical asserts simply that the pred- icate does or does not apply to the subject." Categorical, s. Whately: 2 "A hypothetical proposition is denned to be two or more categoricals united by a copula." Categorical Imperative. See Imperative Categorical. CATEGORIES (Stammbegriffe] OF THE PURE UNDER- STANDING, in Kant, 3 Tabular view of. See Judg- ments, Tabular View of. The Categories are : I. According to Quantity: 1. Unity. 2. Plurality (Multitude). 3. Universality (Totality). II. According to Quality: 1. Reality. 2. Negation. 3. Limitation. III. According to Relation : 1. Inherence and Subsistence (Substance and Ac- cident). 2. Causality and Dependence (Cause and Effect). 3. Simultaneity, Community (Gemeinschaft, Action and Re- action, Reciprocal Action), Reciprocity between the agent and the patient. IV. According to Modality : 1. Possibility X Impossibility. 2. Existence X Non-existence. 3. Necessity X Contingence. i Log., b. ii., ch. 2, 1. 2 Log., b. ii., ch. 4, g 2. Rein. Vernunft, 106, (HayWood's Transl., pp. 80, 81 ; Meiklejohn's, p. 64.) CAUSALITY. 591 ^CATEGORY (from Greek, accusation), a class to which things or thoughts may be referred ; in Aristotle's Logic, predicament, head of predicables, a predicate. Chauvin: " Preedicament, order or series of many predicates or attributes under some highest genus." Saint-Hilaire: 1 "The highest classes into which are distributed ideas and things, in a certain order of subordination and of system." "According to Kant, the manifold is arranged by us in accordance with the logical functions of our judgment. ' The categories are nothing else than these functions of judgment, so far as the manifold in a given intuition is determined in relation to them.' " 2 C.F.V. CATHARTICON(^AarMow),(Gr.), fitted to purify. A name given by Kant 3 to applied Logic, as a means of removing the causes of false judgments. CATJSABLE, capable of being caused. CAUSAL, in Logic, of or pertaining to cause. Glanville: 4 "We can have no true knowledge of any [motion], except we would distinctly pry into the whole method of causal con- catenations." Watts : 6 " Causal propositions are where two propositions are joined by causal particles; as, houses were not built that they might be destroyed." Causal is used to qualify judgment, nexus, principle, proposition, way. See Cause. CAUSALITY and CAUSATION, the act of originating new forms of existence. C. F. V. " Invariableness can have place only where there are more instances of sequence than one ; and therefore can have nothing to do with constituting the causal character of the individual sequences amongst which the relation of invariableness comes to subsist." Sam. Bailey. 6 Causality is that reason contained in the cause, in virtue of which the thing caused (causatum) either simply exists or exists as it is. Wolf. 7 Causality, the Law of. Notion of. The rational principle that there must be power adequate for the production of everything which begins to be. Hamilton makes it refer to 1 Diet. Ph. ,%., 2d. ed., 1875. 2 Critique of Pure Peasm, (Meiklejohn's Transl.,) p. 88. WerJai (Rosenkranz), II., Sxipplem. 14, Sec. 20, p. 470. 3 Rein. Vernunfl, 78. Lngik. Jaesche-Kirchmann,1870.l9. 4 Seeps, Scientif. 5 LogicJc. * Letters on Philosophy, 3d series, p. 50. ? Qntologia, 88-i. 590 CATEGOREMATIC. terns of these : I. The System Vaisechica ; II. The System Nyaya. I. The Categories of the System Vaisechica, of which Kanadais the author, are six: 1. Substance; 2. Qual- ity ; 3. Action; 4. The Common, comprising genus and species ; 5. The Proper ; 6. Intimate Relation, or Aggrega- tion. These approximate the Categories and Categorems of Aristotle. II. The Categories of the System Nydya, of which Gotama is the author, are sixteen: 1. Evidence; 2. Object or Matter of Evidence; 3. Doubt; 4. Motive; 5. Example; 6. Demonstrated Truth; 7. Regular Argument or Syllogism; 8. Reductio ad Absurdum ; 9. The Acquisi- tion of Certitude; 10. Discussion; 11. Investigation or In- terlocution ; 12. Controversy; 13. Fallacious Assertion; 14. Fraud or Evil Construction; 15. Futile Answer; 16. De- fect in Argument. The Categories of Gotama are merely the heads of a Logic, and should be completed by uniting them with those of Kanada. D. A. C. *Categorematic. Categorematical. ^CATEGORICAL, adj. See Proposition. Whately: 1 "Prop- ositions, as sentences, are distinguished into categorical and hypothetical. The categorical asserts simply that the pred- icate does or does not apply to the subject." Categorical, s. Whately: 2 "A hypothetical proposition is defined to be two or more categoricals united by a copula." Categorical Imperative. See Imperative Categorical. CATEGORIES (Stammbegriffe) OF THE PURE UNDER- STANDING, in Kant, 3 Tabular view of. See Judg- ments, Tabular View of. The Categories are : I. According to Quantity: 1. Unity. 2. Plurality (Multitude). 3. Universality (Totality). II. According to Quality : 1. Eeality. 2. Negation. 3. Limitation. III. According to Relation : 1. Inherence and Subsistence (Substance and Ac- cident). 2. Causality and Dependence (Cause and Effect). 3. Simultaneity, Community (Gemeinschaft, Action and Re- action, Reciprocal Action), Reciprocity between the agent and the patient. IV. According to Modality : 1. Possibility X Impossibility. 2. Existence X Non-existence. 3. Necessity X Contingence. l Log., b. ii., ch. 2, % 1. 2 Log., b. ii. ( ch. 4, 2. Rein. Vernunft, 106, (Haywood's Transl., pp. 80, 81 ; Meiklejohn's, p. 64.) CAUSALITY. 591 ^CATEGORY (from Greek, accusation), a class to which things or thoughts may be referred ; in Aristotle's Logic, predicament, head of predicables, a predicate. Chauvin: " Prsedicament, order or series of many predicates or attributes under some highest genus." Saint-Hilaire: 1 "The highest classes into which are distributed ideas and things, in a certain order of subordination and of system." "According to Kant, the manifold is arranged by us in accordance with the logical functions of our judgment. ' The categories are nothing else than these functions of judgment, so far as the manifold in a given intuition is determined in relation to them.' " 2 C.F.V. CATHARTICON (Katharktikori), (Gr.), fitted to purify. A name given by Kant 3 to applied Logic, as a means of removing the causes of false judgments. CATJSABLE, capable of being caused. CAUSAL, in Logic, of or pertaining to cause. Glanville: 4 "We can have no true knowledge of any [motion], except we would distinctly pry into the whole method of causal con- catenations." Watts : 6 " Causal propositions are where two propositions are joined by causal particles; as, houses were not built that they might be destroyed." Causal is used to qualify judgment, nexus, principle, proposition, way. See Cause. CAUSALITY and CAUSATION, the act of originating new forms of existence. C. F. V. " Invariableness can have place only where there are more instances of sequence than one; and therefore can have nothing to do with constituting the causal character of the individual sequences amongst which the relation of invariableness comes to subsist." Sam. Bailey. 6 Causality is that reason contained in the cause, in virtue of which the thing caused (causatum) either simply exists or exists as it is. Wolf. 7 Causality, the Law of. Notion of. The rational principle that there must be power adequate for the production of everything which begins to be. Hamilton makes it refer to 1 Diet. Ph. Sc., 2d. ed., 1875. 2 Oritique of Pure Reason, (Meiklejohn's Transl.,) p. 88. Werke (Rosenkranz), II., Supplem. 14, Sec. 20, p. 470. 3 Rein. Vernunft, 78. Logilc. Jaesche-Kirchmann, 1870. 19. 4 Seeps. Scientif. 5 Loyick. 6 Letters on Philosophy, 3d series, p. 50. 7 Ontologia, g 884=. 592 CAUSALITY. the sum of existence rather than to power. He 1 says: " When an object is presented phenomenally as commencing, we cannot but suppose that the complement of existence which it now contains has previously been." C. F. V. See Strumpell (1871), Ulrici. 2 Causality, Way of (via causalitatis}, method of reaching the divine attributes by the supposition that all the perfections implied in the effects, the creatures, must exist in God, the Cause, the Creator. CAUSE (Ger. Ursach) See Ground, Occasion, Principle, Rea- son. Operating power. More strictly, power " which in operating originates new forms of being." C. F. V. "The popular meaning I think I can express by a definition: Causa est id, quo posito ponitur effectus, qui sublato tollitur. In the strict philosophical sense, I take a cause to be that which has the relation to the effect which I have to my vol- untary and deliberate actions." Reid. 3 Hamilton 4 says: " Of second causes, there must always be at least a concurrence of two to constitute an effect." "We think the causes to contain all that is contained in the effect."-See Krautli. 6 Maxims in regard to Cause : " The same causes produce the same effects" (in physical nature). "The cause of a cause is a cause of the caused." " An efficient cause must be present with that in which it acts, either per se, or through another (immediately or mediately)." "Second causes are real causes." Cause administrant (Lat. causa administra). That active entity which is used as an instrument by the principal effi- cient cause. Cause efficient. The operative or working cause " whose caus- ality consists in action." The efficient cause asserted may be sufficient or insufficient. Efficient causes are said to be of the same order when they are defined in the same way, that is, are of the same kind. They are immediate or mediate, as the effect is or is not in continuity. A number of these "constituting together a sufficient efficient cause are called associate causes. As aiding each other, they are called OAJLX- * Metaplt., ii. -100. 2 Mrnims (Kranth's Tr.), 81-87. 3 Works (Hamilton), pp. 76. 77. * Lects. on Aletapltys., ii. 377, 408. 6 Article Cause in Johnson's Univers. Cyclopedia. CESARE. 593 iliary causes. When there is but one cause, it is said to be sol- itary. A cause is principal when the source of its action is in itself; it is instrumental when its force is dependent. Wolf. 1 Cause impulsive is a reason determining the will. It is inter- nal, if the reason is contained in the agent; external, if it is drawn from outward things. Wolf. 2 *CAUSES (FINAL, DOCTRINE OF.)-Ends contemplated by the agent as the final results of his voluntarily directed effort. (An improper use of the word "Cause.") The ar- gument from final causes is the most popular mode of reas- oning as to the perfections of Deity. C. F. V. See Whe- well, 3 Ulrici, 4 Krauth. 5 Causes Immanent. C. Material. See Cause. *Causes (Occasional, Doctrine of).-Descartes, 6 Malebranche, 7 Hamilton. 8 Causes Transient and Transeunt. See Cause. CELARENT, in Logic, mnemonic term for the second mode of Syllogism. The major is a universal negative, the minor a universal affirmation, the conclusion a universal negative. No one (cE) whose mind is limited is omniscient. Every man (1A) has a limited mind. No man (rEnt) is omniscient. CEREBEL, CEREBELLUM (Lat., the little brain), the lower hind portion of the brain. Hamilton. 9 CEREBRAL, relating to the brain, the cerebrum, the superior, front, and larger portion of the brain. The brain, spinal cord, and nerves form the Cerebro-spinal system, the animal, opposed to the Ganglionic or Vegetative. CERTAINTY, CERTITUDE (Ger. Gcurissheit), "personal as- surance of reality possessed in the exercise of immediate knowledge, or attained by the ingathering of sufficient evi- dence." Moral certainty as subject to the law of moral life. C. F. V. CESARE, in Logic, mnemonic term of the first mode of Syllo- gism, in the second figure. The major is a universal nega- tive, the minor a universal affirmative, the conclusion a uni- versal negative. l Ontnlogia, $ 881 fteq. 2 Ontologia, $ 940. 3 Induct. Sciences, ii. 90. * Rev. of Strauss (tr. by Krauth), 1874, pp. 56-58, 86, 91. s Art. Final Causes in Johnson's Univers. Cy- clop. 6 Prinripia, pars, ii., 36. 1 Rec?ierche de la Verite, vi. 2, 3. 8 Lects. on Metaph., i. 300. 9 M-btjih., 651-053. 51* 2O 594 CHALDEAN PHILOSOPHY. CHALDEAN PHILOSOPHY, See Synthetic Table. ^CHANGE. A name under which are classified events, the oc- currence of which cannot be computed by application of known natural law. Events are referred to chance, in ac- knowledgment at once of causality and of ignorance, which restricts us to the statement, "They happened." C. F. V. Ulrici. 1 *Chances, Theory of. Hume. 2 CHAOS, in Natural Theology, confused mass of matter as- sumed as prior to the organized form of the universe. See Ovid. 3 Wolf 4 and others have shown that there never has been or can be chaos in the strict sense. Leibnitz 5 says, " There is nothing neglected, nothing barren, nothing dead in the universe ; no chaos, no conlusion, except in appear- ance." CHARACTER, in Kant: 1. The law by which a causality works, without which a cause would not be a cause. This may be empirical or intelligible, q. v. 6 2. State of the will. 7 See Calderwood. 8 3. Mental and moral habit; principle or tendency fixed in life; complex of characteristics as character of the sexes, races, nations. CHARACTERISM, in Kant, 9 designation of the notion (Be- griff) by the sensible marks which accompany it. CHARACTEROLOGY, scientific treatment of character. Bahnsen (1867). *Charity. *CHASTITY. The duty a or virtue." C. F. V. CHEMISM, 1. The theory which maintains that the origin and constitution of nature are the result of chemical process. "The metaphysics of the future will be chemistry." L. Feuerbach. It is a species of materialism. 2. In Hegel's Doctrine of the Notion (Begriff), the second form of objectivity, the reciprocal attraction, interpreta- tion, and neutralizing of independent elements, which come to completion in unity. Schwegler. 10 1 Strauss (Krauth's tr.), 103. 2 Essay on Probability. 3 Lib. 1., Metamorph. * TJie- olog. Nalur., part ii., sect, i., ch. 5, 402. 6 Princip. Phil., \ 72. 6 Rein. Vern., 567- 569. 7 Grundl. z. Metaph. d. Sitten, i., Sample's Translat., 1836, 1869 ; Abbott's Tr., 1873, ii. 8 Moral Philos., 262-264. Urthrilskraft, 2f>5. w Geschichte, \ 45, 1., i. 3. CLAIRVOYANCE. 595 CHIMERA (a mythological monster, made up of lion, goat, and dragon), in Logic, a confused and irrational hypothesis or system. Locke: "Nobody joins the voice of a sheep with the shape of a horse, to be the complex ideas of any real sub- stances, unless he has a mind to fill his head with chimeras." Hence, Chimerical and Chimerizing (Obsol.). CHINESE PHILOSOPHY, See Synthetical Table, Philosoph- ical Schools, I. 2. *CHOICE (Ger. Wa/il), " voluntary selection from a variety of objects," often used as. synonymous with volition. Properly, choice applies to things, volition to forms of action. See Aristotle 1 for exposition of Trpoa/peoYc, deliberate pref- erence, and for the passage here referred to, where it is needful to keep in view the dispute as to the authorship of Books V., VI., and VII. C. F. V. *Chrematistics. CHRYSIPPEAN, of Chrysippus the Stoic, reputed inventor of a sophism called by the ancient authors, Sorites. Hamil- ton. 2 CIRCLE (circulus in probando), in Logic, explaining by the thing to be explained, or proving by the thing to be proved : Petitio principii, begging the question. Watts: 3 "When one of the premises in a Syllogism is questioned and opposed, and we intend to prove it by the conclusion." For the circle in definition and proofs, see Beck, 4 Jevons. 5 CIRCULAR, in Logic, involving a circle. CIRCUMSCRIPTIVE, with measurable outline or boundary, after the manner of bodies. The soul is said to be in a place, but not circumscriptively. God is everywhere present, but not circumscriptively. "CIVILITY, courteousness (Ger. ffoflichkett).See Ferguson. 5 CLAIRVOYANCE (Fr. ; Ger. ffellsehen), clear-sightedness, acuteness ; extraordinary power of vision or sensation with- out the organs of sensation in their normal modes, claimed for some who are in a state, either of natural or artificial somnambulism, q. v. Jos. Beck. 7 i NIC. Eth., iii. 2. Ib. vi. 2, 5. 2 Logic. 268, n. 2. 3 Logick. 4 Logik, 241. 5 Ele- mentary Lessons in Logic, btli edit., London, 1875, 110, 114,179. 6 Institut. of Mor. Philosoph., part vi., ch. 5. 7 Empir. Psychologic, % 111. 596 CLARIFICATION. CLARIFICATION, in Mental Science, process of rendering clear ; explication of ideas. Whewell. 1 CLASS, in Logic, the generic term of division and arrangement which comprehends race, genus, and species. Whately: " The same object may be referred to various different classes, according to the occasion." 2 Hence, to class, classible, classi- fication,classificatory, classifier, classify, classing, class-system. CLASSES. In Plato's State, there are three : 1. The rulers, corre- spondent with reason. 2. The warriors, correspondent with the heart. 3. The working-men, correspondent with appetite. CLASSIFICATION, CLASSIFICATORY, CLASSING. See J. S. Mill, 3 Whewell. 4 CLEARNESS (Ger. Klarheit], in Logic, is a judgment which so separates and classifies each part in the manifold as to be free from indistinctness; simplifies so as to render a proposi- tion comprehensible, and defines and states it so as to make it intelligible. CLEMENCY, in Ethics, mildness and kindness, as revealed in the giving and forgiving on the part of superiors. Seneca on Clemency was addressed to Nero when that monarch was yet clement. Calvin wrote a commentary on this treatise (1532). CLIMACTERIC, date from which decline begins; applied to the mind by Johnson. 5 COACTION, in Ethics, (Ger. Zwang], compulsion, force con- trolling external action against the inclination. The coac- tion is psychological when terror is the force ; it is mechan- ical when external force is employed. In the former case, moral responsibility may be lessened, but is not destroyed ; in the latter, it is not involved. The former kind allows of degrees, the latter allows of none. Of the former only, the saying holds true: "A being who can die, cannot be co- erced." COAGMENT, heaped together, as, " the world from supposed fortuitous jumble." Glanville. COALITION, in the Kantian 6 philosophy, the synthesis which connects the homogeneous in intensive magnitudes. l Nw. Org. Pref., vii. 2 Logic, 21. 3 Logic, b. iv., cb. 7, 1, 2 ; i. 174. 4 Hist, of Scientif. Ideas, b. viii., The Classificatory Sciences. 5 Rambler, No. 151. 6 Rein. Ver- nunft, 201, note. COEXTENSION. 597 COAPPREHEND, to apprehend conjointly. Sir T. Browne. COAPTATION, the adjustment of parts to each other, with refer- ence to a common end. Boyle. CODIVISION is one in which the total object is the same in two divisions, but each of them classifies from a different point of view. Thus, the same triangle is the object of a codivision when it is classified by one division with reference to its angles, and by another with reference to its sides. K. COEFFICACY, COEFFICIENCY, COEFFICIENT, used of what is efficient in conjunction with an efficient; co-opera- tion. COERCION. See Coaction. COESSENTIALITY, participation of the same essence. COETERNITY, in Ontology, the eternity in relation, of two or more objects of thoughts. Anaxagoras and Plato consid- ered the Supreme Intelligence and Matter as coeternal. Zo- roaster and Manes held that a supremely good being and a supremely evil one existed coeternally. COEXISTENCE, simultaneous existence. Herbert Spencer: " The axiom, ' Things which coexist with the same thing co- exist with each other/ cannot, however often repeated, help us to any knowledge beyond that of the coexistence of an indefinite number of things." 1 COEXISTENT, adj., simultaneously existent, " having coexist- ence ; substant., that which coexists. Locke : " Time is taken for so much of duration as is coexistent with the motions of the great bodies of the universe." Her- bert Spencer: "All modes of extension are resolvable into relations of coexistent position." 2 J. S. Mill: " Bacon seems to have thought that as every event has a cause, or invariable antecedent, so every property of an object has an invariable coexistent, which he called its Form." 3 COEXTENSION, common extension in time or space. Her- bert Spencer: " Coextension, as ordinarily determined by the juxtaposition of the coextensive objects, involves no comparison between two series of states of consciousness, 1 Priiic. of Psychology, 126, 297. 2 Princ. of Psych., 297. 3 Logic, b. iii., ch. 22, 4. 598 COGENCY. but merely an observation that the ends of the objects coin- cide." l COGENCY, force tending to conviction. Locke: "Maxims and axioms, principles of science, because they are self-evident, have been supposed to be innate, though nobody ever showed the foundation of their clearness and cogency." Hence, Cogent, Cogently. COGITABLE, thinkable. Sir W. Hamilton : " Creation is cogitable by us only as a putting forth of divine power." 2 COGITATION (Lat. Cogitatio], act of thinking; thought. Bentley: "If these powers of cogitation, volition, and sen- sation are neither inherent in matter as such, nor acquirable to matter by any motion and modification of it, it necessa- rily follows that they proceed from some cogitative sub- stance, some incorporeal inhabitant within us, which we call spirit." Hence, Cogitate, Cogitative, Cogitativity (capacity of thinking). COGITO ERGO SUM (I think therefore I am), a system in three words the essential postulate of Cartesianism and of all real Psychology, contested only by those who have not taken the trouble fairly to understand it, or who are too critical to be wise. It conjoins the primary, absolute, and infallible act of consciousness with an intuitive, absolute, and infal- lible act of logic or reason. It does not mean my exist- ence is the resultant effect of my cogitation my thinking is the cause of my being but it means that the absolute affirmation of consciousness that there is concrete thinking, involves, not by inference, but in the proposition per se, that there is a thinker, and marks me as the particular thinker in this particular case. Cogito is sum cogitans. That is, cogito, affirmed by consciousness, a fortiori affirms sum. If consciousness is valid for the infallible proof of cogito, it is a fortiori for the proof* of sum, for sum is here but a part of cogito. Sum per se marks only being. Cogito marks being -f- thinking -\- thought. It is not true sum, ergo cogito, that is, sum, ergo sum cogitans. On the contrary, the proposition is thinkable, sum sed non sum cogitans. Sum is esse lifted l Princ. of Psych., 299. 2 Disc., 593. COGNIZE. 599 into personality. It is no longer possible to say is est, still less id est, but, inseparable with the consciousness ex- pressed in cogito, simultaneous with it in time, prior to it in the necessary order of thought, is the ego. Hence, Des Cartes 1 himself puts it not in the form in which it is ordinarily quoted, but "Ego cogito ergo sum." The Ego does not weaken his proposition, but clears it up. COGNATE, kindred ; of a common nature, in Ontology and Logic. Howell : ''Which atoms are still hovering up and down, and never rest till they meet with some pores propor- tionable and cognate to their figures." 2 Hence, Cognation. Sir T. Browne: "To ascribe effects unto causes of no cognation." 3 COGNATES, COGNATA, things which agree: 1. In Category, in genus or species, as man and beast; 2. In Causes; 3. In Parts ; 4. In Accidents ; 5. In Adjuncts. Ch. ^COGNITION, knowledge. In its widest sense embracing sen- sation, perception, conception, notion. C. F. V. " Cognition, when we find it needful to separate it from faith, might be confined in strictness to those mental ener- gies in which the mind looks on an object now present say on a body perceived by the senses, or on self in a partic- ular state, or on a representation in the mind; and thus faith would be applied to all those exercises in which we believe in the existence of an object not now before us, and under immediate inspection." McCosh. 4 COGNITIVE, related to the faculty or act of cognition. Sir W. Hamilton: "Thinking (employing that term as compre- hending all our cognitive energies) is of two kinds. It is either (A) negative or (B) positive." 5 COGNIZANCE, cognition. Ingleby : " But what if light be but a sensation ? and whether or no, how else have we any cog- nizance of light." 6 Hence, Cognizant. COGNIZE, to bring into cognition. Herbert Spencer: "As the reasoning faculty can deal with no facts until they are cog- nized by it as, until they are cognized by it, they are to it non-existent it follows that, in being cognized, that is, in becoming beliefs, they begin to exist relatively to our 1 J'rincip. Phi/., p. i., vii. 2 Letters, iv. 50. 3 Vuitjar Errors. 4 Intuitions, p. 196. C Discuss.. 578. 6 Inirod. to Metayh., 9. T Princ. of Psych., 15. 600 COGNOSCENCE. COGNOSCENCE, knowledge. COGNOSCIBILITY, capability of being known. COGNOSCIBLE, capable of being known. COGNOSCITIVE, able to know. COHERENCE, COHERENCY, in Logic, closeness in reason- ing; the strict attachment of part to part. COHERENT, in Logic, consistent; close; without break. COINCIDE, in Logic, concur; harmonize with. Watts : "The rules of right judgment and of good ratiocination often co- incide with each other." 1 Hence, Coincidence, Coincidency, Coincident, Coin cider. COINTENSE, equally intense. Herbert Spencer: "We can recognize changes as connatural, and connatural changes we can recognize as cointense, or the reverse." 2 COINTENSION, COINTENSITY, common condition and de- gree of intension. Herbert Spencer : " Reasoning, which has for its fundamental ideas coextension, coexistence, and connature, proceeds by establishing cointension in degree between relations connate in kind. Intension being synony- mous with intensity, cointension will be synonymous with cointensity, and is here used to express the parallelism with coextension. Cointension is consequently here chosen to indicate the equality of relations in respect of the contrast between their terms." 3 COLLATION (Ger. Vergleichung], in Logic, the act of collat- ing; comparison. COLLECT, in Logic, to gather by deduction from logical premises. COLLECTION, in Logic, inference. Obsolete. COLLECTIVE, in Logic: 1. United under a common point of view. Watts: "The difference between a compound and a collective idea is that a compound idea unites things of a different kind, but a collective idea things of the same." 4 2. Inferential. Sir T. Browne. 5 COLLIGATE, in Inductive Philosophy, to bind together, to bring together the simpler elements for colligation. Whewell : " Sciences begin by a knowledge of the laws of phenomena, and proceed by the discovery of the scientific ideas by which the phenomena are colligated." 6 1 Logic. 2 /Vine, of Psych., 295. * Princ. of Psych., IVl . * Lngick. $ Vulgar Errors. 6 PMlos. of Discovery. COMMERCIUM. 601 ^COLLIGATION OF FACTS.-Whewell. 1 COLLISION, in Ethics, conflict of rights or of duties (Ger. Widerstand der Pflichten}. This affords the great ques- tions of casuistry. The collisions of duties have been clas- sified by Krug as between : 1. Duty to ourselves and duty to others. 2. Duties of rectitude, which are called per- fect duties, and duties of kindness, or imperfect duties. 3. Duties to the whole or duties to a part, to the many or the few. Daub classifies cases of alleged collision thus : a, between two social duties obligatory on the same person ; b, a social duty and a personal duty; c, two personal duties; d, duty to God and duty to man, whether to ourselves or others. 2 Whewell. 3 Objectively and absolutely as they appear to God, duties cannot come into collision. Thus considered, the collision is seeming only. Subjectively and relatively, the collision is of such a character at times as hopelessly to perplex and divide the judgment of good men. COLLUSION, in Ethics, joint-play ; a secret and dishonorable understanding by which persons "play into each other's hands." * Combination and Connection of Ideas. ^Combination of Ideas. COMBINED METHOD, COMPLETE M. JevonsV name for what Mill calls the Deductive Method the alternate use of induction and deduction. COMMENSURATE, having a common measure; equal. Glan- ville, Coleridge. COMMENTITIOUS, fictitious. Glanville. 5 COMMERCE OF SOUL AND BODY (Commercium animce et Corporis; Ger. Gemeinschaft der Seele und des Leibes], the reciprocal action of the soul on the body, and of the body on the soul. This has been explained by three hypotheses: 1. Physical influence; 2. Occasional causes; 3. Pre-estab- lished harmony. To these may be added, 4. Personal unity. COMMERCIATE, in Metaphysics, to have communication with. Cheyne. COMMERCIUM ANIMJE ET CORPORIS, the union, fellow- i Nov. Org. Ifcn., CO. * Phil. u. Tlieolog. Vorlesungen, iv. 241-257. Elements of Morality and Polity, book iii., ch. 15-18. < Elem. Less, in Log., 258. 5 Seep. Scientifica, 52 602 COMMISERATION. ship, reciprocal action of soul and body, in personal conjunc- tion. COMMISERATION, in Ethics, compassion. ^COMMON SENSE (Sensus communis, KOLVI/ aiaOyaic). The Avord "sense" is here used as equivalent to cognitive power in its widest acceptation. "Common Sense" is the cognitive power common to humanity. Popular usage, in making it equivalent to sagacity, and thus a mark of distinction among men, is opposed to the philosophic use. C. F. V. " This phrase, ' common sense/, meant once something very differ- ent from that plain wisdom, the common heritage of men, which now we call by this name, having been bequeathed to us by a very complex theory of the senses, and of a sense which was the common bond of them all, and which passed its verdicts on the reports which they severally made to it." Trench. 1 *Common Sense (The Philosophy of ). Applied specially to the philosophy of " the Scotch School," as distinguished for an ultimate appeal to consciousness, and to the principles of intelligence, common to the mind of man. C. F. V. M'Cosh. 8 Common Sense and Science. Whately : 3 " Many who allow the use of systematic principles in other things are accus- tomed to cry up common sense as the sufficient and only safe guide in reasoning. Now by common sense is meant, I appre- hend, (when the term is used with any distinct meaning,) an exercise of the judgment unaided by any art or system of rules ; such an exercise as we must necessarily employ in numberless cases of daily occurrence ; in which, having no established principles to guide us, no line of procedure, as it were, distinctly chalked out, we must needs act on the best extemporaneous conjectures we can form. He who is emi- nently skilful in doing this, is said to possess a superior de- gree of common sense. But that common sense is only our second best guide that the rules of art, if judiciously framed, are always desirable when they can be had, is an as- sertion, for the truth of which I may appeal to the testimony ' of mankind in general ; which is so much the more valuable, I Glossary of English Words. 2 Tlie Scottish Philosophy. 3 Elements of Logic, pref. COMPARISON. 603 inasmuch as it may be accounted the testimony of adver- saries. For the generality have a strong predilection in favor of common sense, except in those points in which they, respectively, possess the knowledge of a system of rules; but - in these points they deride any one who trusts to unaided common sense. A sailor, e. g., will perhaps despise the pre- tensions of medical men, and prefer treating a disease by common sense, but he would ridicule the proposal of naviga- ting a ship by common sense, without regard to the maxims of nautical art. And the induction might be extended to every department of practice. Since, therefore, each gives the preference to unassisted common sense only in those cases where he himself has nothing else to trust to, and invariably resorts to the rules of art, wherever he possesses the knowl- edge of them, it is plain that mankind universally bear their testimony, though unconsciously and often unwillingly, to the preferableness of systematic knowledge to conjectural judgments." COMMON SENSORY, CENTRAL S., in Aristotle, the place in which the external senses were united. Hamilton. 1 COMMON TERM, in Logic. Whately : " Common terms therefore are called ' predicables ' (viz., affirmatively predi- cable), from their capability of being affirmed of others." 2 See Term and Singular, COMMUNICATION, COMMUNION, impartation, participa- tion, fellowship in. COMMUNISM, doctrine that property should be held in common. COMMUTABILITY, in Logic, applied to what is capable of interchange, of a commutable character, as of predicates and subjects in particular affirmative propositions. Dr. R. G. Latham. 3 ^Compact. COMPARATIVE, applied to a proposition, marks precedence or superiority in the comparison of predicate or subject, as " wisdom is better than riches." ^COMPARISON (Faculty of) has the threefold products, Con- cepts, Judgments, and Reasonings. Hamilton. 4 l Metaph., 512. 2 Log., b. i., 6. Logic as applied to Language. L. J. * Logic, 604 COMPASSION. *Compassion. COMPATIBLE TERMS are those which, though distinct, are not contradictory, and can therefore be affirmed of the same subject; as "large" and "heavy;" "bright colored" and " nauseous." Jevons. COMPETIBLE, consistent. Glanville : " Properties competible to body or matter." Sir M. Hale : " The duration of Eter- nity a parte ante is such as is only competible to the Eter- nal God." Dr. H. More : " What is competible to human nature." COMPLEMENT, in Logic, the filling up, that which completes. Each part of a totality is to all the other parts the complet- ing element the complementum ad totum. COMPLEMENT OF POSSIBILITY, (Complementum posaibili- tatis,} in Metaphysics. Wolf's definition of existence or actuality, as that which the possible can have beside its possibility. 1 The conception of existence is that of a possible become actual. COMPLETE, in Logic, perfect in parts, entire in the constituent elements. Thus we have complete notions, judgments, syllo- gisms, and proofs. Complete, in Ontology, entire in essence and subsistence. ^COMPLEX, COMPLEX CONCEPTION (Immediate Infer- ence by) consists in employing the subject and predicate of a proposition as parts of a more complex conception. Jevons. 2 COMPLEXEDNESS, complication. Locke : " Complexedness of moral ideas." COMPLEXION. 1. In Logic, complication, state of the complex. 2. In the Atomistic Philosophy, the combinations of atoms, the grouping of the like-shaped. Sch wegler. 3 COMPLICATION, in Logic, the involving of many parts so as not to allow- of their ready separation. Watts: "By ad- mitting a complication of ideas, and taking too many things at once into one question, the mind is dazzled and be- wildered." 4 COMPOSITE, compound. Harris : " Each man's understand- ing, when ripened and mature, is a composite of natural ca- pacity and superinduced habit." 5 In the Leibnitzo-Wolfian i Ontol, 179. 2 Less, in Logic, 87. 3 Gesch. d. Phil, 9, 4. * Logick. e Hermes, quot. in L. J. CONATION. 605 Ontology, a composite entity (ens compositum} is one which consists of a number of distinct parts ; a continuous com- posite (continuum compositum] is one which allows of no dis- turbance of the order or continuity of its parts ; a divisible composite (compositum divisibile] is that in which the exist- ence of one part is not affected by the destruction of another part ; in Cosmology, an organic composite (organicum com- positum) is that whose parts are organic. B. W. COMPOSITION, in Logic : 1. Bringing into conjunction : Syn- thesis. 2. Fallacy of Composition arises from the confusion of a universal and a collective term. Composition of Causes. The principle which is exemplified in all cases in which the joint effect of several causes is identi- cal with the sum of their separate effects. Mill. 1 Composition of Phantasms (Compositio phantasmatum}. In the Leibnitzo-Wolfian Psychology, the compounding of par- tial percepts into one composite as to invest the human form with wings and horns. Compositum substantiale. The result of the union of matter and form, as a statue. COMPOSSIBLES, COMPOSSIBILIA, in the Leibnitzo-Wolf- ian Natural Theology, joint possibles, those which can be conjoined without contradiction in one subject or object. COMPOUND, COMPOUNDED, in Logic, embracing more than one simple. Locke, Watts. ^COMPREHENSION. Associated words: Comprehend, Com- prehensibility, Comprehensible, Comprehensibleness, Com- prehensibly, Comprehensive, Comprehensively, Comprehen- siveness, Comprehensor. COMPULSION, in Ethics, force put upon the acts of a moral agent. Locke: "When the beginning or continuation of any act is contrary to the preference of his mind." COMPUNCTION, in Ethics, pricking or goading of con- science. COMPUTATION (Lat,), thinking together; reckoning. The equivalent of syllogism. Jevons. 2 CONATION, CONATUS, striving; effort; endeavor. In the terminology of Hamilton, the faculty, desire, and act of vo- l Lcgic, book Hi., ch. 10. * Lessons in Log., 127. 52* 606 CONCATENATED. lition. Conative, of or pertaining to Conation. Ralph Cudworth : " The hegemonic of the soul may by conatives and endeavors acquire .... power." 1 Sir Win. Hamilton: "What is common both to will and desire : that is the nisus or conatus. This division into cognitive faculties, feelings, and the exertive or conative powers, was first promulgated by Kant." " In actual life, the feelings intermediate between the cognitions and the conations. Without the previous cognition, there could be neither feeling nor conation ; and without the previous feeling, there could be no conation. The manifestations of the conative powers are determined by the feelings." 2 " In conation there is a want and a ten- dency supposed, which results in an endeavor. Conation has reference only to the future, for conation is a longing, a striving . . . the power of overt activity which pain and pleasure set in motion." 3 CONCATENATED, in Logic, linked together. Applied to Syllogisms, when the conclusion of the antecedent is the premise of the one that follows, or when a number of con- clusions considered as a complex notion forms the premise for the syllogism which follows. B. W. CONCATJSE, in Ontology, a cause in co-operation with an- other cause. CONCEIVABLE, CONCEIVABLENESS, mark adaptation to our power of conceiving or conception, q. v. " Conceivable- ness is not the test of truth." Calderwood. 4 ^CONCEIVING, and APPREHENDING, or UNDERSTAND- ING (Ger. Fassungs-gabe, -kraft, -vcrmbgen ; Begreifen, Verstand}. The act of gathering up in a single mental representation the qualities which are characteristic either of one object or of many objects. Conception has been used for the act, and concept for the thing conceived. Conception and notion have commonly been taken as synonymous. It would be better to reserve notion for the more generalized knowledge, expressed in general or abstract terms. The German name is Begriff, the gathering together, as if into a l Treatise on Free Will, edited by Allen, Lond., 1838, 31. 2 Translated by Hamilton (Metaphysics, Boston, 1868, 567, 569) from F. X. Biundl : Versuch d. Empirisch-Psy- cholog., ii., 208, (Trieves, 1831, 2 v., 8vo.) 3 Metaphysics, lect. xlii., 571, 572. * JUor. Phil., 116-118. CONCRETIANISM. 607 single grip or form of knowledge, the properties common to a species or genus. C. F. V. See Hamilton. 1 CONCENTRATION, fixing the mind in a central act. CONCEPT. " That which is conceived ; the result of the act of conception; nearly synonymous with general notion, idea, thought." Jevons. ^Concept, A. Every concept is a general term which includes on the one hand a variety of attributes, and on the other comprehends a variety of objects. The attributes included are called the contents, and the objects comprehended the extent of the concept. The greater the contents the smaller the extent, and the smaller the contents the greater the extent of a concept. F. V. Conceptible, in Logic, capable of being conceived, formed into a . concept or notion. CONCEPTIO, CONCEPTUS, CONCIPERE (Lat.), mark the process of embracing or comprehending the many into the one, a multitude of different objects by their common quali- ties into one act of thought. Hamilton. 2 ^CONCEPTION (con, and capio) See Kant. 3 ^Conception and Imagination. See Chretien,* Coleridge, 5 Stoddart, 6 Whewell. 7 CONCEPTS. See Notions, Quantity, Comprehension, Ex- tension, Quality, Opposition. *CONCEPTUALISM?-See Thomson. 8 CONCEPTUALISTS. Those who say that the general notion is the knowledge of the common properties or resemblances of the things embraced under the notion. Jevons. 9 CONCEPTUS, CONCIPERE, See Conceptio. "^Conclusion. CONCOMITANCE, CONCOMITANCY, in the Scholastic Met- aphysics, natural conjunction of substances so as to involve a real common presence. Largely used in the controversy concerning the communion in one kind. See Krauth. 10 ^Concrete. CONCRETIANISM, in Psychology, the doctrine that body and soul are generated together, and have a common growth. K. 1 Logic, i. 40. 2 Logic, 86. 3 Critique of Pure Reason, (Meiklejohn's Translat.,) p. 45. 4 Essay on Logical Metli., p. 137. 6 Nat ft on English Divines, 12mo, 1853, i. 27. 6 "Univ. Grammar," in Encyrtop. Metropol. 1 Pref. to Pltilos. of Inductive Sciences. 8 Laws of Thought, 3d ed., p. 126. Less, in Logic, 13. 1( > Conservative Reformation, 620. 608 CONCUBINAGE. CONCUBINAGE, in Ethics : 1. Permanent cohabitation, under definite agreement, without marriage; 2. Marriage, under limitations which restrict, in a measure, its ordinary legal results. See Morganatic. CONCUPISCENCE (Ger. Gelusten], in Ethics, illicit desire. CONCURRENCE, CONCURSUS, (Ger. Gememschaft, Wcchsel- wirkung,) in Metaphysics and Natural Theology, a coming together, combination, to a common end. It may be general or special, and the special may be indeterminate or determinate. We may also discriminate between physical and moral concurrence. In God, the distinction is drawn between the ordinary and the extraordinary, or miraculous concursus. In the Scholastic and Leibnitzo-Wolfiari Philosophy, it is maintained : 1. That God concurs in general in all the acts of finite things by the powers with which He has endowed them. 2. He specially concurs physically, and determines necessary future things ; 3. In the actions of moral freedom God con- curs in a moral mode ; 4. By His conservation he concurs in general in the acts of His creatures ; 5. By this conserva- tion of powers He so far concurs even in the bad actions of free agents; 6. But with this free action, as morally evil, God does not concur. See Leibnitz. 1 L. *CONDIGNITY, in Ethics, common worth, desert. See Merit. The equal proportion between a moral act and its result, whether of reward or punishment. *CONDITION. That which is attendant on the cause, or co-op- erates with it, for the accomplishment of the result; or that which limits the cause in its operation. C. F. V. " Condi- tion means that on which something else is contingent, or (more definitely) which being given something else, exists or takes place. I promise to do something on condition that you do something else; that is, if you do this, I will do that; if not, I will do as I please." J. S. Mill. 2 ^CONDITION and CONDITIONED." The conditioned " is the expression employed to describe the relative and limited, in contrast with the expression "unconditioned," which is ap- plied to the absolute and infinite. Hamilton, 3 Mansel. 4 CONDITIONAL, (see Proposition), a syllogism in Logic, in- volving a condition, hypothetical. J. S. Mill : " When the i Theodecee, p. i., g 22, 27, 31 ; p. ii., g 9. 2 On Hamilton's Phil., p. 50. 3 Discussions. * Limits of Relig. Thought. CONDUCIBLENESS. 609 simple propositions are connected by the particle Or; as, either A is B or C is D ; or by the particle If; as A is B if is D. In the former case the proposition is called disjunc- tive, in the latter conditional ; the name hypothetical was originally common to both." 1 CONDITIONAL JUDGMENT OR PROPOSITION. - See Judgments, -CONDITIONED (Law of the). "I lay it down as a law which, though not generalized by philosophers, can be easily proved to be true by its application to the phenomena that all that is conceivable in thought, lies between two extremes, which, as contradictory of each other, cannot both be true, but of which, as mutual contradictories, one must." Ham- ilton. 2 " From this impotence of intellect, we are unable to think aught as absolute." "Now the law of mind, that the conceivable is in every relation bounded by the inconceivable, I call the Law of the Conditioned" Conditioned (Philosophy of the,) in Hamilton's Metaphysics. "The philosophy of the conditioned is the express converse of the philosophy of the absolute. For this asserts to man a knowledge of the unconditioned of the absolute and in- finite ; while that denies to him a knowledge of either, and maintains all which we immediately know or can know, to be only the Conditioned, the Relative, the Phenomenal, the Finite." 3 "The mental law of the conditioned supposes that the mind is limited; the* law of limitation the law of the conditioned constituting, in one of its applications, the law of causality. The mind is astricted to think in certain forms; and, under these, thought is possible only in the conditioned interval between two unconditioned contradic- tory extremes or poles, each of which is altogether incon- ceivable, but of which on the principle of Excluded Middle, the one or the other is necessarily true." " Philosophy as more than a science of the conditioned is impossible." CONDUCIBLENESS, having the power to conduce, promote. Dr. H. More. L. J. i Logic, i., iv., 3. 2 Lect., vol. ii., pp. 368, 369. Beid's Works, 911. Ibid., p. 373. 3 Discussions, New York, 1868, 19-22, 568-587. Works of Thomas Reid, 2d Ed. Edinburgh, 1844, 602. Lectures on Metaphysics, Boston, 1868, 549. 2P 610 CONFAMILIAR. CONFAMILIAR, of a common family. Glanville. L. J. CONFATAL, CONFATED, involved in a common fate or de- cree. See Fatalism. CONFERENCE, comparison of views, especially by conversa- tion or oral discussions. Bacon: "Reading makes a full man, conference a ready man, and writing an exact man ; and, therefore, if a man write little ; he had need have a great memory ; if he confer little, he had need have a pres- ent wit; and if he read little, he had need have much cun- ning, to seem to know that he doth not." CONFIGURATIONS (Ger. Freie Bildungen], in the Critical Philosophy, the assumption of harmonious figures, as in crystallization. Used by Kant to illustrate the ^Esthetic in Nature. 1 CONFORTATION, strengthening. Bacon. CONFTJSEDNESS, confusion. Norris. L. J. CONFUSION, mental indistinctness ; identification in whole or part of things which should be separated. Locke. L. J. : "Ambiguity arises from the confusion of entirely different words, derived from different languages, or from different roots of the same language ; as mean, from moyen, medium ; mean, from gemoene, low-minded." Jevons. 2 CONFUTATIVE, contributive to confutation. Warburton : "Albinus divides Plato's Dialogues into classes natural, moral, dialectic, confutaiive, civil, explorative, obstetric, and subversive." L. J. CONGENEROUSNESS, affinity of origin and nature. L. J. CONGENIALITY, community of genius, spirit, mind, taste, character. CONGENITE, of a common birth ; connate. Glanville. L. J. CONGRUENCE, CONGRUENCY,*CONGRUITY (Ger.G^cA- heit), in Ontology, quality of the congruous, agreement. " Equality of similars." Dr. H. More, Locke. L. J., B. W. CONIMBRICENSIANS, CONIMBRICENSIAN PHILOSO- PHERS, the Jesuit scholars of the university of Coimbra, in Portugal, chiefly expositors of Aristotle. CONJECTURE (Ger. Muthmassung], a provisional opinion, es- pecially in regard to facts. *Conjugate. i ITrttteilskraft, i., 58. 2 Less, in Log., 31. CONNOTE. 611 CONJURATIO, in Ethics, conspiracy under oath. CONNASCENCE, CONNASCENCY, connate origin. - Sir T. Browne. L. J. CONNATE, born together ; innate. CONNATURAL, of a common nature; innate. See Conna- ture. CONNATTJRALITY, participation in the connatural; state of common nature. Sir M. Hale. L. J. CONNATTJRE, participation of a common nature or character. Herbert Spencer : " Similarity ; the cointension of two con- natural relations between states of consciousness which are themselves like in kind, but commonly unlike in degree. Connature, likeness in kind between either two changes in consciousness or two states of consciousness." : CONNECT, in Logic, to conjoin. Locke: "The natural order of the connecting ideas must direct the syllogisms, and a man must see the connection of each intermediate idea with that it connects, before he can use it in a syllogism." CONNECTED, in the Leibnitzo-Wolfian Cosmology, things are said to be connected with one another when one of them con- tains the sufficient reason of the co-existence or succession of another. B. W. CONNECTION, connexion ; reciprocal union. CONNEXIVE, making or marking connection. Watts : 2 "The predicate and subject are joined in a form of words by con- nexive particles." L. J. CONNOTATE, v., to note or mark at the same time; adj., cor- relate; connotated. CONNOTATION, in Logic, the act of conjoining a note or mark. J. S. Mill: 3 "In the case of connotative names, the meaning is the connotation ; and the definition of a connota- tive name is the proposition which declares its connotation." ^Connotative, A. CONNOTE, in Lo'gic, to note or mark at the same time. J. S. Mill: 4 "The words genus, species, etc., are therefore rela- tive terms ; they are names applied to certain predicates, to express the relation between them and some given subject: a relation grounded not on what the predicate connotes, but on the class which it denotes, and on the place which, in i Elem. of Psych., g 94. 2 Logick. 3 Logic, ch. 8, 1. * Logic. 612 CONNUMERATE. some given classification, that class occupies relatively to the particular subject." In Analysis, "we replace one word which connotes a set of attributes collectively by two or more which connote the same attributes singly or in smaller groups " CQNNTJMERATE, to number at the same time. Cudworth. Hence, Conuumeration. L. J. "^Consanguinity. ^CONSCIENCE. Strictly, the name is applicable to the power by which we know moral law. Popularly, the name is given indiscriminately to the knowing power, and to the disposi- tions and sentiments concerned with morals. "The internal sanction of duty, whatever our standard of duty may be, is one and the same a feeling in our own mind, a pain more or less intense, attendant on violation of duty. . . This feeling, when disinterested, and connecting itself with the pure idea of duty, and not with some particular form of it, or with any of the merely accessory circumstances, is the essence of conscience." J. S. Mill. 1 " I entirely dissent from Dugald Stewart, and the great majority of writers on the theory of morals, who represent conscience as a primitive and inde- pendent faculty of the mind, which would be developed in us, although we never had any experience of external au- thority. On the contrary, I maintain that conscience is an imitation within ourselves of the government without us." Bain. 2 "I find that I undoubtedly seem to perceive, as clearly and certainly as I see any axiom in arithmetic or geometry, that it is 'right' and 'reasonable/ and the 'dic- tate of reason/ and ' my duty/ to treat every man as I should think that I myself ought to be treated in precisely similar circumstances." Sedgwick. 3 C. F. V. Ulrici. 4 Conscience, Terms applied to. In Ethics, a large number of terms has arisen, in which are indicated the various theoret- ical and practical judgments involved in its questions. Among the most important of these are the following: ap- proving and disapproving; careless, lax; morbid, narrow, micrologic, solicitous about trifles ; scrupulous; certain and uncertain ; proportional ; complete and incomplete ; con- comitant, when it regards things present; consequent, things i TTli'l-'ttrrvtnism, p. 41. 2 Emotions and Will, 3d ed., p. 285. 3 Methods of Ethics, 470. 4 Strauss (Krauth's Transl.), 126. CONSCIOUSNESS. 613 past ; antecedent, things future ; dissuading and persuad- ing; natural; educated and uneducated; erroneous and right; free and servile; gnawing, biting, stinging, wounded; good and bad ; tranquil, calm, quiet ; improbable and prob- able ; torpid and wakeful. CONSCIENTIA, CONSCIUS. See Conscious, Consciousness, CONSCIOUS, immediately cognizant. J. S. Mill: "What I am conscious of when I see the color blue, is a feeling of blue color, which is one thing ; the picture on my retina, or the phenomenon of hitherto mysterious nature which takes place in my optic nerve or in my brain, is another thing, of which I am not at all conscious, and which scientific investigation alone could have apprised me of. These are states of my body ; but the sensation of blue, which is the consequence of these states of body, is not." "CONSCIOUSNESS (Ger." Bewusstseyn), the knowledge which the mind has of itself, and of the facts of its own experi- ence. See Fearn, 1 Gamier. 2 Hamilton 3 identifies conscious- ness with immediate knowledge. He says consciousness and immediate knowledge "are terms universally convertible, and if there be an immediate knowledge of things external, there is consequently the consciousness of an outer world." The reliability of consciousness has been disputed. It has been said that " the madman's delusion is of itself sufficient to excite profound distrust, not only in the objective truth, but in the subjective worth of the testimony of an individ- ual's self-consciousness." Maudsley. 4 Maudsley does not apprehend the real question. The madman's consciousness is unerring as to his own actual modifications of mind. In calling him a madman, Maudsley assumes that there is rela- tive truth in .the testimony of a sound mind. ^Consciousness and feeling. Consciousness, Terminology of. In Des Cartes, Conscious- ness bears the name Conscientia; in Leibnitz, it is styled Apperceptio, Apperception. In the German metaphysics, we meet as its equivalent Apperception, Bewusstseyn, Selbst- bewusstseyn ; in French, Perception, Conscience, Sentiment IntSrieur. 1 Estcty on Consciousness. 2 Traite. des Facultis, pref., p. 24. 3 Lects.^ i. 221. * Physi- ology and Pathology of Mind, p. 11. 53 614 CONSECTARY. CONSECTARY, adj., consequent; CONSECTARY, n. (Ger. Zusatz], in Logic, immediate consequence, corollary, porism. CONSECUTIVE, in Logic, strictly following upon. Locke: " Actions consecutive to volition." CONSENSION, agreement. Bentley. CONSENSUS, agreement. ^CONSENT (con, with, and sentio, I feel or think). Voluntarily expressed agreement with another in thought or feeling, but more commonly in action. C. F. V. ^Consent, Argument from Universal. " CONSENTANEOUS, in harmony with; accordant. Sir T. Browne. L. J. Hence, Consentaneity, Consentaneously, Con- sentaneousness, Consentient. > *Consequent. CONSEQUENT, CONSEQUENCE (con sequor, to follow from or with). A consequent viewed by itself is a proposition the truth or falsity of which is ascertained by. fact. A con- sequence is a conclusion or inference which is true or false, according as it follows or does not follow from the premises. F. V. 3. CONSEQUENTIARIES, in Logic, a word used by Leibnitz to designate those who attempt to create personal odium or ridi- cule by the inferences they unfairly deduce from the argu- ments of their opponents; those who use the argumentum ab invidia. CONSEQUENTNESS, in Logic, consequence. Sir K. Digby. L. J. CONSERVATION, CONSERVATIVE, mark preservation; applied to the faculty of retaining or conserving knowledge acquired; mental retention ; memory proper. Hamilton. 1 Conservation of Energy or Force, the theory that the total amount of energy existing in the universe is fixed and un- alterable, like the quantity of matter. ^Consilience of Inductions. CONSISTENCY, self-harmony ; agreement, Locke : as of prop- ositions, Jevons. CONSISTENT (Terms). See Compatible (Terms). CONSOLIDATED, in Psychology, brought into unity. Her- bert Spencer. L. J. i JUetaph., 274, 275. CONSTRUCTION. 615 CONSONANCE, in Psychology, accord, concord. See Disso- nance. CONSONANT (Judgments), those which may be applied to a common subject without conflicting; as, this flower is red, and it is sweet. CONSONANTLY, consistently. Glanville. L. J. CONSOPITE, calmed. Dr. H. More. L. J. CONSORTION, fellowship. Sir T. Browne. L. J. CONSPECIES. Notions, in so far as they are considered the co- ordinate species of- the same genus. Hamilton. 1 CONSFICUITY, clearness. Glanville. L. J. CONSTABLISHED HARMONY, in Ontology, used by Swe- den borg to express the harmony of the laws by which the orders of creation are controlled. It is not to be confounded with Pre-established Harmony. CONSTANCY, in Ethics, fixedness in a state; firmness; stead- fastness in conviction, determination, affection, and conduct. ^CONSTITUTIVE. This is Kant's distinction: Constitutive (constitutiv) is applied to knowledge verified in experience, knowledge whose object is found in the concrete. Regulative (regulative) is applied to forms of knowledge which are sim- ply regulative of the mind (in its, exercise of the sensory, Sinnlichkeit, or of the understanding, Verstand, or of the reason, Vermwff) while acquiring and asserting its knowl- edge. The ground of the distinction is well explained in the preface to the second edition of the Critique of Pure Rea- son? The distinction itself is given in the Critique* and it is applied to the ideas of the reason. 4 In this relation, it is needful to keep in mind Kant's distinction between to know (erkennen) and to think (denken). According to this, we can think anything which is not self-contradictory, but we can know only that whose possibility can be proved either by experience or by reason. 5 C. F. V. CONSTRUCTION, in the Critical Philosophy, the act or process of construing, that is, the exhibiting of the a priori intui- tion correspondent with a notion. When it is occupied with i Logic, 148. 2 Meiklejohn's Trans., p. 24; Werl-e., Rosenrranz, ii. ; snppl., ii. 664. 8 Tram., p. 67. (Transcendental Analytic), Werke., Rosencranz, ii.; snppl., xii. 722. < Trans., 407. Werke, Rosen., ii. 515. & Trans. Pref., xxiii. Werke, Rosen., ii. 676, note. 616 CONSTRUE. objects which possess magnitude (quanta), it is called geo- metrical ; when occupied only with magnitude in the abstract (quantitas), it is called symbolical. Kant. 1 CONSTRUE. See Construction. CONSUBSISTING, subsisting under a common generic condi- tion. CONSUBSTANTIAL, of a common substance; identical in substance. CONSUBSTANTIATION, conjunction or transition of two or more substances into a common complex of substance. CONTAIN, to have within, as in Metaphysics the cause is said to contain the effect; in Logic, the universal contains the particulars ; the genus contains the species, the species the individuals. C. ^Contemplation. CONTEMPLATIVE (Ger. BttchaulicK), used by Kant in regard to the judgment involved in taste, to mark that this judg- ment is indifferent in respect to the existence of an object, but associates its characteristics with a feeling of pleasure or pain. See Judgment of Taste. ^Continence, Continency. ^CONTINGENT, depending for occurrence upon events which we cannot forecast. C. F. V. That which may or may not happen ; opposed to necessary and impossible. Jevons. Contingent Conversion, in Logic of the lower Greeks, is nothing more than the assertion that in contingent matter subcontrary propositions are both true. Hamilton. 2 ^CONTINUITY (Law of), affirms persistence of being on the ground of indestructibility of nature. Applicable either to matter or force. C. F. V. For more recent usage in physical science, see Balfour Stewart, 3 and Tait. 4 Continuity of Forms, in the Critical Philosophy, a special application of the law of continuity to logical forms or no- tions. ^CONTRACT (Ger. Vertrag], voluntary agreement or pact. CONTRACTION, in Logic, reduction to a compacter statement. -"Contradiction, Principle of, Law of. CONTRADICTION IN THE ADJECTIVE, in Logic, the i Cr. d. rein. Vernunft, Vorr. xii., 221, 222. 'J71, 741-766. 2 Logic, 521, n. 1. 3 Con- servation of Energy. 4 Recent Advances of Physical Science. CONVERTEND. 617 assertion by the predicate of that which contradicts the na- ture of the subject ; as, wooden iron, square triangle. CONTRADICTORIES, CONTRADICTORY TERMS, are op- posites, of which the one involves the absolute negation of the other. CONTRADISTINCTION, distinction by contrary qualities. Hence, Contradistinct, Contradistinctive, Contradistinguish. CONTRANATURAL, opposite to nature. CONTRAPOSITION, in Logic, a process of conversion which consists in taking the negative of the predicate of the propo- sition A as a new subject, and affirming of it universally the negative of the old subject. From "all metals are elements," it necessarily follows that " all not elements are not metals." Jevons. 1 Hence, Contrapositives, the propositions in Contraposition. Jevons. CONTRAREGULARITY, conflict with rule. Norris. L. J. ^Contraries. CONTRARIETY, in Logic, the character of Contraries, q. v. CONTRARY and CONTRADICTORY." Pleasure and pain are opposed to each other as contraries, not as contradictories; that is, the affirmation of the one implies the negation of the other, but the negation of the one does not infer the affirmation of the other ; for there may be a third or inter- mediate state, which is neither one of pleasure nor one of pain, but one of indifference." Sir W. Hamilton. 2 See Knauer (1868). CONTRAST, comparison so made as to bring out sharply the points of difference. CONTRITION, in Ethics, sorrow for sin considered as an offence against God; the state of a contrite or broken heart. CONVERSE, in Logic, transposition of the terms of a proposi- tion ; converted proposition. Whately, 3 Jevons. 4 ^CONVERSION. See Aristotle, 5 Baumgarten, 6 Devey, 7 Ham- ilton. 8 CONVERT, to transpose the subject and predicate of a proposi- tion. CONVERTEND, that which is to be converted. i Lessons in Logic, 83, 186. 2 ec ^ JJ M p . 436. 3 Elfin, of Logic, b. ii., ch. 3, 5. * Lessons in Log., 82. & Prior Anah/t.. L, ii., in.; II., viii., ix.; Topics, II., i., viii. * Acro- asis Lofficn, g 278-292. 1 Logic, 97. 8 Logic, 185, 514-529. 53* 618 CONVERTIBLE. CONVERTIBLE, in Logic, capable of conversion ; equivalent. Whately. l CONVICTION, in Logic, state of belief following one of disbe- lief or doubt. CO-OPERATION, working in common, joint operation. CO-OPTATION, choice, adoption. CO-ORDINATION, making or treating as co-ordinate ; arranging with, putting into, considering as in a common order or rank. Opposed to subordination. COPARTITION, a division or partition in which a common total is classified under different aspects ; as, the human body is divided into the external and internal parts. K. *COPULA (Ger. inde-wort).De Morgan: "The study of ele- mentary logic includes the special consideration of: 1. The term or name, the written or spoken sign of an object of thought, or of a mode of thinking. 2. The copula or rela- tion, the connection under which terms are thought of to- gether. 3. The proposition. 4. The syllogism." 2 COPULATIVE PROPOSITIONS, in Logic, " are those which have more subjects or predicates connected by affirmative or negative conjunctions ; as, riches and honors are temptations to pride." Watts. 3 COPY (Ger. Copie], in Transcendental Logic, used by Kant to mark the character of all things created as copies ectypes of the ideal prototype. 4 CORELATIVE, CORRELATIVE, in correlation, that which stands in a correlative, mutual, reciprocal relation. Her- bert Spencer: "Whatever amount of power an organism ex- pends in any shape is the correlate and equivalent of a power that was taken into it from without." 5 Carpenter : " Mu- tual relationship, or correlation, has been shown to exist among the chemical and physical forces themselves." 6 CORNUTE, in Logic, horned, pertaining to the horns. 1. Ap- plied to the fallacy of Eubulides, the Megarian : "What you have not put away, you still have ; you have not put away horns ; you have horns." The questions must be answered with Yes or No. Diogenes Laertius. 7 2. Both horns of the dilemma. 1 Elem. of Logic, b. i., 5. 2 Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic, 3. 3 Logick, p. ii., s. 6. * Rein. Vernunft, 606. & Biology, g 23. * Hum. Physiology, \ 124. T VU. J'ftil., vii. 187. CORPUSCULAR. 619 COROLLARY, in Logic, "a proposition which follows immedi- ately from another which has been proved." Jevons. " We use the word corollary to denote a consequence or a conclu- sion flowing from something previously demonstrated, but the word in its earlier use signified a surplus or addition, and is so used by Shakespeare. 1 Prospero says : < Well, Now come, my Ariel ! bring a corollary, Rather than want a spirit.' The word is handed down to us from the Romans, and was used by them in their dramatic entertainments to signify a reward given to the players over and above their just hire, and was derived from the word corolla, a little crown or gar- land, such being the reward usually given." Knapp. 2 F. V. 3. CORPORALITY, CORPOREALITY, state of the corporeal, the bodily. CORPOREALISM, system of the Corporealists, who maintain that body is the sole real existence ; Materialism. CORPOREITY, state of the corporeal, being of a bodily nature. CORPUS. 1. (Ger. Kbrper, body,) a word in large use, direct and in its combinations, in the intellectual sciences. In the Leibnitzo-Wolfian Cosmology, "Corpora" is denned as the " composite of which in its parts the universe is com- posed." Corpus, body, may be present, or absent, hard, soft, fluid, rough, smooth, porous, cold, warm, thick, thin, elastic, simple, compound, organic, in motion, at rest, active, passive. Corpus, 2. (Ger. Leib] is also applied to animated body, especially the human. CORPUSCLE, CORPUSCULE, little body ; corpusculum, the minutest portion of matter having extension, but indivisible and impenetrable: an atom, a concrete unit, without a con- crete half; applied to the "star-dust," and the primary ele- ments of matter. CORPUSCULAR, relating to, consisting of corpuscles. CORPUSCULAR (CORPUSCULARIAN) PHILOSOPHY is synonymous with Atomism, as the atoms are assumed to be the minutest corpuscles (corpuscula minima}. Bentley: 1 In The Tempest, Act IV., Scene 1. 2 Roots and Ramifications. 620 CORRELATE. " The mechanical or corpuscular philosophy, peradventure the oldest, as well as the best in the world." J " The mod- ern corpuscularians talk in most things more intelligibly than the peripatetics." Berkeley : " Newton seems to have made a greater progress than all the sects of Corpuscularians had done before him." 2 CORRELATE. See Corelate and Relation. CORRESPONDENCE, parallelism/ conformity, harmony, re- ciprocal adaptation. COSMIC, COSMICAL, pertaining to the cosmos, or general system of the Universe. COSMICS (Gr.) 1. Cosmology. 2. Fundamental Philosophy. COSMOGONIST, the speculator in cosmogony. ^COSMOGONY (Ger. Wettentstehungskhre), doctrine of the origin of the Cosmos, or Universal System. COSMOLOGICAL, of or relating to Cosmology, the doctrine or science of the cosmos. C. Antithetics, in Kant, 3 the Anti- nomy in which the speculative reason is involved, when it developes the C. idea, in the four points of view, Quantity, Quality, Relation and Modality, and deduces the fo'ur C. problems. C. Argument, in Teleology, demonstration, proof of the existence of God from the contingency of the world, as involving a necessary primal cause. C. Kingdom, in the classification of Ampere, 4 embraces, with the Noologic King- dom, all the sciences. 0. series, the things in the cosmos in the relations of space, time, and cause. See Krug. 5 COSMOLOGICAL IDEA, in the transcendental dialectic of the Critical Philosophy, the regulative idea that " in Cosmology we are to follow up, in an endless investigation, the condi- tions alike of the internal and external phenomena of nature, as if those phenomena were in themselves endless, without an ultimate or supreme member. Such a member is not denied, but we do not bring it into the connection of this explana- tion of Nature, because we do not know it." 6 ^COSMOLOGY is the science of the Kosmos, World, or Uni- verse, as such. As the science of the world in general, it is 1 Sermons, iv. 2 Sir is, \ 245. 3 Rein. Vern., 448, seq. * Essai sur la Philosophic d. Sciences, 1838-1843. & Handb. d. PliilosopJde, $ 320-325 ; AUg. Handworterbuch., B. V. c Rein. Vernunft. COSMOS. 621 general, or transcendental: as it demonstrates a general the- ory of the World from the principles of Ontology, it is scientific : as it elicits a theory from observations, it is called experimental. Wolf. 1 Cosmology Rational, in Metaphysics and the Critical Philosophy. Kant : " The thinking subject is the object of Psychology ; the sum of all phenomena (the Universe) is the object of Cosmology ; and the entity, which as the supreme condition of the possibility of all that can be thought, embraces (as the Being of all beings) the object of all Theology. Pure reason furnishes consequently the idea of a trauscen&ental-rational-Psychology; the idea of a tran- scendenta.1- rational- Cosmology; finally, also the idea of a transcendental Theology." 2 Cosmology Rational, the Philosophy of Nature, the doctrine concerning the world, the first part of special Metaphysics, embraces the questions concerning the Universe as in time and space : Matter, the mechanical, the inorganic and organic : the nature, reality and contingency of the World : Casualisrn, Emanation, Pantheism, origin, antiquity, perfection, and end of the world : Laws of Nature : Elements : Monadology, Dynamism, Atomism : Natural and Supernat- ural effects : Teleology, Miracles, Providence, Optimism : Immortality. Jos. Beck, 3 F. H. A. Von Humboldt,* Libe- ratore, 5 Rothenflue, 6 G. E. Schulze, 7 Stockl, 8 Tongiorgi. 9 COSMONOMY, science of the laws of the cosmos. COSMOPLASTIC, Cosmos-forming. Hallywell: "Seneca . .no better than aCosmoplastic Atheist, i. e., he made a certain plas- tick orspermatick nature, devoid of all animality or conscious intellectuality, to be the highest principle in the Universe." 10 COSMOS (Gr. Kosmos, order, form), the World or Universe, from its perfect order and arrangement, opposed to the indi- gcstamoles of chaos, first in Philosophy of Pythagoras. The Stoics used it also of the Anima Mundi and of the Universe as itself divine. 1 Logica, $ 77, 18. Cosmnlogia, gl, 4. 2 Oritik der rein. Vernunft, Fiinft. Aufl , 1799, 391, 874. 3 Enc. d. Theoretixch. PJnlnsoph., gg 3:58-365. * Kosmos, 5 vola., 1845-62. * Institut. Philosoph. t ii. 9-96. 6 I HS titut. Pldlosoph. Thenrei., ii. 1-100. 1 Grundr.d. Philosnph. Wis- sensdiaften, ii. 323-428. * Le.hr b. d. Philosophic, Vierte Aufl., 1876; ii. 120-138. Institutiones Philosophic*, Ed. Sept. 1875 ; ii. 198-420. w Metampronxa, 1681, 84. 622 COSMOTHEISM. COSMOTHEISM, deification of the cosmos; the system which identifies God and the cosmos. One form of it is Panthe- ism; another is presented in Strauss's Old Faith and New Faith. COSMOTHEOLOGY, a system which deduces from the facts presented in the cosmos, arguments and illustrations bearing on the existence and attributes of God. Hence Cosmotheo- logical. COSMOTHETIC (Gr. positing a cosmos, or external world), applied by Hamilton 1 to the Idealism which seeks to explain and establish the existence of an external world, which it denies to be given in consciousness. COURAGE. See Fortitude. *CRANIOLOGY, (see Phrenology,) theory of the cranium as a key to the mind. C. F. V. *CRANIOSCOPY, See Organ. CRASIS, mingling of elements in the human constitution. Glanville. L. J. CRASSNESS (grossness). Glanville.' 2 *CREATION (Ger. Schopfung). CREATIONISM, the doctrine of the Creationists the theory of Aristotle that the souls of men are immediately created by God opposed to Traducianism. Some hold that this took place at the original creation of all things; others that it is a successive creation. Both hold that these souls are united with the foetus, either at conception, or at some period (forty days) after. CREATURE, an entity which has come into existence by divine power. Wolf. 3 CREATURELINESS (Ger. " GeschopflichJceit," Tauler], the con- dition and relation of a created being. *CREDULITY (Ger. Leichtglaubigkeif), a disposition to believe without evidence. C. F. V. CRETINISM (Precondition of a Cretin; one of the lowest grades of idiocy. Stockl. 4 ^CRITERION (Criterium), all means proper to judge. More properly, a test of certainty. C. F. V. See Stockl. 5 i Discussions, 61, 192. 2 Pre-exist, of Souls, 118. L. J. 8 Theolog. Naturalis, ? 777. * Lehrbuch, L, 41. & Lehrb. d. Philosophic, i., g 80, 81. CROCODOLINE SYLLOGISM. 623 CRITICAL IDEALISM, See Idealism. *CBITICX, CRITICISM, CRITIQUE, CRITICAL METH- OD, also styled the Propiideutic preliminary exercise, training to Philosophy, General Phenomenology opposed to Dogmatism and Scepticism. " It is the name given to the investigation of the faculty of Reason, whether pure Cog- nition a priori rises from it, how it is possible, what it is, and what is its compass, and whether the objects of experience solely, or besides these, suprasensuous objects can be cognized by it." Mellin, Kant. 1 " It is used in Germany, as with us, to designate a criticism of any work, but specially em- ployed by Kant as the name of a philosophy attained by critical discrimination of elements of knowledge gathered by experience, from those which are given by the Reason itself, called by him the Pure Reason." C. F. V CRITIQUE OF PURE REASON (in Kant, Classification of ): I. Doctrine of Elements, Elementary Doctrine: i. Es- thetics, ii. Logic: (a) Analytics 1. of Concepts ; 2. of Principles: (b} Dialectics 1. Paralogisms; 2. Antinomies; 3. the Ideal of Pure Reason. II. Doctrine of Method, Methodology, i. Discipline, ii. Canon, iii. Architectonic. See Metaphysics, Tabular View. iv. History of Pure Reason, with reference to Rational Cognition, contemplates: (a) Object Sensualists (Epi- curus), Intellectualists (Plato), or (b) Origin Empirists (Aristotle, Locke), Idealists, Noologists (Plato, Leibnitz), or (c) Method Naturalists, Scientific Thinkers, either Dogma- tists (Wolf), or Sceptics (Hume). Last of all, the Critical Method (Kant.) 2 See Judgment, Critique of; Reason Practical, Critique of. CROCODOLINE SYLLOGISM, an illustration of a fallacious dilemma. The crocodile promises to restore a child if the mother will tell the truth as to whether he intends to keep his promise. If she says he does not if she tells the truth in that her child will not be restored. If she says he does, the crocodile has only to say he does not, and the mother has not told the truth, and forfeits the child. Some of the an- 1 Crit. d. rein. Vernunft, 869. 2 Crit. d. rein. Yernunjt, 879-882 ; Meiklejohn's Tr., 615-517. 624 CROSS. cients put in the mouth of the mother an antistrephon : " If it is the truth that you do not intend to keep the promise, you are bound to return the child because I have spoken the truth. If it is the truth that you intend to keep the prom- ise, you are bound to keep it." Jos. Beck. 1 CROSS (Division), one in which there is more than one princi- ple of division, and the species in consequence cross each other and produce confusion. Jevons. 2 CRUCIAL TEST, severe and decisive. CULMINATION, the attaining of the highest point. CULPABLENESS, in Ethics, blamableness. CULTURE (Ger. Bttdung), the process by which the intellectual and moral nature is developed ; the result of that process. On the ideal of culture and war, Lasson, 1868. CUMULATION (Ger. Anhaufung), heaping up ; accumulation ; opposed to distribution. ^CUMULATIVE (The Argument), an argument gaining in force by steady increase of evidence as it advances from step to step. C. F. V. CUPIDITY, in Ethics, inordinate, lawless longing. CURIOSITY (Ger. Neugier], in Ethics, an ill-regulated desire of knowledge either a desire to know what we ought not to know, or a desire disproportioned to the value of the object. CURSORY, hasty ; superficial. CURSUS, a course ; applied to a methodical series of studies ; to nature in the phenomena and processes conditioned by law. *CUSTOM (Ger. Gewohnheit)." Consuetudo. That which is fa- miliar in thought, feeling, or action. That which is common in the practice either of an individual or of society. It is to be carefully distinguished from habit, which is an ac- quired facility." C. F. V. See Smith. 3 CYCLE, circle ; complete round of time or of events. Hence, Cyclic. CYCLOGNOMIC ART (called the Lullian, from Lullius, its inventor,) arranges the objects of thought in seven concentric circles. The outermost circle embraces substances ; the next, accidents ; the third, absolute predicates ; the fourth, rela- tives; fifth, virtues; sixth, vices; seventh, questions. K. , \ 284. 2 Less, in Log., 105. 3 Moral Sentiments, part v., ch. 1. D^MON. 625 CYCLOPEAN, like the Cyclopes, gigantic; applied to gigantic erudition, some of which, says Kant, "is Cyclopean in wanting one eye that of true philosophy." K. CYCLOPEDE, CYCLOPEDIA. See Encyclopedia. *Cynic. CYNOSURE (Gr., dog's tail). A bright star, the pole-star, by which the old mariners steered. Logic has been styled the " Cynosure of the mind," and the same title has been claimed for philosophy in general. K. CYRENIAN (Philosophy, School), from Gyrene, the place of its establishment, about 380 B. c. See Aristippus, Hedon- ism, Diogenes Laertius. 1 D, in Logic, mnemonic, marking that the three other figures in syllogism which begin with D, can by conversion be re- duced to the first. Darepti, Disamis, Datisi, can be reduced to Darii. D. P. S. DABITIS, in Logic, mnemonic word designating one of the indirect modes of the first of the three figures of the Aris- totelian syllogism. DJEDALEAN, labyrinthine, perplexed and involved, from Daedalus, the framer of the labyrinth. K. DJEMON, DEMON, a spiritual nature of whatever kind. 1. It was sometimes applied, by Plato and others, in the plural to distinguish the inferior deities from God, the superior daemon. Daemonic in this use is equivalent to divine. 2. It was commonly used for Genii, beings intermediate be- tween god and men. Diotima, in Plato's Banquet (202 D.), is a daemon. 3. The separate spirits of great men. 4. Of men in general. 5. Of evil spirits, devils, lost angels. In Hesiod, 2 the dcemons were deified men of the earliest period, distinguished from heroes, who belong to the time of the Trojan war. They watch over the actions and interests of men, and move everywhere veiled in the air, and have power to confer wealth. The dcemons, in Democritus, 3 aerial 1 II. 92. Yonge's Translat., London, Bolin, 1853, 81-96. 2 Qpp. et dies., v. 110, 152. * Oicero de jVid. >Kor. t i. 12, 43. 54 2Q 626 DAEMON OF SOCRATES. beings, similar to men, rising by chance from the round and fiery atoms of which animal souls are composed, some of them good, some bad, huge enough to encompass the world, subject to decay. They manifest themselves to sight and by voice, reveal the future, and have the attributes assigned in the popular faith to the gods. The views of Epicurus l were similar. In Maximus of Tyre, the daemons correspond in some respects with the Bible conception of guardian angels. 2 In Plotinus, after deities of two orders, follow the daemons, as a third class, originating from the soul of the world, inter- mediate between gods and men, having fellowship with both the intellectual and the sensible world ; less spiritual than the gods, less material than men, their essence is " intelli- gible matter." They assume elementary bodies, work on the visible world, especially on men, to whom they appear, and whose destinies they control. Reason and the sensual in man are dsemonlike, in the two kinds. 3 Alcinous had taught that in every element, visible or invisible, there are daemons, which have everything earthly under their supervision. Porphyry expands the view of Plotinus. 4 Hence dczmon- olepsy, or dcemonoplexy ', the possession by evil spirits. Dcemon- omagic, magic by the aid of daemons. Dcvmonomania, insanity produced by daemoniac possession. Dcemonomantia, proph- ecy by means of daemons. There were Agathodaemons, who were good spirits; Cacodcemons, who were evil spirits. DAEMON OF SOCRATES (see Demon), the something super- natural and divine to which Socrates attributed his illumin- ation. Xenophon, 5 Plato, 6 Lewes. 7 *Dsemonist. DJEMONOLOGY, DEMONOLOGY.-l. Science concerning daemons ; discourse or treatise on daemons. For Bibli- ography, see Denis-Pin9on-Martonne. 8 2. In Kant, 9 an an- thropomorphic mental representation of God. "Moral Tele- ology completes the physical, and lays the basis of Theology, which, if we had stopped at the physical Teleology, would i Lucretius, iii. IS, v. 147. Cicero de Nat. Deorum, i. 16. 2 BuMe. Gescli. d. neu. Phil, i. 669 ; Tiedemann Geist. d Philos., iii. 259. 3 Evneades, iii. 5, 6. * Tiedemann, Geist. d. Philosophic, iii. 187,144,146. 5 Memorab., I., i. 2. 6 Apol., 40 A; Theset., 151, A: Euthyd.,2~2,E. 1 Hist, of Philosophy. 8 Bibliographic Uhiverselle, 8. v. 9 Urtheils- kraft, \\ 86, 89. DATISI. 627 have been nothing more than Dsemonology." " The limi- tation of the reason, as respects the supersensuous, to the conditions of practical use, has these advantages : It prevents Theology from being exaggerated into Theosophy, or being degraded into Dsemonology : Religion does not fall into Theurgy, or into Idolatry." DARAPTI, in Logic, mnemonic term for first mode of the third figure in Syllogism ; two universal affirmatives, with the conclusion a particular affirmative. Da : Every body is divis- ible. Rap : Every body is a substance. Ti : Therefore some substance is divisible. See Whately. 1 DARII, in Logic, mnemonic term for the third mode in the first figure ; the major a universal affirmative, the minor and con- clusion special affirmatives. DARSTELLTJNG, Hypotyposis, exhibition, presentation : bringing into view in the sphere of sense; in the Critical Philosophy the function of the judgment, by which it fur- nishes to a concept, which it would employ in cognition, a correspondent Intuition ; intuitive mode of Representation in the case of a concept of time or space, Construction. It may be schematic or symbolic, q. v. The Faculty itself is called Darstellungs-Vermogen. See Kant. 2 DARWINISM, (from Charles Robert Darwin,) a theory of De- velopment, involving the doctrines of Evolution, the struggle for existence, Natural Selection, the survival of the fittest. DASEYN. 1. In Kant, 3 the absolute position of a thing, exist- ence, actuality, the being (das Seyn] of the object exterior to the thought, or in itself. 2. In Hegel, " Being-there-and-then ; determinate being ; real and definite as opposed to mere or abstract being. To bring a thing into Daseyn is to give it definite being." See Existence. W. Wallace. 4 *DATA, facts or postulates from which an inference is drawn. DATISI, in Logic, mnemonic term for the fourth mode of Syllo- gism. The major is a universal affirmative, the minor and conclusion particular affirmatives. Da: All who serve God are happy. Ti : Some who serve God are poor. Si : Some who are poor are happy. 1 Logic, ch. 3, g 4. 2 Urtheilskr., I., Th. 30. Anthropol , % 241-243. * Rein. Vern., 667. 4 Logic of Hegel, Prolegom., ch. 23. 628 DEATH. DEATH (Ger. Tod), the separation of the psychical from the physical : the state which follows that separation. See Scho- penhauer, 1 L. A. Feuerbach, 2 J. H. Friedrich (1821), F. Eichter (1833-44), Klencke (1840), Alexius (1843), Splitt- gerber (1866). DECLARATION, in Kant, 3 the nominal definition of an arbitrary concept, the reality of which concept depends on empirical conditions, e. g. y a flying-machine opposed to Explication and Exposition. " The German language has but the solitary term Erklilrung for the words Exposition, Explication, Dec- laration and Definition. When the concept rests on empir- ical conditions, the object and its possibility is not established by the arbitrary concept. I do not by means of it know at all that it has an object, and it is better to style my explanation a declaration (of my project) than a definition of an object." DECOMPOSITION (Ger. Theilung), analysis, resolution into elements. DEDUCE. See Deduction. DEDUCTIO AD ABSUEDTJM, AD IMPOSSIBILE, in Logic, the proof of the falsity of a proposition by the absurdities or impossibilities deducible from it. ^DEDUCTION, DEDUCTIO, DEDUCTIVE REASONING, in the Critical Philosophy, is transcendental or critical argu- ment the explanation of the mode in which notions or a priori propositions may be referred to objects, or the justifi- cation of their objective and universal validity and possibility. "The physical sciences (with Psychology) rest on induction.'" Kant. 4 DEDUCTION OF THE CATEGORIES.- See Categories. *De Facto and De Jure. *DEFINITION (definio, to mark out limits). A definition is a categorical proposition, consisting of two classes or members, viz., a subject defined (membrum definition), and of the defin- ing attributes of the subject, that is, those by which it is dis- tinguished from other things (membrum deftniens). It must contain the genus proximum and the differentia. Est definitio, earum rerum, quce sunt ejus reiproprice, quam definire volumus, 1 Quoted in Krauth's Berkeley Prolegom., xiii., xxiv. 2 Siimmlliche Wt'.rl;<>, Cd B., 184f>- 48. 3 R e i ni Fern., 757,7-58. *Rei,?. Vermnft, 106-169. Prolegomena (Ki tor* 7. DEIST. 629 brevis et circumscripta quondam explicatio. Cicero. 1 See Kant, 2 Hegel. 3 DEGREE, grade, amount, extent. Jevons : " Great care should be taken to avoid confusing terms which express the presence or absence of a quality, with those which describe its degree. Less is not the negative of greater, because there is a third alternative, equal. The rule is, that wherever the question is one of degree or quantity, a medium is possible, and the subject belongs rather to the science of quantity than to sim- ple logic." * " We must carefully distinguish questions of degree or quantity from those of simple logical fact." 5 In Hegel, 6 intensive magnitude, the limit as in itself simple de- terminateness. DEICTIC (Gr., able to show), in the Aristotelian 'Logic, direct, ostensive ; opposed to the indirect or elenctic, or reductio ad impossibile} DEIFORMITY, conformity with the divine. Dr. H. More. 8 DEISIDAIMONY, fear of the gods ; religion ; superstition. *DEIST. One of the first instances of the use of this word oc- curs in Vivet, 9 quoted by Bayle. 10 It is appropriated, in the middle of the seventeenth century, by Herbert to his scheme, and afterwards by Blount, 11 to distinguish themselves from Atheists. In strict truth, Herbert calls himself a Theist, which slightly differs from the subsequent term Deist, in so far as it is intended to convey the idea of that which he thought to be the true worship of God. It is Theism as op- posed to error, rather than natural religion as opposed to revealed ; whereas Deism always implies a position antag- onistic to revealed religion. But the distinction is soon lost sight of; and Nichols (1696) entitles his work against the Deists, Conference with a Theist. Towards the close of the seventeenth century, and in the beginning of the eighteenth, the Christian writers sometimes even use Deist as inter- changeable with Atheist, as shown above. It is also used as synonymous with one of the senses of the word Naturalist. Farrar. 12 i De Orat., lib. i., cap. 42. 2 fl, t - n . Vermin ft, 300, 755. a EncyJdopadie ct. Fhilngnph. Vissenech., % 229. 4 Element. Lessons in Logic, 24. & D O . ? 120. 6 Encyklopadie, % 103- 106. i Anal. Pr.. I., xxix. 1. 8 $ onff nfthe Soul, iv. 27. 9 Epist. Dedicat. du 2 vol. de I' Inftrnctinn C/irftienne, ]563. 10 Note uuder the word Vivet. U Oracles of Reasm, p. 9'J. 12 Bamptim Lect., p. 587. 54 * 630 DEITY. DEITY, nature of God ; Godhead ; God. Blakey. 1 DEMI-ATHEISM, half Atheism. Berkeley. 2 DEMIGOD, half-god in nature or origin. *DEMIURGE, demiurgus. *DEMON, and its compounds. See Daemon and its compounds. See Psellus (Mich.), 3 Jacobus (I. Kex), 4 Abbe Migne. 5 Bo- dinus 6 speaks of his familiar spirit ; and Cardan 7 does the same. In Stanley 8 there is a dissertation on the subject. DEMONSTRABLE, in the Critical Philosophy, applied to a notion or proposition when its corresponding object, whether it be one of pure or of empirical intuition, can be given. See Acroamatic. Thus, the notion of magnitude is demon- strable, for in the a priori intuition of space, it can be applied to a right line for example. ^DEMONSTRATION, anodute, in the Critical Philosophy, apodictic, intuitive proof, confined to the mathematics. It is apodictic,for it is associated with the consciousness of necessity ; it is intuitive, for it is capable of presentation to external per- ception. In Hegel, 9 the process of mediation itself, from which cognition derives the necessity of a synthetical nexus. DENKBARKEIT (Ger., thinkableness.) "Capacity of being thought." M. T. M. DENOMINATE, in Logic, to name. J. S. Mill : "Connotative names have been also called denominative, because the sub- ject which they denote is denominated by or receives an attribute from the name which they connote. The attribute or attributes may therefore be said to denominate those ob- jects, or to give them a common name." Hence denomin- able, denominate; adj., denominative. DENOMINATION, EXTERNAL.- See Mode. DENOTE, in Logic, to mark, to associate with a sign. J. S. Mill : "Proper names are not connofative: they denote the individ- uals who are called by them ; but they do not indicate or imply any attributes as belonging to those individuals." l Hence denotable, denotate, denotative. See Connotation, Denomination, Definition. 1 Hist, of Philosophy, vol. iv., Index of Subjects, Deity. * Principles, 155. 3 De Operatione Dsemonum, 8vo, Paris, 1615. * Dsemonologie, 4to, 1603. 5 Dictfonnuire d<>s Sciences Occulles, 6 torn., Paris, 1846. 6 j n his Demcmology, (Paris, 1587.) 7 De Vita Propria. Hist, of Phil., fol., Loud., 1701. 9 JZacyktopadie, \ J1. w System of Logic, b. i., ch. 3, 6. DETERMINATION. 631 ^DEONTOLOGY, theory of duty. C. F. V. " Bentham's view might more properly be styled Ophelimoloyy. The genuine Deontology might also be named Oathecontology." Krug. DEPENDANCE, DEPENDENCE, DEPENDANCY (Ger.^6- hangigkeit], in Metaphysics, the relation of sequence to its ground, of effect or operation to its cause. That which could not be were there not some other thing, is dependent on that thing ens dependens, ens ab alia. Dependence may be 1. Logical. 2. Metaphysical. 3. Psychological. 4. Physical, in the natural world. 5. Moral. 6. Social, in- volving the political. ^DESIGN (designo, to mark out), (Ger. Absicht}. Adaptation of means to ends. The evidence of design consists in the marks found in objects or in the course of events, of adapta- tion to the attainments of definite results. A philosophical theory of such evidence is named Teleology (r&oc, end, and Aoyof , discourse), the theory of ends, awkwardly named " final causes." C. F. V. Design. For Kant's criticism of the argument from design as, at the most, proving only an architect of the universe, and thereby driving us back on something more than the testi- mony of experience, see Critique of Pure Reason. 1 C. F. V. See Cause (Final). *DESIRE (Ger. Begierde, Verlangen). "Craving; uneasiness from sense of want, and longing for satisfaction." C. F. V. DESTINATION (of Man), (Ger. Bzstimmung des Menschen), in Ethics, the supreme aim of man's life and work. Mendels- sohn: "It is the vocation and destination given to us alone, by the author of our being, to be upright, and to be happy in our uprightness, to follow truth, to love beauty, to desire good and to do the best, to be devout and to be beneficent." ^DESTINY (Ger. Shicksal}. DETERMINATION, constant direction to a certain end ; men- tal decision contemplating action ; the fixing of limitations or bounds of activity. It is called effective, when it proceeds from an efficient cause ; moral, when the cause is moral, op- erative by the laws of personal, free agency. 1 Transcendental Dialectic, cl). 3; Meiklejohn's Transl., p. 370. WerJte, Roseucmnz, ii. 470. 632 DETERMINISM. *DETERMINISM, PREDETERMINISM, in Metaphysics, the system which regards the operations of the will as neces- sarily determined by causes antecedent; the motive is an irresistible motor; there is no proper self-determination, as the Indeterminists maintain. The theory that all our voli- tions are determined by the force of motives within, which motives produce their results as invariably as physical forces effect their ends. Determinism is the name more recently preferred by the upholders of this theory of will to the earlier designation Necessitarianism. C. F. V. DEVELOPMENT (Fr.; Ger. Entwickelung), the freeing from cover or constraint ; the unfolding in an unbroken sequence of cause and effect ; growth from the idea toward the end. It may be logical or physical see Owen; 1 intellectual, moral, or social. J. K. Passavant (1835), Buisson (1859), Geiger (1871). DIACRITIC, DIACRITICAL, separating; DIACRITICS, the art of making and marking distinctions. DIJERESIS, DIERESIS, in Logic, the division of a notion ; the negation, in a negative judgment, as separating the predicate from the subject. DIJETETICS, the doctrine concerning intellectual nutrition and health. Beskow, 2 Feuchtersleben. 3 DIALANTHANON", in Logic, the concealing; a form of soph- istry, like the veiled. DIALECTIC (Dialektik), a philosophy worked out by the dia- lectic or rationalizing process from assumed premises. This stands in contrast with a philosophy which starts with ob- servation and analysis of facts, such as inductive psychology. Spinoza's philosophy is a dialectic, from postulated defini- tions ; Hegel's philosophy is a dialectic founded on the law of the evolution of dialectic thought. C. F. V. In Kant, 4 the logic of illusion ; general logic as an assumed organon. The AiafonTiKJ/ of Plato was the method of analysis by means of language, and comprised the field which his successor Aristotle separated into two, viz., A/oAer/^, logic, the inquiry concerning method; and So^/a, metaphysics, the inquiry con- cerning being. Farrar. 5 l Comparat. Anatomy, lect. xxiv. 2 From the Swedish, I'raiorius, 1868; Sarauw, 1869. 3 36th ed., 1872. * Rein. Vcrn., 85-88, 349-354. & Bampton Lect., p. 108. DIBATIS. 633 ^DIALECTICS. Aristotle says there are two kinds, Xoyuv, viz., 'ETrayuyf/ nat avAto'/iGfibg induction and deduc- tion. C. F. V. See Chlebik (1869), E. V. Hartmau (1868). DIALLEL (Gr., through one another), in Logic, the argument in a circle ; in the ancient scepticism, cognition itself, as doomed to move in a circle of unproved postulates. DIAMOND-NET, a term used by both Seelye and Stirling to translate " diamantenes Netz" in Schwegler's 1 account of Hegel. Adamantine would be as literal, and corresponds better with the English associations with the term. " The shadows of the realms of logic are the simple essences freed from all sensuous materialization essences within whose adamantine net the whole universe is built." DIANOETIC, in Metaphysics, pertaining to the dianoia, which Hamilton characterizes as the "discursive, elaborative, or comparative faculty." DIANOIAGONY (Gr., Understanding-begetting), the doctrine concerning intellectual generation. Absolute Idealism, which explains all the objects of perception as ideas begotten of the mind, has been styled a dianoiagonic theory. K. *DIANOIOLOGY, DIANOIALOGY, science" of the dianoetic, Logic. DIAPHONY (Gr. discord), in the History of Philosophy, used by the ancient Sceptics to characterize the conflict of the various systems. DIAPKORIC (Gr., pertaining to difference), in Logic, applied to the Aristotelian diaphora, the differentia of species; species. DIAPORETIC (Gr., doubting, perplexed), in History of Philoso- phy, applied to the Sceptics. DIATHESIS (Gr., arrangement), in Metaphysics, disposition. Aristotle. 2 . DIATRIBE (Gr.), a discussion, argument. DIBATIS, in Logic, a mnemonic term, which marks the fourth mode of the fourth figure in Syllogism. The major is par- ticular affirmative; the minor, universal affirmative; the con- clusion, particular affirmative. Thus, Di: Some fools tell the truth ; Ba: All who tell the truth we must believe ; Tis: Some fools we must believe. This mode is called the Galen- inn. See Dabitis. l Gesch. d. Philosophic, I 45, i. 2 Metaphys., iv. 19. 634 DICHOLOGY. DICHOLOGY, the same as Dichotomy. ^DICHOTOMY, hence Dichotomist (Bacon), dichotomize. DICTATE, authoritative rule, prescription. DICTION, SOPHISM OF, (sophisma dictionis, or fallacy of the figure of diction ; fallacia figurce dictionis,} a sophism based on the double sense of a word. *DICTUM DE OMNI ET NULLO, called also Dictum de Diverse et Exemplo. DICTUM DE RECIPRICO, in Logic, the principle of conversion, or of conclusion to the converse. If no organic being is inanimate, no inanimate thing is an organic being. See Enthymeme. ^Dictum Simpliciter. DIDACTICS, a division of Pedagogics ; the art of instruction. DIDACTRA, the teacher's fee. It was exacted by the Sophists, but was not received by Socrates, who however did not refuse the purely voluntary presents of articles of necessity from his wealthier pupils. DIDASCALIC, DIDACTIC, applied by Aristotle to Syllogisms which were meant to attain scientific cognition, the apodic- tic or demonstrated Syllogisms. DIETETICS. See Diaeteties. ^DIFFERENCE, DIFFERENTIA. Animal and stone are generically different ; Highflyer and Eclipse are numeri- cally or individually different. F. V. 3. DIFFERENTIATION, in Logic, distinguishing by difference. DIFFORMITY, difference of form. *DILEMMA. See Antistrephon, Cornute, Crocodoline, Pen- talemma, Polylemma, Tetralemma, Trilemma. See At- water. 1 DIMENSION (Ger. Mass], measured extension ; in time, measured length ; in space, length, breadth, and depth. SeeWhewell. 2 DISAMIS, in Logic, mnemonic term for the third mode of Syl- logism in the third figure. The major is a particular, the minor a general, the conclusion a particular affirmative. Di : Some good men are poor. Sa: All good men are happy. Mis : Some happy men are poor. DISCERNIBLE, capable of being distinguished. 1 Logic, ch. 5, sect. ix. 2 History of Scientific Ideas, B. II., ch. 8, arts. 4, 5. DISJUNCTIVE. 635 DISCIPLINAL PHILOSOPHY. Used by Crusius to mark contingent and practical verities, over against metaphysics, as embracing necessary and theoretic truths. DISCIPLINE (Lat.). 1. A branch of scientific knowledge. 2. Training. 3. The means of training. DIS CONFORMABLE, lacking conformity; not in unison. J. S. Mill : " Facts previously unheard of, but which could not from any known law of causation be pronounced impossible, are what Hume characterizes as not contrary to experience, but merely unconformable to it; and Bentham, in his treat- ise on evidence, denominates them facts disconformable in specie, as distinguished from such as are disconformable in toto or in degree." l *DISCOVERY. See Invention. DISCRETE, distinct; DISCRETION, distinctness. Hegel, under Quantity, in the Doctrine of Being, in Logic: "In so far as the magnitude contains many units, as distinguishable in it, it is a discrete, or the moment of discretion pertains to it." Schwegler. 2 DISCURSIVE, of or pertaining to discursus, or reason. Sir M. Hale : " There hath been much dispute touching the knowl- edge of brutes, whether they have a kind of discursive fac- ulty, which some call reason." " We have a principle with- in, whereby we think, and know we think; whereby we do discursively, and by way of ratiocination deduce one thing from another." 3 Milton : * " The soul Reason receives, and reason is her being, Discursive or intuitive." Discursive, in the Critical Philosophy, marks the acroamatic, dogmatic, philosophic in knowledge over against intuition (in Kant's sense). A discursive notion embraces the general in a conception ; is a product of the understanding ; is re- lated to an object by a mark common to several things. Dis- cursive judgments rest on evidence derived from pure no- tions, without direct intuition. L. "DISCURSUS, a reasoning process. C. F. V. DISJUNCTIVE, in Logic, marking alternative. A disjunctive System of Logic. 2 g 45, I., 1, b. Origination of Mankind. * Paradise Lost, v. 486. 636 DISPARATA. proposition is when the parts are opposed to one another by disjunctive particles either, or. A disjunctive syllogism is when the major proposition is disjunctive. It is founded 011 the principle of excluded middle. Atwater, 1 Watts. 2 DISPARATA, DISPARATE, in Logic, incapable of being paired or associated as a common notion. The rational and animal are disparate notions; they exclude each other as notions ;. they are logical opposites, though they can be joined in the complex subject, man. ^DISPOSITION, commonly, an inclination of our nature towards certain objects, which prompts to action. It is applied some- times to particular motive forces, sometimes to a general characteristic of the nature. C. F. V. DISTANCE, measure of external space. Berkeley, 3 Ueberweg. 4 ^Distinction. DISTINGUISHABLE, characterized by discernible differences. Herbert Spencer : " Wherever the terms of the comparison are both elementary." DISTRIBUTED. See Distribution, % 2, 3. *Distribution. *DITHEISM, theory of two gods or co-eternal beings. C. F. V. DIVERSA, diverse things. In Logic, notions or things which are incapable of mutual substitution. Notions are logically diverse, things are really diverse. The logical diversa may be totally diverse, either per se or accidentally, or may be partly diverse. DIVERSITY, character of the diversa. Locke : " Considering anything as existing at any determined time and place, we compare it with itself existing at another time, and thereon form the ideas of identity and diversity." DIVIDUAL, divisible; divided with others. DIVISIBILITY, capability of separation orof reduction to parts. DIVISIBILITY, INFINITE, OF MATTER, The theory that there is no final reduction of the parts of matter, no product of division which is not itself capable of further division ; that the mental process by which thinking one necessarily involves thinking halves, has a correspondent fact in every case of concrete application. There are three theories on /c, c,li. 5, 8. 2 Logick, p. iii., ch. 2, 5, p. 298. s Principles, $ 42, 43. * Notes on Berkeley'- $ I'rinciplts (Krauth's Trauslat.), 54, 55. DOGMATICAL. 637 this question : 1. The Atomistic which maintains that there are ultimate indivisibles, such at least in fact,if not in thought. 2. The Monadic matter is divisible till we reach the indi- vidual monads ; then the phenomena of matter vanish. 8. The Critical matter is infinitely divisible, but does not con- sist either of a finite or infinite number of parts, inasmuch as parts are intuited, become objects of sense, only after division. '^Division. ^DIVORCE. See Milton. 1 DOCESISOPHY, in the Platonic philosophy, conceit of wisdom. DOCIMASTIC, in the Greek philosophy, proving by test, DOCTRINARIANISM, system of the Doctrinaires, who applied to practical matters the principles of their philosophy. In France they considered the state as a fellowship of citizens. From Royer-Collard, the most distinguished of the original Doctrinaires, they w T ere sometimes styled Collardists. DOGMA (Gr.), that which seems true ; an opinion ; an ordinance ; a principle ; Lat. decretum, placitum ; in the Stoical system, axiom, or premises, "a formulated truth or article of belief." C. F. V. Kant defines dogma as dogmatic judgment, a directly synthetic judgment derived from notions. It is distinct : 1. From analytic judgments which, strictly speaking, add nothing to our knowledge, as the predicate is embraced in the notion of the subject. 2. From principles derived from experience, which have no apodictic certitude. 8. From mathematical propositions, that is, from synthetic judgments formed on the construction of notions. 4. From axioms, that is, indirect synthetic apodictic judg- ments, as, for example, the principle of the sufficient reason. The speculative, pure reason has no dogmas, inasmuch as ideas have no constitutive objective reality; nor has it a dogmatic method. 2 DOGMATICAL, in the critical system, "that which takes upon itself the execution of the task of metaphysics, without an antecedent testing of the ability or inability of reason to execute so great a work with success." Kant. 3 1 Doctrine of Divorce. 2 Crit.d. rein. Vernunft, Fiinft. Auflage, 1799, 764. 3 Grit. d. n-iii. IVni., 7, 2-2. -">."> 638 DOGMATICAL PROCESS. DOGMATICAL PROCESS. See Dogmatism, in the Critical Philosophy. ^DOGMATISM, the affirmation of a principle or dogma as true, without evidence sufficient to sustain it. C. F. V. Dogmatism, in the Critical Philosophy. Kant : " The critical system is not opposed to the dogmatic process of the reason in its pure cognition, as science (for this must always be dogmatic, that is, must be strictly demonstrative on sure a priori principles), but it is opposed to dogmatism, that is, the assumption of being able to advance, with a pure cognition derived from philosophical notions, in accordance with prin- ciples which reason has long had in use, without investi- gating the mode in which she has reached them, and the right by which she uses them. Dogmatism, therefore, is the dogmatic process of the pure reason without an antecedent criticism of its own ability." 1 *DOUBT (dubito, to go two ways; Ger. Zweifel). " Either in- decision or absence of dogmatic conclusion upon a subject ; or, more positively, an affirmation that a dogmatic con- clusion is unattainable." For the Cartesian Doubt, see Descartes. 2 C. F. V. "There is a great difference," says Malebranche, 3 " between doubting and doubting. We doubt through passion and brutality ; through blindness and mal- ice, and finally through fancy, and from the very wish to doubt ; but we doubt also from prudence and through dis- trust, from wisdom and through penetration of mind. The former doubt is a doubt of darkness, which never issues to the light, but leads us always farther from it ; the latter is a doubt which is born of the light, and which aids in a certain sort to produce light in its turn." Philosophy, ac- cording to Aristotle, 4 is the art of doubting well. DRASTIC, in Platonic usage, vigorous, active, efficacious. 5 *DREAMING, DREAM (Ger. Traum), "the play of thought, feeling, and fancy during physical repose in sleep." - C. F. V. *DTIALISM, DUALITY, any affirmation of dual or twofold principles. " A theory of duality of being or force (1) as to the origin of the world, in opposition to monotheism ; (2) as l Crit. d. rein. Vernunfi, Vorr. xxxv. 2 Method, part ii. 3 Recherche de la Verite, liv. i., cap. 20, sec. 3. * Metaph., ii. 1. 5 Legib., 815, A. DUTY. 6o9 to the essential difference of mind and matter in the universe in opposition to materialism." C. F. V. Dualism, anthropological, affirms that there are in man two principles one spiritual, the other corporeal. Dualism, empirical, the system which accepts the diversity and opposition of the two principles only as they are brought into consciousness ; holds them to be mere phenomena. Hence, empirical dualist. Dualism, transcendental, is the system which regards the antitheses as objectively true, as things in themselves. Hence, transcendental dualists. See Monism. DUALIST, one who holds any form of dualism. In the Wolf- ian Eational Psychology, one who admits the existence of both material and immaterial substances ; that is, grants to bodies a real existence apart from ideas, and defends the im- materiality of the soul. See Dogmatists. 1 DUALITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS is employed by Sir William Hamilton 2 to denote the feet that in perception we are im- mediately conscious of an ego and a non-ego, known together and known in contrast to each other. " In this act I am con- scious of myself as the perceiving subject, and of an external reality as the object perceived ; and I am conscious of both existences in the same indivisible moment of intuition. The knowledge of the subject does not precede nor follow the knowledge of the object neither determines, neither is determined by the other." , DUBITATION, doubt (Ger. Zweifel). DUEL (Ger. Zweikampf), in Ethics, fight between two ; a pre- concerted fight between two persons, with weapons, for the satisfaction of an injury, real or imaginary. De Wette. 3 DUPLICITY, in Ethics, doubleness ; covert falsity of words or acts. ^DURATION (Ger. Dauer}.It may be absolute, infinite, or eternal; relative, finite, as, longer or shorter. *DUTY (Ger. Pflicht], in Ethics, " Oughtness or obligedness to act in accordance with moral law. It is uniform for all in what law forbids; special and variable for individuals in what it requires. For Kant's celebrated address to Duty, see i Psych. Rational, % 39, 43. 2 Metuph., lect. xvi. Sittenlehre, II. 2, 117. C40 DYADIC. Eritik der Pract. Vernuufi." l V. F. V. "Duty is every moral necessity, of whatever kind, and whatever may be the object to which it is directed. It must be simply moral ne- cessity, without reference to some other thing which binds us to render it." Eberhard. "Duty is the necessity of an action arising from respect to law." Kant. Duties are uni- versal, special, and individual. They are also divided into duties of justice, which imply a perfect right and just claim on the part of those to whom they are performed, and duties of benevolence or love; into internal, moral, perfect, and imperfect. The doctrine of duty (Pflichtenlehre) forms a part of Ethics. To Fleming's statement, "There is a com- plete synthesis between rectitude and obligation,'" Calderwood adds a ?. DYADIC, consisting of two. See Monad and Pythagoras. DYASM, dualism. DYNAMIC, DYNAMICAL, relating to force; "having the property of force." C. F. V. In the Critical Philosophy, applied in general to anything as it is regarded not in its magnitude in sense-presentation, but with reference to the ground of its existence. Dynamical Categories are notions of the understanding in which a dynamic synthesis attains unity; a dynamical rela- tion is thought as universal ; as, for example, causality, ne- cessity. Dynamical Connection (Gemeinschaft) real, is a connection in which there is a reciprocal influence. It is in antithesis to local connection, or mere coexistence. Dynamical Distribution is the distribution of one substance among several substances. Dynamical Ideas, notions of the reason which rest on dy- namical categories. Dynamical Natural Philosophy, the antithesis to the me- chanical or the atomistic. It derives the specific diversities from attraction and repulsion as primary motory forces. Dynamical Principles are judgments which express the con- ditions under which we may subsume the phenomena under dynamic categories. They are laws of nature. 1 Werke, Rosen., viii. ; Sample's Trans., 1st ed., p. 130; 2d. ed. (Calderwood), p. 120. ECONOMICS. 641 Dynamical Probability, in Logic, involves that it is the force of arguments, not their number, which renders them weighty. Dynamical Relations are those which arise from dynamical synthesis ; as, for example, the relation of accident to sub- stance, of cause to effect. They are opposed to ideal rela- tions, which simply involve comparison. Dynamical Sublime, in Kant's Analytic of ^Esthetic Judg- ment, quantity or magnitude of power opposed to the mathematical sublime, quantity or magnitude of extension. Schwegler-Stirling. 1 Dynamical Synthesis, is that in which the things associated necessarily belong to each other, but need not be homoge- neous, as they do not together involve, as in mathematics, a quantum or magnitude. Such, for example, is the synthesis of a cause with its effect. This synthesis is also styled a nexus, and is either physical or metaphysical. It is physical, when the phenomena are united among themselves. It is metaphysical, when they are united a priori in the cognitive faculty. DYNAMICS, doctrine or theory of force or forces. Dynamics Social, in Comte, is " the theory of society consid- ered in a state of progressive movement." Mill. 2 ^Dynamism. E, in Logic, 1. marks universal negatives in Syllogisms; 2. in complex and modal propositions the affirmation of the mode and the negation of the proposition. Aristotle, 3 Port Royal Logic. 4 ECLECTICISM, ECLECTIC PHILOSOPHY (ECLECTICS). See Syncretism. " A philosophic theory constructed by selection and combination from conflicting schemes of thought." C. F. V. See Jouffroy, 5 Plotinus and Proclus, Royer-Collard, Cousin. ^ECONOMICS (Ger. HaushaUungskunst, Hauswirthschafi, Oekon- l 38, in., 1, a. 2 Logic. * Anal. Prot. * Part II., chaps, iii., iv., viii. ; T. S. Baynos'a Translat., 7th edition, 113, 114, 129. & Essays fransl. by Ripley. 55 * 2 R 642 ECSTASY. omik\ " the science of those laws which provide for increase of comfort in the distribution and saving of what is pro- duced." C. F. V. *ECSTASY (Ger. Eutzuckung}. ECTYPAL, of the Ectype, copies of the original. ECTYPE (Gr.), literally, worked in high relief; formed from a mould, a cast; hence a copy, not so much from, an original, as a copy produced by the original, such as the impression of a seal, a coin. The original is the type, archetype, or proto- type ; the copy is the ectype. Locke, treating of u real and fantastical ideas," shows that "real ideas are conformable to their archetypes," that " simple ideas are t/crwra, or copies, but yet certainly adequate," and that " the complex ideas of substances are ectypes, copies too, but not perfect ones, not adequate." l ^EDUCATION (Ger. Erziehung}.See Psedagogics. Education of the Human Race (Ger. Erziehang des Mensch- engeschlechts], used by Lessing to express the aim and results of the divine providence and government of the world. EDUCT, used by Kant 2 to mark one form of the theory of pre- established harmony, " which may consider each organic thing generated by its like, as either an educt or a product. The system which holds that they are educts may be styled the system of individual preformation, or the theory of evo- lution ; the system which maintains that they are products may be called the system of epigenesis, or generic preform- ation. In antithesis to this we might call the system of educts one of involution." Kant holds that organic beings are not educts, but products. ^EFFECT (Ger. Wirkung], the principiated, correspondent with cause as theprincipium, the principle. " No eifect is without a cause." " Whatever is in the effect must previously in some sense have been in the cause, to wit, either formally, virtu- ally, or by eminence." " The effect is proportioned to the cause." EFFICIENCY, having the power of producing effects. Mill. 3 EFFICIENT, adj., producing effects, operative causally. 1. Op- posed to Final. 2. Opposed to Metaphysical. Mill.* i ITuman Understanding, Book II., ch. xxx., xxxi. a Urtkeilskraft, II., g 81. 3 Logic, iii. 5, 9. 4 Logic, iii. 5-9. EGO. 643 Efficient, subs., operative cause. EFFLUVIUM, EFFLUVIA (Lat. flowing out), the object of perception in smell. Hamilton, 1 Reid. *EGO (self). Ego, the, in Des Cartes, was regarded as the surest, and hence the supremest, element of cognition, and that part of our nature in virtue of which we stand in immediate relation to the Deity. Ego, the, in Fichte, is regarded as that of which consciousness is the product ; the absolute or pure Ego brings forth or con- strues consciousness. The pure Ego is absolute activity which posits itself (A = A. Ego is Ego), and counterposits to itself a non-ego (object). Ego is all that is. In the later form of his philosophy, Fichte "attempts to transform his subjective idealism into objective pantheism, or the Ego of his earlier philosophy into the absolute, into the notion of God." 2 Ego, the, in Herbart, assumes that Fi elite's Ego involves a contradiction. The Ego is an entity, a definite being, en- dowed with many attributes. Mutable in its state, the sense of personality (Ich/ieit) is begotten of existing conceptions, where there is sufficient occasion. The Central-Real, the substance of the Ego, is the soul. Zeller. 3 Ego, the, in Hume, a complex of successive ideas, with an im- aginary substance beneath it. Ego, the, in Kant, is that whose activity is the condition of all consciousness, and from which arises all cognition by the " Synthesis of Apperceptions." The conception of the Ego is the product and object of the pure activity of con- sciousness, the consciousness of consciousness grasping itself in its activity. " The dualism of Kant represents the Ego now as theoretical Ego in subjection to the external world, and now as practical Ego in superiority to it; in other words, now as receptive and now as spontaneous, in regard of objectivity." * Ego, the, in Schelling, the ultimate ground of knowledge, the principle of philosophy. 5 Ego, Self-Positing of the, in Fichte, (Formula of.) I. The 1 Reid's Works, 104, n. 2 Sch we ghr- Stirling, XLL, ii. 8 Gc.sch. d. deutsch. Plrilos., 853. * Schwegler-Stirling, xxxix. 3. & Vom Ick cds Princ. d. Pltilosoph., 1795. 644 EGOISM. Ego posits primarily simply its own being: A is A, Ego is Ego. II. The Ego counterposits to itself a Non-Ego : Non-A is not A, Non-Ego is not Ego. III. The Ego coun- terposits to the divisible Ego a divisible Non-Ego, in which act lies the double result: 1. Theoretical. The Ego posits itself as limited or determined by the Non-Ego. 2. Practical. The Ego posits the Non-Ego as limited and determined by the Ego. Thus is furnished the essential character of cogni- tion and volition. Stockl, 1 Zeller. 2 *EGOISM, EGOITY, EGOMISM, EGOIST, relate to the the- ory that self-existence is the only certainty. C. F. V. EGOTISM, in Anthropology and Ethics, excessive self-esteem, shown by constant reference, though often covert, to oneself. Kant: 3 "Egotism may involve three sorts of pretension pretensions of the understanding, of the taste, and of the practical interest that is, it may be logical, aesthetic, or practical. The logical egotist considers it useless to submit his judgment to be tested by others, as though he had no need whatever of a touchstone of that sort. The cesfhetic egotist is entirely satisfied with his own taste. It matters not to him that his verses, his pictures, his music seem detestable or ridiculous to others. He makes an advance in his taste impossible, isolates himself by his judgment, and seeks the touchstone of the beautiful in his own taste. The moral ego- tist concentrates all his aims on himself. Nothing is useful, except as it is useful to him. His supreme motive is not duty, but his own welfare. All EudaBmonists are practical egotists. The only thing which can be successfully opposed to egotism is Pluralism," q. v. EIMARMENE (Gr.), destiny, fate, q. v. ELABORATIVE, applied to the faculty which operates upon the materials furnished by the presentative, conservative, and reproductive faculties the discursive faculty ; compari- son ; the faculty of relation. Hamilton. 4 ELASTICITY, (ELASTIC,) (Fr.; Ger. Federlcra/t], the property of bodies, the form of reciprocal force which causes them to return to or toward their former dimension and shape, after alteration by stretching or by compression. A gum-elastic i Le.lirb. d. Gesch. d. PhUnsnphie, 159, 9, 10. 2 Qesch. d. Deutsch. Fhilos., 604-607. 3 Anthropologie, $ '2. * Metaphysics, lect. xx. 5. ELEMENTARY. 645 string illustrates the former, attractive E.; a gum-elastic ball the latter, expansive E. Newton, 1 Kant. 2 ELATER (Or.), driver ; applied by Kant 3 to the springs, incite- ments, or motives of the pure, practical reason. ELATION (Lat.), lifting up ; exaltation ; intense feeling ; haugh- tiness. Reid. 4 ELEATICISM, system of the Eleatics, of the school of Xen- ophanes, in Ella, in Lower Italy (B. c. 540-460); reaching after a unity transcending the empirical, and finding it in idealistic pantheism. ^ELECTION (Ger. Wahl], " properly, voluntary choice among objects presented or means at our command." C. F. V. ^ELEMENT (Ger. Elemente, Urmaterie, Grundstoff, Urstoff), "an original constituent of material existence, or, more gener- ally, an inherent property of an object, or an essential part of a question under discussion." C. F. V. The individual element of a body is an Atom, q. v. ELEMENTARY CONCEPT or NOTION (Ger. Elementarbe- grijf), in Kant, an undeduced concept or notion, one which cannot be referred to one more simple. Such elementary concepts are the Categories, the Concepts of Reflection, the Quantitative Unities, the Unity of the Primary Synthetical Apperception. 5 Elementary doctrine (Ger. Elementarlehre], in Kant, doctrine of elements, the investigation in regard to the elements, or constituent parts of all our cognition, as such, whether the objects of it pertain to speculation, will, or judgment. 6 The Critique of pure reason is divided into I. Transcendental Doc- trine of Elements. II. Transcendental Doctrine of Method. Elementary forces (Ger. Elementarkrdfte]. 1. The primary forces of nature. See Elementary spirits. 2. Elementary functions of the mind. Elementary functions, the primary or chief activities of the mind, such as thinking and willing. Elementary Logic, in Kant, universal logic, universal doc- trine of reason, formal logic, formal philosophy, embracing 1 Pliilosoph. Nat. Princip. Matliem., L. II., prop. 23, Optic ; L. III., Q. xxxi. 2 j/^. Anf. <1. Xaturlehre. II , ii. 1 ; iv. 1. 3 Praktisch. VennmfL (Kirclim;um), 86. * Wm-ks (Hamilton), 576. 5 Critik d. rein. Vernunft, 89, trausl. by Meiklejohu, 54, 55. G c.v<7. d.rein. T 'ernunft, 29 ; Meiklejohn's Trans., 18. 646 ELEMENTOLOGY. the absolutely necessary laws of thought, the laws apart from which the understanding is incapable of exercise. Elementary parts, the primary constituents, the main parts, whether of an entity or of a concept. Elementary Philosophy, the philosophy involving the pri- mary elements, the fundamental parts of doctrine and science, elementary science. Elementary propositions, statements of the primary or of the supreme principles of a science. Elementary spirits, in the mystic, cabbalistic philosophy, the elements personified: spirits of the earth, or Gnomes; spirits of the water, Undines ; spirits of the air, Sylphs ; spirits of the fire, Salamanders. Elementary substance, the primary substance in a compound, that which results from an ultimate decomposition, a simple. *ELEMENTOLOGY. See Methodology. Logic. ELEMENTS, in Empedocles, four imperishable, eternal, self- subsistent, mutually inderivative, but divisible primal forms of substance what we now call the four elements. E. in the Platonic Physics are two the ideal world as the eternal archetype, and the chaotic mass which holds within it the germs of the material world. ELENCH, ELENCHUS, from the Greek. A means of testing, convincing or refuting ; an argument of disproof or refuta- tion ; a testing, examining, scrutiny, especially for purposes of a disproof or refutation. In Logic, 1. The convincing or refuting element in an argument, that which clenches it. 2. That which endeavors to pass for such, a specious and decep- tive argument, a sophism, fallacy. Aristotle, 1 Stier. 2 The Sophistical Elenchi. ELENCHI IGNATIO, ignorance or ignoring of the real point to be proved, Heterozetesis. A. Baumgarten. 3 Elenchi mutatio, is a changing of the real question, either ignorantly or designedly. *Elicit. ELICITATIONj in scholastic use, " is a deducing of the power of the will into act." Bramhall. ^Elimination. 1 Oryaotm, Pnnr Analytics, II. xx. *Pritcepta Doctrines Logicse, Oxon., 1GC7, 37. 3 Acroasis Loc/ica, 1765, % 410, 411. EMPIRIC. 647 ELOQUENCE (Lat., outspeaking ; Ger. Beredsamkeit), a form of the aesthetic of language ; applied rhetoric ; the art of ora- tory. Quinctilian. 1 It is depreciated by Plato, Locke, 2 and Kant, 3 though each of them illustrates it in his own writings. See Melanchthon.* ELPISTICS, in Plutarch, a philosophical sect who considered hope (elpis] the great stay of human life. * Emanation. EMINENCE, WAY OF (via eminentta), the way of reaching the divine attributes by supposing that what is good in the creature exists pre-eminently in God. From the knowl- edge possessed by. the rational, we reach by the via eminentice the omniscience of God. See Negative, Way of. EMINENTLY. See Virtual. With reference to the via emi- nentice (eminence, way of), the scholastics say, "God has all things eminently, which his creatures have only virtually or. formally." DEMOTION. Properly, a distinct order of feeling, indicative of disturbance within, and which throws an agitating influence out upon the physical frame. The effect of emotion is to restrain or even paralyze active force. The chief emotions are wonder, fear, grief. C. F. V. *EMPIRIC, EMPIRICISM (Ger. Empirismus; Fr. Empirisme), the theory of knowledge or practice which regards experi- ence as the sole criterion of truth. Its theory of knowledge derives all from sensation ; its moral philosophy depends wholly upon association of feelings. C. F. V. Empiricism has been classified as: 1. Intellectual (Locke); 2. Sensual- istic (Condillac), or Materialistic (Biichner); 3. Positivist (Comte) ; 4. Ethical. Hamilton, 5 Stockl. 6 Empiric, Empirical, in Kant, 7 a posteriori, derived from expe- rience; the character of intuition which involves sensation, and which assumes the actual presence of the object. The empirical of thinking presupposes sensation. Empirical Psy- chology is derived from internal perception. Empirical Cognition demands determinate perception distinguished i Instltut. Ornt., L. II., ch. 16. *Hurr>. UinJerxt.. B. IV.. ch. 10, 34. 3 Urtheilslcraft, $ 51-53. * Quoted by J. A. St. John, in his Note on Locke. 5 Metapli., lect. iii. 6 Lehrbuch d. Philosophic, % 83, 84. i OriL d. rein. Vernunft, 74, 400 ; Meiklejohn's Transl., 238, 45. 648 EMPIRICAL. from every other by sensation ; the Cognition of the Empiri- cal, on the other hand, may be wholly a thing of the reason, teaching in a wholly a priori way the possibility of experi- ence in general, and the relation of perceptions to each other. "The very least object of perception (were it noth- ing more than pleasure or pain), added to the general men- tal state of self-consciousness, would transmute rational psychology at once into empirical." Empirical Law, a law of nature ascertained purely by induc- tion from certain observations or experiments, with no other guarantee of its truth. Jevons. "Scientific inquirers give the name of empirical laws to uniformities which observa- tion or experiment has shown to exist, but on which they hesitate to rely in cases varying much from those which have been actually observed, for want of seeing any reason why such laws should exist." Mill. ^Emulation. ENANTIODROMY (running contrary ways), and ENANTIO- TROPY (opposite tendency), in Heraclitus, the constant op- position or contrariety in things, by which one rises, while another passes away. Diogenes Laertius. 1 ENCEPHALON, ENCEPHALOS (Gr.), within the head; the brain. ENCYCLICAL ARTS, the liberal arts which constituted the circle of instruction considered necessary for a cultivated Greek or Roman. ENCYCLOPEDIA, the treatment either of the circle of knowl- edge in general, general encyclopaedia, or of some special part of it; special encyclopedia. The arrangement may be logical or alphabetical. The encyclopaedia may be formal, presenting a summary sketch of the plan and method, the form or outline ; or it may be material, presenting the mat- ter itself. The formal is like the atlas ; the material like the geography. Among the most important of the philosophi- cal encyclopaedias are those of Bacon (Organon), Herbart, Hegel (Rosenkranz), 2 Ritter (1862-64). ENCYCLOPAEDISTS, in the History of Philosophy, the co- laborers in the French Encyclopedic, 1751-1772, of which Diderot was editor. *END, (Ends,) " that for the attainment of which something is 1 ix. 1. 2 journ. >ec. Phil. (Harris), v. 234. ENERGY. 649 done. The contemplated result of activity. More gene- rally, the actual result." C. F. V. "The value of ends is absolute; the value of means is relative." Hamilton. 1 End-in-Himself, End-in-Itself. Kant maintains that human nature is an end-in-itsel/, meaning by that expression that personality freedom of will placed in subjection to moral law implies that the perfection of human nature is an end- in-itsel f. The dignity of human nature is such that man is never to use himself as merely a means to an end, or to use his fellow-man as such, as if he were only a working ma- chine. "In the whole creation, everything maybe used as an end, man alone excepted. He is alone an end-in-him- self." 2 C. F. V. ENDELECHY (Gr.), continuance, constancy. It is used by Plato. It ought not to be confounded with Entelechy, q. v. ENDOGAMOUS MARRIAGE, is when the parties are of the same tribe Exogamous, when of different tribes. These words are used by McLennan, 3 who maintains that the prim- itive form of marriage was by capture that symbols of this practice still remain among many nations. He also holds that originally kinship was counted from the female. ENLOSMOSE, ENDOSMOSIS, EXOSMOSIS, OSMOSE (Gri), in the theory of organism and vitality, inward impulsion, outward impulsion, impulsion. "If two fluids of unequal density, are separated by an animal or vegetable membrane, the denser will attract the less dense through the membrane that divides them. It is endosmose when the attraction is from the outside to the inside; and exosmose, when it ope- rates from the inside to the outside." Lindley. 4 Osmose is the generic term for the two processes. Hence, Osmotic. Herbert Spencer. 5 ENERGY (Gr.), in Aristotle, 6 act, action, operation, actuality, development, vivacity ; opposed to dvvajuis, possibility, germ, the virtual. E., the first of the dialectic of Plato, a true exercise of the soul in the speculation of things. Taylor. 7 1 Metaphysics, lect. ii. 2 Krih'lc der Pral-tischen-Vrrnunft ; WerJie, Rosencranz, viii.; Sempie's Transl , 8vo ed., p. 137 ; Caklerwood, p. 121. 3 Primitive Marriage, 8vo, Edin., 186. r i. 4 Introduction to Botany, ii. 331. 5 Principles of Biology, ch. 8. 6 Ethics, 15. I , cli. 1 (see Browne's Note); B. II., ch. 2; Organon. Interpretat.. ch. 13. See Trende- lenburg: El em. Lnyic. Aristot. ed., Sept., 1874, g 6. p. 64; MetnpJn/sica, book viii., ch. 3, 6, S, 0, of McMahon's Analysis. 7 Note on Aristotle's Topics, VIII., ch. 14. 56 650 ENGLISH PH. ENGLISH PHILOSOPHY. 1. Philosophy so far as it has used the English language as its organ, embracing in this sense the philosophy of Great Britain and the United States of America. 2. Philosophy of English writers (including Irish authors of English stock), and in this sense contradis- tinguished from the Scotch and American. (Bacon, Hobbes, Herbert of Cherbury, Glanville, Henry More, Cudworth, Locke, Berkeley, Samuel Clarke, James and John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Lewes, Collyns Simon, Grote.) ENNEADS (Gr.), ninefold collection ; the fifty-four Tractates of Plotinus, collected by Porphyry, in six sections of nine books each. ENNOELOGY, ENNOEMATOLOGY, ENNOEMATICS (Gr.), doctrine of thought, Logic ; art of thinking. ENNOEMATIC (Gr.), intellectual, formed in the mind itself, as opposed to the empirical, which is derived from experience. ENNOEME (Gr.), thought, notion ; the product of simple con- ception, or of ennoergy, q. v. For this and the associated Greek terms, see Hamilton. 1 ENNOERGY (Gr.), simple active conception ; the faculty by which ideas are formed immediately upon sensation, or sense-perception. ENNUI, the state in which we find nothing on which to exercise our powers. Hamilton. 2 *ENS (Lat.), that which is; essence, or true nature; a being, thing, something, entity ; opposed to nonens, nonentity, nothing, q. v. ; enters, in the scholastic terminology, into many combinations. E. Aggrigativum, or collect! vum, a mass or body of things. E. Artificiale, formed by man, opposed to ens naturale, pro- duced by nature. E. a se,or E, Necessarium, or E. Originarium, independent, necessary, original, God ; opposed to E. ab alio, derived, or E contingens, contingent. E. Cogitationis MersB, what can be thought, but cannot be brought under perception ; E. Intellects, E. Reale, q. v., E. jRationis, entity of the understanding or reason merely. Concept without an object. Ger. GedanJcending. 1 Logic, lect. vii., 19, n. 1. 2 Lect. xliv. ENTELECHY. 651 E. Entium (Being of beings), perfectissimum (most perfect), reallisimum (most real), summum (supreme), God. E. Existens, participialiki. E. Imagmarium, E. Sensus interni, form without object proper, presented in internal perception. E. Intelligens, intellectual, rational, intelligent. E. Organisatum, E. Organicum, organized, organic being or body. E. Phaenomen, object with form. E. Possibile, E. Potentia. See E. Cogitationis. E. Privativum, something made known by sense-perception, but as wanting positive quality, as negative. See Nihil. E. Rationis, ratiocinatse. E. Singnlare, the individual; opposed to E. Universale, the universal. E. Substantiate, form with object, in the empirical intuition, rational being. E. Transcendentaliter imaginarium, an ideal mental repre- sentation. ENSOPH, the Allwise Being. In the Cabbalistic System, a name of God. ENSOPHIC, World. In the Cabbalistic System, the world of infinity, within which four worlds are produced by emanation. *ENTELECHY, "complete attainment, actuality, distinctness of realized existence." C. F. V. This word has been called the " crux metaphysicorum" This has been partly the result of confounding it with Endelechy, a mistake into which even Cicero 1 fell. Krug: " Entelechy (from evreAjyc, complete, and ex iv , to have,) means strictly the actual having of that which belongs to the completeness of a thing, and then completeness in general. It is contrasted in Greek as the actual with the virtual. When Aristotle and the Peripatetics call the soul an entelechy, they mean that the soul is the principle by which the body, which is in itself simply capable of receiv- ing life and sensation, actually lives and is sentient as long as it is united with the soul." See Aristotle. 2 Aristotle defines the soul of man to be an entelechy (that without which the body cannot live) ; a definition of which Dr. Eeid 3 said he did not know the meaning. 1 Tuscul. $., I. 10, and Note of Ernesti in Clavis & Donaldson's New Cratylus, 418; Ciceronianus, s. v. 2 Dt Anima, ii. 1 ; Metaphysics, x. 9. 3 Inquiry, Hamilton's ed., p. 203. 652 ENTENDEMENT. ENTENDEMENT (Fr.), understanding, intellect, intellectual apprehension, judgment. ENTHEASM, ENTHEISM, from the Greek, V &eo S (full of the god, inspired ; used by Aristotle and Plato). 1. Enthusiasm. 2. Of God in the world, Pantheism. Hence, entheal, enthean, entheastic, entheat. ^ENTHUSIASM (Ger. Begdateruny), in Kant, 1 the idea of the good, accompanied by vehement feeling, uncontrolled by reflection. *ENTHYMEME. See Aristotle, 2 Atwater, 3 Devey, 4 Hamil- ton, 5 Jevons, 6 Port Royal Logic, 7 Ueberweg, 8 Whately, 9 Wolf. 10 ENTITATIVE, pertaining to the essence of a thing, to the ens or entity as such ; that which in whole or part makes it an entity. Ellis. 11 Entitative Act, in the scholastic system, existence as an entity is actual only as it acts. -ENTITY. Being. ENUNCIAELE, capable of expression in words; that which we can enounce. DENUNCIATION (Ger. Satz), a judgment or proposition con- sidered as enounced or stated in words. It embraces subject, predicate, and copula. It is either affirmative or negative, cryptic or explicit. Aristotle, 12 Wolf. 13 ENVY, " feeling of uneasiness and displeasure at the prosperity of another," C. F. V., with the illicit wish that it was ours, not theirs. EPAGOGE (from the Greek), a bringing in ; in Logic, a bring- ing a number of particular examples so as to lead to a uni- versal conclusion ; the argument by induction. See Apa- goge. Aristotle. 14 EPAGOGICAL, by Epagoge, inductive. EPANORTHOSIS (Gr.), correcting; improvement; as the ob- ject of chastening or of punishment. EPHECTICS (Gr.), literally, holden back, the Sceptic philoso- l Urtheilskraft, 121, g 29. Prior Analyt., II., xxvii. a Logic, ch. 5, 10. * Logic, 140. 6 Discussions, 153; Logic, lect. xx., g 72. 6 Logic, less, xviii. ?Part HI., ch. U (Baynes). Logik, % 125. 9 Logic, 10, 52. PhUosnph. Rat. sive Logica, % 421-444. 11 Knowledge of Divine Things, 340. 12 On Interpretation, ch. 5, x. 13 Logica, $ 41, 19'J, 204. H Prior Analyt., II., 23 (25) ; Top. viii. 1. EQUIPOLLENT. 653 phers, from their always suspending their judgment (ETTOXV), and refusing to affirm or deny positively. *Epicheirema, Epichirema, Epichererna. EPICRISIS (Or.), determination ; adjudication ; applied in Ethics to the conscience. '^Epicurean. EPIEIKEIA (Gr.), reasonableness ; a manifest reason, or a prin- ciple of equity, coming in to control the strict letter of the law. Aristotle. 1 EPIGENESIS, the theory that in generation a true product, not a mere educt, results; generic preformation. Kant. 2 Epigenesis of the Pure Reason, in Kant, 3 the system of the generation of experience from the pure abstract ideas, the concepts of the understanding ; that is, that these concepts render experience possible, are the ground of all experience. Mellin.* EPINOMIS, addition to a law ; appendix ; the name of a dia- logue appended to Plato's Twelve Books of the Laws. Diog- enes Laertius. 5 *Episternology. EPISTEMONIC, in Aristotle, capable of knowledge; antithetic to the logistic or practical ; scientific. 6 *Episyllogism. EPOCH (Gr.), a check; cessation; pause of light during an eclipse; the point at which a star seems to halt after reach- ing its highest. 1. In the Sceptical Philosophy, a suspension of judgment. 2. In the Philosophy of History, and History of Philosophy, an aera, memorable period, considered as completed. 3. In Schelling, 7 Philosophy (Transcendental Idealism), as a history of self-consciousness, has three epochs, grasped successively in one absolute synthesis. The first epoch is from primary sensation to productive intuition. The second is from productive intuition to reflection. The third is from reflection to absolute act of will. See Periods. *EQUANIMITY.-See Magnanimity. EQUIPOLLENT, in Logic, having equivalent signification. 1 Elh., N v. 10, 8. 2 Urtheihkraft, \ 81. 3 Rein. Fern., 167, \ 27. * Encycfop. Wor- tf.rbucli. 5 Lives, III., xxxv. 6 Eth., vi. 6; Top. i. 1. 7 System d. tninsc. Idealismus (1800); WcrJce, Abth.I., Bd. III., 399-531. 56* 654 EQUIPOLLENCE. EQUTPOLLENCE, EQUIPOLLENCY, in Logic, an equiva- lence between two or more propositions. *EQ,UTTY, " That which determines the equal between man and man, their rights being equal." C. F. V. ^Equivocal or Homonymous. ^Equivocation. ERETRIANS, disciples of Menedemus, the Eretrian. Eitter. 1 ERISTIC, given to strife; the eristic art, wrangling, sophistry; eristic syllogisms, sophisms, fallacies; Eristics, a nickname of the Megarean school, which was devoted to dialectics. ERKENNT (Ger.), cognized; a word for which we have the sanction of Sir William Hamilton. M. T. M. ERKENNTNISS (Ger.), in Kant, cognition, representing the active co-operation of the intellect, bearing on the object pre- sented by sensational and intuitional perception. M. T. M. EROS (Gr.), love. Hence, erotical. *ERROR, "deviation from fact in observation, or from the laws of logic in reasoning." C. F. V. *ESOTERIC and EXOTERIC.-See Sir A. Grant, 2 Blakesly. 3 ESPRIT (Fr.), spirit ; soul ; talent ; "wit. ESSE (Lat., to be), existence, essence. Berkeley: 4 "The abso- lute existence of unthinking things without any relation to their being perceived is ... unintelligible. Their esse is per dpi ; nor is it possible that they should have any existence out of the minds or thinking things which perceive them." Esse simplidter, unconditioned being, applied to God as self subsistent. ^ESSENCE, ESSENTIAL, subs. ESSENTIALITY (Ger. We- sen, Wesenheit, Wesentlichkeit}, in J. H. Fichte, 5 "that true being, which remains in itself the same, over -against the infinitely non-being, the appearance." In Hegel, 6 " Being (Sein), coming into mediation with self through the nega- tivity of itself the truth of being; 7 the concept as estab- lished ; 8 in Kant, 9 Logical E, " the primary internal principle (the ground) of all that belongs to the possibility of a thing;" in Schelling, 10 "that whereby a thing is in conformity with all things : opposed to Form, that whereby it is itself." See Mill. 11 l Gesch. d. Plnlos. AH. Zrit, IT. 155. * Aristotle's Ethics, A pp. B., 3d ed., i. 397. * Life of Aristotle, p. 119. * Principles, 3 ; see Annotat. (Ueberweg-Krauth), 340. 5 Ontol- ogie, 209. 6 Logic, Wallace, 42. 1 Werke, iv. 3. 8 DI)M v i. 223. Mellin, W. B. d. Kr. Phil. 10 Werke, Abth. I., Bd. II., 360, iv. 615. u Logic, B. III., ch. vii., g 7. ETHICO THEOLOGY. 655 ESSENCE, DOCTRINE OF. Lehre vom Wesen, in Hegel, 1 the Second Division of the Science of Logic, embracing, A. Essence as - ground of existence; B. The Phenomenon ; C. The Actuality. Essence is divided into real and notional, common and individual. ESSENTIAL, adj., necessary to the existence or constitution of an object, constitutive. E. propositions, explicative, merely affirm a predicate which is known to belong to the subject by all who can define it; as, " a triangle has three sides and three angles." Jevons. ESSENTIATE, v. n., to become of the same essence ; v. a., to render an essence. ESTEEM (Fr.), regard, value, honor. Reid. 2 ESTHETICS. See JEsthetics. ETAT (Fr.), state. ETERNALIST, one who maintains the eternity of matter. T. Burnet. L. J. ^ETERNITY (Ger. Ewigkeif). "Infinite duration." C. F. V. x Eternity (of God). "To exist in time is the same thing as to exist imperfectly. God, in the language of Plotinus, is necessarily axpovoq, timeless." Jules Simon. 3 ETHER, a hypothetical element, " a material substance of ex- treme subtilty, volatility, and energy. v It is used by Fred- erick Hoffmann in his theory of life, and as " lumeniferous ether," in the theory of light. Mill, 4 Whewell. 5 ETHICAL DETERMINATION (Principles of), those which account for the moral, decisions of the will. They are clas- sified by Kant thus A. Subjective. I. External: 1. Education (Montaigne); 2. The Civil Constitution (Mandeville). II. Internal: 1. Physical feeling (Epicurus); 2. Moral sentiment (Hutcheson). B. Objective. I. Internal. Perfection (Wolf and the Stoics) : II. External. The will of God (Crusius and other theolog- ical writers on morals). ETHICO-THEOLOGrY, the theology which rests upon the ethical doctrine, the moral law as a voice of God in the conscience. It precedes or supplements Physico-theology by moral Tele- ology, and furnishes the Ethico-theological proof of the existence of God. l EneyMopiidie, $ 112-159. 2 Works (Hamilton), 554-563. 3 Hist, de VEcole aiKirif Pi-pf 4 T.nm'f "VTV iii 2 fi 5 fjiif Srirnt 7/7/>/>e ii 1 Sfi 656 ETHICS. ^ETHICS (Fr. Morale; Ger. SiUenlehre}. Synonymous with "Moral Philosophy." According to etymological usage (rjQiKa, from kdog, custom), it applies only to that department of moral science which treats of practice in submission to moral law. C. F. V. In Kant, 1 the science of that part of material philosophy which has to do with the laws of free- dom. See Edmunds. 2 See Zeller, 3 for the ethics of Me- lanchthon, 4 Leibnitz, 5 Kant, 6 Fichte, 7 Schiller, 8 Baader, 9 Schleiermacher, 10 Hegel, 11 Herbart. 12 ETHNARCHY (Ger.), used by Stockl, 18 for the powers of an international association, Congress of Nations. ETHNEGETICS (Gr.), that which embraces the art of guiding nations ; used by Ampere to designate the second subdivision of the political sciences, which comprise, 1. Politics proper; 2. Pedagogics. ETHNICISM (Gr.), heathenism ; idolatry ; divided into, 1. the brutish or coarser, and 2. the specious or more refined. ETHNODICY (Gr.), right of nations; in Ampere's classifica- tion, the first part of Syncimenics. ETHNOGENY (Gr.), science which treats of the origin of na- tions and peoples; in Ampere's classification, the second subdivision of Comparative Ethnology. ^ETHNOGRAPHY, in Ampere's classification, the first part of Elementary Ethnology, devoted particularly to the localities inhabited by nations at different eras of their history. ETHNOLOGIC (Gr.), of Ethnology, q. v., the knowledge of na- tions. In Ampere's classification, the E. sciences form the first division of the social sciences. ""ETHNOLOGY, in Ampere's classification, the first division of the ethnological sciences. Ethnology is thus divided: I. Elementary: 1. Ethnography; 2. Toporistics. II. Com- parative: 1. Comparative Geography ; 2. Ethnogeny. ETHNORYTICS (Gr.), science of national defence ; in Ampere, the first subdivision of the political sciences ; it embraces nomology and the military art. ETHOCRAT, ETHOCRATIC, ETHOCRATY (Gr.), terms re- lating to a government based on the ethical alone. l Grund., z. Met. d. Sitte, Vorr. x. 415. *Jnurn. of Spec. Phil. (Harris), v. 27 ; KanCs Ethics, 108, 280. 3 Gesch. der Deulsch Philosophic. 438-40. 5 146-152. 6 474-497. Tfi-21-625. 8638-640. 8736,737. w 772-774. "814-817. 12860-862. Lthrl. d. Philosoph., I 224, 11. EUDEMONISM. 657 ETHOGE1TY (Gr.), science of the causes which determine the characters, morals, and passions of men. ETHOGNQSY (Or.), thorough knowledge of the moral character of men ; in Ampere, the second branch of ethics. ETHOGRAPHY (Gr.), description of the moral characteristics of man ; in Ampere, the first branch of elementary ethics. "'ETHOLOGY. Hence, Ethologic and Ethologue. ETIOLOGY.-See JEtiology. TRE (Chose), n., (Fr.), that which is ; being; ens, entity, exist- ence ; thing. It corresponds with the German Wesen, Seyn, and Daseyn. ETYMOLOGY (Gr.), analysis of a word so as to find its origin ; aid in reaching its derivation and true literal meaning; it is useful in philosophy, if soberly and cautiously employed ; but the source of fallacy, if it be fanciful, or if it be urged without reference to the actual sense in which words are employed. Aristotle 1 uses erv/j,^, lit. truly, as equivalent to etymologically. EUBTJLIA (Gr.), prudence, in the form of careful consideration. EUCOLOS (EVKOAOS), in Plato, antithetical to duscolos (dvano/ioc), moans easily satisfied; contented. Schopenhauer: "The Platonic antithesis is that which exists between an easy and a discontented tone of mind. The duscolos is dissatisfied if he lacks one thing in ten ; the eucolos finds satisfaction if he has one thing in ten." 2 *EUDEMONISM, EUDJEMONISM, EUD^MOffOLOGY (Ger. Eudamonie, Gliickseligkeitslehre}, the doctrine of the summum bonum. Eude monism (Classification of). The theories which iden- tify happiness and virtue may be arranged, from the lowest to the highest, thus: 1. Hedonism, q. v. 2. Happiness is not merely sensuous, but is intellectual there is the calm satisfaction of a well-ordered mind, which transcends the pleasures of sense. This is the view of Democritus and of Epicurus. 3. The happiness of others universal happi- ness is to be the object of our striving, as essential to our own real happiness. 4. Happiness can only arise from a consciousness of moral excellence. This is the Stoic form. i Mund., 6, 30. 2 Lcxikon (Frauenstadt), v. Eukolos. 2S 658 EUJDKMONISM. In Eudemonisin, the question whether virtue is happiness is sometimes confounded with the question whether happiness is virtue; and in the use of terms, the proper distinction is not drawn between pleasure and happiness, between external welfare and real blessedness. "Bentham 1 thinks 'happi- ness ' a term too high, and prefers pleasure, as embracing lower forms of enjoyment. This is Hedonism rather than Eudaemonism." C. F. V. Eudemonism, Moral, in Kant, 2 the theory in human history that the race is constantly advancing morally. It is opposed to the theories (1) of Terrorism (the race is always get- ting worse) ; (2) of Abderitism, g. v. EUDEMONIST, in Kant, 3 one who finds the supreme motive not in duty, but in utility and his own welfare ; practical egotist. EULER (Diagrams of), indicate the nature of propositions and syllogisms by circles. Jevons. 4 EULER'S, LIGHT (Theory of), the undulatory. *EURETIC or EUBISTIC, v., heuretic, heuristic, ostensive, EUROPEAN PHILOSOPHY. I. The Ancient, Greek, Koman. II. The Mediaeval, the Scholastic. III. Modern, British, Dutch (Grotius, Spinoza), French, German, Italian, &c. EUSEBIOLOGY, doctrine of reverence towards God, piety, doc- trine of religion in its practical aspect. EUTHANASIA (Gr.). 1. Easy, happy death. Wieland. 5 2. Kant 6 calls the sceptical hopelessness in the solution of the problem of pure reason the euthanasy of the pure reason. EUTHYMY, in Democritus, a tranquil inind as the summum bonum} EUTUCHY, in Aristotle, success, prosperity, and is distinguished from Eudemony. 8 EVENT (Lat.), outcome; that which happens; result; issue; Ger. Begebenheit. Kant. 9 EVHEMERISM, the doctrine of Evhemeres, that the gods were but mythical outgrowths of the history of men. ^EVIDENCE, "testimony to reality, either from witnesses or from concomitant facts." C. F. V. In Kant, 10 the assurance, 1 Deontolf>ffy, i. 78. * Religion iimerJinlb. (Kircbmann), 20. Streit d. Facvl'ui/tn, 134 e. 3 Anthropnlogie, 8. 4 Less, in Logic. Less. IX., XV., XVI. 6 Euthanasia (on the Life after Death), 1805. Jf. Fem., 434. Tin Seneca de Travq., 2. 8 JZAet., I., 5, 17. JZ'. Vern., 243, 816 ; Prolegom., \ 25. w Rein. Fern., 762. EXEMPLARY. 659 apodictic in its character, when the object is given in pure intuition ; intuitive assurance. Evidence is classified as objective, metaphysical, physical and moral ; immediate or direct, mediate or indirect. *EVIL, "in its physical application, that which injures; in its ethical, that which violates moral law." C. F. V. *Evil, Origin of. For views of Bohme and Leibnitz, see Zeller. 1 EVOLUTION, THEORY OF (Ger. Entwickelung], opposed to epigenesis, q. v., supposes that in generation all organic indi- vidual being is already preformed an evolution takes place from an involution, the result is an educt, q. v. Kant 2 called it " the nest-box theory" a small box fitting into a larger, and all finally inclosed in one box. See Leibnitz. 3 Evolution, Law of, in Cointe, the assertion that "every distinct class of human conceptions " has, in its historical develop- ment, " necessarily " exhibited three successive stages, the Theological, the Metaphysical, and the Positive. Stirling. 4 EVOLVE (Lat.), to unroll, analyze, resolve, explicate, develop. EXACT SCIENCES, the mathematical and physical sciences. ^EXAMPLE, (see Analogy.) Two adages in philosophy point to a common vice in reasoning: ''Examples are odious;" "ex- amples prove nothing, they only elucidate." EXCEPTIVE, applied to a proposition, marks that a part of the subject is excepted from the predicate, or a part of the pre- dicate from the subject, as "all animals, except man, are devoid of reason." See Hamilton. 5 ^Excluded Middle. EXCLUSIVE, applied to a particle, or a proposition, marks that a predicate belongs exclusively to one subject, or that to one subject a single 1 predicate only belongs: "God alone is eternal;" "An angel is spirit alone." Hamil- ton, 6 Stockl. 7 EX CONCESSIS (Lat.), from things conceded; in Logic, the argument from what is granted to what is to be proved. EXEMPLAR, primary, original, model, earliest example. EXEMPLARY, in the products of genius', marks their character as examples, models for study. Kant. 8 i Gesch. d. DfutscJt. Phil., 21, 172-176. 2 Urtlieilskra.fi, % 81. 3 Zeller Gesch. d. Deutsch. Pliilos., 129-132, and n. 1. 4 Annotations on Schwegler, 447, 452. 5 Lngic, Append., 517, r.lS. G Logic, Am. ed., 517, 518. 1 Lehrb. d. PhU., I., 169, 170. 8 UrtheiMcr., $ 46. 660 EXERCISE. EXERCISE (Fr.), action for the purpose of training, developing faculty. Keid. 1 EXERTION". Stirling's rendering of Aeusserung in Schwegler's statement of Hegel's doctrine of essence. Seelye renders it " expression," which is better. The sense of Aeusserung is closely allied with phenomenon, and manifestation, but its best equivalent would be utterance, taken etymological ly as outerance, in which sense it is used in old English writers. Udal : " Yet did he hide within himself a secret power . . . which than & never afore uttred itself." 2 This rendering- would preserve the connection between the Aeusserung and Aeusseres, which is so marked in the paragraph. EXERTIVE, applied by Hamilton 3 to the faculties of will and desire. Ger. Bestrebungsvermogen. EXHAUSTIVE, in Logic, is applied to the division of genus into two species by a difference : Dichotomy. EXHIBITION. See Darstellung, Demonstration, Hypoty- posis, "EXISTENCE (Being), (Ger. Ztosem). "Existence (Dasein) is more than esse or being in general (Sein iiberhaupt) ; it is a completely determined being." K. See Hamilton, 4 Mill. Existence, in Hegel. 6 Existenz (see Daseyn) implies a source of being, a ground or essence, from which the determinate* and apparent being (Daseyn) has sprung. Existence is al- ways the consequence of some ground. W. Wallace. 7 EXISTENTIAL PROPOSITION, in Logic, affirms the exist- ence of an object, either immediately as " the sun is," ex- ists or mediately, as "the sun shines," is a body which illumines the earth. See Coexistence. K. EXOTERIC. See Esoteric. EXPANSIVE.-See Elasticity. EXPECTANCE, EXPECTATION OF SIMILAR CASES, in the Leibnitzo-Wolfian Psychology, is a method of directing our actions by what formerly happened in a like case; some- times called the Analogy of Reason. EXPEDIENCY, " applied prudence ; a wise regard to results ; use of competent means for legitimate ends. It is subordinate 1 Works (Hamilton), 330, 381. ^ On Lul-e, c. 17; see PicJmrdson''s Dictionary. Mctujili., Lcct. \\. 4 Discussions, 591. 5 Logic, ch. 24, 1. Logilc, iu Encyclopsed., 122-124. 1 Prolegomena, ch. 23. EXPERIENCE. 661 to morality. Expediency is the wise use of means for what may besought. Morality, the performance of what is binding on all." C. F.V. Expediency is a word much used by the advo- cates of the doctrine of utility. Paley has said whatever is ex- pedient is right. " But," says Dr. Whewell, 1 " the main signifi- cance of such assertions is in the rejection which they imply of any independent and fundamental meaning in the term right. Those who make such assertions intend to say that actions are right because they promote some object human happi- ness, for instance ; and that those who speak of actions as absolutely right are in error. In the common use of lan- guage, we speak of actions as expedient, when they promote some end which we have selected, and which we do not in- tend to have questioned. If we are prepared to put forward the end of our actions as the proper end of action, we call them not expedient, but right. It may be expedient for a man to lie, in order to free himself from captivity. He may stay in captivity because he will not tell a lie, but in this case we say that he does what is right, and rejects what is expe- dient. Expedient implies, according to its etymology, away out of difficulties. But morality places before us a higher object than merely to escape from difficulties; she teaches us to aim at what is right. What is expedient may be expedi- ent as a means to what is right. It may be expedient to tell the truth to rescue an innocent person from death. But we do not describe such an action properly by calling it expedi- ent. It is much more than expedient it is right; it is recommended not by expediency, but by duty. In such cases we can speak approvingly not only of it as a right means, but of the end as a right end. Truth is not properly com- mended when it is described as a good way of getting out of a difficulty or gaining our ends." ^EXPERIENCE (Ger. Erfahrung), "Personal knowledge. It is identical with the facts of our consciousness." 0. F. V. Experience is derived from and gained by experiment. It is related as effect to cause. " That all our knowledge begins with experience, there can be no doubt. . . . But .... it by no means follows that all arises out of experience It is therefore a question which requires close investigation, i Elements of Morality, bk. ii., ch. 25. 57 662 EXPERIENTIAL. and is not to be answered at first sight whether there exists a knowledge altogether independent of experience, and even of all sensuous impressions? Knowledge of this kind is called a priori, in contradistinction to empirical knowledge, which has its sources a posteriori, that is, in experience."- Kant. 1 Schelling: 2 "Innumerable phenomena have been foreseen by physicists, in advance of any demonstration in experience, and this daily becomes more and more the case." EXPERIENTIAL, experimental. ''''EXPERIMENT (Ger. Versuch), (see Observation.) Voluntary application of tests for the discovery of truth. C. F. V. "Every experiment is a question addressed to nature. It involves a secret judgment a priori. Every experiment, worthy of the name, is a prophecy." Schelling. 3 EXPERIMENTAL, connected with experiment ; derived from experience; empirical. Such are experimental philosophy, experimental judgment, experimental physics, the experi- mental or exact sciences. Experimental Concept (Ger. Erfahrnngsbegriff], an empirical concept; a concept of the understanding (notion) in the con crete. Kant. 4 -EXPERIMENTUM CRUCIS.-See Crucial, EXPLANATION (Lat.), literally, the making plain or clear, so that there shall be nothing uneven or obscure to interrupt our view. See Explication. Explanation of fact by fact, consists in harmonizing fact with fact, or fact with law, or law with law, so that we may see them both to be cases of one uniform law of causation. Jevons, 5 Mill. 6 EXPLETION (of Space), (Lat.), filling out; the mathematical or dynamical occupance of space by matter, to the exclusion of all other material substance which might otherwise move into it; impenetrability. EXPLICATION (Ger. Ausklarung], explanation ; the clear and determinate derivation of a principle. Kant. 7 EXPLICATIVE. See Essential. EXPONENT, in Kant, 8 the expression of the necessary relation i Kritilc of Pure Reason, Introd. Meiklojohn's Transl., p. 1. 2 Zeitschr. f. SpecuL PJi'/s., 1800. 3 fyecul. Pltysik. * Rein. Fern., 595. 6 Elem. Lessons in Logic, Lesson XXXI. C Syst. of Logic, B. III., ch. 12-14. 7 Urtheilskraft, $ 78. 8 Rein. Vern., 263 ; Meiklejohn, 160. EXTRA. G63 in which things in nature stand to each other the relation of time (in so far as it contains all existence in itself) to the unity of apperception. EXPONIBLE, explicable; capable of being unfolded; applied to the " exclusive, restrictive, exceptive, or reduplicative propositions, the imperfectly or secondarily modal." Reid. 1 EXPOSE (Ger. Exponiren], expound. See Exposition. EXPOSITA, given to be treated by some logical process. Jevons. EXPOSITION (Lat.), a setting forth, explanation, clearing up; definition, the "clear, though not necessarily detailed, rep- resentation of that which belongs to a concept. It is meta- physical, if it embrace what represents the concept as given a priori" Kant. 2 EXPRESSION, in aesthetics, form as representative of idea. EXPROPRIATION (Fr.). 1. Passive, deprivation of property in surrender, as of our reason or our will. 2. Active, depriva- tion of property, in jurisprudence. ^EXTENSION (Fr. Etendue ; Ger. Ausdehnung}. Uniform ex- tension is that in which the difference is merely numerical, as for example in a mass of lead ; difform is that in which the parts of the object extended are different or unlike, as the parts of the human body. W. Geometrical extension is in space, chronometrical in time. See Des Cartes, 3 Leibnitz,* Locke, 3 Wolf, 6 Kant, 7 -EXTENSION, LOGICAL. See Comprehension. Hence, ex- tensive, as applied to syllogism. -EXTERNALITY or OUTNESS, " separateness from self. It applies to all that is known as distinct from myself, the knower." C. F. V. EXTRA-MUNDANE (Ger. AusserweUUch], out of, beyond the world. 1. In Physics, of space, or a vacuum beyond the world ; 2. In Metaphysics, beyond or above the world of sense; supersensuous, as God ; not absolutely immanent in, as Pantheism supposes, but distinct from the world. Extra Nos (Lat.), outside of us, external to us; distinct, as object from subject ; in another place. 1 Works, 704. *Rein. Vern., 38 ; Meiklejohn, 23; Hnywuod. 2S, 29. * Princ. Phil, p. ii., 1. lEssaissur Vent, hum., II., iv. & Human Unde.rst., B. II., ch. viii., 9. Fera. Getlank, v. fJott. d. Welt M. d. Seele, \ 773. 1 Rein. Vern., 35, 06. 664 EXTRAVAGANCE. EXTRAVAGANCE, in Ethics, passing far beyond due limits ; in thought, feeling, passion, expenditure. EXTREMES, in Logic, or material parts of a proposition, are its ends or terms, the subject and predicate, See Conversion. - Aristotle, 1 Baumgarten. 2 In speaking of a Syllogism, the word is often understood to imply the extremes of the con- clusion. Whately. 3 EXTRINSIC or EXTRINSICAL, opposed to intrinsic ; from without. Locke: "Outward objects that are extrinsical to the mind ; and its own operations, intrinsical and proper to itself, are the original of all knowledge." EYE, in Anthropology and ^Esthetics, the organ of vision, q. v., and of the subtlest and most powerful forms of expression. " As the eyes are the windows to let in the species of all exterior objects into the dark ceils of the brain, for the infor- mation of the soul, so are they naming torches to reveal to those abroad how the soul within is moved or affected." Ray. 4 Hippocrates said: "As is the eye so is the whole body." See Berkeley, 5 Cudworth, 6 Reid, 7 Schopenhauer, 8 Stockl. 9 F, in Logic, indicates that the three other figures beginning with F can be reduced to the mode of the first. Felapton or Fes- tino can be reduced, for example, to Ferio. See Conversion, Syllogism. --FABLE. The Greek writers distinguish: 1. The fable, mu- thon, or myth; 2. The promyth, or introduction to the fable. 3. The epimyth, coming after the fable, the moral. K. FACILITY (The Law of), in Mental Reproduction, is that a thought easier to suggest will be roused in preference to a more difficult one. Hamilton. 10 *FACT, "strictly, that which is done or accomplished. More widely, that which is known as existing." C. F. V. Whe- well: "The distinction between theory (that is, true theory) i Prior Analyt., II., xxii. 2 Acroas. Logic, $ 207. 3 Logic, B. II., ch. i., 2. * On t,',r Creation, pt. ii. * Principles, 29; see Utberwrfs Note (43). * Intellectual ftyrt'-i't (Harris), II., 593, and n. 4. 7 Works (Hamilton) : Of the. Human Mind, ch. vi., 132-20'. 8 Passages collected under Augf, in Schopenhaner-Lexikon (Frauenstadt). Lelo-b. d. Phiios., I., 32. 10 Note I>, in Reid's Works, 916-917. FACULTIES. 665 and fact is this : that in theory the ideas are considered as distinct from the facts ; in facts, though ideas may be in- volved, they are not in our apprehension separated from the sensations. A true theory is a fact ; a fact is a familiar theory. That which is a fact under one aspect is a theory under another. The most recondite theories, when firmly established, are facts; the simplest facts involve something of the nature of theory." l Fact, Factum, in the Critical Philosophy, is applied to the consciousness of the fundamental law of the pure, practical reason, inasmuch as that law is not deduced from previous data of reason, but presses itself on us as a synthetic propo- sition a priori. It is given through the pure reason; is con- sequently nothing empirical, but is the single fact of the pure reason, which, in it, proclaims itself as primarily legis- lative (sic volo, sic jubeo). 2 The fact or factum is qualified as: 1. A priori, intelligible, noumenon, original, cognizable by reason apart from all condition of time. 2. A posteriori, sensible, empirical, phenomenon, derivative, cognizable by the conditions of time, actual doing, or failing to do. 3 FACTION, contentious and unprincipled party. Lewis, Sir G. C. : " When a party abandons public and general ends, and devotes itself only to the personal interests of its members and leaders, it is called a faction, and its policy is said to be factious." 4 "^'Factitious. FACTOR, that which, in conjunction with a second, produces a third. The premises are the factors of the conclusion. The co-operating forces in which life originates, or is perpetuated, are the factors of life. Krng. -FACULTIES OF THE MIND (Fr. Faculties de FAme; Ger. jSeelenvermogen), (Classification of). "The development theory of mind, which would trace all mental power to sen- sation as the primitive experience, is naturally opposed to the acknowledgment of distinct faculties." C. F. V. The faculties of the soul, in Kant, are classified on a psychologi- cal principle, and are three in number: cognition, feeling, l History of Scientific Ideas, Vol. T., i. i. i., 10. 2 Pract. Vernunft, I., i. 1., 7. 3 Re- Lig. innerhalb, 26, 39. * On the Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion, ch. 10, note. 57* 666 FACULTY. appetition. The first of these faculties contains the princi- ples, the guiding laws for all three. Schwegler. 1 ""FACULTY (Lat. Facultas; Fr. Faculte ; Ger. Vermogen), the quality of the facilis, or easy ; capability ; power, whether physical, mental, or moral. " A distinct power of the mind, by the action of which a distinct order of mental phenom- ena is produced. Properly, it is power belonging to our ra- tional nature. The correlative designation is capacity the capability of being influenced or moved under the action of thought, or by external objects." C. F. V. FACULTY AND FACULTIES (Combination with Qualify- ing" Terms). 1. There are numerous combinations with the possessive, marked by of: F. of abstraction; of the mind, soul (animce) ; of cognition, judgment, feeling, appetition, desire, conation, will ; of intelligence, the intellect, reason, reflection, understanding ; of sense-perception ; of internal perception. 2. With adjectives and participles: as, appeti- tive F. ; cognitive, locomotive, moral ; presentative, con- servative, reproductive, representative, elaborative, regula- tive. The superior appetitive faculty is the Will. FAITH (see Belief), (Lat. Fides; Fr. Foi; Ger. Glaube). Faith so far as it belongs to philosophy, has two distinct, but closely related senses, into one or other of which all its ap- plications may be resolved. First of all, it is simply equiv- alent to belief, holding for true and real. Secondly, it is used to mean confidence, trust in a statement, a principle, a person, in anything. The second of these senses necessarily includes the first, but the first may exist without the second. We may firmly believe a thing to be true, in which there may be no need, not even a possibility, for the exercise of trust or confidence. But that in which we confide, we must, first of all, necessarily hold to be true. Young. 2 F. V. 3. FALLACIA, fallacy, q. v. *FALLACIA ^QUIVOCATIONIS, (*F. Amphibolise, *F. Compositions, *F. Divisionis, *F. Aecentus, *F. Figurae Dictionis, *F. Accidentis, *F. a Dicto Secundum quid ad Dictum Simpliciter.) "The converse, a dicta simpliciter ad dictum secundnm quid, is also fallacious. Whatever gives pain should be abstained from; therefore, surgical operations should be abstained from." F. V. 3. i Gesch. d. Philosophic, 38. 2 Province of Reason, p. 286. FALLACY. 667 *F. Ignorationis Elenchi. The principal forms of it are: 1. Mistaking the question. To prove that men unacquainted with logic have reasoned well, does not prove the inutility of it. 2. Diverting attention from the point at issue ; as Demosthenes does in his oration De Corona, and Cicero in his Pro Archia Poeta. 3. Misstating the question ; as when the Jews perverted our Saviour's saying, "Destroy this tem- ple," i. e., this body, into " Destroy the temple." 4. Imput- ing consequences or the constructive sophism ; as, phrenol- ogy leads to materialism, therefore it is not true. 5. Intro- duction of rhetorical expedients, as irony, personalities, appeals to the passions, &c. Fallacia a non Causa pro Causa, appears in the following forms: 1. Non vera pro vera ; as, when Des Cartes explains sensation by animal spirits, the existence of which is not ascertained. 2. Non tails pro tali ; as, when the Norwegians attributed the disappearance of the fish from their coast to the introduction of inoculation. Or, when one said : " I don't believe it 's any use, this viccination. I had a child viccinated, and he fell out of a vinder a veek arter, and got killed." 3. Post hoc ergo propter hoc, when accidental ante- cedence and subsequence are regarded as cause and effect. F. V. 3. *Fallacia plurium Interrogationum is the Fallacia Composi- tionis in an interrogative form. F. V. 3. F. sumptionis precarise, F. of precarious assumption, F. pe- titionis principii, q. v. ^FALLACY, A (Ger. Trugschluss). See Paralogism, Soph- ism. FALLACY, FALLACIES (Mill's Classification of, Alphabet- ically). They are : A priori, confusion, distinction, deduc- tion, generalization, induction, inference, inspection simple, observation, ratiocination. His synoptic table is : FALLACIES. A. Of Simple Inspection. a. Fallacies a priori. B. Of Inference. I. From evidence distinctly conceived. 1. Inductive Fallacies. b. Fallacies of Observation. c. Fallacies of Generalization. 668 FALLIBILITY. 2. Deductive Fallacies. d. Fallacies of Ratiocination. II. From evidence indistinctly conceived. e. Fallacies of Confusion. 1 FALLIBILITY, liability to error; illusory character. Reid. 2 *FALSE, FALSITY, "want of harmony between statement and reality." C. F. V. Falsity transcendental, impossibility. FAMILY (from Lat. famulus, a servant; Fr. Famille ; Ger. Fa- milie), in Ethics, a household, as under one head, who is a, parent, or in place of a parent. See Fairchild, 3 Haven. 4 Family. 1. In classification, usually lower than an order, and higher than a genus. 2. In the Critical Philosophy, the entire faculties of cognition, grouped together in as far as they allow of a derivation from a common ground. See Constitutive. Kant. 5 FANATICISM (Fr. Fanatisme, Exaltation; Ger. Schwdrmerei), extravagance of emotion, especially in religion ; the rule of feeling in the sphere of reason ; the overriding of the natu- ral by the disordered recognition of the supernatural ; the trusting in the immediate, where the mediate is in place ; the expectation of results without means ; visionary judgments of the supersensuous and divine; the confounding of imagi- nation with reality. " Fanaticism is, so to speak, a pious presumption. It is the product of a sort of pride and over- weening self-reliance, which makes a man imagine that he can by a marvellous soaring approach the natures of heaven, lifting himself above the usual and prescribed order."- Kant. 6 *FANCY, FANTASY (Fr. Fantaisie; Ger. Phantasie}, the imag- inative faculty in its " creative" character, giving vivid ex- pression to its representations. "Fancy (Phantasie}, imagi- l Logic, B. V. See Aristotle: Prior Anahjt., I., XLVI. Sophistical Elenchi, L. i., iv., v. Atwater : Log., ch. fi. Baumgarten : Acroasis Log., $ 404 seq. Pevey : Log., B. VI. Hamilton: Log., Lcct. XXIII. Gravesande: Introd. ad Philos. Logic, ch. 28. Jevons: E'em. Less, in Loyic, Less. XX., XXI. Do.: Logic, in Science Prim., sect. 25-27. Kuckerinann : Sy*t. Log., 544-578. Krug: Logil:, H 115-117. Lotze: Logik, sechst. leap., 323-340. Politz: Encyklopiidie, I., 86. Port Royal Logic (Baynes), Part III., ch. 19/20. Rothenfltie: Institut. Philosoph. Theoretic, I. 90. Stier: Prsecept. Doclrime Logic., 35-37. Ucberweg: Log., $ 126,130, 137. Watts: Loy., Part III., ch. 3, g 1. V.'hatcly : Logir, ch. v. 2 Intellect. Powers, Ess. VII., ch. 4. 3 Moral Philosophy, 199-210. 4 Mm. P/iilos., 198-220. 5 UrUicilskr. Einl., III. u e ^ r d. Gefilhl d. Schon. u. Erhab. IV. Absch.; Werke, vii., 433. FATALITY. 669 nation (Einbildungsfaraft), and poetical power (Dichtungs- krqft) involve in common the faculty of mental representa- tion of objects which are not perceived by the senses. The language of common life, as well as that of philosophy, makes a distinction between these terms. The Greeks used tyav-aoia. to designate both fancy and imagination. The Lat- ins translated it by Imaginatio. Some philosophers use fancy to designate the faculty of mental representation of absent things; when fancy presents its objects with great completeness and clearness, they call it imagination. But in common use, imagination is the faculty by which we have a clear mental representation of absent objects, and fancy implies a facility in combining new creations from the stores of imagination." Eberhard. Goethe employs the word in this sense when he styles fancy "the ever-moving, ever-new- Jove's loveliest daughter, child of his heart." The English usage is not entirely fixed. Sometimes imagination and fancy are identified; sometimes imagination is the collecting, and fancy the plastic power; sometimes the reverse. All these differences are represented in Fleming's Quotations. See Reid, 1 Stewart. 2 FANTASY (Fr. Fantawe], fancy. FAS (Lat.). 1. That which is right in the sight of God; divine law ; opposed to jus, q. v., or human law. 2. That which is right, whether by law, equity, custom, or permission ; right justice ; equity; lawful, fit, permitted. "'FATALISM. 1. ''The theory of a blind necessity of nature in the connection of nature itself, without a first principle." Kant. 3 2. The theory of a blind necessity of nature in the causality of the first principle. FATALIST, one who maintains the doctrine of Fatalism. Mill : " Though the doctrine of necessity, as stated by most who hold it, is very remote from fatalism, it is probable that most necessarians are fatalists, more or less, in their feelings." FATALITY (Fr. Sort; (fatalitc] ; Ger.Verfiangniss).!. Eesult determined by fate. South : " The Stoics held a fatality and a fixed unalterable course of events; but then they held also that they fell out, by a necessity emergent from and inherent Works, 367, 379-382. 2 n., 259, 260, 278-282, 436 ; V., 26-1. 3 Prolegomena, \ 61. 670 FATE. in the things themselves, which God himself could not alter." 2. Fatalism. Kant. 1 *FATE (Fr. Destin (sort) ; Ger. Schiclcsal}." No necessity in nature is blind, but is conditioned ; consequently, is intelli- gible necessity non datur fatum." Kant. 2 FATUITY, extreme feebleness of mind; foolishness. FAVOUR (Lat. Favor; Fr. Favour; Ger. Gunst), goodwill; grace; mark of love; the opposite of injury. Reid. 3 In Kant: 4 "The only free complacency, satisfaction, pleas- ure;" applied to the love of the beautiful the beautiful makes its appeal to our favour; not to our love of the pleas- ures of sense, nor to our reason. The same, he says, is true of the speculative argument for the existence of God. *FEAR, "internal agitation on account of apprehended evil. This agitation throws a paralyzing influence over the body. It takes rank among the emotions." C. F. V. *FEELING. " In its widest sense, all passive experience. In this sense it includes all forms of sensibility. In a more re- stricted sense, it is applied to the pleasurable and painful in mind, by contrast with sensibility as a characteristic of the physical." Feeling has been applied (though not at all accurately) to the immediate knowledge which we have of first truths. C. F. V. Feeling (Ger. Gefuhl), in Jacobi, immediate knowing, belief; the one organ of certainty of the highest ideas ; of that which lies beyond the understanding, the eternal and divine. See Belief. FERVOUR (Ger. Inbrunst), ardor of thought, feeling, desire, pur- pose, or devotion. FETICH, FETICH-WORSHIP, FETICH-MAKING, FE- TICH-FAITH. See Fetichism. *FETICHISM, in Kant, a service of God in which statutory commands, rules of faith, and observances (the externals or non-essentials of religion) constitute the basis and funda- mental part. FICHTEANISM, FICHTEAN SYSTEM, system of Johann Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814), a logical carrying through of transcendental subjective idealism. His later theory is that of i Urtheilsk., $ 72. 2 Jiein. Fern., 280; Meikle.john, 170. * Active Powers, Ess. V., ch. 5. * Urtheilskraft, 5. Orit. d. rein. Vern., 015, 0512, 665. FIRST N. 671 absolute being as one original divine life, revealing itself only in the moral acts of free subjects. See Science, Doc- trine of. FIELD, of concepts, the objects to which they can be applied. Kant. 1 FIGURE. 1. In Logic, the way in which the terms of a Syllo- gism, q. v., can be disposed. The figures are four, and can be most easily fixed in the memory by noting the position of the middle term, in the premises, on which the figure de- pends. The first three are Aristotelian, the fourth Galenian. F. First, middle term subject of the major, predicate of the minor. F. Second, middle term predicate of both. F. Third, middle term subject of both. F. Fourth, middle term pre- dicate of major, subject of minor. See Aristotle, 2 Atwater, 3 Fowler, 4 Hamilton, 5 Jevons, 6 Kant, 7 Thomson, 8 Ueberweg, 9 Ulrici.' 10 2. In Ontology, the boundary of a thing extended. FIN (Fr. ; Lat. Finis; Ger. ZwecJc], end; aim; scope. Fin absolu, main, final aim, design, purpose; Ger. Endzweck. FINAL CAUSES. See Causes Final, Design. FINE ARTS. See JEsthetics. FINIS (Lat.), end; aim; final cause. FIRE. 1. Formed, according to Anaximenes, by rarefaction from air. 2. In Parmenides, one of the two immutable ele- ments (heat-fire, cold-earth) by the mixture of which the phenomena of nature are produced. 3. In Heraclitus, the primary elementary principle of nature, of movement, and of vitality. 4. In Stoicism, identified with the divine power and being. *FIRST CAUSE, the origin or source of all dependent being ; that is, of all being which is not self-sufficient. C. F. V. FIRST NOTION, " the concept of a thing as it exists of itself, and independent of any operation of thought, as John, Man, Animal. It is real, immediate,, direct." Opposed to Second Notion. Hamilton. 11 1 Urtheilskruft, Einl. ij. 2 /vfor Analyt., I., iv.-xi., xiv.-xxiii. ; Poster. A nalyt.,\. xiv.; Element. Logic. Aristotel. (Trendelenburg), 24, 28, 30. 3 Logic, ch. v., 8. 4 Deductive Logic, ch. Hi., 2, 3. $ Logic, lect. xx. El. Less, in Logic, less. xvi. T Die falsche Spiizfindigk. der vier St/llogistischen Figuren, 1762 ; Werl-f. (Harteustein. 183^), 1. 1-18 ; Lngiqiie par J. 2'issnt., sec. edit,, Paris, 1862, 217-241. 8 Laws of TJiought, 95-100. 9 Sgttem, d. Logik, Dritt. Aufi., 1868, tr. by T. M. Lindsay, 1871, 103-118. w Compend. d. Lof/ik, 2d ed., 1872, g 83-86. Discussions (Am. ed.), 139, 140 n. 672 FIRST P. FIRST PBJNCIPLES.-See Principles, FISSILE, capable of being cleft. Fission, the act of cleaving, or of being cleft. *FITNESS and UNFITNESS. " The one is applied to the har- mony of right actions with the dignity of our nature and with the order of things under the moral government of the world ; the other to the want of such harmony, or to conflict with established order." C. F. V. FIX, FIXATION, FIXING, in Fichte: "The intuiting be- comes intuition, by being fixed as such. To this pertain three things : 1. The act of fixing, which is the result of the absolute spontaneity of the Ego the Reason ; 2. That which is fixed, or is to be fixed. This is the imagination, in so far as its activity is bounded by the fixing. 3. That which arises from the fixation of the imagination the intention." Buhle. 1 FLUID, n. (Lat.), flowing; matter which flows, whose molecular parts are most easily moved and displaced without separa- tion of the mass ; opposed to the rigid and sclid ; it em- braces the liquids or incompressibles, the gaseous, and the ethereal ; is applied in the old theory to the subtlest forces, as electricity, light, caloric, nerve action, which are the im- ponderable fluids. It is applied by way of analogy to the soul by Ulrici. FLTJIDIST (Fr.), one who adopts a fluid in his hypothesis; one who explains the phenomena of animal magnetism as the result of a fluid. FLUX (Lat.), flowing; passing away; in Heraclitus, the eternal motion and mutation of all things. We cannot bathe twice in the same river. FOCUS (Lat.), hearth; centring point of straight lines or rays; applied to the imaginary brain centre (F. imaginarius] of impressions made on the nerves of sensation. FOLIE (Fr.), mania. *FORCE, in the Physics and Metaphysics of the present time, one of the most characteristic, important, and difficult terms. Bouillet : " In Philosophy we mean by force, 1. An active substance (see Soul, Substance). 2. The power of acting (see Activity). 3. A direct manifestation of that power, as, i Gesch., vi. 761 ; Lehrb., viii. 747. FORGIVENESS. 673 for example, voluntary effort. In Mechanics, we give the name of force to any cause which sets a body in motion, or modifies its movement." 1 " Every cause of an operation, whether in the world of mind or of matter." 2 Force (Kraft], in Hegel, 3 with its exertion, operation, expres- sion, outerance (Aeusserung], is essence as a negative refer- ence to itself, and repelling itself from itself into reflection- into- other, reflection in an alterum. Force, in Kant, 4 the causality of a substance, or substance considered as causality substance has force ; a general name for everything which is the ground on which depends the production of a determinate result; physical cause; condi- tion of the actuality of the operation of essence. Krug : " The internal principle of operativeness." Lemoine : " The idea of force involves the idea, of cause, and of substance. Force is substance capable of acting, and, in reality, acting. Force and substance can be separated in thought only ; all force is substance, and all substance is force; that which does not act, does not exist." 5 Meineke: "That in sub- stance which contains the sufficient reason of its accidents." Schopenhauer : " That which imparts to every cause its causality, that is, its power of working." 6 Wolf: "That which contains in itself the sufficient reason of the actuality of action, or, the conation, the perpetual effort of acting." 7 Force, in its combinations, 1. With adjectives and participles : absolute, relative ; active, passive ; attractive, repulsive ; dead, living; impelling; motive, dynamic; essential, me- chanical ; penetrative, superficial ; primary, derivative. 2. With nouns, F. of bodies in general ; of attraction ; of exten- sion ; of inertia ; of repulsion. Forces, the two, of Empedocles, the unity of Parmenides, conjoined with the plurality of Heraclitus; the force of attraction and the force of repulsion. FORGIVENESS, in Ethics, "implies, 1. The remission of the right to retaliate, when safe or proper ; 2. The dismissal of 1 Dictionnaire Universe,!, s. v. 2 Brockhaus: Convert. Lexic., 1.1th ed., Kraft. 3 Ency- IflapUdie, g 136; Logic, tnuisl. by Wallace, 212-216; Schwegler: Gesch. d. Fhilos.,XLV. i. 2 I)., trans, of Soolye & Stirling. * Crit. d. rein. Fern. glO, 107, 108; Meiklejohu'g Transl., 6, pp. 65-67 ; Naiurlehre,H; Original Ideen ilb.d. Empir. Antfiropologie,4:bsc >;. 6 Diet, des Scienc. Philos. Force. Welt als Wille, ii., 51. * OnMogia, 722-724. 58 2T 674 FORM. the resentful feelings which injury may have excited ; 3. The revival of those feelings of good will which it becomes us habitually to cherish." Fleming. 1 FORM. Primarily, the figure or shape of material objects. The "form" of knowledge, in the system of Kant, 2 is that which the mind itself contributes as the condition of know- ing. So, with him, space and time are " forms 1 ' of knowledge. " That which in the phenomenon corresponds to the sensa- tion, I term its matter; but that which effects (secures) that the content of the phenomenon can "be arranged under cer- tain relations, I call its form.'" C. F. V. *Form of Cognition, in the Critical Philosophy, the mode in which the union of particular mental representations is de- termined the F. of intuition, and the F. of thinking, or of understanding. F. of a proposition, the relation of the con- cepts to unity. F. of external intuition, space; F. of internal intuition, time. F. of experience, that which gives universal validity to the empirical judgments. F. of appctition, desire, the mode in which the object is desired or disliked. See Grove, 3 Hallam, 4 Arbp. Thomson. 5 FORMAL, " connected with conditions rather than causes." Latham. "Space, time, and number, may be conceived as forms by which the knowledge derived from our sensations is moulded, and which are independent of the differences in the matter of our knowledge, arising from the sensations themselves. Hence, the sciences which have these ideas for their subject may be termed formal sciences." Whewell. Formal as opposed to material. Hamilton. 6 Formal, as adj., enters into various combinations, as F. error, involving the logical form, opposed to material. F. indiffer- ence of action, in the freedom of the will, q. v., opposed to the objective indifference. F. principle of the will, abstracted from all subjective ends, resting on the ground that rational nature exists as end in itself. F. use of reason, abstracts from all content, as the reason is itself the source of certain concepts and principles. It borrows them neither from the senses nor the understanding. 1 Mmual of Mor. Philos., 272, 273. See Bp. Butler: Sermon on Forgiveness of Inju- ries. 2 Krit. der rein. Vermin ft, Meiklejohn's Trans., p. 21. 3 Corrclat. of Physic. Forces, 7. *Literat. of Europe, Pt. II., ch.iii., 50. *> Necessary Laws of Thought, % 11-14. * Logic (Am. edit), Appendix, 539-542. FRESISOM. 675 Formal, as noun, also has a number of combinations. F. of law, the mental representation of the identity and uniformity of the manifold ; opposed to the material of law, which is the manifold itself. F. of nature, the legitimacy of all objects of experience, which, so far as they are cognized a priori, is necessary. F. of virtue, in Plato, the cognition of the law of reason. FORMALLY, in the writings of the Scholastics, has a wide and indeterminate range of meaning. It marks 1. What belongs truly to the existence of a thing; 2. the essence; 3. essen- tial distinction ; 4. essential attribute ; 5. simple concept, rei ut sic, opposed to rei ut tails ; 6. a thing in the abstract, op- posed to materialiter or in concreto ; 7. the direct signification, opposed to oblique; 8. as we conceive a thing, concipiendi modus, as opposed to a parte rei. L. See Real, Virtual, Action. FORMATIVE, " having the power of giving form ; plastic." Latham. FORMULA, FORMULARY, a rule, law, or statement framed with precision. Hence, Formularize, Formulate. *FORTITUDE. See Fleming. 1 FOURIERISM (from Fourier, its author), a system of social economy, establishing a new method of association. See Group, Passion, Passional, Phalanstery, Phalanx, Se- ries. FREE AGENT, FREEDOM. See Liberty, Necessity, Will. *FREE-THINKER. This term is applied to Toland, " a candid Free-thinker," by Molyneux, in a letter to Locke, 1697 ; 2 and Shaftesbury, 3 in 1709, speaks of "our modern free-writ- ers." But it was Collins, 4 in 1713, who first appropriated the name to express the independence of inquiry which was claimed by the Deists. There is no parallel word in other languages. Farrar. 5 "FREE-WILL (Ger. Freie Willkuhr ; Lat. Arbitrium liberum). See Freedom, Will. FRENCH PHILOSOPHY.-See Synthetical Tables. FRESISOM, FRESISON, in Logic, marks the first mode in the fourth figure. The major is a universal negative, the minor a special affirmative, the conclusion a special negative. i Stan, of Mor. Phil, 254. 2 Works, fol. ed., III. 624. 3 Works, Vol. I., p. 65. < Iu his Discourse of F)-e,e-thinking. 5 Jfampton Lect., p. 588. 676 FRIENDSHIP. FrE : No miserable man is content ; SI : Some are content who are poor ; SOin : Some poor people are not miserable. See Frisesomorum, Port Royal Logic. 1 "^Friendship. FRISESOMORUM, in Logic, mnemonic term, which marks one of the indirect modes of the first figure recognized by Aris- totle. The last two syllables are added simply for the sake of the metre. Celentes, Dabitis, Fopesmo, Frisesomorum. D. P. S. FTIERWAHRHALTEN (Ger., the holding of a thing to be true). "When a judgment is valid for every rational being, the ground of it is objectively sufficient, and the Fiirwahrhalten is termed conviction (Ueberzeugung], If it has its ground in the character of the personal subject, it is called persuasion ( Ueberredung).' Kant. 2 *FUNCTION. 1. " The special exercise or form of activity be- longing to a power when operating for the attainment of its proper end." C. F. V. "The yfordfunctio, in Latin, simply expresses performance or operation ; functio muneris is the exertion of an energy of some determinate kind, but with us the word function has come to be employed in the sense of munus alone, and means not the exercise, but the specific character of a power. Thus, the function of a clergyman does not mean, with us, the performance of his duties, but the peculiarity of these duties themselves. The function of nutrition does not mean the operation of that animal power, but its discriminate character." Hamilton. 3 2. In Quan- titative Induction, any quantity which depends upon and varies with another quantity, and either may be considered the function of the other. Jevons. 4 FUNDAMENTAL, serving to lay the foundation; pertaining to the foundation. F. Philosophy, the primary scientific basis, forming the first grand division of philosophy. Biedermann (1838), Gerlach (1843), Krug (1827), Lautier (1837), H. F. Richter (1824), Tafel (1848), and others. F, Laws of Thought, in Hamilton: 5 1. Identity; 2. Contradiction or Non-Con- tradiction ; 3. Excluded Middle. 4. Reason and Conse- i (Bnynes) 204. 2 p r i n . Fern., 848 ; Meiklejohn, 496. 3 Lccts., I., 180. 4 Principles ., 113. 5 Logic (Am. ed.), 57-77. GEMUTH. 677 quent or Sufficient Reason. F. Principles, ultimate and su- preme principles. F. Proposition, that on which other propo- sitions rest. It may be relative or absolute. FUNDAMENTUM (Lat.), foundation. F.Dwisioni^ the ground, basis, or principle of division. F. Relationis, the ground of relation, i. e., the series of events or circumstances which es- tablish a relation between two correlative terms. Jevons. FUTURE (Lat.), that which is yet to be; time to come; opposed to past and present. Hence, Futurity. Reid, 1 Hamilton. 2 FUTURITION, in the Leibnitzian metaphysics, the fortuitous character or contingency of truths or things. 3 GALEN, FIGURE OF, GALENIAN SYLLOGISM, in Logic, the ordinary name of the fourth figure, attributed, on slender authority, to Galen. The first three are the Aristotelian. Hamilton.* GAUTAMA, GODOMA, GOTAMA, Buddha, commonly sup- posed to be the founder of Boodhism (prob. 624-543 B. c.). See Brahmanism, Karma, Metempsychosis, Nirvana. J. Thomas. 5 GEDANKE (Ger.), " not only a thought, but as a thought truly is, a Ge-danke, a putting or bringing together of things." Stirling. 6 GEFUHL (Ger.), feeling, 1. of pleasure or pain ; emotion ; 2. of touch. Hamilton. 7 GEMUTH (Ger.), mind, soul, heart, spirit; disposition, nature, temper, feeling. 1. The total faculty of desire, sensuous and rational Eberhard. 2. The faculty which brings into syn- thesis the sense-representations, and effects the unity of empirical apperception. Kant. 3. The soul, reflected in itself, drawn to its own individuality, and inwardly feeling. Mussmann. 4. The totality of those manifestations of the intellectual life in man which constitute the feelings, and the desire which they determine. Schulze. It has a large number of compounds. 1 Works (Hamilton), 340-342, 629. " Reid's WorJcs, Notes 340, 342, 629. 3 Tiieodicee, I., I xxvi., I lii., g ciii. * Logic, 285, 002. *Dict. of Biography and Mythology, s. v. (of special value on Hindoo topics). *Annotat. on Scltwegler, 353. T Metaphysics 562. 68* 678 GENERA. GENERA. See Genus. GENERAL (Ger. Allgemein), the opposite of special or partic- ular; universal. It comprehends a plurality of objects under a common point of view. It may be absolute or relative. General Idea, A (abstract idea), " is an idea of the mind, consid- ered there as separated from time and place, and so capable to represent any particular being that is conformable to it." Locke. 1 General Names, Terms." The function of naming, and par- ticularly of general names, in induction, may be recapitu- lated as follows : Every inductive inference which is good at all, is good for a whole class of cases. A process of experi- mentation and comparison is necessary, in which . . some uniformity in the course of nature (must be) evolved and ascertained. . . If, being ascertained, it can be remembered, it will serve as a formula for making, in particular cases, all such inferences as the previous experience will warrant. But we can only secure its being remembered, or give our- selves even a chance of carrying in our memory any consid- erable number of such uniformities, by registering them through the medium of permanent signs, which (being, from the nature of the case, signs not of an individual fact, but of a uniformity, that is, of an indefinite number of facts similar to one another) are general signs ; universals ; general names, and general propositions." J. S. Mill. 2 General Notions, Abstract Notions (Ger. Gesc/ilechtsbegriffe], are notions by which several particular things are pre- sented in common ; as, mineral, plant, animal. They are opposed to individual notions. General Propositions (Signs). See General Names- General Term. See Term. General Truths are those which "exist independent of experience." Devey. 3 General Words. "General and universal belong not to the real existence of things; but are the inventions and creatures of the understanding. Words are general . . when used for signs of general ideas." Locke. 4 i Num. Underst., II., ch. xi., 9. 2 z j0 gic, b. iv., ch. iii., g 3, 4. 3 Logic, b. iv., cli. ii., 4. * Mum. Undvist., B. III., ch. 3, 11. GENERIFICATION. 679 GENERALIA, " intermediate scientific truths derived from, the higher generalities of science, and destined to serve as the generalia, or first principles of the various arts." J. S. Mill. 1 ^GENERALIZATION, GENERALIZING.- S. of a name ap- plies it to a wider class of objects than before, so that the extension of its meaning is increased, and the intension di- minished. Jevons. 2 Generalizations, Empirical, are based upon "phenomena whose concomitant occurrence is so frequent as to warrant the inference of some antecedent connection between them, without affording us any secure ground for affirming the manner of its existence." Devey. 3 GENERALIZE, to reduce to genus ; to go through the act of generalization. GENERALS, the constituents of & genus. "It is to Bacon we owe the development of the idea that the whole of natural philosophy consists entirely of a series of inductive general- izations . . and of a corresponding series of inverted rea- soning from generals to particulars." Sir J. Herschel. 4 GENERANT, s. : " Begetting or productive power." Glanvilie. L. J. GENERATE, cause; produce. Herbert Spencer. L. J. GENERATIO (Lat.), generation; production. G. cequivoca, equivocal generation ; production of animals and plants without the procreative medium ; spontaneous generation. G. teleologica, teleological generation; the bringing forth an organic being in accordance with an aim. GENERATION OF IDEAS, "the simple ideas generate, rather than . . compose, the complex ones." Mill. 5 GENERATIONAL PASSION, in the Societary school, family love, as existing between the successive generations. GENERIC, of or pertaining to genus or generic notions; gen- eral ; opposed to specific. It is applied to characters or properties, differences, names, terms. GENERIFICATION, the reducing to genera. It stands in re- ciprocal relation to specification. "The abstraction which carries up species into genera, is called, in that respect, gen- erification, or, more loosely, generalization. The process of i Logic, VI., xi. 5. 2 Less, in Logic, 45. 3 Xo^ic, u. V., i. 6. * Disc, on Nat. Philos., art. 96. 5 Logic, B. VI., iv. 680 GENEROSITY. abstraction, by which out of a proximately lower we evolve a proximately higher concept, is, when we speak with logical precision, called the process of Generification." Hamilton. 1 GENEROSITY, in Ethics, nobleness, largeness of nature, shown especially, but not exclusively, in giving. It corresponds with efav&epidrw, freeness, largeness of mind and spirit, in Aristotle 2 and Plato. 3 GENESIS, in Biology, origin, source, productive cause; evolu- tion. Herbert Spencer divides it into Homo-genesis, or Gamo- yenesis, in which the successive generations are alike, and have a sexual origin ; and Hetero- genesis, when the recurrence of the same form is cyclical. 4 GENETIC, related to the genesis. G. definitions consider the defined subject as in the process of becoming. Hamilton. 5 *GENIUS and TALENT. Genius, Wit, and Humour (have been considered by many as words of equivalent signification. There is, however, a real difference between them. They) are all the offspring of imagination, but a much greater share of it is requisite to constitute true genius than either of the other two. Genius is characterized by a copious and plastic, as well as a vivid and extensive imagination ; by which means it is equally qualified to invent and create, or to conceive and describe, in the most lively manner, the ob- jects it contemplates. On the other hand, wit and humour neither invent nor create; they neither possess the vigor, the compass, nor the plastic power of the other quality. Their province is to assemble with alertness those sentiments and images which may excite pleasantry or ridicule. Wit is the most shining, humour is the most pleasing and the most useful quality. Wit discovers itself in smart repartees, in ingenious conceits, in fanciful allusions, and in brilliant sentiments. Humour, on the other hand, manifests itself in ludicrous representations, in masterly strokes of manners and character, in shrewd observations, and in facetious argumen- tation and narrative. This quality may be divided into two kinds, into that which is displayed in the representation of characters, and may be denominated humour of character; and into that which is displayed in composition, and may be i Logic, Lect. XI. 2 Eth. N., IV., i. 1. 3 Repub., 402 C. Tlieeet., 144 D. * Induc- tions of Biology, ch. 7. 5 Logic (Am. ed.), 343. GLOSSOLOGY. 681 called humour in writing. The first consists in the art of marking the follies, the foibles, or the oddities of the char- acter exhibited so strongly, and exposing them in such a ludicrous light, as to excite pleasantry and laughter. Hu- mour in writing consists either of random strokes of ridicule andfacetiousness, occasionally thrown out, as subjects of drol- lery and pleasantry happen to occur ; or of a vein of irony and delicate satire, purposely displayed on a particular sub- ject. 1 GENIUS OF SOCRATES.- See Daemon. "GENUINE. See Authentic. *GENUS, a class made up of two or more species. G. generalis- simum, summum genus, the most general genus ; that which is not part of any higher genus. GEOMETRY, in Kant, 2 the science which determines the prop- erties of space synthetically, and yet a priori. " In G. we argue by intuitive perception of each step. Geometrical rea- soning has a close resemblance to the inductive." Jevons, 3 Pascal. 4 GERMAN PHILOSOPHY, See Synthetical Tables. GHOST (Ger. Geist), spirit ; soul; disembodied soul. GIVE, GIVEN, in the Critical Philosophy, applied to, 1. The recognition of the object by its impression on the senses. 2. The concept in a judgment, when it is presupposed as already known, and furnishing the means for further cogni- tion. 3. A pure intuition, when the cognitive faculty de- rives it from itself, not arbitrarily, but on the necessary ground of its own character. Kant, 5 Mellin. 6 GLAUBE (Ger.). 1. Faith, as a theological virtue. 2. Belief, q. v., in the philosophical sense. Hamilton. 7 GLOSSOGRAPHY. See Glossology. GLOSSOLOGY, "Comparative philology." Whewell. "The most useful signification which could be given to this word, would be the details of the number, connection, and condition of the languages of the earth ; in which case it might sup- plant the barbarous term., Linguistic." Latham. 8 See Ter- minology. 1 Essay on Original Genius, 8vo, London, 1767. 2 Orii. d. rein. Fern., 16 s. 40 s. 120, 204. 3 L*>?s. in Logic, 68, 218, 115. In Port RmjaJ Logic (Baynes), 317. * Rein. Vern., 33 193 s., 521 s., 540, 698 ; Meiklej.lin's Transl., 21,117, 308,319,410. 6 Worterb. d. AT. ritilos. 1 Reid's Works, Note A, 793, 794. Dictionary, s. v. 682 GNOME. *Gnome. Gnome, in the Paracelsian school, the elementary spirit of the earth. Whevvell. 1 GNOMIC, having the character of a gnome; sententious. The term gnomic denoted a school of elegiac poetry, the ob- ject of which was Gnomic Philosophy. See Synthetical Tables. (JNOMOLOGY, collection of gnomic maxims. GNOSEOLOGY, GNOSOL0GY, G1TOSTOLOGY, in Metaphys- ics, doctrine or system of cognition ; theory of knowledge ; used by Stirling to render Wissenschaftslehre (Fichte's). GNOSIS (Gr.), a seeking to know, cognitio; a knowing, knowl- edge (Plato); deeper wisdom; secret or mystic doctrine; a philosophy of religion which made its appearance in the early church doctrine of the Gnostics. GNOSTICISM, a system of Gnosis, which arose from the min- gling of the Perso -Chaldean philosophemes with Greek and Christian elements, in the first two centuries of the Christian era. See ./Eons, Demiurge, Emanation, Hyle, Maniche- ism, Matter. See Baur (1835), Erdmann (1847), Matter (1828), Neander (1818) translated; Schmidt (1828). GOCLENIAN, from Eudolph Goclenius (1547-1628), in Logic, a name of the regressive Sorites. *GOD (Gr. Geof; Lat. Deus ; Fr. Dieu ; Ger. Gott).For the etymology, see Adelung, 2 Meklinger, 3 Wachter. 4 God, Attributes of, in Ethics, Metaphysics, Natural Theology, see special articles, Eternity, Necessary, Omnipotence, Omni- presence, Omniscience, Self-Existent, &c. The attributes, ac- cording to the Scholastics, are determined by the three ways of causality, negation, and eminence He is a final cause of all things, possessor of all perfections involved in the effect: He is not in any degree evil or limited: He is by pre-eminence all that is good. God, Attributes of; Classification of "God is , " I. According to his special relations, 1. to the moral world, holy, good, righteous; 2. to the physical world, a, according to the mathematical omnipresent, eternal; 6, according to the dynamic almighty, omniscient ; 3. to the conjoined moral and physical world all-wise, blessed. i Hist. ofScientif. Ideas, II. 175, ed. 1858. 2 Gramm. kritixh. Worterb., s. v. 3 Vergl. Elymol. Worierbuch,-158. 4 Glossariuin Germanicum. GOD. 683 c< II. According to His general relations to the universe, 1. in- finite, unchangeable, independent; 2. purely spiritual self- sufficient, absolutely necessary." Boehme. 1 The attributes have also been classified as physical, metaphysical, and moral; internal or immanent, and external or transeunt; passive and active. God, Definitions of. "The Supreme Being, who contains within Himself the cause of all things." Adelung. " The first ground of all being; the divine spirit which, unmoved itself, moves all ; absolute, efficient principle ; absolute no- tion ; absolute end." Aristotle. " The moral order of the universe, actually operative in life." Fichte. "The abso- lute Spirit; the pure essential Being that makes Himself object to Himself; absolute holiness; absolute power, wis- dom, goodness, justice." Hegel. "A being who, by His understanding and will, is the Cause (and by consequence the Author) of nature; a being who has all rights and no duties ; the supreme perfection in substance ; the all-obligat- ing Being; Author of a universe under mor'al laws; the moral author of the world; an Intelligence infinite in every respect." Kant. "God is derived incontestably from good, and means the Good itself in the perfect sense, the absolute Good, the primal Good, on which all other good depends as it were, the fountain of good. Hence, God has been styled the Being of beings (ens entium), the supreme Being (ens summum), the most perfect Being (ens perfectissimum, s. realissimum)." Krug. " The sufficient reason of all monads ; primitive simple substance; single primitive unity; pure, immaterial actuality." Leibnitz. " The independent Su- preme Being, author and maker of all things, from whom we receive all our good, who loves us, and gives us all things." Locke. "Most perfect, most real, most holy, most right- eous, and best Being; the suprernest Intelligence, the primal essence ; Creator, ruler, and judge of the world." Lossius. " The absolute substance, containing all things in Himself, seeing all things in Himself, according to their true nature and being." Malebranche. " The word God, fairly used, means a cause of the world, distinct and separate from it, i Quoted by Krug, Gott. 684 GOD. and with personality. Theism demands not alone a Cause of the World distinct from it, but an intelligent cause, that is, with cognition and will consequently, personal and indi- vidual. An impersonal God is no God at all ; it is an abuse of the word, a non-concept, a contradiction in the adjective." Schopenhauer. "The absolute, universal substance; the real cause of all and every existence ; the alone, actual, un- conditioned being not only cause of all being, but itself all being, of which every special existence is only a modifi- cation." Spinoza. " The ens a se, spirit independent, in which is embraced the sufficient reason of the existence of things contingent, that is, of the universe." Wolf. " God is all eye, understanding, ear; unmoved, undivided, undis- turbed ; ruling all through thought ; and like to man nei- ther in form nor understanding." Xenophanes. God, Existence of, Argument for, Demonstration, Proofs of. The terms used in defining or classifying these are: Cosmological, historical, naturalistic, ontological or teleolog- ical, pra'ctical or moral (the Kantian), supernaturalistic, theoretical, on which see the special articles. God, Philosophical Systems Concerning. See Atheism, Deism, Pantheism, Theism. Among the names of authors who have a historical place in the philosophical discussions of the doctrine of God and the associated topics, may be mentioned : the Fichtes, Hegel, Herder, Jacobi, Kant, Leib- nitz, Mendelssohn, Beimarus, Ritter, Ulrici, Des Cartes, Bled- soe, Brougham, Cudworth. GOOD (in General), " that which has a value." Kant. " Every- thing which promotes the end to which the springs of action in any being are directed." Reinhard. "All that is the object of desire." Schulze. " That which has a more abid- ing value than what is simply pleasant." De Wette. "That which is as it should be, or that which fulfils its destination." Zerrenner. See Bonum. Fu. *Good (The Chief), (Ger. Gut,hochstes}. GOOD, GOODNESS (Classification of ). "The good or perfect may be divided into metaphysical, physical, and moral good. In the phrases 'morally good' and 'morally bad,' the term ' morally ' is used to indicate the specific nature of goodness or badness alleged to exist, namely, such goodness or bad- ness as can belong to personal actions, and to the agents, in GRAVITATION. 685 contrast with other forms of goodness or badness, such as may belong to things. The 'right' thus comes under a wider generalization, namely, the ' good.' Happiness is a good within a man; property, on the other hand, is an exter- nal good ; but the morally good is distinct from both, as good connected with what a man is and does, in contrast with what a man experiences and has." Calderwood. 1 GORGONIZATION, from Gorgon, who turned all she looked upon into stone. Used by Stirling to mark the theory " that mind is so peculiar a Gorgon, that it transforms ob- jects into its own nature the Gorgonizatlon of the object on the part of the subject the belief of all subjective ideal- ism." 2 GRACE, in ^Esthetics, beauty of form, in movement, in car- riage, in attitude. Chesterfield (to his son): "Senza la Grazia tutta fatica e fana" (without grace all your trouble is of no account). GRADATION, GRADUATION, in Logic, process from step to step ; progression by regular degrees. " The method of gradation consists in taking a number of stages of a property in question, intermediate between two extreme cases which appear to be different." Whewell. 3 GRADE, GRADUS, in Ontology, degree, " the distinction of internal qualities of the same things." Wolf. " The inten- sive magnitude of a thing. . . . Between any two supposed grades there are intermediate grades." Krug. GRADUAL, proceeding by grades or degrees. ^Grammar (Universal). GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE, the verb, containing both copula and logical predicate. G. sentence may contain any number of distinct propositions, which admit of being sepa- rated, but which are combined together for the sake of brevity. Jevons. 4 GRAMMATOLOGY, science or theory of the grammatic ; phil- osophical grammar. ^Grandeur. ^Gratitude. GRAVITATION, GRAVITY, THEORY OF, in Metaphysics, conjecture in regard to the nature of the force by which 1 ffandb. of Moral Philosophy, 17. 2 Annotat. on Schwegler, 387, 391, 392, 418. 8 No- vum Organnn, Aphorisms, 49-51. * Less, in Logic, less. xi. 59 686 GRAVITATION. bodies tend to the centre of attraction. "If it were true that the fall of an apple was the occasion of Newton's pur- suing the train of thought which led to the doctrine of uni- versal gravitation, the habits and constitution- of Newton's intellect, and not the apple, were the real source of this great event in the progress of knowledge." Whewell. 1 " True philosophy has shown it to beunsolvable by any hypothesis, and resolved it into the immediate will of the Creator." Quincy. L. J. In Hegel's Mechanics, in his Science of Nature, " Gravity is the being in se, the self-internality (the being within self) of matter, its longing to come to itself, the first trace of subjectivity. The centre of gravity of a body is the one, the oneness which it seeks." Schwegler.- See Jevons. 3 In Kant, 4 " The operation of general attraction which all matter exercises immediately upon all matter, at all degrees of remoteness." Ger. Schwere. " It differs from gravity, which is the effort to move in the direction of the greater gravitation." Gravitation, in Ethics, is applied to a central and univer- sal principle of morals. GREEKS, PHILOSOPHY OF. See Synthetical Tables. GROTESQUE, in Esthetics, from Grotta (Italian), an artificial cave, where wild and comic figures were often painted. The grotesque in art is the counter-ideal, handled ideally. " Farce is that in poetry which grotesque is in a picture." Du Fres- noy. 5 GROUND (Ger. Grund], in Logic, fundamental cause, principle, or reason ; the sufficient reason, q. v. GROUP (Fr.), in the Societary school, a union of persons, at- tracted to each other by one of the four affective passions. *Gymnosophist. HABILITATION (Habilitas, aptitude, ability), the formal ad- mission of a teacher, especially of a university, into the fac- ulty to which he desires to attach himself. *HABIT (Fr. Habitude; Ger. Gewohnheit)."The virtues are 1 Nov. Organ., 48. $Gesch. d. Philos., 45, II. i., Seclye, Stirling. 3 Less, in Logic.. 2CO. * NaturleJtre, 71. 5 Art of Painting, translated by Drydeii. HARMONIC. G87 neither passions nor capacities; they are habits acquired." Aristotle. 1 See Hamilton, 2 Eeid. 3 HABITUDE. " Relation ; respect; state with regard to some- thing else." L. J. " Names being supposed to stand per- petually for the same ideas, and the same ideas having im- mutably the same habitudes one to another; propositions concerning any abstract ideas, that are once true, must needs be eternal verities." Locke,* HAECCEITY (lit., thisness], a Scholastic term to express indi- viduality or singleness, which we mark by the word "this;" as, this man, this fruit, this star. K. HALF-KANTIANS (Ger. Halb-Kantianer}, a term applied by H. Bitter, in his book (1827) directed against pantheism. It is applied to those who accepted Kant's views with modifi- cations, as Beck and Bardeli. See Kuhn. 5 HALF-VIRTUES (Ger. Halbtugenden), in Ethics," actions in which virtue or duty has some influence, but not enough to form their exclusive or main motive. L. HALLUCINATION, " a delusion, consequent either on tempo- rary confusion of mind, or more enduring disorder of thought, originated and continued by a diseased condition of brain." C. F. V. Wandering of mind; mental illusions; "False perceptions without disease of the organs of sense." Cop- land. ".Sensations perceived at a time when there are no appropriate external objects to excite them in the organs of sense." " Images and ideas reproduced by the memory, asso- ciated by the imagination, and personified by habit." Esqui- rol. L. J. See Brierre de Boismont, 6 Maudsley, 7 Porter. 8 HAND, "the instrument of instruments." Aristotle. "Oxen would be men, if they had hands." Anaxagoras. *Happiness. HARDNESS (see Touch), a secundo-primary attribute of body. Hamilton. 9 HARMONIC, of or pertaining to harmony; concordant; in agreement. "Harmonic reason, which compels the nature of things to accord with itself." Pliny. 10 i FAhics, ii., 5. 2 Metaphysics (Am. ed.), 124, 247-249, 255-257. Reid's TPbrfrs.221, 551. * Ifamilbm's Ed., 221 b, 333 a, 387 a, 533 b, 550, 551. * Hum. Undent., B. IV., c. ii. 6 Gi'.sch. d. Philos., 84. 6 Hallucinations, tr. from the French, Philada., 1853. ^ Physi- ology and Pathology of the Mind, 1807. Human Intellect, % 227, 342-344. Reid's Workt, 84S, 857-859. Hist. Natur., 2, 109, 113. 688 HARMONICS. HARMONICS (Gr.), the theory of music; in Plato, a system or science of music, " which shall be free from the defects and inaccuracies which occur in actual instruments." Whewell. 1 HARMONY (Gr.), means of joining; joining; union; accord- ant system, government ; accordant relation of sounds; con- cord ; the necessary union of all things in the universe, so that they work together to a common end. When it is con- sidered as resting on the common ground of things subsist- ent and derived from common laws, it is styled, by Kant,' 2 //. generally established ; when it involves the relation of indi- vidual parts, he calls it H. singularly established. Harmony of Mind and Body, in Leibnitzo-Wolfiau Psychol- ogy, is the name given to any explanatio-n of mental percep- tions by changes which occur in the body, and of voluntary motions in the body by volitions and uolitionsof the mind, or by its desires and aversions. It covers the common ground of the three hypotheses. 3 *Harmony, Pre-established, System of, " is that by which the intercourse (commercium) of soul and body is explained by a series of perceptions and desires in the soul, and a series of motions in the body, which are harmonic or accord- ant through the nature of soul and body." Wolf. 4 Those who accept this system are called Harmonists. Harmony Social, or Absolute Harmony, in Fourierism, the era of prosperity which is to follow the infancy of the race. ^Harmony of Spheres. *HATE, HATRED (Fr. Haine; Ger. Hass}. See Love. "Revul- sion of feeling against things and persons regarded as evil. As concerned with persons, it takes the form of antagonism, and is to be ranked among the affections." C. F. V. HAZARD (Ger. Ungefahr, Zufall), chance ; accident ; " an event, or a series of events, which does not seem to be the result of natural necessity nor of intelligent plan." D. P. S. HEARING, perception of sound. Porter, 5 Reid. 6 HEART (Fr. Cceur; Ger. Jferz), used in Psychology to signify, in popular phrase, the seat of the emotions, the desires and conations ; in Ethics, the moral condition, tone of feeling. i Hist, of Scientific Ideas, III., iii. 2 jf e i n , Vern., 331, 706. Meiklejolin, 198, 415. Mund. Sensib., 22. Entdeck., II., iii. 3 p syc hol. Rat., g 530. * PsychoL Rat., \ 612. 6 Human Intellect, % 125, 126, 1GU. o Human Mind, cli. 4, soc. 1. HEN ADS. In the ancient usage, biblical and classical, the range of the word was wider. The word sometimes embraced all the in- tellectual faculties. What we now call "head," and make antithetical to " heart," was then embraced in " heart." HEAT. 1. Caloric; 2. the sensation referred to caloric as its cause. Reid. 1 HEAUTONOMY (Gr.), law to self; applied by Kant 2 to the faculty of judgment as giving law to itself; not to nature, not to freedom, but to itself only. 3. S. Beck. 3 HEAVEN (Angl. Sax.; Lat.. Coelum ; Fr. del; Ger. Him- mel). l. The seeming blue arch above us, in which, when unclouded, the sidereal bodies appear. 2. The infinite space which encompasses the earth. 3. The portions of the uni- verse exterior to the earth. 4. The home of the blessed. Kant. 4 "Two things fill the soul with a reverence ever new and ever growing the oftener we return to them, the more we dwell upon them the starry heavens above us, the moral law within us. The one annihilates my significance as an ani- mate being, the other infinitely exalts my value as an intel- ligence endowed with personality." 5 HEBREW PHILOSOPHY.-See Synthetical Tables. *HEDONISM, hence Hedonists. HEGELIANISM, from G. W. Hegel (1770-1831), Fichte's method, Schelling's system developed. The system of ab- solute idealism, of the absolute identity between cognition and being ; the process of the thing is identical with the process of thinking ; thought works out to absolute cognition by the resolution of every concept into its proper antithesis. Philosophy divided into 1. Logic : i. Being (Sein) ; ii. Es- sence ( Wesen) ; iii. Notion (Begriff}. 2. Philosophy of Nature : i. Mechanics ; ii. Physics ; iii. Organics. 3. Phi- losophy of the Spirit : i. Subjective S. ; ii. Objective S. ; iii. Absolute S. HEGESIANISM, system of Hegesias, of the Cyrenic school, fl. 310 B. c See Suicide, HEMEROSIS (Gr.), taming; in Ethics, the subjugation of the passions, of the evil in human nature. HENADS, unities: in Plato, ideas; simple essences, monads, 1 Human Mind, cli. v., ser. i. 2 VrtheiJskraft (Kirchmann). 24. 3 Evl. Auszng., II., 567. * Religion . innerhalb, 191, 192, 193. 6 Praktisch. Vtruunft (Kirchuiauu), 194. 59* 2U 690 HERBARTIANISM. HERBARTIANISM, (from J. F. Herbart,1776-1841,) the system which maintains that the conceptions or internal conditions of the soul are psychic forces, and that their mutual opera- tion can be reduced to an exact mathematical calculation. It claims to be " exact/' and as against the transcendental idealism of Kant, the School of Realism. Meyer, H. L. HERMENEUTIC (Gr.), interpreting. Plato. 1 HERMESIANISM, the system of George Hermes (1775-1831), an attempt at a philosophico-dogmatic establishing of the Eoman Catholic religion over against Kant and Ficlite; condemned 1835. ^Hermetic Books. Hermetic Chain, the series of sages beginning with Hermes Trisrnegistus (the thrice-great Hermes). Hermetics, Alchemists, receivers of the Hermetical philoso- phy, and practisers of the Hermetical arts (transmutation of baser metals into gold ; prolongation of life). HEROIC, HEROISM, in Ethics, the principle or act which in- volves a lofty conception of duty, and a willingness to make great sacrifices for it. HETEROGENEAL, HETEROGENEOUS, of another kind; the opposite of homogeneous. Hence, Heterogeneity, Het- erogeneousness. HETEROGENEITY, LAW OF (principium Heterogeneitatis), " that every concept contains other concepts under it ; and therefore, when divided proximately, we descend always to other concepts, but never to individuals ; in other words, things the most homogeneous similar must in certain respects be heterogeneous dissimilar." Hamilton, 2 Krug. 3 See Genus and Species. HETEROGENY, .production of a living being, by beings of a different species from it. HETERONOMY, (trepos, another; v6poe, law,) subjection to the law or rule of another. Opposed to Autonomy, q. v "This is Kant's 4 designation for a false principle of morals, such as receives acknowledgment when personal desire deter- mines the right for us, instead of moral law. In contrast with Heteronomy, the recognition of moral law as the absolute D. ZLnffic, Am. eel., 143. *Logik, g 45, b. * Kritik der practlschen Ver- itunft, Metaph. of Ethics, Sample's Transl., new ed. ; Calderwood, p. 93. HOMINEM, AD. 691 law of life is autonomy of the will, or autonomy of the reason." C. F. V. Hence, Heteronomous. HETEROPATHIC, " regulating by a different action, force, or law." Latham, J. S. Mill. L. J. 'HEURISTIC. See Ostensive. The art of invention. Heu- ristic Method, the analytic. HIATUS (Lat.), a gaping, opening, break ; (Ger. Lucke y Kluft], a supposed break between phenomena ; opposed to continuity. " There is no hiatus in the universe." Kant. 1 . HIEROPHANT, an initiator into mysteries; a pretender to the possession of secret knowledge ; a mystagogue. HILARITY (Lat.), cheerfulness, gayety, joyousness, merriment ; (Ger. Frohseyn.] HINDOO (HINDU) PHILOSOPHY. See Synthetical Tables. HISTORY (Gr.), a learning or knowing by inquiry, informa- tion ; narrative of what is thus gained ; narrative of past events. //. of man, H. proper, " narration of the phenom- ena of the freedom of the will, or of human actions, of the constant evolutions of the primary elements of human nature. If. of nature, natural history, account of impersonal nature, or of man as under the laws of external nature." Kant. History, Philosophy of, the application and the result of the application of philosophical principles to historical events, either particular or general. HOBBESISM, system of Thomas Hobbes. Materialism ; des- potism. HODEGrETICS, a system for showing the way ; in Philosophy, an introduction or guide to study. ^HOLINESS (Ger. Heiliglceit}." For the divine will, and for a holy will in general, there can be no imperative ; the shall would here be in the wrong place, because the will is of itself necessarily in harmony with the law." Kant. 2 HOMEOMERY. See Homoiomery. HOMICIDE (Lat.), generic term for manslaughter; the killing of a human being. See Murder. HOMILETIC, social ; in Ethics, applied to the social virtues. HOMINEM, AD, to the man ; in Logic, an argument whose force is derived from something in the views or interests of those to whom it is addressed. 1 Rein. Vernuuft, 221, 281, seq. ; Meiklejohn, 134, 170, 171. * Grundlegung z. Met. d. Sitten, 39 ; Semple's Tr. (Calderwood), 24. 692 HOMOGENEITY. HOMOGENEITY, HOMOGENEOUSNESS (Lat.), likeness of genus, q. v.; of kind. (Ger. Gleichartigkeit.} H. Law of, " that however different any two concepts may be, they both are subordinate to some higher concept things most unlike must in some respects be like." Hamilton. 1 HOMOGENEOUS, HOMOGENE, HOMOGENEAL, of the same kind ; opposed to Heterogeneous. HOMOGENY, same nature or kind ; the generation of a being by two others of the same kind. HOMOIOMERY, HOMOIOMERIS, consisting of like parts ; in Anaxagoras, the homogeneous particles constituting every distinct substance, each being characteristic of its own sub- stance. The doctrine is styled Homoeomeria. Grote. 2 *Homologue. HOMOLOGY (Gr.), a special term for the analogy existing be- tween parts of different plants and animals, as between the wing of a bird and the fore-leg of a quadruped, or between the scales of a fish and the feathers of a bird. Jevons. HOMONYMOUS. See Equivocal. HOMOPATHY, similarity of feeling; sympathy. Cudworth. L. J. *Homotype. HONESTY (Gr. ^b w&bv ; Lat. ffonestas, Honestum; Fr. Honnttete; Ger. Ehrlichkeit], moral beauty, nobleness, virtue, honorable- ness distinguished from utile, the useful, by Cicero. 3 HONOR, in Ethics, " the finest sense Of justice which the human mind can frame, Intent each lurking frailty to disclaim, And guard the way of life from all offense Suffered or done." WORDSWORTH. HOPE (Fr. Espera-nce,- Ger. Hoffnung], joyous anticipation, with a less degree of probability than expectation. HORIZON (Lat., from the Greek), the boundary line between the atmosphere and the surface of the earth ; line that ter- minates the view ; (Ger. Gesichtskreis,} " the circle in which the apparent plane of the earth terminates in the concave of the sky." Roget. Kant : 4 " We may illustrate the systematic i Lag. 1-iS. 2 llato, I. 60. 3 j) e Finibus, ii. 14. * Hem. Fern., 6S6 ; Meiklejohn's Tr., 403. HUMILIATION. 693 unity produced by the three logical principles in the follow- ing manner. Every conception may be regarded as a point, which, as the standpoint of a spectator, has a certain hori- zon, which may be said to enclose a number of things, that may be viewed, so to speak, from that centre. Within this horizon there must be an infinite number of other points, each of which has its own horizon, smaller and more circum- scribed ; in other words, every species contains sub-species, according to the principle of specification, and the logical horizon consists of smaller horizons (sub-species), but not of points (individuals), which possess no extent. But dif- ferent horizons or genera, which include under them so many conceptions, may have one common horizon, from which, as from a mid-point, they may be surveyed ; and we may pro- ceed thus, till we arrive at the highest genus, or universal and true horizon, which is determined by the highest con- ception, and which contains under itself all differences and varieties, as genera, species, and sub-species." HOSPITALITY (Lat. ; Ger. Gast/reiheit), in Ethics, kindliness to strangers and guests. HOSTILITY (Lat.), feeling of enmity; act of enmity. HUMAN, HUMANE (Lat.), of or pertaining to man. We speak of the human race, body, mind, soul, reason. The proper tenderness of the human heart is designated as humane. Hence, Humanity, in the Ethical sense. HUMANIORA, HUMANISTIC STUDIES, HUMANISM, HUMANITIES, HUMANISTS, words used in connection with the branches of knowledge, and the culture which rests in general on a classical training, considered as developing what is most truly characteristic of cultivated man. HUMANITY (Lat.). 1. Human nature or condition ; qualities, feelings, and inclinations of mankind; the human race; mankind. 2. Humane, philanthropic behavior ; philan- thropy ; gentleness ; kindness. 3. Mental cultivation ; lib- eral education ; refinement. HUMATION, in the Hermetic Philosophy, an alchemistic change of water into earth. HUME (David, 17X1-1776), SYSTEM OF, idealistic scepticism ; denial of the objective validity of the notion of cause. HUMILIATION (Lat.), abasement; humbling; bringing low. 694 HUMILITY. HUMILITY (Lat. ; lit., lowness), in Ethics, lowliness of mind ; modest self-estimate. The pretence of it is called spurious, affected, false humility. *HTJMOUR (Lat., liquid), frame of mind ; whimsical or extrava- gant peculiarities, as "Ben Jonson paints humours rather than characters ; " the power of reducing objects of thought to the sphere of the laughable, by the use of some element really in them ; in wit, the relation of the object involved is always ideal ; in humour it is real. See Wit. Kant. 1 HYBRID, mixed ; in Logic, applied to mixed syllogisms. See Enthymeme. HYLARCHICAL (Gr.), presiding over ffyle, matter. HYLE (Gr.), matter; in Plato, the material in which the world- forming power works up and works out the ideas. HYLICISTS, philosophers of the Hyle, or matter; the earlier Ionic natural philosophers. HYLOBIANS (Gr.), livers in the woods; Hindoo sages who pursued their meditations in woods and other solitary places. HYLOGENY, origin of matter. HYLOLOGY, doctrine or theory of matter, as unorganized. HYLOPATHISM, the attributing of feelings and passions to matter ; Hylozoism. HYLOTHEISM, the identification of God with matter ; materi- alism. HYLOZOIC, HYLOZOICAL (Gr.), connected with the doctrine of Hylozoism, q. v. " The numen to which the Hylozoic cor- porealist pays all his devotion is a certain blind she-god, or goddess, called Nature, or the life of matter." Gudworth. 2 " When Spinoza and his followers speak of the intelligence and knowledge of God, they mean to attribute these powers to Him in no other sense than the ancient Hylozoics attrib- uted them to all matter." S. Clarke. 3 *HYLOZOISM, HYLOZISM, See Pantheism. Hence, Hylo- zoist. HYPERESTHESIA (Gr.), morbidly exalted sensibility. Wins- low. 4 HYPERPHYSICAL (Gr.), transcending nature; supernatural. HYPOCHONDRIA, HYPOCHONDRIACISM, HYPOCHON- DRIASIS, egotistic melancholy, sympathetic with diseased conditions, especially of the digestive organs. 1 Urtheilskraft, % 54. 2 Intell. Syst., p. 106. 3 Attributes, 9. < 06s. Diseases, cli. 20. i. 695 HYPOCRISY, simulation of virtue ; dissimulation of real char- acter; dissembling; insincerity. HYPOCRITISM, systematic hypocrisy. HYPOGRAPHIC, in ancient Logic, applied to a definition which gives merely a general, not an exact idea of the ob- ject. HYPOLEMMA, minor proposition or subsumption of a syllo- gism. Hamilton. 1 HYPONOEME, in ancient philosophy, supposition, prejudice, suspicion. *HYPOSTASIS (Gr.), (see Subsistentia, Substance), person; personality. See Whately. 2 HYPOSTATICAL, personal. Hypostatical union, such a union as renders the natures united, one person. HYPOSTATIZE, to consider as substance. HYPOTHEORY, in the Aristotelian theory of the categories, opposed to Protheory. ''HYPOTHESIS. See Bacon, 3 Hamilton, 4 Leibnitz, 5 Mill, 6 Whewell. 7 HYPOTHETICAL (see Proposition), involving a hypothesis or condition ; hypothetical argument, dualism, form, impera- tive, judgment, proposition, realism, reasoning, right, sorites, syllogism, use of reason. Hypothetical disjunctive syllogism, see Dilemma. Hamilton. 8 HYPOTHETICO- DISJUNCTIVE, dilemmatic. See Judg- ments, Syllogism. HYPOTYPOSIS (Gr., a sketch ; outline; Lat. Adumbratio}. Hy- potyposeis was the title of the work of Sextus Empiricus on the Pyrrhonian or sceptical philosophy. Diogenes Laertius. 9 HYPSOLOGY (Gr.), the theory or science of the sublime. I, in Logic, the sign of a particular affirmative ; in complex and modal propositions, it marks the negation of the mode, and the affirmation of the proposition. See Darii, Datisi, Dis- amis, and Dibatis. *I, in Psychology. See Ego, Me, Subject. l Logic, 199. 2 Logic, Append. I. 3 jvbr. Org., i., ch. 104. 4 Logic, 188, 449, 451. Metophys., 117-119, 362 seq. & Nor. Ess., 4, ch. 12. 6 Logic, iii., 16, xiv. T Nov. Org. Kenov., ii., ch. 4 and 5. 8 Logic, 239-255, 512, 598-618. Vit., IX., 78. IATRTCS. IATRICS (Gr.), science of healing; applied to Logic as a med- icine for the mind. ICH (Ger.), Ego, I. ICHNOGRAPHY (Gr.), tracing of a ground-plan; sketch; compend. Hence, Ichnographical, compendious, summary. ICHNOSCOPY (Gr.), seeking of traces; in Philosophy, the searching in earlier systems for traces or germs of thought which were matured at a later period. *IDEA (ISea, Mo^, forma, species, image). This word has gone through such a variety of meanings, that it is possible to deal with it only by giving in succession the more important of them. 1. Descartes used the word to designate both an impression made upon the brain, and also, but more com- monly, a mental representation of an object "all that is in our mind when, we conceive a thing." 2. " Whatsoever is the object of the understanding when a man thinks."- Locke. 8. A mental image or representation of an external object. 4. A notion of the understanding. 5. The pattern according to which all created things were made by the Deity the eternal reality, of which visible things are only the shadows. Plato. 6. " Pure conceptions of the reason," * a priori conceptions transcendental ideas (God, soul, the universe) essentially different from the forms of the sensory and the categories of the understanding. These ideas, as given by pure reason, are only regulative, guiding our intellectual procedure. As given by the practical rea- son, they are more than regulative, and represent the really existing. Kant. 7. The absolute "Truth in itself and for itself," the universal and one, of which the manifold is only a dim representation to which all things tend in progress of dialectic evolution and of which Logic is the science. Hegel. C. F. V. *Idea, in the History of Philosophy, be/ore Kant, see citations in Fleming's article and Calderwood's additions. Aristotle, 223, 224, 228; Augustine, 223; Boethius, 223; Condillac, 228 ; Des Cartes, 224, and C. F. V. ; Diogenes Laertius, 223 ; Gassendi, 228 ; Hobbes, 228 ; Locke, 224, 228, and C. F. V. ; Peripatetics, 224; Plato, 222, 223, and C. F. V. ; Plutarch, 1 According to Kant, reason is the faculty which furnishes us with the pr'nciples of knowledge a priori. IDEA. G97 223; Pythagoras, 224; Reid, 224; Sophists, 228 ; Zeno, 228. See Berkeley, 1 Brucker. 2 Idea (in the History of Philosophy, from Kant to the present). Erdinann : 3 "The aim of the object coinciding with its inmost nature." J. G. Fichte: 4 "Self-dependent thought having life in itself and giving life to matter, and having as its emanations the fine arts, social virtue, science and religion." J. H. Fichte : 5 " That which, transcend- ing the empirical, incidental, individual content of con- sciousness, bears the character of the absolutely universal and of universal validity, the perfect and- eternal, and is accompanied by the recognition in consciousness of this universal validity," virtually Kant's. Hamilton avoids the word. When he uses it at all, it is "in a loose and genera] signification, to comprehend the presentations of sense, the representations of phantasy, and the concept or notions of the understanding." 6 " Idea properly denotes an act of thought considered in relation to an external some- thing beyond the sphere of consciousness a representa- tion." 7 In Hegel, the idea (without a plural), "is the absolute of which everything actual is but the realization above it there is no higher something external to it there is nothing, for in all that is it actualizes itself. The universe is the reality into whose manifold forms the idea expands itself." 8 " The Idea is the supremest logical definition of the Absolute. It is neither the barely subjective, nor the barely objective notion, but the notion which, immanent in the object, releases it into its complete self-dependence, yet none the less holding it in unity with itself. The supremest notion is the absolute idea, the unity of life and cognition, the Universal, which alike infinitely actual, and distinguish- ing itself from this its immediate actuality, is self-thinking, and as self-thinking, self-actualizing." 9 Kant : "Necessary concept of the reason, which transcends the possibility of experience, and to which no congruent objects can be given 1 Principles, with Ueberweg's Notes, and Prolegomena and Annotations (Krauth), Index : Idea, Ideas. 2 Hist. Crit. Phil., Index. 3 Holler Monatschr., 1850. II., 394. * Werke, vii. 55. & Psychntogw, 694. * Logic, Am. ed. ; 90. * Reid's Works, 279 n. 8S5hwegler: Gtsch. d. Philosophy %U. Do., 4 & I. 3 c.; Eneydopsed., gg 213-215, 236-244 ; Logic, tr. by Wallace, 304, 323. 60 IDEA. in experience." l Schelling : " The special entities, so far as in their specialty they are absolute, are consequently special, at the same time universal the universal in the form of the particular God, but a special God (for Art)." 2 "The substance and the being itself." 3 Schopenhauer : " In the true original sense of the word introduced by Plato, the different gradations of the objectivation of the will." 4 Schwarz: 5 "The primary essence or principle, grasped by the mind, or reason." Ulrici: "Archetypes of things." 6 See Steudel. 7 Idea and Ideas, Division and Qualities of, marked by adjec- tives and participles : Absolute, abstract, acquired, actual, adequate, adventitious, aesthetic, sesthetico-normal, clear, com- plex, composite, confused, cosmological, deceptions, deter- minate, distinct, divine, dubious, dynamical, empirical, erroneous, essential, eternal, expressed, extensive, factitious (ens rationis], false, fixed, formal, fundamental, general, im- mediate, impressed, impure, inadequate, individual, innate, intellectual, intelligible, just, material, mathematical, me- diate, metaphysical, mixed, moral, normal, obscure, physical, positive, practical, prseteressential, precise, primary, prob- lematical, psychological, pure, real, regulative, sensible, sensual, simple, singular, social, subjective, theoretic, tran- scendent, transcendental, true, universal, vague. See all those words. Idea and Ideas, combined with a governing of. /. of ab- stract, accidents, concrete, ideas, imagination, mode, pure reason, reflection, relation, sensation, sense, the singular, singularity, substance, the thing, things, the universal. Idea and Ideas, governed by of; archetypes of /., association, cause, cave, clearness, combination, comprehension, criterion, development, extension, formal distinction, latitude, materi- ality, nature, objectivity, occasion, organ, origin, relation, scheme, signs, succession, table (Gassendi's), theory, trains (or of thought) ; trains of, conditioned, irregular, natural, regular. See Thought, trains of. i Werke, II., 253, 263, 483, III., 95-97, VII., ii. 104, 42 ; see Kmntli's Berkeley, p. 338. 2 rhilosophie der Kumt, Werke I., v. 390. 391. 3 DO., Bruno, Werke I., iv. 303. * Welt ah Wille u. Vnrstdl. I. 154, II. 414. & Qott JVatnr, u. Atmtcli., 13G. 6 Zeitsctir. v. Fichte, xxvi. 69-71, 265 ; Glauben u. Wissen, 190. ? Philosophic im Vmriss, I. 222. IDENTITY. 699 *IDEAL. "That which the mind contemplates as a representa- tion of the normal excellence of any form of being, or of what ought to be, in contrast with what exists." C. F. V. Ideal, as noun, applied with of, to the imagination, beauty, sense; reason, practical, speculative, or pure; the summum bonum, the highest ontological perfection. Ideal, as noun, qualified by transcendental. *Ideal, applied as adjective, to cause, ground, image, philoso- phy, realism, world. Ideal Legality." Kant's phrase to designate the form of moral law as simple or direct com- mand 'Thou shalt.' Its formula is Act from a maxim at all times fit for law universal." C. F. V. ^IDEALISM, defined, divided, and qualified : absolute (Hegel] , abstract, aesthetic, aesthetic - causal, autotheistic (Fichte), Berkeley [theological], Cartesian, concrete, cosmothetic, crit- ical (Kant], dogmatic, egoistic (Fichte], empiric. Fichtean (autotheistic, egoistic], Hegelian (absolute identity}, Hume's (sceptical], of identity (Hegel], Kant's (critical, transcendental], Leibnitzian, Malebranchian (mystic], material, mystic (Male- branche], objective (Schelling], practical, problematic, psy- chologic, real (srjnthetism], Schelling, sceptical (Hume], Scho- penhauer (theoretical], subjective (Fichte), theoretical (Scho- penhauer] transcendental (critical, Kant]. These names are in many cases vague, and have little more than a mnemonic and methodic value. ^IDEALIST, one who accepts some form of idealism. IDEALITY, mental state or construction in accordance with some form of idealism, or in sympathy with the ideal. IDEALIZE, to lift into the sphere of the ideal ; to invest with ideal or imaginary attributes. ^Ideation and Ideational. ^Identical Proposition. IDENTIFICATION, the process of marking as identical. IDENTIFY, to mark or recognize as identical. *Identism or Identity. ^IDENTITY (PERSONAL). "The identity of our personal existence through all changes of experience. As the knowl- edge of personality is given in consciousness, that of per- sonal identity is secured by the aid of memory." C. F. V. ^Identity, absolute, generic, logical, numeric, (principle of ), philosophy of, specific, system of. 700 1DEOCRAT. IDEOCRAT, the adherent of the system of Ideocraty, Ideoc- ratism, the rule of ideas, especially as in opposition to exist- ing legal enactments ; visionary. IDEOGENICAL, IDEOGKENY, terms related to the rise or ori- gin of ideas. IDEOGRAPHICS, IDEOGRAPHY, writing by signs of ideas, which are understood by every one ; opposed to phono- graphies. Ideological, Ideologue, ^Ideology (Idealogy). IDIOCRASY (Gr.), peculiar temperament; idiosyncrasy; the special or proper character of a human or animal body; nat- ural peculiarity. IDIOGNOM (Gr.), holding one's own opinion. IDIOLATRY (Gr.), self-worship. IDIOMA (Gr.), peculiarity; attribute. IDIOPATHY (Gr.), peculiar affection; feeling for one's self only. ^Idiosyncrasy. IDIOT (Gr.), private; peculiar; one of extreme weakness of mind; imbecile. *Idol. Idolatry. IDOLA, idols, in the sense of illusions, false appearances. In Bacon, 1 the causes of the fallacies and errors of the human mind. They are four : Idola fori, " arising from the current usage of words, which represent things much otherwise than as they really are " > idols of the market. Idola specus, " which, from peculiar dispositions and circum- stances of individuals, mislead them in different manners" idols of the den. Idola theatri, " which false systems of philosophy and erro- neous methods of reasoning have introduced" idols of the. theatre. Idola tribus, "to which, from certain common weaknesses of- human nature, we are universally liable " idols of the tribe. See Hallam. 2 ^IGNORANCE, " Ignorantia, want of knowledge," C. F. V., (Ger. Unwissenheit], is qualified by such terms as affected, inexcusable, gross, profound, invincible, vincible. Whately. 3 1 Abr. Org., summary of second part in Aphorisms, Aphor. 38 seq. Works, Pliiliulu., 1841, III., 347. 2 Literal, of Europe, pt. iii., ch. 3, g 58, 59. 3 Logic, App. I. ; Ambig. Terms, xl. ILLUSION. 701 IGNORANTISM, a system which would keep the masses in 'ignorance. IGNORATIO ELENCHI, irrelevant conclusion; lit., ignorance of the refutation ; ignorance of the proof of the real issue. See Fallacy. IGNORE, not to know; to treat or pass over as if unknown. IGNOTI NULLA CTTPIDO, there can be no desire of what we . do not know. This is true of specific desire, but does not exclude a general restlessness of desire, which is destitute of any well-defined object. ILLABILE (hence inability), incapable of error. *ILLATION (Illative, adj., illative, n., illatively, adv.], in its " more limited sense, an imperfect syllogism formed by con- version or inversion ; in which there are only two terms, i. e., no middle-term ; as, "Some pagans were good men. Some good men were pagans." L. J. ILLATIVE, that which can be inferred. ILLICIT PROCESS, in Logic, improper treatment, producing illicit major, or illicit minor. ILLIMITABLE, incapable of being bounded ; boundless (illim- itation, illimited, illimitedness). ILLOGICAL, destitute of logic ; contrary to logic. ILLUMINATES, ., *ILLUMINATI, "persons of special in- tellectual attainment and culture." C. F. V. ILLUMINATIVE, light-giving. Sir K. Digby. L. J. ILLUMINISM, the system of the Illuminati, has been ap- plied especially to the opinions of Saint-Martin, and to Swe- denborgianism, q. v. ILLUSION (Lat.), deception, false show, error ; (not to be con- founded with Elusion;) (Ger. Schein, Sinnenschein), "a de- ceptive representation of an object, occasioned by organic or functional disorder." C. F. V. " The subjective ground of the judgment is regarded as objective." Kant. Illusion ^Esthetic. 1. Deception of the senses, as optical illu- sion. 2. An illusion produced by the influence of the fine arts on the imagination. Illusion Empirical, produced by the limitations of the senses ; illusion of the sense. 60* 702 ILLUSION. Illusion, Logical, produced by neglect or misapplication of logic, by sophisms. Kant calls Dialectics the logic of illu- sion. Illusion, Metaphysical or Transcendental, is the confound- ing of the phenomenon with the thing ; the illusion that the objects of perception exist outside of perception, and apart from it, exactly as they seem presented in it. ILLUSORY, meant to deceive ; adapted to deceive. Locke. L. J. ILLUSTRATION, explanation, rendering clear. Locke. L. J. IMAGE, (Lat. Imago,} lit., imitation, copy, likeness; in Psychol- ogy, a copy, or likeness formed in the mind. (Gr. eidu^ov ; Ger. Bild.) See Imagination. Wolf defines image in general as the representation of any composite ; a material image is the representation of a composite in a composite ; an immaterial image is the representation of a composite in the simple. *IMAGINANT, in Bacon, as adj., imagining ; as subst., one who imagines. 1 ^IMAGINATION (as an Act), (Ger. Einbildung], imagining. 1. Mental representation in general, as in the presence of the object pictured in our consciousness. 2. Mental representa- tion of the absent object, "passive imagination." In the first sense it involves an actual object, and actual external perception. In the second there is an antithesis to both the object of it is subjective, the perception is internal. 3. The result of the "creative," "plastic," " inventive," "pro- ductive " processes of the Imagination as a faculty, q. v. Imagination as a Faculty (Ger. EinbUdungskraft}. "The faculty of representation by which the mind keeps before it an image of visible forms. This power operates either as simply reproductive, or as in some sense creative." C. F. V. 1. The "passive" faculty of recalling and reproducing, repre- senting sensible phenomena. See Imagination as an Act, 2. Bacon : " The representation of an individual thought." 2. The active, associating or creative faculty of conceiving and expressing the ideal. In its loftier degrees it appears in art and literature as genius ; in industry as invention ; in sci- ence as brilliant and suggestive hypothesis. See Akenside. Sir W. Hamilton 2 says, Imagination is not productive or cre- ative, but merely plastic. *Adv. of Learning, B. ii. ^Metaphysics, lect. xiv. IMMATERIALISM. 703 ^Imagination and Conception. ^Imagination and Fancy. ^Imagination and Memory (Imaginative, Imagine, Imaginer, Imagining, verbal absol. imaginous). IMBECILITY, weakness of mind ; feebleness of character. -IMITATION (Ger. Nachahmung], "the act of copying, or writing according to a model." C. F. V. IMMANATION, a flowing in. See Emanation. -IMMANENCE, IMMANENCY (lit., a remaining in), " in- dwelling, in contrast with transcending." C. F. V. Immanence of Soul and Body, in Psychology, their mutual indwelling; their being one in another. Immanence of the Object, in Metaphysics, the indwelling of the representation or image in the mind. When this is as- sumed as the totality, it involves Idealism. ^IMMANENT, remaining in ; involving immanence. Immanent, in antithesis, in the Critical Philosophy, to the transcendent, q. v., and the transeunt,q. v. 1. In the phrase, ''immanent use of the understanding," the immanent is that which keeps within the limits of the ordinary circle of cog- nition, remains within the range of possible experience which the transcendent transcends. 2. In the phrase "im- manent activity of the ego," internal; shut up; remaining in the mind; theoretical; in opposition to the transeunt, the practical, going forth in outward manifestations. Immanent, in Pantheism, applied by Spinoza to God, as the indwelling cause, ground, or principle of the world, in which He abides in essential union, all particular things being but phenomena of the one eternal substance. It is antithetical to transitory. The acts of God, as the sole substance, are therefore immanent acts, self-modifications, like those of the mind in thinking. IMMATERIAL, without matter; incorporeal; spiritual. See Soul. The term is applied to forms, man, mind, spirit, sub- stances. *IMMATERIALISM, is also applied to any system opposed to materialism; especially to a system which maintains the im- materiality of the soul. It is "attributed to" Berkeley. "To attribute to Berkeley a denial of the existence of matter is hardly warranted, though there is much to favor it. He does say that, ' the existence of external bodies wants 704 IMMATERIALITY. proof,' and that the 'supposition of external bodies is not necessary for the producing of our ideas.' But his point was to show that 'the philosophical notion of matter in- volves a contradiction.' ' He wanted to induce men to settle what the substantial existence of the sensible world could in reason amount to.'" Fraser. 1 ''Berkeley's philosophy of the causation that is in the universe, rather than a philoso- phy of the mere material world." 2 C. F. V. Berkeley 3 claims to have shown "that there is no corporeal or mate- rial substance." He goes far beyond what is quoted by Calderwood, and maintains that the idea of matter involves a contradiction, and is pernicious. 4 ^IMMATERIALITY, manner or state of an immaterial being ; incorporeal nature ; spirituality. IMMATERIALIZED, divested of matter ; disembodied. Glan- ville. 5 IMMEDIATE, " direct. Immediate knowledge is knowledge of the thing itself, in contrast with knowledge of one thing by the intervention of another. (Ger. Unmiftelbar.)*' C. F. V. It is opposed to intermediate, mediate; without the intervention of a medium or second cause; direct. It is applied to action, cause, effect, power, will. Herbert Spen- cer. 6 Immediate Inference by Privative Conception, passes from any affirmative proposition to a negative proposition im- plied in it, or equivalent to it, or vice versa. Jevons, 7 Thom- son. 8 IMMEDIATION (Immediatio], the divine operation, involving immediate presence and power. IMMENSITY, in Natural Theology: 1. Absence of bounds, or of limitation in space ; apart from or free from bodily di- mension or measure. 2. Infinity, "the simultaneous and perpetual possession of all perfections, natural and moral." Wolf. See Infinite. IMMETHODIC, IMMETHODED, destitute of method, without order, confused (Immethodicalness). IMMOBILITY, character of the immobile ; incapacity of being moved, or of motion, either absolute or relative. l Life of Berkeley, 365. 2 Ib., 366. 3 Principles, $ 26. * Principles, $ 9, 26, 96, 133. 6 Seeps. Scif.nt.if. 6 Principles of Psychology. L. J. 7 Less, in Logic, Less. X, 8 Laws of Thought, l\ 85-92. IMPERATIVE. 705 IMMORALITY, conflict in principle or action with the moral. IMMORTAL, free from death ; consciously existent forever in the future. Eternal differs from immortal, in involving nec- essary and unbeginning existence. IMMORTALIST, believer in the immortality of the soul. Jer. Taylor. L. J. ^IMMORTALITY OF THE SOUL (Ger. Seeknunsterblichkeit], " rests upon the basis that the soul is distinct from th body." Kant: 1 "The endlessly enduring existence and personality of the same rational being." See I. H. Fichte (1867), Men- delssohn, 2 W. Menzel (1869), E. R. Pfaff, 3 H. Richter (1871), Teichna filler. *Im mutability. IMPALPABILITY, incapability of detection by touch. IMPARTIBILITY, in Natural Theology, incapability of parti- tion, because existent as a simple and absolute totality, with- out parts. IMPASSIBILITY, in Natural Theology, essential incapacity of suffering. IMPEDIMENT (Lat. hinderance; Ger. Hinderniss], that which prevents a cause from acting. It may be positive or negative. Kant. 4 ^Impenetrability. *IMPERATE, lit., commanded; done by mental impulse or guidance. See Elicit, Act. "'IMPERATIVE. " This is the characteristic of moral law, dis- tinguishing it from all law beside." C. F. V. Imperative. " The representation of an objective principle, so far as it necessitates the will, is called a commandment (of reason) ; and a formula expressing such is called an impera- tive. An imperative commands hypothetically or categori- cally. The former expresses that an action is necessary as a mean towards somewhat further; but the latter is such an imperative as represents an action to be in itself necessary and without regard had to anywhat out of and beyond it, i. e. objectively necessary. . . . When we attend to the dissimilar grades of necessitatlon expressed by the imperative they might be called: 1. Rules of art; 2. Dictates of prudence ; i Pi-act. Vcrn., 220. *Phaedon, 4th edit., 1868. 3 Euthanasia, 2d ed., 1870. rein. Vcrn., 701. 2V 706 IMPERATIVE. 3. Laws of morality. The first and second are hypothetical imperatives. The third involves the conception of an inter- mediate and objective and universally valid necessity." Kant. 1 Imperative Apodictic, that which affirms that the action look- ing to an objectively necessary aim is good. It is virtually only another form of stating the Imperative Categorical, q. v. ^Imperative (The Categorical), Imperative (The Practi- cal), See Duty. Imperative Hypothetic, conditioned ; as a means, not as an end. IMPERCEPTIBLENESS, character of the imperceptible, of that which is too minute or feeble to be grasped in sense- perception. IMPERCIPIENT, not percipient ; incapable of perception ; as, " the soul in sleep." A. Baxter. 2 IMPERFECT, in Logic, applied (I) by Aristotle to the second and third figures, which it was necessary to reduce to the first; (2) to induction or inductive reasoning, when it is im- possible to examine all the cases or instances to which the conclusion can refer ; opposed to perfect induction. Jevons. 3 IMPETUS (Lat.), assault; attack; impulse; vigor; force; in- stinct; natural impulse. (Ger. Trieb, Naturtrieb.) IMPLICATION, (lit., intertwining), the opposite of explication and the explicit; quality of the implicit ; that which is in- volved, though not expressed ; that which may fairly be in- ferred. IMPONDERABILITY, character of the imponderable ; inca- pacity of being weighed; destitution of weight, absolute or relative ; used especially of " the imponderables " light, heat, and the electric force, when considered as substances. IMPOSSIBLE, in Logic, applied to matter involving a univer- sal negative (E) opposed to necessary and. contingent. ^Impossible (The). Impossibility. *Impression. IMPROBITY (Lat.), bad quality; wickedness; depravity; dis- honesty. See Impurity. IMPROPER, in Scholastic Logic, is applied to a combination l Groundwork of Metaphys. of Ethics, ch. 2. 8 Enq. into the Nature of the Soul, I., 349. a Logic, Less. XVII., XXV. INCITABILITY. 707 of extremes, which does not accord with any properly logi- cal mode of expression, yet is justified by a mystic or su- pernatural explanation ; such is the phrase " God is man." *IMPULSE and IMPULSIVE, " apply to every form of mental force which simply and directly urges to action." C. F. V. IMPURITY, MORAL, applied by Kant to the mingling of spurious, immoral motives for conformity to the law. IMPUTABILITY , IMPUTABLENESS, liability to impute- tion; power of being imputed. ^IMPUTATION, a judgment by which a person is "charged with the doing of a wrong action." C. F. V. INABILITY, want of ability, natural or moral, physical or in- tellectual ; the result of defect of power or of means. See Force, Power, Will. IN ABSTRACTO (Lat.), in the abstract; in mere conception or notion opposed to in concrete. INACTUATE, to put into action. Inactuation, operation. Glanville. L. J. INADEQUATE IDEAS, opposed to adequate, q. v., " are such, which are but a partial or incomplete representation of those archetypes to which they are referred." Locke. 1 INANIMATE, INANIMATED, INANIMATION, are ap- plied to bodies as void of life, and are thus opposed to the animate or vital ; by transfer they mark want of intellectual vivacity. INANITY, emptiness, physical (Sir K. Digby 2 ) or mental. INAPPLICABLE, not suitable for application ; destitute of ap- plicability. Mill. 3 INCHOATE, v. a., to begin ; INCHOATE, adj., begun ; IN- CHOATIVE, inceptive. " The higher congruity of life, being yet but imperfectly inchoated." Glanville. 4 " Plato mentions that the great soul of this world does at least incho- ate, and rudely delineate the fabrick of our body at first." Dr. H. More. 5 INCIDENT, applied, in Logic, to a proposition additional to a primary or chief proposition. Watts. L. J. INCIPIENT, commencing. Berkeley. 6 INCIRCUMSCRIPTIELE, incapable of circumscription or limit. INCITABILITY (Lat.), faculty of being incited, urged, moved i Hum. Undertt., B. II., ch. xxxi. 1. * Nature of Bodies. L. J. 3 L og ^ p t . y., ch. iii. 4 Pre-exislcnce of Souls. 139. 5 Song of the Soul, Notes, p. 383. 6 Analyst, 4. 708 INCLINATION. physical, mental, or moral. limitation, faculty or act of inciting. Incitement, medium or motive of iucitation. Inciter, agent or producer of incitation. '"INCLINATION, " tendency of the nature towards an object." C. F. V. INCOEXISTENCE, the opposite of coexistence, g. v. Locke. L. J. INCOGITATIVE, the opposite of cogitative ; destitute of the power of thought; unthinking. "There are but two sorts of beings in the world that man knows or conceives. First, such as are purely material, without sense, perception, or thought ; incogitative beings. Secondly, sensible, thinking, perceiving beings ; cogitative beings.' 1 Locke. 1 INCOGNIZABLE, incapable of cognition. Herbert Spencer. 2 INCOHERENCE, want of coherence, or connection. Locke. L.J. INCOMMENSURABLE, INCOMMENSURATE, not reduci- ble to a common measure. Watts, Dr. H. More. L. J. INCOMMUNICABLE, incapable of impartation. Glanville. L.J. INCOMMUTABILITY, incapacity of change. L. J. INCOMPOSSIBILITY, character of the incompossible. " Qual- ity of not being possible, but by the negation or destruction of something." L. J. INCONCEPTIBLE, inconceivable. INCONCLUSIVENESS, in Logic, character of the inconclusive, want of cogency or force to the reason. IN CONCRETO (Lat.), in the concrete, q.v., in actual nature opposed to in abstracto. INCONSEQUENCE, inconclusiveness ; lack of logical sequence. INCONSISTENT, implies qualities or assertions which cannot coexist in the same thing or proposition ; opposed to com- patible. INCORPOREAL, without body; without bodily qualities; imma- terial. INCORPOREALIZE, to assert the doctrine of the incorporeal. Cudworth. L. J. INCORPOREITY, without body and its limitations. Berkeley. 3 INCORRUPTIBILITY, freedom from the power of corruption, physical, moral, or essential. (Ger. Unerweslichkeit.} 1 Ifnm. Undersf., IV., x. 9. 2 Principl. of Psychology. L. J. 3 Sins, 270. INDIVIDUAL. 709 INCREDULITY, inclination to doubt ; disbelief. It ijs distin- guished as moral, historical, rational, naturalistic. INCREMENT (Lat.), increase, growth. (Ger, Wachsthum.} INCULPABLE (Lat.), incapable of being blamed; unblamable. (Ger. Unstraflich.} ^INDEFINITE, " properly, want of clearness and exactness of demonstration in our thoughts. It does not apply to ob- jects." C. F. V. The indefinite is that of which there is no limit fixed, " by us." Indefinite Judgment. See Judgment Indefinite. INDESIGNATE, indefinite. INDESINENT, unceasing. A. Baxter. 1 INDETERMINATE, unfixed. I. Judgments, see Judgments I. INDETERMINATENESS, INDETERMINATION, charac- ter of the indeterminate. Bramhall. 2 L. J. INDETERMINISM, in Kant, the theory that freedom consists in the fortuitous character of an action ; that it is not deter- mined by reasons ; that to a free being good or evil must be alike possible. Fu. ^INDIFFERENCE (LIBERTY OF), is "meant to describe a state of mind in which the will is not influenced or moved to choose or to refuse an object, but is equally ready to do either. There is no such state as volition, irrespective of motive, and this phrase should be discarded. Liberty of indifference is no part of the libertarian or free-will doc- trine." C. F. V. -INDIFFERENT, an action is said, "though inaccurately" (C. F. V.), to be indifferent, that is, neither right nor wrong, when considered in itself. *Indifferentism, or Identism, q. v. INDIRECT (Lat.), not in a straight line; circuitous; by inter- mediate process; applied to a method of inference and re- duction of the syllogism. *Indiscernibles (Identity of). INDISCERPTIBILITY, incapacity of discerption, or separation into parts; applied to God, soul, spirit; quality of the indis- cerptible. Bp. Butler. 3 INDIVIDUAL, ^INDIVIDUALISM, ^INDIVIDUALITY, i Nat. of Human Soul, I., 351. 2 Answer to Hobbes. 3 Analogy, Pt. L, ch. 1. Gl 710 INDIVISIBILITY. *INDIVIDTTATION, INDIVIDTIATOR, relate to "a be- ing having a distinct, circumscribed existence," or "sepa- rateness of being which distinguishes one person from an- other." C. F. V. See Whewell, 1 Herbert Spencer. 2 INDIVISIBILITY (Ger. Untheilbarkeit], incapabilityof reduction to parts ; impartiality. See Atom, Divisibility, Monad, Simplicity, INDOLES (Lat.). 1. Of things inborn or native quality; natural quality ; nature. 2. Of persons natural abilities, talents, genius, disposition. INDUCIANS (opposed to Traduciam], those who believe that the soul exists before the body, and is brought in, induced into it, at conception. INDUCTION (Method or Process of), (see Mill 3 ), "that form of the reasoning process which proceeds from particulars to generals." C. F. V. Hence, inductive, applied to syllogism. ^Induction (Principle of). INEPT (Lat.), trifling; foolish. Hence, Ineptitude, unfitness; ineptly, ineptness. *INERTIA (Ger. Tragheit).K2nit: "The incapacity of matter to move itself." Whewell: 4 "The property of matter by which it resists the reception of motion by which it reacts and requires an adequate force in order that any motion may result . . its inertness." It is applied also intellectually and morally. *In Esse ; In Posse. INEXISTENCE. 1. (From the negative particle), non-exist- ence; 2. (From the preposition), existence in; inherence. INFERENCE (see Mill): 5 "The act of drawing a conclusion from premises." C. F. V. It is mediate or immediate. ^"Inference and Proof. INFIMA (Lat.), the lowest ; applied to species. ^INFINITE (Gr. aTtetpog ; Ger. Unendliches} to be distinguished from the indefinite divided into mathematical and transcen- dental. Hence, infiniteness, infinitude, infinity. INFINITESIMAL, infinitely divided. Berkeley, 6 Herbert Spencer. 7 l fftst. of Scientific Ideas, II., 148 (ed. 1858). 2 Biology, $ 72-74. Do., p. iii.. ch. 3, p. 3o~>. e,0, 191, 192. Beiden Grundprobleme, 240, 241. * Philosophic im Umriss, Erst. Th. Zweit. Abth., 158-16G. 5 Origin of Species, ch. 8, (6th edit.) 6 Persius, v. 84. 7 Logic, Lect. I. INTELLECTUS. 715 INSURRECTION (Lat.), uprising; insurgency; outbreak against civil power. (Ger. Emporung.] INTEGRAL (Lat.), untouched; whole, entire; essential to en- tireness ; constituent, as a part. INTEGRATION, LAW OF. Relativity, law of, q. v. INTEGRITY (Lat.), completeness; entireness ; blamelessness ; innocence ; probity in the measure of the highest principle. ^INTELLECT (Intellected, a., Intellective, Intellectual, a., Intellectual, .). "More exactly, the understanding re- garded as a power of comparison ; more widely, the whole rational nature of man." C. F. V. * Intellect and Intellection. *Intellect and Intelligence. INTELLECTUAL, of, pertaining to, derived from the intellect. /. cognition, through the understanding opposed to sensi- tive cognition through the senses. /. philosophers, repre- sented in Plato, maintain that in the senses is nothing but illusion ; only the understanding cognizes the true. /. sense, the instructive sense, applied especially to sight. I. sensibil- ity, deriving pleasure or pain from the exercise or restraint of the intellect. /. world, the intelligible world. /. system of the world, the system of Leibnitz, which applied to the world the laws of the pure understanding, without regard to sense-perception. Kant. 1 INTELLECTUALISM, Intellectual Philosophy, the system which maintains that thinking (the activity of the under- standing, or of the reason taken as equivalents), is the source of all true cognition. This was the view of the Eleatists, who rejected all sense cognition. (Intellectually.) INTELLECTUALIZE, INTELLECTUATE (Ger. Intettectu- iren], in Kant, to exalt to the rank of intellectual objects. Leibnitz intellectual ized phenomena, as Locke sensualized the conceptions of the understanding. 2 INTELLECTUS (Lat.). 1. Perception, discernment, by the senses. 2. Mental : understanding, comprehension. 3. The understanding, the faculty of understanding : intellect, in- telligentia, rationalitas. (Gr. vovg ; Fr. Entendement ; Ger. Ver stand.) *Intellectus Agens. /. archetypus, the archetypal understand- ing, the divine mind as furnishing model and law. /. disci/r- 1 Rein. Fern., 312, 336, 881 ; Prolegom., 107. s Rein. Vern., 327 ; Meikkjolm's Trans] , 196. 716 INTELLIGENCE. sivus, the discursive understanding, the faculty of cognizing objects through concepts, not immediately. /. ectypus, ecty- pal, derivative understanding, opposed to /. archetypus. I. intuitivus, intuitive, immediate understanding ; acting by direct perception ; opposed to /. discursivus. */. patiens. L purus, pure intellect, in contrast to sense and imagination. /. speculative, the speculative understanding, possessing the power of abstract processes. Kant. 1 INTELLIGENCE, (Intellects, Intelligentia,) lit., perception, discernment by the senses. 1. Understanding, knowledge ; the power of discernment; the intellectual faculty. 2. Substance, spiritual and rational, as " God is the supreme, is pure intelligence," "Man is an intelligence, served by organs." Hence, Intelligent, Intelligential. Intelligence, Faculties or Modes of, the intellectual facul- ties. They embrace conception, memory, abstraction and generalization, judgment and reason, imagination and the faculty of signs. C. D. A. INTELLIGIBLE (Lat.), lit. perceptible to the senses; capable of being grasped by the intellect ; pertaining to the intel- lect only ; supersensuous, (Ger. Uebersinnliches.) It is ap- plied to universals, the categories, to the ens rationis, or pure being of the mind, to the world beyond the range of the senses. Intelligible gods, in Plotinus, ideas considered as the forms of which intelligence is the matter. INTELLIGIBILIA (Lat.), intelligibles, objects of the under- standing. INTELLIGO (Lat. ; lit., to choose between).!. Of the senses; to perceive, discern. 2. Of the mind or understanding; to perceive, understand, comprehend. Ger. Verstehen ; Fr. Entendre. INTENSION (lit., a stretching out), in Logic and Metaphysics, involves the qualities which are necessarily possessed by objects bearing a particular logical name. It is opposed to extension, which includes the objects to which the name may be applied. Metal in intension is denned by the qualities common to all metals. Intension is synonymous with com- prehension, connotation, depth. Analysis in intension is syn- 1 See Melliu's Worterb. Verstand. INTEREST. 717 thesis in extension. As the intension of a term is increased, the extension is Decreased. An intensive syllogism is one which involves the qualities of its object. See Hamilton, 1 Jevons, 2 Spalding, 3 Thomson. 4 INTENT or INTENTION (INTENTION ALITY).-" Some- times purposes cherished within, but practically inoperative. More frequently, purpose as directing the use of means for the attainment of a selected end." In law and morals, in- tention affects the character of the action following, " and the responsibility of the agent." C. F. V . ^Intention (Logical). ^Intention (First and Second). INTENTIONAL SPECIES or FORMS, among the Peripatet- ics of the Middle Ages, intermediate and vicarious objects between the mind itself and the external object of thought. Intentional marks the relative and accidental nature of their manifestation. Hamilton. 5 INTEREST (Lat. ; Ger. Interesse), largely used by Kant. 6 The dependence on the principles of reason, on the part of a contingently determinable will; "that whereby reason be- comes practical ; " "a stimulus of the will, presented through reason ; " " the complacency in association with the mental representation of the existence of an object ; " " the associa- tion of pleasure with the appetitive faculty, if this linking of the two be, in the judgment of the understanding, valid, in ac- cordance with a general rule valid for the subject at least." Interest of Inclination (Hypothetical, Sensuous, Patho- logical), in Kant, 7 practical pleasure, in as far as it is united with the appetitive faculty ; interest in the object of the ac- tion ; interest in behalf of inclination. Interest of a Mental Faculty, in Kant, 8 a principle which involves the condition on which alone the faculty is exer- cised. Interest (Categorical, Moral, Practical), in Kant, 9 a pure, unsensuous interest of the mere practical reason ; an interest in the observance of the moral law; interest in the action; dependence of the will on the principles of reason in itself. 1 Lect. on Logic, Lect. VIII. z Lessons in Logic, Less. V. 3 Art. Log. in Encyclopedia, Britunnica, 8th ed. * Laws of Thought, sect. 48-52. & Reid's Works, 952, 953. 6 fjrund- Uguny zur Met. der SiU., 38*, 71, 121 seq. Crit. d.pract. Vernunfl, 127, 141, 144, 215 seq. Ci-it. d. Urtheilskr., 2 seq. Rechtslehre, Einl. iii. 1 Rechtslehre, iv. Mrt. der tfttf.,38*. 8 P>-act. Vem., 215 seq. Pract. Vern., 141, 142. Grundl. z. Met. d. Sitt., 38*. 718 INTERMEDIATE. INTERMEDIATE LINK or CAUSE, a cause between the primary cause and the effect. A is the cause of B, and B is the cause of C : B is the intermediate link. INTERMUNDIA, the metakosmia of Epicurus, the spaces be- tween the bodies of the universe, where the life of the gods was spent, free from all care about the affairs of the creatures. Cicero, 1 Diogenes Laertius. 2 INTERNAL (Lat.), inward, 1. as opposed to the outward ; 2. as opposed to the relative, marking what a thing is in itself, apart from comparison absolute. (Ger. innerlich.) Kant. 3 /. sense, in the Cartesian school, convertible with conscious- ness in general, and thus came to be frequently applied to denote the source, complement, or revelation of immediate truths. Hamilton. 4 /. senses, in the Scholastic Philosophy, opposed to the external senses (sight, hearing, etc.), were generally accounted four : the common sense ; imagination ; sensitive judgment ; sensitive memory. Hamilton. 5 INTERPRETATION (Lat.), explanation, exposition. (Ger. Auslegung.} ^Interpretation of Nature. INTERSTICE, INTERSTITIUM (Lat.), space between. (Ger. Zwischenraum. } INTERVAL (Lat.), space between ramparts and tents; space between, either of locality or time. INTOLERANCE, in Ethics, want of toleration ; unwillingness to yield what is demanded by the right of opinion. INTRAMTJNDANE, opposed to extramuudaue ; within the world ; neither without it, nor above it. INTRINSIC (Lat.), lit. following into the inside; inner; inhe- rent the opposite of accidental ; essential to the nature or character. It is applied to qualities and properties ; in Ethics, to equity, evil, goodness, worth ; in Logic, to argument. INTRODUCTION (Ger. Einleitung}, in Philosophical Litera- ture, the name of a class of books, embracing formal Ency- clopaedia the branches of preliminary philosophical knowl- edge ; Propaedeutics, Prolegomena: Real - Encyclopaedia: sketches of the various departments. There are also special introductions to Logic, Metaphysics, Psychology, Ethics, and other special topics. 1 Finib., ii. 23. 2 x. 89. 3 liein. Vern., 381. * lidds Works, 759. 5 Do., 953. INVOLUTION. 719 INTROVERSION, the act of turning the mind inward ; applied to the faculties. Berkeley. 1 INTUITION. " Immediate knowledge direct perceiving or beholding of an object or principle. Leibnitz 2 distinguished 'knowledge' (cognitio) into intuitive and symbolical." C. F. V. " An intuition is any knowledge whatsoever, sensuous or intellectual, which is apprehended immediately; a notion, on the other hand, a product of the discursive faculty, is any knowledge whatsoever which is apprehended mediately" - De Quincey. 3 See Anschauung. ^Intuition and Conception. Intuition, Philosophy of, Intuitional Philosophy, one which rests on intuition, external and internal perception ; a science of experience. Krug. INTUITIVE, the opposite of deductive; reached by intuition; direct ; applied to judgment, knowledge, reason ; self-evident truth, perception, vision. INTUSSUSCEPTION, the reception of other matter into or- ganic bodies. INUNDERSTANDING, adj., devoid of understanding or of mental faculties; applied by Pearson 4 to beasts and plants. ^Invention. IN VERBIS SIMUS FACILES, MODO CONVENIAMUS IN RE, we need have no difficulty about the phrase, if we agree in the thing. See Logomachy. A serious difference in words usually involves, however, a real disagreement in view, or ignorance of the truth; and unity in the thing seeks a common formula. INVERSION (lit., a turning upside down), changing of order; in Logic, a mere change of the ordinary succession of the parts, the parts themselves remaining what they were ; to be distinguished from Conversion, q. v. INVOLUNTARY, without will ; without the act of the will ; forced. INVOLUTION, rolling up, infolding; the opposite of evolution, q. v. Tlie theory of involution in generation. See Evolution, Theory of. /. of Concepts, I. of Notions, relation of con- taining and contained; in comprehension, opposed to sub- ordination. Hamilton. 5 1 Guardian, No. 89. 2 Opera. Philot., Erdmann, p. 79. 3 Rhctric. 4 Exp. of Creed, Art. xi. 5Z,ract., g 165. 740 LAW. Law, Practical, that which relates to the will ; the principle which makes acts a matter of duty ; the objective principle of willing. L. P. Conditioned, that whose obligation is not absolute, is hypothetical or prudential. Law, Pragmatic, a prudential rule or prescription, a maxim of self-love, directed to aims whose objects are in the sphere of the senses ; material law. Law, Preceptive, affirmative, commanding. Law, Prohibitive, negative, forbidding. Law, Statutory, a law to which obedience is due on legal, not on moral, grounds. Law, Transcendental, transcendental law of nature, a law furnished by the understanding, a priori, to which our mental processes are all subjected. Kant. 1 Law, Unconditioned, formal law, g. v. Law of Antagonism, law of reaction in the changes of matter. Law of Continuity. See Continuity (Law of). Law of God, divine law, the purely moral law, as the will of God. Law of Nature, a general rule in accordance with which the changes in nature occur. The Laws of Nature are partly a priori, partly a posteriori. The a priori laws are those which arise from the cognitive faculty of man, so that the changes in nature, as the phenomena or sense-representations, which we have, must be subject to those laws, as otherwise they would not be our mental representations, and as such phe- nomena in nature. The laws a posteriori are deduced from observations of nature. Kant. 2 Law of Specification or of Variety, the logical principle that the species of entities are not without necessity to be diminished opposed to the law that entities are not without necessity to be multiplied. Kant. 3 Law of Virtue, law of duty ; ethical law ; moral law. LEGALITY, conformity to law. LEGISLATION, in Kant, the influence exercised by one faculty or mental operation on other faculties or other operations. The legislation of the reason is applied to the will and to liberty. i UrtheilgkrHft, xxvi. ; Rein. Vern., 17, 105, 263. * Rein. Vern., 280, 830 ; Meikle- john, 170, 486. 3 Rein. Vern., 683 ; Meiklejohn, 402. LIBERTY. 741 LEGISLATIVE, in Kant, applied to the faculties which impose laws upon the others. Reason is the legislative faculty a priori. The judgment is a legislative faculty, determinative or reflecting. LEIBNITZIANISM (from Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnitz, 1646-1716), the System of Leibnitz. 1. Sufficient reason. 2. Innate ideas. 3. Identity of indiscernibles. 4. Realities, harmony of. 5. Monads. 6. Pre-established harmony. 7. Time and space. 8. Sensible and intellectual, distinction between. 9. God. 10. Continuity, law of. 11. Theodicy. See all those words, and Schema. Leibnitzo-Wolfian System, Leibnitzianism, as systematized and developed by Wolf. *Lemma. LEMMATIC, applied to propositions having the nature of a lemma; preliminary, preparatory. LEVIATHAN, a monster ; in Hobbes, the democracy, the masses of the people. LEX (Lat.), law, q. v. LEXICON, sometimes applied to the dictionaries of the philo- sophical sciences, as by Furtmair, Krug, Lossius. LIBERTARIAN, adj., pertaining to the doctrine of the liberty of the will ; opposed to the doctrine of necessity. ^Libertarian, n. " One who holds that man is capable of rational self-guidance, in the face of desire, affection, and emotion, though he may also allow himself to be swayed by these inclinations of his nature." C. F. V. LIBERTINISM, the system of freedom from moral restraint, of lawless indulgence. It may be practical or theoretical. -LIBERTY OF THE WILL, or LIBERTY OF A MORAL AGENT (Ger. Freiheit). "Self-determination by the use of our rational powers." C. F. V. It has been divided into: I. Internal the freedom of the will. II. External per- sonal ; legal; social, as domestic, civil or political, ecclesias- tical. Freedom from necessity is sometimes called, "quite unwarrantably" (0. F. V.), liberty of indifference. Liberty, Human, Definitions of, in Modern Philosophy. Chalybiius : " At the beginning of life man is determined by his nature. The principle of liberty is not found in a nega- tive antithesis to nature until it persistently wills to abrogate 742 LIBERTY. its connection with nature, because its egoism discerns in that connection a heteronomy. Left entirely to himself, man would be forever at the mercy of a ceaseless play of natural forces, actions, and reactions. Formal freedom, in fact, consists in the ability of putting a stop to this play. This it accomplishes by means of loftier conceptions and ideas. The soul attains positive freedom only at the height of its culture, when it enters creatively into the actual world." 1 J. G. Fichte (with Kant): "Liberty is primary, absolutely incipient but this it is only when the law of nature does not operate. Liberty is the tearing of ou rsel ves loose from the fetters of mere nature and necessity." " The Ego is only free when it acts; if it be reflective upon this action it ceases to be free and becomes product. I am that which I make my- self by liberty. The Ego cannot set itself free by reflection. The will, as absolute creative principle, begets purely of itself a special world, and a sphere of being entirely its own. That only is free, absolutely creative, at the base of whose acts lie only those conceptions which do not rise out of the sphere of given being." 2 I. H. Fichte: "Liberty, in its highest sense, can be attributed to that only which is through itself everything that it is. There can be nothing freely willed which does not in some degree express the essential nature of him who wills. To be free is to determine our- selves ; knowing, feeling, and willing in accordance with our individual nature." 3 K. Ph. Fischer: "All actual liberty of the Subject willing, is a making of one's self free, and as the will can be nothing which it is not in itself, this essential liberty must be the presupposition of our becoming subjec- tively free ; and the self-freeing of the Subject willing, is nothing more than making itself that for which it was cre- ated." 4 Fliigel : " Man is free when his desires guide them- selves by the appercipient mental conditions. In these con- ditions the Ego of the man himself has its seat. In them, therefore, the man rules or is Subject. Here self-determina- tion takes place." 5 Hegel : " Liberty lies in the indeter- mination of the will ; it has in it no determination produced t. d. Speculat. Ethik, I. 64, 72, 76, 111, 120, 326, 335, 336. 2 Werke, I. 371 ; III. 20; IV. 222, 384-386 ; VII. 592. 3 Ontologie, 351 ; Charakter d.neu. PliilnsnpJiie, 2ded., 242; EtML; II., i. 78, 79, 85. * Freyheit d. Menschlichen Willens, ix. 50, 51. 5 ztschrft, f. exact, rhilosnph., x. 152. LIBERTY. 743 by nature ; it has itself only as object and contents ; it refers itself only to itself; it is the faculty of reflective self-deter- mination." l Kant : " The unavoidable problems of the pure reason itself are God, liberty, and immortality." " We can think of but two kinds of causality with respect to that which happens causality according to nature, causality derived from liberty. By liberty in the cosmological sense, I un- derstand the faculty of originating of ourselves, a condition ; a faculty whose causality consequently is not in accordance with the laws of nature, subordinated to another cause, which determines it according to the form of time. Liberty in this sense is a purely transcendental idea, which in the first place contains nothing derived from experience; in the second place, cannot have its object given or determined in any experience, since it is a universal law of experience, in- volved in fact in the very possibility of the existence of experience, that everything which happens must have a cause that causality itself must have a cause. . . Reason creates the idea of a spontaneity, which can of itself begin to act, without needing the precedence of any other cause 'to determine it to action in accordance with the law of causal connection. It is very worthy of remark that on this tran- scendental idea of liberty is grounded the practical notion of it, and that the transcendental creates in the practical that precise element of difficulty which has always surrounded the question whether liberty is possible. Liberty in the practical sense is the independence, on the part of the free- will ( Willkiihr), of necessitation by the impulses of sensitiv- ity. For an arbitrium is sensuous, in as far as it is affected pathologically (through the motive causes of the sensitivity) ; it is called animal (arbitrium brutum} when it is pathologi- cally necessitated. The human arbitrium is indeed sensitivum but not brutum it is liberum, because sensitivity does not make its action necessary. On the contrary, it dwells in man as a faculty, which determines itself of itself, inde- pendently of necessitation through sensuous impulses." 2 Liebmann: "Liberty is in general the faculty of a being i Werke, XVIII. 5, 6, 15, 20, 21, 24; VI. 116. 2 Rein. Vern., 7, 446, 561-571 ; Meikle- john, 5, 281, 330, seq. ; Born, 372, seq. ; Werke (Rosenkrauz), II. 419, 434; VIII. 78, 79, 86, 145, 223 ; IX. 12, 28. 744 LIBERTY. to manifest itself as it strives to manifest itself." 1 Mich- elet: "The absolute alone is free, and the individual is free only so far as, by his own choice, he grasps as his own the true, the good, and the beautiful. This is the free- dom of the sons of God. If the will has its root in the sole causality of God, it is fixed by another, and is consequently not free. There is no way of shielding the sacred flame of human liberty but to make it a principle immanent to the soul, to maintain the causality of the absolute, or the abso- lute causality as the proper essential nature of man. Liberty is the relation of identity and coincidence between subject and object." 2 Schelling: "Liberty is not a totally fortuitous oc- currence of actions, nor are these actions determined by empi- rical necessity; rather it consists in a loftier necessity, whose spring is in the essential nature of him who acts. That only is free which acts in accordance with the laws of its own essential nature, and is determined by nothing else, either within itself or exterior to itself. Hence the individual act is the result of the free essential nature, and thus results of " necessity. It is the faculty of the good and of the evil." 3 Schopenhauer: "The conception of liberty is properly neg- ative, as the substance of the conception is nothing more than the denial of the causal necessity." " We think simply of the absence of all that hinders and limits. 1. Physical liberty is the absence of material hindrances of every kind. 2. Intellectual liberty. 3. Moral liberty the liberum arbi- trium. Its question is, Can I will what I will ? If an affir- mative reply is given to this question, then it is further queried, Can I will what I will will? and so ad infinitum. The question, therefore, at least, reverts to the simple issue, Can I will at all? Here we again come upon the general negative conception of the absence of all necessity. As that is necessary which follows a given sufficient ground, the free must be dependent on no cause whatever, and must conse- quently be defined as the absolutely fortuitous. A free will would then be one which is not determined by grounds, is consequently determined by nothing whatever, and whose i Beweis der FreyheU d. Wilkns, 34-36. 2 p er sdnlichkeit d. Absolut., 214, 215 ; "Z>er Gedanke" V. 247, 249. 3 Untersuchung. fiber d. Wesen. d. Menschlichen Freihc.it; Werke, VII. 352, 383, 384. LIBERTY. 745 individual acts originate in itself absolutely and in a com- pletely original way. But all clear thinking is quenched by this conception, the conception of the liberum arbitrium in- dfferentice, and yet this is the only clearly defined, fixed, and decided conception of what is styled liberty of will. To maintain that to a particular man, in a particular set of cir- cumstances, two conflicting modes of acting are possible, is perfectly absurd." 1 Spinoza: "That being alone can be called free which exists solely from the necessity of its na- ture, and is determined by itself alone to action. That being is necessitated or coerced which is determined by another as to a definite mode of its existence and action." 2 Ulrici : "Liberty is the consciousness of the ability to de- cide differently, to act differently. The human will as the power of self-manifestation, self-assertion, and self-determi- nation, is simply the highest grade of that spontaneity which pertains to every living being. In the consciousness of itself it is exalted to the consciousness of liberty. We impute to ourselves in our consciousness liberty of willing. The im- pulses which operate on our wills present themselves to our consciousness not as coercive causes, but are rendered mo- tives by the soul itself. Thus our willing and acting are to our consciousness free." 3 Zeller: "Liberty is self-deter- mination. A will not free would be a self-determining, which, in the very respect in which it determines itself, is not de- termined by itself. To determine one's self means that we have in our Self, in the Ego, in the personality as such, the ground of the specific activity which is determined." 4 See Steudel. 5 Liberty, Acquired, the theory that liberty does not origi- nally belong to man, but is attained by effort. This view is defended by Chalybaus, Drobisch, 6 K. Ph. Fischer, Frantz, 7 Hegel, Schaller, 8 Scholten, Wirth, 9 and others. See pre- ceding article, and Steudel. 10 * Welt ah Wille, I. 338 ; Grund-Probleme, 3, 6-9, 46. Vierfar.he Wurze.l, 47. 2 Yon Gott, Menschen und dess. Gliick, Aus dem Holfandischen, ins Deutsche iibers. von C, tt-li'Kir*'-/,n,,'(U (Kirclunaim's P. B.), ch. iv ; Opra (Gfroerer), 287, 044. s Ztschr.v. Firtit.'-, vol. 28, 106; N.turrfcht, 35 -37 ; Leib u. Seele, 600-603. (Gottti. der Mensch, I.) * The< ilng, Jalirbii.cher, v. 390, 401-404. 5 Philosophic im Umriss, II., i. 8-15. <5 Moral- jsv',, nutixlilc, 74, 92. 1 NaturMtre d. States, 20, Leib. 11. Se.elr, 47. *Sysf. d. Spec- ulittiv. Ethik, I. 60, 61. 10 Philosophic im Umriss, Zw. Tlieil. Erst. Abth., 15, 16. 64 746 LIE. LIE (Ger. Luge], an act or word of untruth, meant to deceive. Lies are characterized as lies of malevolence, of levity, of inconsiderateness, of necessity, or of benevolence. *LIFE (Fr. Vie; Ger. Leben). "As to the problem regarding the origin of life, see Huxley, 1 Stirling, 2 and Bastian." 3 C. F. V. For the latest definitions of life, given by philosophical thinkers, see Vital Force. LIGHT (Ger. Licht; Fr. Lumibre\ the objective cause of the visibility of bodies. According to the theory of emanation or emission (Newton), it is a subtle, imponderable form of matter, whose parts reciprocally repel each other. Accord- ing to the theory of undulation or vibration (Euler), now generally received, it is called forth by the undulations of the molecules of an imponderable matter penetrating all bodies, ..Ether. Light, in the Scholastic Philosophy, is distinguished as four- fold, in accordance with the degrees of the communication of knowledge. 1. Exterior, illumining the mechanic arts. 2. Inferior, producing the knowledge by the senses. 3. In- terior, philosophic knowledge. 4. Superior, wrought by grace. Bonaventura. Light which shineth in the darkness, in the Hermetic Phi- losophy, mercury. LIMITATIVE, restrictive ; in Logic, since Kant, applied to the judgments known in the older systems as infinite or indefi- nite. LITERATURE, PHILOSOPHICAL, embraces:!. Works which define or present the essential character of philoso- phy. 2. Its aim, value, influence, uses. 3. Its method and study. 4. Its defects and controversies. 5. Philosophy, as a whole, systematically handled. 6. Its bibliography and literary history. Krug. LOCALITY, existence under the conditions of space; place. Herbert Spencer. 4 LOCKE, SYSTEM OF (from John Locke, 1632-1704), denial of innate ideas ; the source of our knowledge, the senses, and reflection on our mental states; experience and induction; empirical psychology. 1 Lay Sermons, No. vii. 2 As Regards Protoplasm. 3 Evolution and the Origin of Iri/e, and his Beginmttg oj Life. 4 Principles of Psychology, 226. LOGIC. 747 LOCOMOTION, spontaneous or voluntary movement from place to place. LOCOMOTIVE, of or pertaining to locomotion. " Aristotle, choosing the locomotive system as his base, divided his zootoca . . according to their locomotive organs." Owen. 1 LOCOMOTIVITY, power of locomotion. " The most superb edifice that ever was conceived or constructed, would not equal the smallest insect, blessed with sight, feeling, and loco- motivity." Bryan. L. J. LOCUS TOPICUS.-See Topics, *LOGIC. " The name is used in a variety of senses. First, there is the most restricted, known as Formal Logic the science of the laws of thought as thought, Hamilton, Mansel, Thomson. Second, the theory of evidence, or philosophy of the whole mental processes by which the mind attains to truth, as developed by Mill. Third, a rationalized theory of all known existence, which is the commonly accepted meaning of the term with German philosophers." C. F. V. Logic, Absolute, apodictic ; in the Platonic philosophy, the part of Logic which corresponds with ideas and produces certitude. Logic, Analytical, as " instituting an analysis of the process of the mind in reasoning." Whately. See Analysis. Logic, Apodictic. See L. Absolute and Apodeictic. Logic, Applied, deals with the application of the laws of pure logic to the detection of fallacies, and the development of a proper method for the investigation of truth. Atwater. 2 Logic, Applied, General, in Kant, opposed to L. pure, gen- eral, " when it is directed to the laws of the use of the under- standing, under the subjective empirical conditions which psychology teaches us." 3 Logic, Architectonic, L. systematic. Logic, Artificial, scholastic, scientific, elementary; opposed to L. natural, popular. Logic, Common, L. elementary. Logic, Deductive, reasons from the whole to the parts by syl- logism proper ; syllogistic. See L. Inductive. Logic, Dialectical. See Dialectics. Logic, Elementary, Elemental, L. general, L. universal, 1 Srande < Cox. 2 Logic, 36. s Rein. I'ernunft. 748 * LOGIC. formal L. ; in Kant, 1 the Logic of the universal use of the understanding, that which embraces the necessary rules of thinking, the rules without which the understanding could not be used. De Morgan: "It includes: 1. The term or name ; 2. The copula or relation. 3. The proposition and judgment; 4. The syllogism." 2 Logic, Enthymematic, or Imperfect, which remains in the circle of individual objects. Logic, Epicherematic, or Probable, that which corresponds with notions intermediate between sensations and ideas. Logic, Formal, " considers the laws of action apart from the matter acted on." De Morgan. 3 Logic, General, Universal, in Kant, " the logic of the gen- eral use of the understanding; it embraces the absolutely necessary rules of thought, without which there can be no use of the understanding whatever. It is either pure or ap- plied." 4 Logic, Imperfect. See L. Enthymematic, Logic, Inductive, reasons from the parts to the whole. See L. Deductive. Logic, Modified, induction. Logic, Natural, Popular, the L. of common sense, properly belonging to anthropology. Kant. 5 Logic, Objective, in Hegel. Logic, Particular, Special, in Kant, "contains the rules which regulate right thinking on a particular class of ob- jects the organon of this or that particular science." !Logic, Practical, "what has been usually attempted, but mis- erably executed, under this name," Kant proposes to accom- plish by the transcendental doctrine of method. 6 Logic, Probable, L. epicherematic. Logic, Pure, "takes no account of the modes in which we col- lect the materials of thought . . it only refers them to their proper head or principle . . it enounces the laws we must observe in thinking." Thomson. 7 Logic, Scholastic, Scientific, L. artificial. Logic, Subjective, in Hegel. i Rein. Fern., viii. seq., 77, 83, 170. 2 SyHabuf, % 1-4. 3 Syllabus, $ 1-4. 4 Rein. Fern., 76. Meiklejohn, 46, 47. 5 Logik (Kirchmann), 19. 6 Rein. Vemunft, 736. Mei- klejobn, 431. 7 Necessary Laws of Thought, % 3-5, Introduct. LOGICAL. 749 Logic, Syllogistic, deductive. Logic, Systematic, L. archetectonic. Logic, Theoretic, that which involves the principles in the abstract ; L. elementary, L. formal, as opposed to L. practical. Logic, Transcendental, in Kant, in opposition to the purely formal, the science which determines the origin, compass, and objective validity of the pure cognitions of the under- standing and reason, by which we grasp objects entirely a priori. 1 Logic, Universal, L. general, L. elementary. Logic of Cognition, Speculative, of the Speculative Use of Reason, of the Speculative Understanding, of the Uni- versal Use of the Understanding. 1. A Logic in accord- ance with which the speculative understanding thinks ; Ele- mentary Logic, q. v. 2. Transcendental Logic, q. v. L. of Illusion, see Dialectics, Illusion. L, of Common Sense, L. natural, q. v. L. of Thinking, Empirical, L. of common sense, L. natural. L. of Thinking, Pure, L. of cognition. L. of Truth, transcendental analytics. Kant. 2 Logic, Literature of, may be classified as: 1. Historical (Blakey, 1851). 2. Portions of encyclopsedial and introduc- tory works (Beck, Gerlach, Mich el et, Oppermann). 3. In collected works, as Kant's, Fichte's, Hegel's, (Wallace,) Schleiermacher's. 4. In works presenting the elementary doctrine in theoretic philosophy (Bardili, Hegel, J. J. Wag- ner). 5. Works in which both Logic and Metaphysics are treated (Erdmann, Kuno Fischer, Krug, Rosenkranz). 6. Logic alone. Aristotle (Oryanon], Bardili, Drobisch, Hilde- brand, v. Hartsen, Herbart, Kant, Krause, Lambert, Lange, Lotze, Schopenhauer, Trendelenburg,Ueberweg,Ulrici. Bain, Bentham, Blakey, Boole, Devey, De Morgan, Fowler, Ham- ilton, Jevons, Mansel, Mill (Stebbing, 1875), Port Royal (Baynes), Thomson, Whately. Atwater, Bowen, Coppee, C. C. Everett, McCosh, Tappan, Willcox, Wilson. 7. Logic in special applications. Isaac Taylor (Theology), Venn (Chance), Hickok (Reason), Latham (Language). LOGICAL, of, pertaining to, in accordance with, Logic as log- ical antecedent, argument, art, cause, clearness, dispute, i Rein. Vcrmmft, 79-82. Meiklejohn, 49, 50. 2 Logik (Jasche-Kirchmann), 1870. Rein. Fern., 74 seq. Meiklejohu's Trans., 45 seq. 64* 750 LOGICAL. method, premise, subtilty, system, truth ; judgment of nature, use of reason. Logical Abacus, machine, slate, mechanical aids to the method of inference in Boole's System of Logic. Jevons. 1 Logical Essence, what is embraced in the notion itself, sub- jectum quod ; opposed to real essence, subjectum quo, the na- ture of the thing. Logical Predicate, that which states the relation of a repre- sentation to the understanding, so that it can be thought and cognized through concepts. LOGISM, in Plato, reasoning; a reason, argument. 2 LOGISTIC, in Plato, applied to the reasoning faculty. 3 LOGISTICS, syllogistics. LOGOMACHY, strife about words merely though the word is often essential to the thing. LOGOS (Gr. word), never in the grammatical sense, as the mere name of a thing or act, but rather a word as the thing re- ferred to; the material, not the formal part; ratio, the power of the mind which is manifested in speech, reason. Aristotle 4 distinguishes, 1. The prosphoric, outward Logos of the voice, and 2. The endiathetic, inward Logos of the soul. See Apophantic. Plato. 5 *LOVE. " Inclination of the nature towards persons regarded as good, involving admiration, and eagerness to help them. In view of the latter characteristic, it is properly named Affec- tion, ad and facio." C. F. V. (Ger. Liebe.) Kant. 6 *Love and Hatred. LOWEST SPECIES, species' 'infima. LUNACY (Lat.), moon-madness; madness in general; (Ger. Mondwchf). See Sankey. 7 LUXURY (Lat.), excess, extravagance, especially in eating and drinking; splendor, pomp, magnificence; redundancy, extrav- agance. Kant: " The stage in culture at which the propen- sity to what we do not need begins to do injury to what we do need." 8 LYCANTHROPY (Gr.), wolf-man-madness ; a form of insanity in which men believed themselves transformed into wolves. l Element. Less, in Logic, 199-201. 2 Tim., 34, A. 3 p ep ^ 439, D. * Poster. Analyt., I. 10. 5 Thfae.t., 206 C.-210. 6 TuijPtullrhre, Eint. xii. 39, Keij. ; Met. d. Kitten, I. Alwhn, 13; Metaph. of Ethics, tr. by Semple (Calderwood), 1869, 115, 116,207-209,256-260. ' Lectures on Mental Diseases, Lect. xiii. 8 Urtheilskraft, 393. MAGISTER. 751 LYMPHATIC (Lat.), lit. of a water-nymph; of water; of lymph. 1. Driven out of one's senses ; distracted with fear ; maddened (by seeing the image of a Lyinpha, a nymph in a fountain, nympholeptic). Festus. 1 2. Applied to the tem- perament, in which the lymphatic element is large. Dr. Forbes Winslow. 2 M, in Logic, marks, 1. The middle term of a categorical syllo- gism. 2. In certain modes of the figures of syllogism, as for example, cAmEstrEs and dlsAmls, it marks a Metathesis, transposition of the premises, involved in the vowel (A) be- fore it. See At water, 8 Krug. MACHIAVELIANISM, MACHIAVELISM, system imputed to Machiavelli (1469-1527); despotism of the Prince, sus- tained by cunning, unrestrained by morals. Ranke. 4 MACHINE (Gr., Lat.), instrument; engine; artificial means or contrivance for doing a thing. "A body (or corpuscle) whose motive force is dependent on its figure." Mellin. See Me- chanical, Machine, Logical. See Logical Abacus. MACROBIOTICS, the systematic handling of healthy and happy longevity. ^Macrocosm and Microcosm. MACROCOSMOLOGY, description of the macrocosm, the uni- verse. MADNESS, mania. MAGI, MAGIANS, the priestly caste in ancient Persia ; adhe- rents of Magianism ; dualism, with star worship. MAGIANISM, MAGISM, doctrine of the Magi, q. v. "Magic. MAGISTER ARTITJM LIBERALIUM, Master of the Free Arts is the older title for which Doctor of Philosophy has been substituted. Magister Sententiarum, Master of Sentences, Decisions : a work by Peter Lombard, designed to systematize and harmo- nize Scholasticism. i Ed. Miiller, 120. 2 Obsc. Diseases of the Brain and Mind, 152. 3 Logic, 135. < Krilik, 1824. 752 MAGISTERIUM. MAGISTERIUM PERFECTIIM, the perfect mastery ; in the Alchemistic Philosophy, the possession of the philosopher's stone. "^Magnanimity. MAGNETISM, ANIMAL, Mesmerism, a theory in regard to certain effects produced in men, first in association with the magnet, afterwards without it ; now generally referred to the influence of the mind on the body. C. F. V. ^Magnetism (Animal). By animal magnetism we understand those peculiar physical and physiological phenomena which are produced in others principally for the cure of diseases, by a conscious mechanical influence. The mutual impression produced by living beings upon each other is merely a modi- fied universal law of mutual impression, which has been designated natural magnetism; for this reason Mesmer, its discoverer, called this artificial method of producing it, by analogous reasoning, magnetism. " It is called animal magnetism because the animal part of man is the medium, the conducting body, of this penetrating magnetism, and is more particularly active in that particular which distin- guishes our animal from the vegetable organizations, namely, in the direction of our senses and the higher faculties of man." It has also been called life magnetism and mesmerism. Kluge and others call it animal magnetism, in contradis- tinction to animal, mineral, and vegetable magnetism. See Mesmerism, by J. A. Mesmer, edited by Wolfiist. F. V. 3. MAHABHONTA, in Hindoo Philosophy, the condensation of all souls, all subtle elements ; one of the two great germs in which the universe at first existed, produced by the union of Brahm with Maya. See Pradjapati. C. D. A. MAJESTATIC (Lat.), pertaining to the supreme authority. Jus Majestatic is applied especially to the power of pardon. MAJOR, greater, in Logic, applied to the premise and term of a syllogism. The major premise contains the major term which forms the predicate of the conclusion. See Minor. Aristotle, 1 Fowler. 2 Major, Illicit Process of the, takes place when the term ille- gitimately distributed in the conclusion is the major term. i Prior Analytics, I., iv. 2 Deduct. Log., 82, 85, 92, 93, 138. MANIA. 753 As Some A is not B, All B is C, . . Some C is not A. See Fallacies, Syllogism. MALEBRANCHE, SYSTEM OF; MALEBRANCHISM, idealism, vision in God. MALEVOLENCE (Fr. Mailveillance; Ger. Missgunst), in Ethics, state of ill-will, habitual feeling of malice. MALICE (Lat. Malitia), bad quality; in Ethics, ill-will, the desire that evil may be inflicted. MALIGNANCY. See Malignity. MALIGNITY is a stronger word than Malevolence. "It is cruel Malevolence, or innate love of harm for the sake of doing it. While Malignity denotes an inherent evil of na- ture, malignancy denotes its indication in particular in- stances. . . Malignity always implies evil purpose, while malignancy is said of unpurposed evil." S. S. D. MAN (Ger. Mann, Mensch], one of the human race; one of this earth who has an animal organism conjoined with a rational soul, so that the two constitute one person ; mankind. " That man can conceive of the Ego, of himself as I, exalts him infinitely above all other living beings on earth." Kant. 1 Man, in Aristotle, animal, rational, mortal body with ra- tionality, and so Porphyry and the Peripatetics generally. Man, in Plato, "a rational being (vowf) who controls the body in which he dwells;" 2 rationality with body. MANAS, in Hindoo Philosophy, in the systems of Nydya, q. v., and Vauechica, q. v., is the name of the sensible, the instru- ment of intelligence, which is distinguished from the soul cognizant and willing which is called Atma, q. v. Gotama represents it very much in the manner in which recent Eu- ropean philosophers describe the psychological conscious- ness. C. D. A. MANAVA-DHARMA-CHASTRA, in Hindoo Philosophy, collection of the laws of Manou ; with the Vedas it presents the entire body of the original elements of that philosophy; it is supposed to be older than the conquests of Alexander. MANIA, excited state of madness. See Insanity. Carpenter, 3 Sankev. 4 ^ 1. 2 Alcibiades, I. 3 Human Physiolog., $ 829, 830. * Mental Dis- eases, Lect. iii. 2Y 754 MANICHEISM. *Maniclieism. MANIFESTATION, revelation; a showing, exhibition, espe- cially of the hidden, the obscure, the mysterious ; claimed by the Hegelian school for their method of philosophizing. - See Method. Krug E. L. MANIFOLD, MANIFOLDNESS (Ger. Mannigfaltigkeit}, in Kant 1 and the Critical Philosophy, applied to the number and variety of things, over against the unity of the same things in genera and species. Lossius. MANOTI (the first), LAWS OF, a Hindoo code. See Manava- Dharma-Chastra. MANNER, in ^Esthetics, the characteristics of a work derived from the personal elements which distinguish the particular artist. MANNERISM, excess of manner. MANTICS, the art of divination ; soothsaying. This and its associated words are derived by Plato from fiaivopat, to be mad, to be inspired with a supernatural frenzy. He distin- guishes navTfis from 7rpoc, idle,) in various com- binations, as Mateology, idle discourse ; Mateopoiy, idle, l CMt d. rein. Tern,, 606-008. 2 Tim., 72 B. *Wi>rtcrb. d. Kr. MATERIALISM. 755 foolish action ; Mateopony, idle labor ; Mateosophy, idle wisdom ; Mateotechny, useless art ; art thrown away. MATERIA. See Material, Matter, Substance. MATERIAL, n. (Lat. Mater ia,) matter ; substance ; constituent part or whole; as, "material of cognition." Kant. "Mate- rials of all our knowledge." Locke. Material, adj., related to matter or to the material. In Logic, it is opposed to the Formal, q. v. It is applied to Fallacies, q. v., law, philosophy (metaphysics), principle, proposition, quality, right, science, thinking (metaphysics), truth. MATERIALISM. "The most recent and advanced form of the doctrine is that mind is only a function of the brain. Brain organization, with hereditary transmission, may account for all that distinguishes the intellect of man. 'The brain se- cretes thought as the liver secretes bile.'" Cabanis. 1 C. F.V. Materialism has been divided into : 1. The psychologic per- sonality depends on the body ; the soul is matter. 2. The cosmologic there is no presence except the local; the soul cannot exist apart from body. Mellin. A triple division has been proposed : 1. A system which admits the existence of a soul (as Hartley does), but explains its phenomena on principles which seem to imply that they are of material origin. 2. A system which denies the existence of the soul as a separate principle, but does not deny that there is a God and a future state. 3. A system which denies God and a future state of retribution. Materialism, Literature of, recent. 1. Historical (and crit- ical): Erdmann, F. A. Lange (3d ed., 1876), C. W. Shields. 2 2. In Speculative Philosophy : elementary doctrine ; empiri- - cal psychology, anthropology. 3. Expositions and defences of Materialism: Biichner, Czolbe, L. Feuerbach, Moleschott, Vogt. 4. Arguments against Materialism: Baltzer (1859), Beneke, Bohner, Gamier (1859), Fabri, I. H. Fichte, Frauen- stiidt, A. v. Gloss (1859), Herbart, Janet, Liebig (1859), F. X. Lierheimer, Lotze, Schaller, Snell, Ulrici, 3 R. Wagner (1857), A. Weber (1858), L. Weis (1871). lu Physique et du Moral de VHamme. 2 Johnson's Cyclopedia, art. Materi- alism. 3 Strauss as a Philosophical Thinker, tr. by C. P. Krauth (1874). In the Prole- gomena of the translator will be found notices of recent literature in the controversy on Materialism. 756 MATERIALISTS. MATERIALISTS, maintainers of Materialism, in some one of its divisions, q. v. Among the older materialists were Leu- cippus, Epicurus, Aristoxenus, Dicaarchus, Strato the Phys- icist, and the Stoics. Among the modern materialists are Hobbes, Gassendi la Mettrie. See for the latest material- ists, Materialism, Literature of, Carpenter. 1 MATERIALITY, existence solely as matter opposed to spir- ituality. MATERIALIZE, to reduce to matter ; consider as matter ; in- dulge in a materialistic mode of thought ; to reduce from the ideal to the concrete. MATHEMA (Gr.), that which is learnt, a lesson ; learning ; in the plural, especially the mathematical sciences, chiefly arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Aristotle, 2 Plato? In Kant, a direct synthetic proposition, reached by construc- tion of concepts as that the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles opposed to dogma. 4 MATHEMATICAL, of or pertaining to the mathematics ap- plied to antinomy, category, certainty, cognition, judgment, principles. ^MATHEMATICS. See Bacon. 5 MATHESIOLOGY, doctrine of sciences; science of teaching. MATHESIS (Gr.), learning; in plural, faculties of learning; the doctrine of mathematics. *MATTER, that which "is extended." C. F. V. Matter, Attempts at a Philosophical Definition of, from Kant to the present time. Bouillet : " That which con- stitutes all the bodies of the universe, and produces on our organs the complex of determinate sensations." 6 Biichner: " Laws have not been imposed upon matter, but have from eternity been bound up with it." " Spirit and matter are as inseparable as force and substance, and condition one another with the same necessity. The investigation of nature does not deny spirit, provided the existence of the animal and human spirit be regarded as a natural fact. Substance is not subordinated to spirit, but is its peer." " What is com- monly called spirit is but the product of substance. There is no unsubstantial spirit. The spirit comes and goes with i Human Wiysiology, 795-803. 2 Anal. Post., 1, 12, 5; Metaph., 1, 5, 1. 3 j> a7 . % 817, E. * KeiH. Vern., 704. & De Aug. Sciential'., lib. iii., ch. 6. 6 Dictionitaire, art. Materie. MATTER. 757 the substance which has conceived and brought it forth, and in which the spiritual forces dwell. Substance itself neither rises nor passes away ; it is eternal and self-existent." " The supposition of a spirit standing over against substance, inde- pendently and controllingly, contradicts all experience." 1 Chalybaeus : " Self-extending substance." " Positive spon- taneous self-excitation and differentiation do not lie in the con- ception of matter, but are the distinctive character of spirit- ual nature." 2 Cornelius : " The atoms or elements are in and of themselves no forces, but each becomes a force in conse- quence of its impenetration by another qualitatively opposed element." 3 Czolbe: "The canon 'No substance without force/ is an absurdity, for matter is in its concept without force." * D'Ercole (Hegelian) : " Spirit is the active in mat- ter, its inner form, and inert matter does not exist. Cohe- sion is a phenomenon of spirit." 5 Drossbach : " The theory of material substance has nothing to justify it; he who seeks material substance will not find it in the wide world. There is no dead substance ; there is nothing inactive ; there is no matter all is living, active, immaterial. Force and sub- stance are not different concepts. What we are in the habit of calling matter is nothing opposed to the immaterial, is none other than force. It is the immaterial, vital, potential itself in special conditions. Matter is nothing diverse from the spiritual, no antithesis to the spiritual, but is the spirit- ual itself. The immaterial, were there such a thing, would be the unspiritual ; an immaterial spirit would be an un- spiritual spirit. There is neither spirit without force, nor force without spirit. There is no corporeal principle, and no abstract spiritual principle. The spirit is at once the percipi- ent and that which is capable of being perceived. As the object of perception can be such only to the spiritual, and as the spiritual alone can be percipient, every thing which we perceive through the medium of the senses must be spiritual. The spiritual alone, then, is the essential nature of things. Thus the question how the material comes from the immaterial falls out of sight. The question needs in- i Natur u. Gfist, 36, 143, 154, 317, 318 ; Kraft . Staff, ed. 3, Vorw. xxxiv.-xxxvi. 1-4, 10, 70; Aus Nalur u. Wissenschaft,4:, 5. 2 Fundamental Philosophic, 50, 129. 3 Bildutig d. Matcrie, 22. * Entsteh. d. Bewusstseyns, 23. & " Der Gedanke" (Zeitscbrift), I. 209. Co 758 MATTER. version, and in reality is this: How, from that which can- not be perceived by the senses, the things of sense-percep- tion can arise? " 1 Fechner : " The physicists understand by matter that which can be felt, the palpable, the most general substratum of the phenomenon of nature," 2 "a definition which says nothing of the essential character of matter, but looks simply into the mode of its phenomenon." 3 J. G. Fichte : " Substantiality, materiality, are absolutely simple, and hence we cannot say ' diverse substance,' but only ' sub- stance with diverse limitations.' " 4 I. H. Fichte : " Matter is a Real, filling space." 5 " Matter is a thoroughly dark con- cept, one of the most difficult concepts of physics and meta- physics." " The pretended empirical concept of matter is completely illusory; empirically we have furnished to us only a certain number of simple, primary substances." "The antitheses of body or nature, and of spirit, are not furnished in experience, and have, as they are commonly understood, no scientific meaning or utility they are the dualism of a groundless abstraction." 6 George : " Matter is to be distin- guished from space only by its specific density." 7 German : "Matter and spirit co-exist in God. Spirit is the life of matter; matter is the life of spirit." 8 Hegel:. "Matter is the self moving." " Time and space are filled with matter it is the real in them, their truth." 9 Herbart : " Matter is that which can always be further divided." "To regard it as something merely local, and as yet actual, is thoroughly preposterous, as the predicates derived from mere space amount to nothing." "We never reach that which, in our opinion, matter is." " Matter imagined as a local real, with local forces, belongs neither to the realm of being nor of actual occurrence, but is bare phenomenon." 10 In Kant, matter is defined in these senses : 1. M. dynamical, the mobile so far as it fills a space. 2. M. mechanical, the mobile so far as it, as such, possesses motive force the movable, as ca- 1 Die Harmonie der Ergebnisse dfr Naiurforschung mil den Forderungen des menxch- lichen Gemuths, 14, 19-21, 118, 123, 163. Ztschr. v. Fichte, xlv. 51. 2 Physikal. . pliilo- soph. Atomenlehre. ed. 2. 3 Do., 108, 109. 4 Grundlage d. gesammt. -Wissenschaftslehre, Werke, I., 307. & Zeilschr., xxv. 120, xlvii. 24, Iv. 240. 6 Anthropologie, 21, 174, 184. Psychologie, Vorr. vii., 34, 35. 7 Ztschr. v. Fichte, xxix. 132, xxxi. 170. 8 Schopfergeist M. Welt&ioff, 19 seq. Werke, VII., 67. Werke, I., 178, 190; II., 190; V. 110. MATTER. 759 pable of imparting motion. 3. M. metaphysical, every object of sense-perception. 4. M. phcenomenological, the mobile so far as it can, as such, be an object of experience. 5. M. phoronomic, the mobile in space. 6. M. transcendental, that in the phenomenon which corresponds with the ,sensation, or sense-impression; opposed to form; the deterrninable in gen- eral. 1 Lotze : "Matter is the phenomenal form under which conjoined pluralities of supersensuous entities present them- selves to us, each one of which taken singly is homogeneous with the nature of our soul." 2 Liebmann: " To the mate- rialists substance is an empty concept the mere shell of a nut." 3 Michelet : " There is nothing absolutely dead ; from every death germinates a new life ; there is therefore thought in everything existent, and conversely, there is no thought without the existent, the material. Thought is the self- moving being, the active matter. Thus for it the dualism of the material and the immaterial, of thinking and being, of the universal and the individual, has completely vanished."* Planck : " There is but one substance, the extended ; for spirit itself is but the perfected, internally self-dependent existence of the extended." 5 Heinrich Ritter: " Matter or substance is that which can be shaped and limited, that which can be put into form." 6 Rosenkranz: " The realism of matter lifts itself to the idealism of force as its ground, and the truth of matter is the force immanent in it." 7 Schaller : " Matter is identified with extension in space." "The universe resolves itself into moved matter matter whose essential nature we cannot grasp." " If we simply oppose matter to spirit, we dare not embody in the notion of matter the least degree of activity. Activity, Force, would in that opposition be immaterial, the beginning of spirit, of self-consciousness ; matter embraces in it no element by which it approximates spirit, or can be compared with it. Hence nothing corporeal is in a condition by which it can set itself in motion." 8 Schelling : " Matter is the darkest of all things, in some respects darkness itself." " All matter is 1 Natw-wissenschaft, Werke (1838), 452-456, 531, 554. Rein. Vern., 31, 322. Meikle- john, 21, 193. 2 Streitschriften, Heft, I. 105. 3 Kant u. die Epigonen, 34. 4 Zeit-schr. " Der Gedankr.," 1. 118. 5 Die WdtaUtr, I. 101. 6 UnsterUichkeit, 236. 7 Mtine Re- form, 38. 8 Zeitschr. v. Fichte, xxi. 43, 44 ; xxxi. 8, 9 ; Leib u. Seek, 146. 760 MATTER. combination, or has risen by combination ; there is no prim- itive matter, no original substance, out of which everything has come." " Of itself matter is a principle without po- tency." " When we suppose a cause, we suppose an abso- lute." " Matter as substance, or matter in as far as it is not mere mass, but has received life into it, has a twofold being, a being in substance and a being in itself. All matter is in itself one. According to substance there are not diverse pri- mal substances or elements, rather is there in ail elements one only substance (matter) but posited under diverse expo- nents. As these exponents are the animating and active principle of matter, the nature of substance may be thus designated : Substance is matter, so far as matter seems com- pletely one with its animating principle. No body is as to substance compound, for substance is one and throughout the same." " The essence of all matter is spiritual in the broad sense of the word, for forces are undeniably something spir- itual, and in so far incorporeal coherence is a purely spiritual connection. If body and soul, matter and form, could be sundered, the phenomenon of the corporeal would cease." l Schopenhauer : " Matter is, on the one side, the perceptibility of time and space, or space become percep- tible ; on the other, it is causality become objective." " Mat- ter, in the abstract, is to be thought of as without form and property, absolutely inert and passive ; but empirically there is no matter without form and quality." 2 Schwarz : " Spirit and matter, spirit and nature, are in the end one and the same essence. There is but one substance, the spiritual, which is the primal power of inorganic nature also. There is nothing but spirit, and no individual substance but God." "Matter is spirit benumbed." 3 Ulrici : "Matter is iden- tical with the power of resistance, as the inertia of resist- ance involves extension." 4 Wirth : "Matter and spirit are really diverse, but not, therefore, dualistically diverse substances; they are two necessarily diverse forms of one l Werke, Abth. I., vii. 43; x. 353; vi. 259, 549; viii. 282; x. 355; Abth. II., i. 424; ii., 266, 277. 2 Vierfache Warzel 123. Welt als With, I. 582, 589 ; II. 55, 352 ; Z. 25 : Parerga, II. 9, 89-92 ; Nachlass, 226. 3 Fhilosoph. d. Gegenwart, 28, 55 ; Oott Natur u. Mensch, 17, 29, 37, 64, 70. 110, 138. * Gntt u. die Nalur, 351-358. Zeitschr. v. Fichte, xxv. 114, 115 ; xxviii. 248 ; xxxiv. 248 ; xlviii. 429. MECHANIC. 761 and the same substantial being, which has in matter its im- mediate actuality, in spirit its self- mediating actuality." ' Matter, Logical, the concepts given to constitute a judgment ; opposed to Form. The logicians formerly called the univer- sal the matter. 2 Matter of the Appetitive Faculty, in Kant, an object whose actual possession is desired ; that which is related to a sub- jective, fundamental feeling of pleasure or aversion, so as to determine what we need to be satisfied with our condition ; the object of the will. 3 Matter of the Practical Law, the object of maxims. M. of Judgment, the given concepts. M. in Space, reality, real things in space. M. in Mass, when all the parts move in one direction to exercise together their motive force beyond themselves, as water on a wheel, weights in a scale. Kant, Mellin. 4 ^Matter and Form. *Maxim. MAXIMIZE, to increase to the maximum. MAXIMUM, the greatest quantity or degree ; opposed to mini- mum. MAYA, MAJA, in Hindoo Philosophy (and Mythology), mother of nature and of gods of the second order. According to the Vedas, Maya is matter or illusion, source of all phenom- ena, and cause of the manifestation of all the individual ex- istences. Maya first existed as liquid, the primeval water. See Mahabhonta and Pradjapati. Schopenhauer. 5 MEAN, MEANS (Lat. Medium, Medina). See Medium. " Phil- osophical doubt is not an end, but a mean. We doubt in order that we may believe." Hamilton. 6 MEASURE, in Hegel's doctrine of being, proportion ; a quali- tative quantum; a quantum on which the quality depends. Schwegler. 7 MECHANIC, MECHANICAL (Gr.), full of resources; inven- tive; ingenious; of or belonging to machines ; of or belong- ing to mechanics. It is applied to actions, arts (opposed to liberal), causes, effects, explanation, laws, philosophy, powers, i Tfif-orf,' mu nnbnlixmus, 60. 66. 175. Ztschr. . Fic/ilf, xxx. 266, xxxi. 308, xlvi. 27o-J8:j, lii. 47. 2 #,-. T ' em ., 332; Meiklejohn, 193. 3 p racL Vrrn ^ 35j 45- 48> gg 2 , 3, 4. < Kuii*f*i>raclie, 168. 5 WeU a i s mile u. Vorstellung,!. 9, 20, 389, 472; II. 366, 689 Etlrih; -270. Wiilen in d. Nutur, 133. 6 Metaphysics, Lect. V., 61. Stirling's Transl. 325. 65* 762 MECHANICS. principles, properties, solution, theory. Sometimes it is an- tithetical to rational, that to which reason is requisite, or the conscious, or the deliberate. MECHANICS, the part of mathematics which involves the laws of motion, equilibrium, and force. It may be analytic, ap- plied or practical, abstract or speculative. MECHANISM, mechanical contrivance; structure; as, the mechanism of the universe, mechanism of language. Mechanism, System of, in Des Cartes, supposes the essence of matter to be extension, and explains all physical phenom- ena by the mechanical laws of figures and movements. "The mechanical explanation of nature rests on the comparison of nature with a machine not in all points, but in the main points, if the name is not to be purely arbitrary and devoid of meaning." Heinrich Hitter. 1 Mechanism of Nature, in Kant, the necessity of an occur- rence, in time, in accordance with causality as a law of na- ture. 2 This does not imply that the things subject to the law are necessarily material machines. Mellin. 3 MEDIATE, adj., through media or means; opposite of immedi- ate,' applied to inference, knowledge. MEDITATIONS, in Philosophical Literature, thoughts upon, contemplations, reflections ; reflections, especially of a mis- cellaneous character. Des Cartes. 4 MEDIUM, MEDIITS (Lat.), that which is in the middle, be- tween ; the middle ; means. In Animal Magnetism and Spiritualism, a person intermediary between the forces and that on which they operate. In Logic, the middle term of the syllogism medius terminus. See Terminus. In Ontol- ogy, Wolf defines medium " whatever contains the reason why the end follows the act." MEGALO (Gr.), great; in composition, as megalophrosyne, great- ness of mind ; pride ; arrogance ; megalopsychy, greatness of soul ; arrogance. MEGARIAN, MEGARIC SCHOOL, school at and of Megara, between Corinth and Athens, founded by Euclid, about 400 B. c. It was a continuation of the Eleatic school, modified by the Socratic influence. i EncyklnpQdie, II., 108. 2 Pf. Vern., Werke (1838), iv. 213. 3 Kunstsprache, 170. * Meditntiones. MENS. 763 MELANCHOLIA, MELANCHOLY (Gr.), black bile; morbid temperament ; depression of spirits, without external causes, or out of proportion to them. Maudsley : l "It is usual to make a subdivision of partial insanity into monomania and melancholia. . . When the patient is depressed, wretched, dis- trustful, and has corresponding unsound ideas, he is said to labor under melancholia. . . The term monomania, if used of melancholia at all, should be applied to the chronic form of the disease only to that which Esquirol proposed to dis- tinguish as lypemania. . . Melancholia simplex is melancholia without delusion." See Robert Burton, 2 Dr. W. H. O. Sankey, 3 Dr. Forbes Winslow. 4 MELIUS EST, INJURIAM FERRE, QTJAM INFERRE - it is better to bear an injury than to inflict one; denied by the Sophists, maintained by Aristotle. 5 MEMBRA DIVIDENTIA, the parts into which a class is di- vided ; the constituent species of a genus. Jevons. MEMORABILIA, things memorable, worthy of record and of being remembered ; the record of these things, as Xeno- phon's Memorabilia of Socrates. *Memqria Technica. ^MEMORY. " Commonly the power of retaining and reproduc- ing our knowledge. Or, as Hamilton 6 puts it, it includes a faculty of retention, of reproduction, and of representation." C. F. V. " For laws of association, see Hamilton, 7 Mill. 8 " C. F. V. Kant : " The faculty of the phantasy, by which it retains its intuitions the faculty of reproducing our sponta- neous mental representations." The acts of memory are, 1. Grasping ; 2. Retention ; 3. Recalling. Memory may be quick or lively without being faithful, or it may be faithful without being quick. The best memories are both quick and faithful. Mellin. 9 Memory, Art of. See Mnemonics. MENDACITY (Lat.), addictedness to lying; falsehood. MENS (Lat.), (akin to Sanscrit root man, to think, and the Greek /uevof, might, mind, temper), the mind as thinking-, Responsibility in Mental Disease (Intern. Scientif. Series), 1875, 71, 73, 123, 131, 1x7 Antnmy of Melancholy (1621). 3 Mental Diseases, 1866. * Obscure Diseases r>f the Brain and Disorders of the Mind, 4th eel., 1868. 5 Ethics, B. V., xi. 6 Lects., II. 205. 1 Lects., II. 233. 8 Examinat. of Hamilton, 3d ed., 219. 9 Kunstsprache, 98. 764 MENTAL. endowed with the faculties of thought, related to animus, the soul, as a part to the whole ; the mind, understanding, reason, intellectual powers. MENTAL, of or pertaining to the mens, or mind ; applied to faculties, operations, reservation, q. v. :: Mental Philosophy. "A rational explanation of the facts of consciousness, and of the problems issuing out of these facts. Mental Philosophy has two divisions, Intellectual Philoso- phy and Moral Philosophy the philosophy of knowing arid the philosophy of right action. To both divisions there belongs a psychology, or science of mental operations ; and also a metaphysic, or science of transcendent realities." C. F. V. MERIMNOPHRONTIST, MERIMNOSOPHIST (Gr.), "a minute philosopher;" one solicitous about speculative trifles; applied by Aristophanes to Socrates and other philosophers. 1 MERISTICS (Gr.), the art of dividing. See Division. *MERIT (Ger. Verdienst)."A.\\ right actions are meritorious, that is, they give warrant for self-approbation on the part of the agent, and are, from the very nature of moral law, entitled to the approbation of all moral beings." C. F. V. *Merit of Condignity Meritum de Condigno. See Merit. Merit of Congruity Meritum de Congruo. See Merit. MESMERISM (Magnetism, Animal, q.v.}, from Mesmer: "the voluntary direction of a current of animal magnetism from an operator to a patient. Directed upon the eyes, it induces artificial sleep. It is of interest for purposes of mental phi- losophy, as affording facilities for studying the question of mental activity during sleep. It may also afford help in reaching some conclusions on the still undecided question as to the rest of the brain in sleep." C. F. V. MESSIANISM, PHILOSOPHIC, the disposition to regard a particular thinker, or system, as a finality, establishing the kingdom of pure truth. Carove applies the term to a French system which in 1834 was claiming to have brought religion and philosophy into perfect accord, and to have ushered in an era of the absolute. META (Gr.), in philosophical composite words ; of community or participation ; of action in common with another; of suc- 1 Nub., 102. METAPHYSICAL. 765 cession of time; after, behind; beyond; reversely; change of place, condition, plan. - L. S. L. METABASIS (Gr.), moving over; passing over; change; tran- sition from one subject to another. In Logic, the fallacy of shifting the subject. See Elenchus. METABOLA, METABOLE (Gr.), change. METACOSMIA (Gr.), between worlds; intermundia, q. v. METACRITIC, a critique on a critique, as Herder's Meta- kritik on Kant's Critik of the pure Reason. METAGENESIS (Gr.), " the changes of form which the repre- sentative of a species undergoes in passing, by a species of successively generated individuals, from the egg to the per- fect or imago state. It is contradistinguished from meta- morphosis, in which those changes are undergone by the same individual." Owen. 1 It is external when the indi- viduals grow from the outside of the parents ; internal when it takes place within. Herbert Spencer. 2 METAGNOSTICS, metaphysics, as going beyond the ordinary knowledge ; philosophy in general. Krug. METALEPSIS, METALEPSY (Gr.), participation; alterna- tion ; assuming one thing for another ; one term for another; transsumtion. In Aristotle's Logic, the alteration of a term from being the subject of a hypothetical, to being the subject of a categorical proposition. METAMATHEMATICS, philosophy of mathematics. METAMORPHOSIS (Gr.), transformation. See Morphology. Metamorphosis (Gr.), transformation; a materialistic theory in regard to the origin of species. It maintains that each higher species has developed itself out of the species imme- diately below, it, as under specially favorable circumstances the embryo of the lower species develops itself far beyond its specific type, and thus attains the more perfect organization of the species immediately above. Stockl. 3 See Darwin- ism, Selection Natural, Species. 'METAPHOR. See Krauth on nature and laws of. 4 '""Metaphor and Simile. METAPHYSICAL, of or pertaining to Metaphysics, q. v. See Division. 1 In Brancle d Cnx. 2 Principles of Biolngy. 3 Lehrb. d. Philosophic, 135, 1. * Conservative Reformation, 701-716. 766 METAPHYSICS. ^METAPHYSICS, "that department of mental philosophy which is concerned with the. speculative or transcendental problems arising out of the facts of consciousness and of the outer world. It was at one time made to include psy- chology, which was named the lower metaphysics." C. F. V. Metaphysics in Fichte, " doctrine of science," or " science of knowing;" the Ego and its immanent activities. M. in Hegel, " speculative Logic." M. in Herbart, " the science of what is intelligible in experience." M. in Kant, 1 the entire philosophical cognition derived from pure reason, without empirical principles, in systematic connection, pre- mised by a critique of the faculty of reason. Metaphysics, Classification of, in Kant: 2 I. Metaphysics of Nature: i. Ontology, ii. Rational Physiology: (a) Immanent Physiology 1. Rational Phys- ics ; 2. Rational Psychology : (b) Transcendent Physiology 1. Transcendental Cosmology ; 2. Transcendental Theol- ogy. II. Metaphysics of Morals. Metaphysics, Classification of, the Scholastic-Historical, derived from Wolf: A. General Metaphysics: Philosophia Prima: Ontology: I. The Metaphysical Categories : i. Being, Ens, Sein op- posed to non-being, ii. Essence, Essen tia, Wesen, Substance opposed to attribute, iii. Operation, Wirken, Cause op- posed to effect. II. The Metaphysical Principles: i. The Law of Contradiction, involving: 1. The Law of Identity; 2. The Law of the Excluded Middle, ii. The Law of Causality. B. Special Metaphysics. I. Immanent Consideration of the Universe : Cosmology ; Philosophy of Nature, i. Gen- eral Investigation of Empirical Actuality, ii. Rational Cosmology: 1. The Inorganic; 2. The Organic, iii. Ra- tional Anthropology Man : 1. Body ; 2. Soul, Psychology ; (a] Essence ; (b) Relation to the Body ; (c) Origin and Con- tinuance. II. Transcendent Consideration of the World: Natural Theology ; Theodicy, i. Existence of God: 1. Neg- ative evidence. 2. Positive evidence, ii. Essence of God, Nature of God: 1. Essentiality of God ; 2. Attributes of the i Rein. Yernimft, 809; Meiklejohn's Tr., 509. 2 Critik d. reinen Vernunft, 873 seq.; Meiklejohif s Tr., 512. METAPHYSICS. 767 Divine Essence, iii. Operation of God : 1. Attributes of Di- vine Operation ; 2. Relation of the Divine Operation to the World; (a) God as Creator; (b) God as Preserver; (c) God as Ruler. See Hagemann. 1 Metaphysics, Literature of, may be thus arranged : I. See Philosophy, History of. II. As part of Encyclopedias and Introductions: J. Beck (12th ed., 1876), Bouvier (14th ed., 1868), Frohschammer (1858), Gerlach (1826-34), Hage- mann (3d edit., 1873-1875), Klotz (1875), Liberatore (6th ed., 1875, 1876), Noack (1854), Oppermann (1844), Platner (1793-1800), Politz (1807, 1808), Reiff (1840), G. E. Schulze (Grundriss, 1790), Enzyklopsedie (3d ed., 1824), Sanseverino (2d ed., 1862-1866), Schwetz (1873), Steudel (1871-1877), Stockl (4th ed., 1876), Tongiorgi (7th ed., 1875). III. In the miscellanies of various authors ; periodicals : Harris (Jour- nal of Speculative Philosophy, 1867-1877), I. H. Fichte (Zeitschrift, 1837-1846), with Ulrici (1847-1877). IV. In collected writings of particular authors : Aristotle, Cartesius, Fichte, Hamilton, Hegel, Herbart, Hume, Jacobi, Kant, Krug, Leibnitz, Locke, Malebranche, Reid, Schelling, Scho- penhauer, Spinoza, Wolf. V. In Theoretic Philosophy ; elementary doctrine: Beattie, Hartley, Hillebrand, Male- branche, Priestley, Ulrici. VI. In connection with Logic : J. E. Erdmann (4th ed., 1864), K. Fischer (2d ed., 1865), Hamilton, Krug, Rabus (1868), Ritter (1856), Rosenkranz (1858, 1859). VII. Metaphysics, in general, separately: Apelt (1857), Baumgarten, Braniss (1834), K. Ph. Fischer (1834), Fries (1824), George (1844), Hartenstein (1836), Hel- ferrich (1846), Herbart, Kant, Krug, Lotze (1841), John Miller (1875), Reinhold (3d ed., 1854), Suabedessen (1836), Uschold (3d ed., 1857), Weisse (1835). VIII. Special branches of Metaphysics. See Cosmology, Natural Phi- losophy, Natural Theology, Ontology, Physics, Prac- tical Philosophy, Pneumatology, Psychology, Religion. IX. Bibliography of 1. Buchting (1867-1872), Ersch-Geiss- ler (3d ed., 1850), Gumposch (1851), Lipenius (2 vols., folio, 1682) ; the annual, semi-annual, quarterly, and monthly cata- logues of America, England, France, Germany, and Holland. 2. The best general bibliographies and histories of literature, i Metaphysik, 3d ed., 1875. 768 METAPHYSICS. as Brunet, Graesse. 3. The best special bibliographies and histories of literature, Allibone, Lowndes. 4. The histories of philosophy which have bibliographical notices,- as Blakey, Buhle, Ueberweg. 5. The introductions and encyclopaedias, as Hagemann, Stockl. 6. The reviews, special and general. 7. The catalogues of the great publishing houses. 8. Care- ful inspection of the libraries and of the stock of booksellers. 9. Personal information from scholars, publishers, and book- sellers. Metaphysics, Special Applications of, M. of Anthropology, M. of the Human Understanding, M. of Humanity, of Man, M. of Inner Nature, M. of Jus and Law, and of Jus Natu- rale, M. of Morals (Kant), M. of Pleasure, M. of Religion, M. of Scripture. METAPLASTICS, the art of transformation, as of the figures in syllogism. METASOMATOSIS, METENSOMATOSIS, the wandering of different souls into the same body ; contrasted with Metem- psychosis, which is the wandering of one soul into various bodies. Clemens Alexandrinus, 1 Nemesius, 2 Gregory Nazi- anzen. 3 METATHESIS (Gr.), transposition, in Logic, of thoughts. See Conversion. ^METEMPSYCHOSIS. "The satire of Limonedes on this subject is translated in The Spectator, No. 209. See Irhovius (Gu.)" 4 F. V. 3. *METHOD. " Scientific method is to be distinguished from the order in which things are enumerated." C. F. V. Meth- ods are designated according to their various aims and modes of procedure ; as, acroamatic, analytic, aphoristic, critical, dogmatic, erotematic, mathematical, methodic, mixed, nat- ural, philosophic, popular, progressive, regressive, sceptical, scientific, Socratic, speculative, syllogistic, synthetic, sys- tematic, tabular. M, in Natural Sciences, M. in Philosophy, M. in the Prac- tical. M. of Philosophizing, M. of Teaching. See Sys- tems. *METHODOLOGY (Gr.), doctrine, discourse, science, system, 1 601, 757. 2 N. H., 2, 50. 3 De, Horn., p. 62. * De Palingenesia veterum, seu Metem- payckosi Pythayorica, lib. iii., 4to, Amst., 1733. METOUSIA. 769 treatise of method: Bacon, 1 S. T. Coleridge, 2 Concio. 3 Scheid- ler (1825), Schelling, 4 Troxler (1835). Hence, Methodologi- cal. See Encyclopaedia, Introduction, Propaedeutics. Methodology (Methodenlehre,} doctrine of method ; in Kant, 1. Transcendental, the second of the two great divisions of the Critique of the Pure Reason. See Elementary Doctrine. He defines it as "the determination of the formal conditions of a complete system of pure reason." 5 He divides it into : i. the discipline; ii. the canon; iii. the architectonic; iv. the history of pure reason. 6 2. The Critique of the Pure Practical Reason has the same generic divisions. 7 He makes the M. of the pure practical reason cover "the method in which the objectively practical reason can be rendered the subjectively practical." 3. In the Critique of the Judgment, Kant says that taste and the fine arts dp not allow of method- ology they have a modus, but not a methodus. He gives a methodology of the teleologic faculty of judgment-; 8 4. In Logic, general methodology is defined as occupied with the form of a science, or with the method and manner of link- ing the manifold parts of cognition into a science. 9 METHODS, in Logic, are of induction, agreement, difference, joint method, residues, concomitant variations. See those words. *METONOMY, METONYMY (Gr. ^ra, over, and bvopa, name), " is a changing of names, as when, because of a recognized relation or dependence between them, we put one word for another. Thus the cause is put for the effect when I say 'I read Milton,' that is, his writings; or the effect for the cause, as pale famine or cold death, because famine occa- sions paleness, and death coldness." F. V. 3. See Krauth on Metonymy. 10 METOUSIA, METTISIA (Gr.), participation; communion; possession; enjoyment; means of using; especially of the common possession or participation in ovata, essence or sub- stance. -See Consubstantial. i J\Vr. Organ. (Kirchmann, Phil. Bibl.), 1870. 2 Prdimin. Treat, on Method (Encyclop. Metropl.\ 5th ed., 1851. 3 D e Metltodo. Blakey : Hist, of Philosoph., ii. 136. 4 Methode d. akademisch. Stiidittms, 1803. We.rke, I., v. 207. Trad, par Oh. Benard 1847. & Rein. 7ern.,735; Meiklejohn's Tr.,431. Rein. Vern. 733-882 ; Meiklejohn, 431-517. t Pract. Vern. (1788), 31, 269. Werke (1838), IV. Ill, 272. Kirchmann (1870), 16, 179. Traduit par Barni (1848), 149, 371. 8 Urtheilskraft, g 60. 9 Do., g 79-91. Logik, g 96. o Cons. Reformat., 701, 702. 66 2Z 770 METRICS. METRICS (Gr.), science of measure; in ^Esthetics, science of poetical measure. METRIOPATHY (Gr.), the moderation or restraint of the pas- sions ; opposed by the ancient sceptics to the Stoic apathy. Diogenes Laertius. 1 METROLOGY, metrics, q. v. MICRO (Gr.), small ; used in a number of compound words, as micrography, micrology, micropsyche implying either that the object or the subject involved is something small. ^MICROCOSM. -See Macrocosm. MIDDLE TERM. See Term, Middle. MIMETICS (Gr., Ger. Mimik], in ^Esthetics, imitation as an art, associated with acting and declamation. Politz. 2 X MIND. " Self-conscious intelligence, possessing rational power of self-determination." C. F. V. MINIMUM (Lat.), the least; opposed to maximum, q. v. MINOR TERM. See Term, Minor. ^MIRACLE, " an event which, without being a violation of the laws of Nature, cannot be accounted for by these laws, but implies the operation of causal energy superior to their ac- tion. If the progress of science remove from the category of miracles events previously classified as such, it merely ful- fils its proper function in so doing. The distinction between the marvellous and the miraculous only thereby becomes more marked." C. F. V. Miracle, Middleton (Conyers), 3 Douglas (Bishop), 4 Farmer, 5 Boehme (Christian Frederic), 6 DeQuincey. 7 MIS, MISO. 1. (Gr. /uaeiv, to hate ;) in a number Of compounds, as misagathy, hatred of the good ; misandry and misan- thropy, hatred of men ; misarety, hatred of virtue ; misogy- ny, misology, misosophy, misotheism. 2. From the Ger- manic languages, denoting wrong, failure, defect, as misdeed, mistrust, misuse. MISCELLANY, MISCELLANEOUS WORKS, in Philosoph- ical Literature, applied to writings, either by various authors or from one hand, which treat of a number of philosophical i V. 31. 2 Encyhlopadie Philosoph. Wissenschaflen, II. 131-133. 3 A p ree inquiry into Miraculous Powers, 1749. * The Criterion, or Rules by which True Miracles are Distinguished, 8vo, Lond., 1754. 6 A Dissertation on Miracles, 8vo, Load., 1771. 6 De Miraculis Enchiridion, 1805. * Miracles a Subject of Testimony, Works, vol. vi., 1858. MOLECULE. 771 topics ; the collected writings, the works of those who have illustrated a number of departments. MIXTION, mixture. Sir K. Digby.' ^MNEMONIC, MNEMONICS, MNEMOTECHNY.-See Me- moria Technica, Barbara, Celarent, and the other words of the mnemonic verses. MOBILITY (Lat.), quality of the mobile; of moving; mental quickness; levity. (Ger. Beweglichkeit.} "That property of an object by which its external relations to a given space can be changed by a force." Kant. MODAL, of mode or form ; in Logic and Metaphysics, applied to propositions which express limitations or conditions ; op- posed to pure, as M. abstraction, M. propositions. Aristotle. 2 M. is also used as a noun. O. F. Owen. 3 ^MODALITY, in Kant, 4 1. " The name of those dynamical cate- gories of the pure understanding involving existence which express the relations to the faculty of cognition." 2. " That synthetic unity through which the relation of the object to the faculty of cognition is thought." Mellin. *MODE, " the internally fortuitous quality, the contingent de- termination." Mellin. MODIFICATION, process of modifying ; result of modifying ; mode. Hamilton. 5 MODUS (LOGrlCUS), mode in Logic, mode of conditional ar- guments, as in the hypothetical syllogism M. ponens, or mode which posits or affirms (constructive hypothetical syl- logism) ; M. fattens, which removes the consequent (distinc- tive hypothetical syllogism) ; in the disjunctive Syllogism M. ponendo tollens, which by affirming denies ; M. toltendo ponens, by denying affirms. MOLECULAR, of the molecule, q. v., as M. philosophy, M. the- ory. *MOLECULE. "Atom, corpuscle, individual corpuscle, indi- visible body, minimum of body, individual element of body, atomic body, insectile body." W. A. Miller, 6 Roscoe, 7 Her- bert Spencer, 8 Williamson. 9 1 Nature of Bodies. L. J. 2 On Interpretation, ch. xii. ; Prior Analytics, I. iii. 3 Note on Aristotle, Interp., ch. xii. 70. * Rein. Vem., 266; Meiklejohn, 161. & Metaphysics, 10"). &Elem. of Chemistry, 1867, $ 13. ~> Elementary Chemistry, Inorgan. and Organic, 1867, 114, n. 8 Biology, ch. viii., \ 302. Chemistry for Students, 1865, 35. 772 MOMENT. MOMENT, MOMENTUM (pi. MOMENTA) (Lat.), the mov- ing tiling, movement, motion ; the thing moving itself; the affecting or influencing thing ; the thing originating, calling forth, producing, causing; element of power; element. In Hegel, all things existent are considered as moments, that is, the various movements of the development by which the ab- solute thought, in producing all things, manifests itself. In Kant, M. expresses the degree of the reality or intensity of the cause of our sensations, or of any phenomenon perceived by our faculties. D. P. S. " This term was borrowed from Mechanics by Hegel. 1 He employs it to denote the two con- tending forces which are mutually dependent, and whose contradiction forms an equation. Hence his formula Esse= Nothing. Here Esse and Nothing are momentums giving birth to Werden, i. e., existence. Thus the momentum con- tributes to the same oneness of operation in contradictory forces that we see in mechanics, amidst contrast and diver- sity, in weight and distance, in the case of balance." M. T. M. *MONADOLOGY. Langenbeck (1858), Leibnitz. 2 *MONADS, in Leibnitz and Herbart, " simple substances out of which the compound arise they are without parts not to be confounded with the Atoms of Epicurus, but are really unities, indivisible, the ground of all forces, the first absolute principles of all composite substances, including therefore the Atoms they are like mathematical points, except that they have reality they are metaphysical points, substan- tial forms, identical with what Aristotle calls Entelechies. They are without extension or figure. They are directly created, and could only cease by being annihilated. They have qualities ; each is diverse from the others, on the prin- ciple of the identity of indiscernibles, q. v. ; they are in a cer- tain sense percipient, dimly (without consciousness), clearly (with it)." See Entelechy, Force, Soul, Substance. Har- tenstein (1846), Leibnitz. 3 MONANDRY, marriage to one husband. See Monogamy. MONAS (Gr.), single; a unit-idea (Plato); in the Pythagorean l See his Wisse.nscJtaft der Logik, vol. iii., p. 104, ed. 1841. * La Monadologie (Prin- cipia Philosophife) Opera Philosophical (Erdmann), 705-712. 3 Nouveaux Essais, Liv. IV., ch. x. MONOGENIST8. 773 Philosophy, opposed to the Dyas, as one of the principles of numbers, and of all things as numerable. Monas is used by Leibnitz 1 in his Latin works in the nom. sing. Bee Mo- nads. MONISM (Gr.), doctrine of unity ; doctrine that there is but one principle of being ; doctrine of Monists ; opposed to Dual- ism, q. v. Anthropological M. is either materialism or ideal- ism (spiritualism in the exclusive sense). Theological M. is Monotheism. Hegeliauism has been styled the Monism of thought. Monism, Monist (fwvor^ one). "The philosophical Unita- rians or Monists reject the testimony of consciousness to the ultimate duality of the subject and object in perception, but they arrive at the unity of these in different ways. Some admit the testimony of consciousness to the equipoise of the mental and material phenomena, and do not attempt to re- duce either mind to matter or matter to mind. They reject, however, the evidence of consciousness to their antithesis in existence, and maintain that mind and matter are only phe- nomenal modifications of the same common substance. This is the doctrine of absolute identity a doctrine of which the most illustrious representatives among recent philosophers are Schelling, Hegel, and Cousin. Others again deny the evidence of consciousness to the equipoise of the subject and object as co-ordinate and co-original elements ; and as the balance is inclined in favor of the one relative or the other, two opposite schemes of psychology are determined. If the subject be taken as the original and genetic, and the object evolved from it as its product, the theory of Idealism is es- tablished. On the other hand, if the object be assumed as the original and genetic, and the subject evolved from it as its product, the theory of Materialism is established." Sir W. Hamilton. 2 See Dualism, Duality of Consciousness. MONODYNAMIC (Gr.), having but one power. ^MONOGAMY, MONOGYNY (Gr.), marriage to one woman only. MONOGENESIS, derivation of individuals from one original pair. MONOGENISTS, in Anthropology, those who maintain that 1 Opera Philos. (Erdmann), 740, 742. 2 Metaphysics, lect. xvi. 66* 774 MONOLEMMATIC. mankind consist of one species ; opposed to polygenists. Darwin. 1 MONOLEMMATIC (Gr.), pertaining to the monolemma, a syllogism which has but one premise; immediate syllogism ; syllogism of the understanding. See Enthymeme. MONOMANIA (Gr.), insanity determining upon a single point. Carpenter, 2 Maudsley, 3 Winslow. 4 MONOMER Y (Gr.), unity of parts ; having all the parts of one substance ; simplicity. MONOPATHY, separate suffering, whether of one part of the body or one faculty of the soul, apart from the others. MONOPHYSY (Gr.), singleness ; unity of nature. MONOPSYCHITES (Gr.), single-soul-ists; those who held that there is but a single soul of the world, Anima Mundi, and that what are called souls are but part of this. MONOSCHEMATISM.-See Schematism. MONOSOPHY (Gr.), sole wisdom, applied to God as "the only wise," and by Socrates, who contrasts the M. of God with the philosophy of man. ^MONOTHEISM (Gr.), doctrine or system of the unity of God; opposed to Polytheism. MONOTHELESY, MONOTHELETISM, doctrine of the sin- gleness of the will. See Monophysy. MONSTRATIVE. 1. Demonstrative; 2. Opposed to the de- monstrative, which implies argument; applied to the assur- ance which rests on perception. *MOOD (Lat. Modus, Mode, q. v.), logical form; manner of be- ing. " The mood of a syllogism is the relation of its several judgments to each other, with reference to their respective quantity and quality." Atwater. 5 The moods may be legit- imate or illegitimate. Fowler. 6 They are divided into direct and indirect, subaltern. Fowler. 7 See Mode, Figure, Barbara, and the other mnemonic terms. Hamilton. 8 Both mode and mood are used by the English logicians. Thom- son. 9 *MORAL, in Ethics, "concerned with the nature of the laws of 1 Desc. of Man, 176. 2 Human Physiology, $ 83. 8 Responsib. in Mental Disease, 71, 73, 220. 4 Obscure Mental Diseases, ch. ix. 6 Logic, 132. 6 Deduct. Log., 87-89. 7 De- duct. Log., 91, 101-105. 8 Logic, Lect. xx., xxi; Appendix, 658-679. 9 Laws of Thought, $ 100-103. MORC4ANATIC. 775 right conduct, with the knowledge of them, and with the application of them. In reasoning, moral means probable, on the basis of the moral order of the universe." C. F. V. Moral idealism, spiritualism, rigorism, treats man as if he were all spirit; M. realism, materialism, sensualism, treats him as if he were all body; M. synthetism takes the whole man, and puts the two elements of his nature into due rela- tion. Krug, E. L. Moral Faculty (see Conscience), " the power of the mind by which we obtain our knowledge of moral law." C. F. V. Moral Insanity, " a disorder of mind in which, without illu- sion, delusion, or hallucination, the symptoms are mainly exhibited in a perversion of those mental faculties which are usually called the active and moral powers the feel- ings, affections, propensities, temper, habits, and conduct." Maudsley. 1 Moral Mature, the spiritual nature as involving a conscious- ness of the character and duty of morality. *Moral Philosophy, " is the philosophy of our knowledge of moral law, of the application of such law to human life, and of our relations as moral beings." C. F. V. See Ethics. Moral Responsibility, accountability for character and acts in the sphere of morality. Moral Sense (see Senses, Reflex). " Used, 1. To describe the moral faculty, when a transition was occurring from an emo- tional to an intellectual theory of its nature. Shaftesbury, Hutcheson. 2. Feeling of reverence toward moral law." Kant. 2 C. F. V. Moral Theology, the portion of systematic theology devoted to the science of ethics ; opposed to dogmatic theology. MORALISTXCS, moral philosophy. 'MORALITY, " every form of action embraced under the ap- plication of moral law." C. F. V. MORBID (Lat.), diseased; applied to the mind, it expresses disorder which has not reached the degree of insanity. Hence, Morbidness. MORGANATIC (Ger., morning-gift,) "left-handed 'trriage," q. v., in which the woman and any children she may have are excluded from the rank and heirship of the husband. 1 Responsibility in Mental Disease, 170-184. * Analyt. der prak. Vernnnfl ; Melaph. of Etftics, Semple, 2d edit., Ciilderwood. 776 MORPHOLOGY. *MORPHOLOGY, Whewell : " Our morphology ought not to prejudice our teleology.'" ^MOTIVE, " any desire, affection, or other internal force, which impels to action ; a mental impulse." C. F. V. It has been common " improperly " to distinguish motives as external or internal. C. F. V. Ger. Bewegutigsgrund (des Wo f lens). See Liberty. Motive in Volition, recent views of. See Liberty. Biich- ner: "Where we believe we are acting freely, one motive has been stronger than another, and has overcome the will." l Beneke : " The will of man is nothing more than the sum of his motives, of his desires ; these we must follow ; in par- ticular cases, we may indeed be able to resist them, but this we can do only by means of another stronger motive." " The volition is always determined by the mental representation of some interest or other ; this interest is that which moves the volition." 2 Drobisch : " There is a relative freedom of the will." " The result of the estimate of that which we are weighing with reference to our acting, determines the will, and the estimate, in the view of the subject-mind, must, if it does not hit the best, at least hit the better." 3 Frauenstadt: " Every decision is indeed necessary ; it is a decision neces- sitated by the motive, but this necessity is not in conflict with the self-determination of the will, and does not destroy responsibility, inasmuch as motives do not coerce, but move the will only on the presupposition of its assent. The choice made by the will is a necessary one, but the necessity is not coercion." 4 J. C. Fischer : " The grounds invested with the stronger charm, the mightier attractiveness, induce the de- cision in a manner involving natural necessity ; the strongest motive always remains victor." 5 I. H. Fichte : " Liberty is the faculty of following our inclination, or, if the inclina- tions or influence of motive be conflicting, to follow the stronger, more persistent inclination." 6 Ludwig Feuerbach : " Nothing is more preposterous than to invent for man a special metaphysical need, distinct from his impulse toward his happiness. Where there is no impulse to happiness, i Seeks Vbrlesungen, 359. 2 Physik der Sitten, 75,89. Moralische SlatistiL; 75, 104. < Sittliche Leben, 232-234, 240, 249, 250. 6 Freiheit des Willens und die Einheit d. JNatur-Gesetze, ed. 2, 197, 203. Ethik, B. II., Ab. i., 86, 87. MOTIVE. 777 there is no will. We wish for the end of what is in conflict with us of pain, of misfortune ; we wish for well-being. Willing means well-being, and that, first of all, for ourselves. Will is the desire or longing of a man for what is good or seems to be good ; he cannot but will the good. Thus is he of necessity determined or attracted by the objects he regards as useful, and repelled by those he supposes to be injurious. Man strives necessarily after well-being. Willing means to will to be happy." * Herbart : " Actions can be called free, only when they are determined by clear motives." 2 Kant: see Liberty. Schopenhauer: "All motives are causes, and all causality brings necessity with it. A man can no more rise from his chair, without a motive, than a billiard-ball can roll without receiving a stroke, and his rising on the motive is as necessary and irresistible as the rolling of the billiard-ball on the stroke." " The necessity with which the motives work is not destitute of something presupposed ; its presupposition is the inborn individual character. This character, however, is not a work of art, but of nature, a natural force, and hence every act of a man is the necessary product of his character, and of the motive that has been brought in; if both these be given, the act follows inevi- tably." " An act for which there is a sufficient motive can- not be left undone, unless a counter-motive which is stronger necessitates the putting it aside." 3 Spir: "The sole proper aim, the sole proper end of all will, of all effort, is identity with itself, is satisfaction." 4 Trendelenburg : " The human will must allow itself to be determined by a rational motive; then only is its freedom restored." 5 Ulrici : "The impulses present themselves to our consciousness, not as coercive causes. The freedom of our will shows itself in the very fact that we are able, between two or more given motives, to choose whether we will act upon them at all, or on which of them we will act." 6 Carl Werner: "All willing has a pleasure as its presupposition; the soul can will nothing, un- less it have a pleasure in it; it has pleasure in that which suits it, and in some sense promises it satisfaction." 7 See Steudel. 8 l SSmmtKche Werte, x. 62-65. 2 Werke, IX. 373. 3 Grund-Probleme, 35, 36, 44, 53, 56, 205; Vierfachf. Wurzel,4T. 4 Die, Wuhrlieif, 124. *> Nalurreclil, ed. 2,71. * Leilt u. 8ff.lf, 602; Zlschr. von FicJitf, XL. 261, 262; Nuturredit, 60. 1 We sen it. Begriff d. Menschen-Scele, ed. 2, 53. 8 philosophic im Umriss, Zw. Theil. Erst. Abth. 50-63. 778 MULTIFORMITY. MULTIFORMITY, diversity of shapes or appearances sub- sisting in the same thing; character of the multiform. Herbert Spencer. 1 MUNDANE (Lat.), of or belonging to the world (mundus) ; as, mundane soul (Glanville), M. space (Bentley). MUNDUS (Lat.), the world. M. intelligibilis, the world as grasped by the understanding ; the world of the noumena, q. v. ; the entia rationis, or things in themselves ; opposed to M. sensibilis, the world as grasped by the senses; the world of phenomena. The genitive of M. is used in the combinations mundi anima, sjyiritm, soul, spirit of the world ; M. systema, system of the world. Bee World, MUST, marks necessity, whether physical or psychical ; opposed to should, which marks duty. See Freedom, Liberty, Mo- tive, Volition, Will. MUTISM. 1. State of muteness; destitution of speech. Max Miiller. 2. Excessive or morbid silence. K. R. L. MUTUALISM, system of reciprocal aid. MUTUATION (Lat.), borrowing. MYSTAGOGUE (Gr.), an initiator into mysteries ; a teacher ; a guide. MYSTERIARCH, MySTARCH, chief of the mustai, or those " initiated into articles of secret instruction." C. F. V. MYSTEROPHY (Gr.), wisdom of the initiated, the mustai; wisdom of the mystics. MYSTERY (Gr.), secret doctrine; secret; matter of science; that which in its own nature is unknown or incomprehen- sible. MYSTIC, adj. (Gr.) ? secret; connected with the mysteries; full of mystery ; involving a secret or recondite sense. Mystic, n., one who holds mystic views. Delitzsch (1842), E. A. Vaughan (1860). ^MYSTICISM," is a term which includes under it all philosoph- ical speculations or transcendent problems which break away from the facts of observation and experience, and which refuse the test presented by such facts." C. F. V., Krauth. 2 *MYTH (Gr.), "a fictitious or conjectural narrative, presented as historical." C. F. V. Bee Baden Powell. 3 1 Biology, $ 61, 311. 2 Article Mysticism, Johnson's Cyclopedia. 3 Order of Aatwre considered in reference to the Claims of Revelation, 1859, p. 340. NATURALIST. 779 MYTHOLOGTJE, myth. ^MYTHOLOGY, " in the newer sense of the word, philosophi- cal or critical investigation of myths." L. J. MYTHOPOEIC, myth-making. Grote. 1 MYTHOTHEOLOGY, theology as derived from myths, or illus- trated by them, or explanatory of them. NAIVE (Fr.; Lat.), native; unaffected; opposed to the preten- tious and conventional ; it is opposed also to the sentimen- tal, and is applied to the ancient poetry as more natural and objective than the modern. Hence Naivete. Kant. 2 NAME (Lat. Nomen; Ger. Name), a word or term which repre- sents a person (proper) or thing (common).. See Nominalism. NATION (Lat.), "properly signifies a great number of families derived from the same blood, born in the same country, and living under the same government." Sir W. Temple. "A multitude of human beings allied by physical descent, con- sequently also by language, manners, character, &c. ; a peo- ple." Krug. -NATURA, N. NATURANS, N. NATITRATA.-See Nature. ^NATURAL, of or pertaining to Natura, Nature, q. v. ; " be- longing to the constitution of things, or to the established order of the Cosmos." C. F. V. Natural, of, pertaining to, in harmony with, nature ; in classification, based on real and essential distinctions ; the opposite of artificial. It is applied by Mill to kinds which are distinguished not by a few definite properties, but by an .unknown multitude of them. It is applied to causality, concept, condition, faculty, history, necessity, powers, science, state. ^NATURALISM (Fr.). 1. Conformity to nature, naturalness; 2. The system which attributes everything to Nature as the primary principle, as the N. of Strato ; 3. N. of Schelling, see Nature, Philosophy of; 4. A system of natural religion, as opposed to revealed religion. NATURALIST, an adherent of Naturalism. l Hist, of Greece, Ft. I., ch. 16. 2 UrtheiMraft, \ 54. 780 NATURE. ^NATURE. "Philosophy has but two objects, nature and free- dom. The Philosophy of Nature is concerned with what is ; the Philosophy of Morals with what ought to be." Kant. Nature in General, and Laws of Nature, recent attempts at defining. Biichner: "Nature is a single totality sus- tained by an internal necessity." " Either the laws of na- ture rule, or the eternal reason rules ; the two would be involved in conflict every moment ; the sway, of the un- changeable laws of nature, a sway which we cannot call a rule, would allow of no conflicting personal interference." l J. G. Fichte : "Nature is not a mere dead material ; we must think of her as a Spiritual ; she is a formal image of the ab- solute phenomenon." ' 2 I. H. Fichte : " An all-relating uni- fying power must interpenetrate the real elements ; the recip- rocal operation among things rests of necessity on an inter- nal relation, a universal rapport between them." " In the laws of nature is revealed the omnipotent sway of the divine wisdom." 3 V. Hartsen : " The necessity of the laws of na- ture, over against the absolute necessity of the mathematical and logical laws, is only hypothetical derived according to their essence from an originally free constitution of them." 4 Hegel : " Nature is in itself also spirit, which posits itself as its other." 5 F. W. J. Schelling : "In Nature the eternal things or the ideas come to existence. This takes place not through the intermediacy of a substance or matter, but through the eternal subject-objectivating of the absolute." " Nature is not the mere product of an incomprehensible creation, but this creation itself; not the mere phenomenon and revelation of the Eternal, but rather also this very Eter- nal itself; and as Spinoza says, the more we discern the indi- vidual things, the more we discern God." 6 K. E. Schelling: " The reciprocal operation of things on one another is medi- ated through that same substance in which they before were one." 7 Schulz-Schulzenstein : " In the sciences of inorganic nature there can be no Materialism, for here dead things are correctly explained by dead laws of nature." 8 Steudel : " It l Natur u. Gcist, 36, 167 ; Kraft u. Staff., 40. 2 jy n cJigelass. Werke, I. G62. 3 Zfit- sclinft, xxi. 97 ; xlvii. 21 ; Psychologic, 623. * Zeitscln: von FicMc., lii. 57; see Stew- dd, T. :9<3. & Lebf.nrnn fioafnkrnnz, W\. 6 Wn-ke, Abth. I., ii. 188, 37$; cf. Abtli. II., ii. 371. 7 Lvbt-ii u. Seine Erac/ieinumj, Vorred. xxiii. 8 Ztsckr. ^Der Gedanke," I. 14S. I NECESSITY. 781 is not to be denied that there are laws of nature which have the character of immanent necessity ; but these are the laws to which a strictly mathematical character pertains. This character, however, as Ulrici l .recognizes, does not pertain to what are properly the laws of nature ; the organization of the universe by no means takes place as Michelet 2 sup- poses, according to internal necessity." 3 - Nature, Conditions of, in Kant,* the causes in the phenom- ena; opposed to events in nature. Nature, Doctrine of. See Physics. ^Nature, Human. ^Nature, Plastic. *Nature, Law of. Nature, Laws of, general rules which define the observed operations in nature. Nature, Metaphysics of, in Kant. See Metaphysics, Tab- ular View. *Nature, Philosophy of, in Herder and Schelling, a system of cosmogony which holds that nature is the realization of all that is conceivable. See Pantheism. In Kant, 5 the theoretic, as opposed to the practical. Nature, Plan of. See End. *Nature of Things. Fleming. 6 NATURISM, NATURIST. See Naturalism, Naturalist. NECESSARIANISM, doctrine of the philosophical Necessa- rians, or Necessitarians. See Liberty, Necessity, Will. NECESSARY, NECESSITATE, NECESSITATION. - See Necessity. Necessary Matter, in Logic, consists of any subject in which the proposition A may be affirmed; opposed to contingent and impossible. "'NECESSITY. "The philosophic uses of this term are vari- ous: 1. Physical N., according to the laws of nature; inva- riable sequence. 2. Intellectual N., according to the laws of our intelligence; and 3. Moral N., according to the absolute requirements of moral law. As applied to the question of the philosophy of the human will, N. expresses the doctrine that the will is not free, but that all volitions follow by l Ztscltr. v. Ficl/te, Iv. 16. 2 Persintlidikeit des Absnluten, 109. 3 Philosophic im Umriss, T. :;87-S!i7. 4 Itein. Tern., 572. & Urtheil*kraft, Einleit. xii. * Man. of Mor. Phil. 67 782 NECESSITY. invariable sequence from internal motives, as the facts of nature from natural law. The word Determinism, q. v., lias been proposed by J. S. Mill, as preferable to Necessitarian- ism." C. F. V. ^Necessity, Doctrine of (Ger. Nothwendigkeit). ^Necessity, Logical. Necessity, as applied to the Notion or Concept of God, in the Ontological argument, urged especially by Leibnitz. Kant : " If any thing exists, there must exist a necessary being, that is, God." 1 Lotze 2 and Schopenhauer 3 maintain that necessity, as applied to the being of God, destroys the conception of His absoluteness and makes Him dependent. Schelling : " If God exist, He must be the necessarily ex- istent. God, therefore, is not merely the necessary Being, but He is necessarily the necessary Being." 4 Steudel : " We stand here in the presence of a mystery which will never be solved to our human cognition. So much we see, that if there be anything at all, there must be a God, in whom it has its ground; and, consequently, as there actually is a world, the world must have God as its ground. As God is the ground of the world, His being is not dependent on the being of the world. On the contrary, the being of the world is conditioned on the being of God. But the perplex- ing question is: Why is there anything at all why is there a God and a world? How comes it that there is anything whatsoever? Why is there not nothing? This question is indeed solved by the supposition that the being of God is of itself a necessity. But who can maintain this apart from the world, or how can such a supposition be grounded? The proof of such a notional necessity of the being of God is a failure the supposition of such a necessity involves a con- tradiction. Philosophy has here reached a boundary at which she is forced to pause. It is better honestly to con- fess this than, by artificial and illusory solutions, to mislead ourselves and others." 5 Necessity, as applied to the Works of God, the theory that God must manifest his essential nature ; that the world, as it 1 SteiulfJ, II., 305. 2 JUiJeroJeosmut, IV., 551, 552. 3 Pare.rga, Ed I, Bd. I., 102, 176. 4 Wkrke, Abth. II., Bd. iii., 159-167. Philosophic im Umriss, Erst. Theil. Zw. Abth., 306. NECESSITY. 783 is, is a necessary result of God's nature Necessity opposed to the received notion of Liberty, q. v. Hegel : " In God, liberty and necessity are the same thing." " This necessity in God is in antithesis to the contingency of the world." 1 So Schelling. Franz Hoffmann : "As God is supreme per- fection, He can only create and bring into operation the per- fect." 2 Michelet: "For God, everything possible is also actual." 3 So Schelling, 4 Spinoza. 5 Steudel: "Absolute lib- erty belongs essentially to the notion of the Absolute . . . It is a downright misapprehension to identify this absolute freedom with necessity." 6 Necessity, as applied to Man. See Freedom, Liberty, Vo- lition, Will. Bergmann : " By liberty need no longer be understood a form of occurrence in conflict with the law of causality, an antithesis to necessity in general. Liberty is a special form of causality ; it is a higher form of it. It does not lie upon things as an extraneous coercion, but is the proper form of the things themselves, wherein they can un- fold their essential nature, and bring it to adequate manifes- tation." 7 Chalibaus : "The concept of necessity is not op- posed to freedom, or contradictory to it ; but is opposed to arbitrariness. Both are elements subordinate to the concept * of liberty, or co-ordinate with it." 8 Drobisch : "Man, by a moral and firm character, becomes morally free, that is, inde- pendent of the coercion of his nature. This freedom, how- ever, is no freedom of the will, but an obligation of it: it forms no antithesis to necessity ; on the contrary, we expect, in the case of a person of strictly moral, fixed character, that moral willing and acting have become to him a second na- ture, and have consequently become necessary." 9 I. H. Fichte, See Liberty. Frauenstadt: "The moral decision is free from coercion, but not from necessity ; a good man acts not under coercion, but from internal necessitation." 10 Hegel : " Every philosophical system is at once a system of liberty and of necessity. Liberty and necessity are ideal l Werl-e, XII., 434, 435, 480. 2 Ztschr. v. FicMt, xli., 132, 133. 3 ftnSnJiclikeit ds Absolute*, 30. 4 Werke, Abth. I., vii. 429, ii. 371, 1. 323; Abth. II., i. 575 seq. 5 Ed. Gfrurer, 75. 6 Phil, im Umriss, 311. 7 ztsclir. "Der Gfflnnlce," vi. 248, 249. 8 Specu- lativ. Ethik, I., 138. 9 Moralische Stutislik, 106. w Sittliche Leben. EUdsche Sludien, 225. 784 NECESSITY. factors, and are consequently not in real opposition. A sep- arated liberty would be a formal liberty, as a separated ne- cessity would be a formal necessity. In the absolute, lib- erty and necessity are in indifference." " Liberty and ne- cessity, as standing abstractly over against each other, belong to the finite only, and have validity on its basis alone. A liberty which had no necessity in it, and a bare necessity without liberty, would be abstract designations, and conse- quently untrue ones. Liberty is essentially concrete, deter- mined in itself, in an external mode, and is therefore at the same time necessary. When necessity is spoken of, it is common to embrace in it no more than determination from without. This, however, would be a mere external necessity, not the true internal one, which is liberty itself." 1 Kant: "All the actions of man in phenomenon are determined by his empirical character, and the other causes co-operating after the order of nature. Could we investigate to the bottom all the phenomena of his free-will, there would not be a single human act which we could not predict with cer- tainty, and recognize as n ecessary from its antecedent condi- tions. In respect of this empirical character, there is no liberty. But at the same time every act, apart from its phe- nomenon, is the immediate operation of the intelligible character of the pure Reason, which consequently acts freely without being determined by external or internal grounds in the chain of natural causes." 2 V. Oettingen : " The diffi- cult problem of the unity of liberty and necessity can never be solved until the individual man is fixed in his determi- nation to become a member of a wisely ordered higher world." 3 Riimelin : " Freedom and necessity are not logi- cal opposites. The necessary is opposed to the contingent, freedom is opposed to coercion or external necessity, while the internal necessity is in affinity with freedom, if not iden- tical with it." 4 Schelling: "Absolute liberty is identical with absolute necessity. In God we can think of no act which does not proceed from the internal necessity of His nature. Such an act is the original one of man's self-con- sciousness ; it is absolutely free, for it is determined bynoth- 1 Werlr, 1., 240, 247, 261, 265, 367, 36 ; VT, 72, 73, 310, .",11 ; XTT , 2 ; XIII., 39. 2 Wf.rke. TT , 422, 423, 4.'51-4o7. 3 Mt>rZ, ii. 189. & Kunstsprache : Nichtnatiirlich. Q Rein. Fern., 327. 1 Pern. Yern., 882. NOTHING. 791 *NOOLOGY. See Hamilton. 1 *Norm. NORMAL, conformable to the norm ; expressive of the norm ; norm-giving, as normal idea: applied by Kant 2 to the a?s- thetic idea, the form which fixes the condition of all beauty. NORMATIVE, directing by the norm ; regulative. NOT, in Logic, the negative element. See Latham. 3 NOTA NOTJE EST ETIAM NOTA REI IPSITTS, in Logic, the note (mark) of a note is also a note of the thing itself. See Inference, Mediate. Atwater. 4 NOTATION, in Logic, a representation to the eye, by figures, of the relation which subsists in thought between concep- tions. The most renowned of these are: 1. Euler's, by cir- cles ; 2. Hamilton's, 5 which Thomson says, " is beyond doubt, one of the most important contributions to pure Logic which has ever been made since the science was put forth." It is by letters, lines, numbers, and marks of punctuation; 3. Lambert's, by letters, straight lines, and dots ; 4. Maas's, by angles, triangles, and letters. See Thomson, 6 Atwater. 7 NOTE [Lat. Nota (discrimen, character cognitionis et rei) ; Fr. Note (caracttre de la connoisance et de la chose] ; Ger. Merkmahl, a mark], distinctive element of the cognized; in Logic, mark or attribute. Thomson. 8 It is distinguished as affirmative or positive ; analytic ; constitutive or essential in the strict- est sense ; contingent or extra-essential and variable ; co- ordinate ; external ; immediate or proximate ; mediate or remote, the note of a note ; subordinate ; synthetic. NOTHING (Ger. Nichts), in Hegel, 9 pure negation, is identified with the immediate indeterminate notion of being (Seins), -in the absence of content, and in vacuity. See Becoming, Being. Porter, 10 Schwegler. 11 Nothing. See Something. Kant 12 classifies the concept Nothing thus : 1. Empty concept without object ens ratio- nis. 2. Empty object of a concept nihil privativum. 3. Empty intuition without an object ens imoginarium. 4. Empty object without concept nihil negativum. 1 Metaphysics, Am. ed., 87. 2 Urtheihkr., $ 17. 3 Excursus under Not, in his edition of Johnson's Dictionary. * Logic, 1; J ,9. 6 Logic, App. XI., 667-679. 6 Laws of Tlimtijht, $ 101-104. i Logic, 140-143, 232-244. 8 Laws of Thought, 95. 9 Encyclo- pddie,$ 87 ; Wallace, 137. 10 Unman Intellect, 529, 532. " Geschichte, XLV., i. 1, a. 12 Re.in. Vern., 348: Meiklejohn, 208. 792 NOTION. *NOTION. " Begriff : The form of generalized knowledge, such as that which stands for a genus. We might say a general conception, but for the consideration that ' conception ' ( Vor- stellung) is better kept for the mental representation of an individual object. Notion and conception have commonly been used as synonymous." C. F. V. See Krauth. 1 Notion in Hegel, in the Science of Logic, " is that in the other which is identical with itself; it is substantial total- ity, whose momenta (individual, special] are themselves the whole (the universal] which just as freely on the one side warrants the distinction, as on the other it comprehends it within itself in unity. The Notion is, 1. Subjective notion. 2. Objectivity. 3. Idea. The subjective notion contains the momenta of Universality, Particularity, and Individuality. Objectivity is not being in general, but a being complete in itself, determined by notion. The Idea is the highest logical definition of the absolute." Hegel, 2 Schwegler. 3 Notion in Plato. Aristotle : " Socrates did not posit the uni- versal notions as distinct individual substances. This was done by Plato, who then named them ideas." 4 Schwegler : " Plato's ideas are the Socratic universal notions, posited as real individual existences." 5 Notion in Socrates, The, arose in his method of induction, out of the transformation of a general mental representation into the notion. " Casting out what was contingent and ac- cidental, he aimed at bringing to consciousness a universal truth, a universal fixing of meaning ; in a word, he aimed at forming notions. For example, to find the notion of recti- tude, of courage, he advanced from the different individual exemplifications of these virtues, and from these deduced their general nature their notion. We see from this to what the Socratic induction tended to definition conformed to the notion." Schwegler. 6 *Notiones communes. NOTIONS, CLEAR, CONFUSED, DISTINCT, INDISTINCT, OBSCURE. See *Notion, | 7. ^Notions, First and Second. i Berkeley's l^rinciples, annotated, p. 338. 2 Encydopadie, % 51, 160-244. 3 Qe.- schidtte, XLV., i. 3. * Metaph., xiii. 4. 5 Geschichte, xii. 6. Geschichte der Philo- sophic, xii. 6. NULLIBISTS. 793 ^Notions, Intuitive and Symbolical. Leibnitz's application of intuitive to notions "involves a misapplication of the word ' notion.' The term must always indicate representation or mediate knowledge ; we may speak of cognitions, intui- tive and symbolical, but not of intuitive notions. The pas- sage occurs in the Meditationes de Cognitione, Veritate et Ideis, 1 and ' cognitio* is the word first employed by Leibnitz, though he afterwards uses notio." C. F. V. NOTIORA NATURJE, in Logic, applied to those things which are more simple or better known in nature, as opposed to the nob is notiora, things better known to us, or our senses. Jevons. 2 NOTITLffi COMMUNES, Notions communes, q. v. *NOUMEN, NOUMENON (pi NOUMENA), (Gr., a thought- thing; Ger. Gedankending, the thing thought). In Kant, negatively, " the thing in itself, the real object to which the qualities recognized by us belong." C. F. V. In Kant, 3 Noumen in the positive sense is the supersensuous object, the Supersensuous, TO bv na$ O.VTO, TO OVTU$ bv. See An sich. "Noumena, in the negative sense, are things of which the un- derstanding conceives without reference to our mode of sense-perception, consequently not as phenomena, but as manifested through the phenomena." The "intelligible world" is not phenomenon but noumen. Noumen is non- phenomenon. NOUMENAL, of or pertaining to the noumen, q. v. Stirling. 4 NOUS, NOOS (Gr.). 1. Mind, as employed in perceiving and thinking; perception; sense. 2. Mind, as employed in feel- ing and the like ; the heart, mood, temper. 3. The mind, as employed in resolving and purposing. In the Attic Phil- osophy, the perceptive and intelligent faculty, intellect, rea- son. In Anaxagoras, the principle which acted on the elementary particles of matter, the divine intelligence. Anaxagoras, 5 Aristotle, 6 Grote, 7 Plato. 8 In Kant, Nous is represented by Verstand, the understanding. ^Novelty. NOVUM ORGANUM (Lat.), new instrument. See Bacon. NULLIBISTS, advocates of nullibiety, no-where-ness; applied 1 Opera Philosophica, Erdmann, p. 79. 2 Less, in Logic, 204. 8 Rein. Vern., 307, 312, 345. * Annotations on Scfnveglers History, 375, 418, 457. 5 Fi:, 8. De Anima, 1, 2, 5 ; MeUiph., 1,4. 1 Plato, I., 56, seq. 8 Phscdon, 97 B. C. GS 794 NUMBER. to the Cartesians, who assert that body is somewhere (alicu- bi), spirit is nowhere (nullibi}. Krug. *NTJMBER. Hegel : * " Like the one, number involves two qualitative factors or functions : it is annurneration according to the element of discretion ; unity, according to the element of continuity." Kant : 2 "A mental representation which comprehends the successive addition of one to one (of things homogeneous.)" Porter. 3 NYAYA, in Hindoo philosophy, the Sanscrit name for syllo- gism ; the system of Gotarna, who has been compared to Kant ; it is a system of ratiocination ; a complicated logic of categories and syllogisms, with the element of spiritual- ism. See Categories, Syllogism, Vaisechica. NYMPHOLEPT (Gr.), (hence Nympholcpsy), nymph-caught; muse-inspired; rapt; entranced. (Lcit. Lymphatus.) See Lymphatic. Aristotle, 4 Plato. 5 0, in Logic, marks a particular negative. See A, E, I. *OATH (Ger. Eid). OBJECT (Lat., thrown before, lying before; Fr. Objet ; Ger. Gegenstand). In Metaphysics, that which is in mental view, that to which the mind is directed, whether in external or internal perception, as objects of sense, sight, hearing ; ob- jects of thought, desire, will. It is opposed to the thinking subject or Ego, as the object of thought, the Non-Ego. See Objective. Fichte : " The law of consciousness is, ' No sub- ject, no object; no object, no subject.," 6 " The object is a non- Ego, which the Ego meets in its going forth from its centre." Hegel : " The objective is identical with material being." 7 Michelet : " Objectivity is the notion in the form of separa- tion." 8 Steudel : " Subject is that which takes cognizance of another ; object is that which is cognized by another." 9 Object-Object, the external as mental object, the " objective- object ;" opposed to subject-object. 1 EncyJdopadie, \ 102 ; Wallace. 1G3. 2 p e in. Tern., 182. 3 Human Intellect 544-554. < Elh., E. 1, 1, 4. 5 Phxdr., 238 D. 6 Grundl. d. ges. Wissenschaftslehre, 1794 ; Werk*, I 183, 218. i Leben Hegel's, Rosenkranz, 108. <* Veber die Personlich1ce.it des Absolu- ten, 169. *Philos. im Umris, I. 303. OBLIGATION. 795 OBJECTIFY, OBJECTIVATE, OBJECTIZE, to render objec- tive, consider or treat as objective. To objectivate the subject, to make our own minds the object of study, subject-objects. Encyclopaedia Britannica. 1 ^OBJECTIVE, " what pertains to the object known, in contrast with subjective, what pertains to the knowing subject. Hence objective has come to mean that which has independent ex- istence or authority, apart from our experience or thought. Thus moral law is said to have objective authority, that is, authority belonging to itself, and not drawn from anything in our nature." C. F. V. Objective, Objectivism, Objectivity, in ^Esthetics, applied to authors and artists whose personality retires into the back-ground or disappears altogether. Chambers' Encyclo- paedia. 2 OBJECTIVITY, in Metaphysics, character of the object, q. v., and of the objective, q. v. Objectivity, in Morals, applied to good and evil; opposed to subjectivity. Morality strictly pertains to the subject the moral agent. Persons are morally good or morally bad ; things are not. But in a secondary sense, and in this only, the terms morally good or morally bad may be applied to acts which in their true moral connection arise from ethical principle, and in that case participate indirectly in its char- acter, but which may be separated in fact in particular in- stances from it. Relief of the miserable is in this sense ob- jectively good, though the motive of the person acting may not have been pure. It is good, though he is not. The kill- ing of a daughter is objectively bad, though the motive of Virginius is pure. It is bad, he is not. See Steudel. 3 ^OBLIGATION (Ger. Verbindlichkeit), " Personal subjection to the authority of law, oughtness, duty. ' Bounden duty ' is tautological." C. F. V. ^Obligation, Moral. The will of God, "as expressing the ab- solute perfection of the Divine nature," is the true ground of obligation. " A doctrine of moral obligation presents the great difficulty in the construction of a utilitarian theory of morals in which a deterministic (necessitarian) theory of will is an essential part. How the difficulty has been met may. 1 Object and Objective. 2 Object. s Philosophic im Umriss, II., i. 538-545. 796 OBSCENITY. be seen from Mr. Mill. 1 ' Why am I bound to promote the general happiness? . . This difficulty will always present itself, until the influences which form moral character have taken the same hold of the principle which they have taken of some of the consequences.' This shuns the difficulty shifting it from a philosophic to a practical one. The refer- ence here is not to the difficulty in finding a rational expla- nation of the fact of obligation, but in acting up to admitted obligation. Prof. Bain 2 makes obligation refer ' to the class of actions enforced by the sanction of punishment.' " G. F. V. OBSCENITY (Lat., covered over, concealed), in Ethics, filthi- ness, impurity, unchastity. OBSCURANT, OBSCURANTISM, OBSCURANTIST, applied to mark the character of opposition to light, truth, and in- telligence ; the spirit which obscures what should be brought to view. OBSCURE, in Logic, applied to knowledge which does not en- able us to recognize the thing again, and discriminate it from all other things. ^OBSERVATION (Ger. Beobachtung}." Commonly, attention directed upon external objects. But quite co.rrectly, it is made to include attention directed upon what is within, as well as upon what is without." C. F. V. OCCAMISTS, followers of William of Occam (died about the middle of the 14th cent.), violent opponents of the Scotists, Nominalists, q. v. ^OCCASION. " Opportunity for action, as afforded by the pres- ence of conditions favorable to its performance." C. F. V. " The proximate cause or last condition which is requisite to bring other causes into action." Jevons. OCCASIONAL CAUSES (DOCTRINE OF), OCCASIONAL- ISM. See Causes, Occasional (Doctrine of). Applied by Kant 3 to the theory which supposes God to furnish by direct act the organic character on occasion of each case of gener- ation ; opposed to PrazstabUism. OCCULT QUALITIES. See Quality, Occult. OECONOMY (Lat. Oecotwmia, from the Greek), management of a household; administration (of a state) ; arrangement; har- monious operation of organization, physical, moral, nationals i Uliliturninism, p. 40. 2 Emotions and WdJ, 3d cd., 264. 3 Urtheilskr., o75. ONTOLOGY. 797 or social; the animal oeconomy, the human oeconomy, oecon- omy of humanity. Steudel. 1 OMNITUDE (Lat. Omnitudo), the totality; the entireness. In Kant, "das All der Realitat" * applied to the transcendental ideal, the idea of an object in which all possible attributes meet. ONE. See Unity. ONEIROMANCY.-See Dreaming. ONTOLOGIC, ONTOLOGICAL, ONTOLOGIST, terms derived from Ontology, q. v. Ontological Argument, Proof (of the Existence of God), the attempt to demonstrate that the very idea of God in- volves His actual being. It is also called the Anselmian and Cartesian proof. See Steudel. 3 ^ONTOLOGY. The ancient philosophers were largely occupied with ontological speculations. Plato's Parmenides is entirely .devoted to ontology. Hegel's philosophy, especially his Logic, is in the main nothing but ontology. The mediaeval struggle between realism and nominalism is essentially onto- logical. Kant: "The principles of transcendental analytic are merely principles of the exposition of phenomena; and the proud name of ontology, which involves the claim of presenting synthetical cognitions a priori of things in gen- eral in a systematic doctrine (as, for example, the principle of causality), must give place to the modest title of a simple analytic of the pure understanding." 4 " Metaphysic, in the more limited acceptation of the term, consists of transcen- dental philosophy and the physiology of pure reason. The former considers only the understanding and the reason in a system of all concepts and principles which relate to objects in general, without embracing objects which are given. It is ontology." 5 Schopenhauer : " The philosophia prima, the investigation of the cognitive faculty, which is divided into the consideration of the primary or intuitional mental repre- sentations (Dianoiology), and the consideration of the sec- ondary or abstract mental representations (Logic). This general part of philosophy, with which every philosophy i. im Urnriss, IT., i. 478-488. 2 Rein. Yernunft, 650. 3 Philnsnphie im Uinrist, I., ii. 177-183. * Rein. Tern., 303; Wtrlce, II., 713; Meiklejohn, 1S3. 5 Rein,, Fern., 873, 874 ; Meiklejohn, 511, 512. 798 ONTOSOPHY. has to begin, embraces, or rather displaces, what was for- merly called ontology. Ontology is the doctrine of the most general and essential attributes of things. That was regarded as the attributes of the things themselves which pertains to them only because of the form and nature of our representative faculty, and a process took place like that of a man who supposes the color of the glass through which he is looking, to be the color of the object at which he looks." "Kant's Critique of the Pure Reason converted ontology into dianoiology." l Thilo calls ontology "a little work of art in a snuff-box." 2 See I. H. Fichte, 3 Steudel. 4 For the divisions of ontology, see Metaphysics, General. ONTOSOPHY, ontology. ONTOSTATICS, ontology as a theory of the equilibrium of the forces of being. ONTOTHEOLOGY, theology as derived from or influenced by ontology. G. E. Schulze. 5 OPERATION, every activity which produces or influences. Operation at a Distance (Lat. Actio in distans; Ger. Wirkung in die Feme). The difficult question involved in this term is, Can physical substance operate immediately where it is not? It is most commonly discussed in connection with gravita- tion in its relation to distant bodies. The sun attracts the earth, and the earth attracts the sun. Is there anything be- tween the sun and the earth, by which they attract each other? Chalybaus: "If there be an attraction through empty space, if there be a universal reciprocal attraction of all bodies, it must originate from a substance continuing to subsist indivisibly even in the differentiation." 6 The recent atomists are opposed to the doctrine of the (immediate) op- eration at a distance; as, for example, Cornelius: "That doctrine would imply that there are activities without a something which is active; forces without a substratum, any- thing real to sustain them. The operations which seem to be of this character are really brought about by a chain of actual essences." 7 I. H. Fichte: "The theory of an actio l Parerga, I., 89 ; II., 19 ; Well als Wille, II., 200. 2 Zeitschr. f. exacte Phil., II., 451. SOntologie, 1836. 4 Philosophic im Umriss, I., i. 288. ^Grundriss d. phil. TF/.WHSC/J., II., 164-174. 6 Fundamental Philosophic, 124. 7 Bildung d. Materie, 14, 19, 53 ; ZeUschr.f. exacte Ph., vi. 11-15. OPINION. 799 in distans involves a conflict with the conditions of clear thinking." 1 Herbart: "The theory is absurd, for it would imply that the force of a thing occupies a far larger space than the thing itself." Kant: see Gravitation. Schel- ling: "The notion of the actio in distans is a simple result of the method of considering things independently of the substance. The substance is omnipresent. Hence, there is no actio in distans, for one body does not draw another body to it from a distance, but the universal infinite substance unites them a substance which is neither far nor near, but at once every thing and each thing. It is that which as one is all, as all is one. It is the identity in the totality, and the totality in the identity." 3 "As in the true substance there is no interval, neither nearness nor distance, the operation at a distance is a chimera in nature." 4 See Steudel. 5 OPERATIONS, LOGICAL, the three modes of activity in the cognitive faculty : thought (by bare concepts), judgments, and reasoning. ^Operations (of the Mind), "the active exercises of the mind, in contrast with its passive experiences." C. F. V. OPERATIVE, having the power of operation ; effective. Operative Philosophy, in Bacon, 6 " Natural prudence, or the part operative of natural philosophy : experimental, philo- sophical, arid magical." OPHELIMOLOGY (Gr., useful, doctrine of the), the moral sys- tem which is based on self-interest. See Deontology, Ett- dsemonism, Interest. OPINABLE (thinkable), OPINATION (act of thinking), OPT- ATIVE (obstinate in opinion), OPINATOR, OPINIASTER, OPINIONATED, all from opine, to think, or hold an opinion. ^OPINION (Ger. Meinung), "unverified thought." C. F. V. Plato : " Just as little as sense-perception, is opinion (mental representation) identical with knowing; incorrect opinion certainly is not, but even correct opinion is not, for it may be produced by the art of discourse, without on that account passing as true knowledge. Correct opinion as materially i AntJiropoIo/jie, 200. 2 Werke, I., 200 ; Einleitung in d. Philosophic, $ 127. dfr gesammt. Philosophif, 1804; Werke, I., vi. 254, 255. 4 Apliorismen tilier die Natiir- philnsophie ; Werke, I., vii. 230, 105. & Philosophic im Umriss, I., i. 439-443. 6 Adv. of Learning, Book II., Works I., 199. 800 OPPONENT. true, formally insufficient, stands rather midway between knowing and not knowing, and has a share in both." l Day, 2 Schwegler. 3 OPPONENT, in disputations, one who opposes the theses which the respondent or defendant maintains. OPPORTUNITY, "occasion favorable for action, both in respect of time and of the conditions requisite." C. F. V. 'OPPOSED, Opposition. OPPOSITES, in Logic, in quantity the extreme terms; not to be confounded with contradictory, q. v. OPPOSITION, in Logic, " There is no opposition between sub- contraries ; for both may be at once maintained, as both at once must be true if the some be a negation of all. They cannot, however, both be false. The opposition in this case is only apparent." Sir W. Hamilton. 4 O. is distinguished as analytic; logical; contradictory; contrary ; subcontrary; dialectic ; real possibly, potentially, actually. OPPTJGNANCE, repugnance. OPTATION (Lat.), wishing. ^OPTIMISM. Its most special antithesis is Pessimism, q. v. Berkeley, 5 Butler, 6 Leibnitz, 7 Schopenhauer, 8 Steudel, 9 Ueber- weg, 10 Ulrici. 11 See Order, Moral, and Theodicy. *ORDER, " Unam post aliam." C. F. V. See Hamilton. 12 In Wolf we have order of the world, of nature, of the school; order mixed, natural. Order, Moral, of the World (Ger. SWiche Welt-Ordnun.g ; see Optimism, Pessimism,Theodicy); in Fichte's Doctrine of Re- ligion, is the divine itself: "By right doing,this divine becomes living and actual in us; every one of our actions is performed only on the presupposition of this fact, the presupposition that the moral aim is capable of being carried out through a higher order in the world of sense. The faith in such an order of the world is the complete and perfect faith ; for this living and acting moral order is God himself; we need no other God, and can comprehend no other. There lies no 1 Theatsetus. 2 Summary and Analys. of Plato, Index, Opinion. 8 GesrMchte, xiv.4, bb. 4 Lect., vol. iii., p. 261. $ Principles, 153. Analogy, Part I., ch. vii. 1 Tficn- dicee, Opera (Erdmann), LXIII. 8 Quoted in Krauth's Bf.rl-p.lpy, US, 119. 9 Philnn- opine im Umriss, II., i. 598-603. w Note (116) in Krauth's Berkeley. " Strauss, Krauth's Translat., 107. 12 Metaphysics, Lect. vi. ORGANON. 801 ground in the reason for going beyond this moral order of the world, and, by drawing an inference, from the thing grounded to the ground, supposing that there is, besides, a special essence as its cause. The notion of God as a special substance is impossible and contradictory. God exists in Himself only as such a moral order of the world. Every faith in a Divine, which embraces more than the notion of the moral order of the world, is to me an abomination, and utterly unworthy of a rational being." 1 Schwegler, 2 Steu- del. 3 ORECTIC (Gr. opegic, a longing or yearning after, desire), of or for the desires; appetitive. The Orectic, collectively, the desires. Aristotle,* Monboddo. 5 See Hamilton. 6 *Organ. ORGANIC, ORGANIC AL, of or pertaining to an organ, q. v.; as, O. pleasure, O. sense-perceptions. See Organics. Ul- rici. 7 Organic Senses, the senses fixed to specific organs touch, sight, hearing ; taste, smell; opposed to the vague sense. ORGANICS (Ger. Organik], in Hegel's Science of Nature, nature advanced to subjectivity. The idea, as life, presents itself in three gradations: 1. As universal image of life, geological organism, the mineral kingdom. 2. In vegetable organism, the kingdom of plants. 3. The animal organism, the animal king- dom. Schwegler, 8 Steudel. 9 ORGANISM, a unity of organs ; the being resulting from such a union. See Darwinism, Evolution, Organics. Steudel. 10 ORGANIZATION (ORGANIZED BEING), the process of or- ganizing ; the organism resultant. " An organized product of nature is that in which all the parts are mutually ends and means." Kant. C. F. V. See Porter. 11 ORGANOLOGY, the doctrine or science of organic nature. *Organon, or Organum. ORGANON, ORGANUM SENSORIUM, in Wolf, organ of sense; as the eye, the nerves. 1 " Ufber den Grund unseres Glauben an eine goftlicJie Weltregierung." 2 GescJiichte, XLI., i. 2. 3 Philosophic im Umriss, II., i. 377-452. 4 Eth. N., 6. 2, 5, 1. 13, 18, 3. 3, 19. 5 Anc. Metaphysics. Book II., ch. 7, 9. Metaphysics, Am. ed., 128. ^ Strauss, Krauth's Tnmslat.. 115. 8 Gf.schichte, XLV., ii. 3. P/iilosopJiie im, Umriss, I., \. 444-464. Phil- orpine im Umriss, I., i. 470. " Human Intellect, 29-40; Literature, p. 40. 3B 802 ORGANOSCOPY. ORGANOSCOPY.-See Organ, 4. ORGANOZOISH, the form of Hylozoism, q. tr., which derives all life from the organism of matter. ORGANOZOONOMY, a theory of the laws of life in organic nature. See Biology, Life. ORGIES (Gr.), secret rites, secret worship; in the history of Philosophy, applied to the Pythagoreans, who veiled their doctrines and practices in mystery. ORIENTATION, determining the east point of the compass ; attaining or keeping in the mind the points of knowledge, clearly and in their mutual relations; getting " booked up." *Origin. ORIGINAL, as noun, origin; archetype; as adjective, pertain- ing to origin ; primary ; opposed to the trite, feeble, com- mon-place ; fresh, suggestive. Original Sin. See Sin, Original. ORIGINALITY, See Genius. ^ORIGINATE, ORIGINATION. Origination in Hegel, "tran- sition from Nothing to Being." See P. E. Chase. 1 ORISMOLOGY, HORISMOLOGY (Gr.), boundary doctrine; explanation of the technical terms of a science; Terminology. ORMUZD (JBhorb-mezdao, in the Zend, "great Lord"), in the ancient Persian or Zoroastrian doctrine, the good principle, spiritual, and creative word, produced, with Ahriman, the evil principle, by the Eternal. ORNITHOTHEOLOGY (Gr.), bird-theology ; physico-theology, as it draws its illustrations from ornithology. ORTHO (Gr.), right, in compounds, as ORTHOBIOTICS (Gr.), the science or art of right living. It is Ethics applied to. life. ORTHOBOITLIA, right counsel, the willing of the good. ORTHOMORPHY, right-shaping ethically. OR- THOPRAXY, doing right, acting uprightly. OSCILLATION, swinging backward and forward; applied to vacillation of opinion and character, and to nervous disturb- ance. " Whose mind is agitated by painful oscillations of the nervous system." Berkeley. 2 *OSTENSIVE, opposed to the Apagogic. OUGHT, *OUGHTNESS. See Duty. Keid : " When we say a man ought to do such a thing, the ought which expresses the i Intell. Symbolism, I 331, and note. 2 Siris, | 104. PAL^ETIOLOGY. 803 moral obligation has a respect, on the one hand, to the per- son who ought, and on the other, to the action which he ought to do. Those two correlates are essential to every moral obligation; take away either, and it has no exist- ence." l OUSIA (Gr.). 1. That which is one's own ; one's substance, prop- erty. 2. The being, essence, true nature of a thing ; the first of the categories; reality. Aristotle, 2 Plato. 3 3. In Stoic Philosophy, hyle, matter. Bitter.* Ousia, Primary and Secondary, in Aristotle, the individual and the species. " Substance in the concrete and substance in the abstract." Stockl. 5 ^OUTNESS, " Externality," See Carpenter, 6 C. M. Ingleby. 7 OUTWARD (Ger. Aeusseres], in Hegel, 8 the counterpart of the inward; "the existence as the form of the other side of the relation, with the empty characteristic of reflection-into- soineth ing-else." OXY (Gr.), sharp. In compounds, as, Oxymoron, sharp-foolish; equivalent in Logic to paradox ; a seeming contradiction in the adjective. Oxyopia, Oxiopy, sharp-sightedness ; mental acuteness. Oxythymy, sharp, sudden anger. P, in Logic, marks the predicate of a judgment ; the major term ; the conversion per accidens, q. v. PACT. See Contract, Promise. PJ5DAGOGIK (Ger.), the science of education. PAIDEUTICS (Gr.), boy-teaching ; the science and art of teach- ing ; system of teaching. PALJ3TIOLOGY (Gr.), " while Paleontology describes the beings which have lived in former ages without investigating their causes, and Aetiology treats of causes without distinguishing historical from mechanical causation, Palcetioloyy is a combi- nation of the two sciences ; exploring, by means of the second, l Active Poioers, Ess. III., P. Hi., ch. vi. ; Works (Hamilton), 589. 2 Metaph., 6. 1, 5 ; De Anima, 2. 1, 3; Cuteg., 5. 3 1'hxd., 65 D, cf. 78 C, 92 D; T/iext., 185 C. 4 Hist, of P/iBoa., iii., 515. 6 Lehrbueh, ii. 57. Hum. PJiysinl., 1853, 790. 1 Psychology of the Senses, 1864, gg 12, 14; Introduct. to Metaphysics, Externality, 1864, b. i., 12. 8 Ency- Uopadie, I 138 ; Wallace's Translat., Logic, 217. 804 PALINGENESIA. the phenomena presented by the first. All these sciences are connected by this bond that they all endeavor to as- cend to a past state by considering what is the present state of things, and what are the causes of the change." Whe- well. 1 F. V. 3. PALINGENESIA, PALINGENESIS, PALINGENESY (Gr.), again-birth ; new birth. See Metempsychosis. PALLIUM (ET BARBA) PHILOSOPHORUM, the mantle (and beard) of philosophers. The Cynics, and others imi- tating them, neglected their beards, and wore only the mantle, which became badges of the class. PAMPSYCHY, PANARCHY, PANANGY.-See Pancos- mism. PANCOSMISM (Gr.), formed after the analogy of Pantheism, q. v. 1. Doctrine that the Cosmos is the all. Franz Hoff- man : " The system (of Pantheism) which sinks its assumed God to a natura naturans, without will and consciousness, would be more correctly styled Pancosinisrn." * 2. The fourth part of the system of the Neo-Platonist Franciscus Patricius (1529-1597). The parts were, i. Panaugy (All-eye), light comes from God as the primal light, ii. Panarchy (All-rule), God is the supreme principle, controlling all. iii. Pampsy- chy (All-soul), everything is possessed of soul. iv. Pancos- mism (All-cosmos), " by light and space, which are incorpo- real substances, everything in the cosmos has unity and con- nection." Krug. PANLOGISM (Gr.), all- wisdom ; Pantheism as it presents God as the all-pervading, vitalizing, and controlling primal reason. PANNOMY (Gr.), all-law ; the law of laws, the law of reason as universal. PANSOPHY, PANTOSOPHY (Gr.), all-wisdom: 1. Pantheism, see Panlogism. 2. The pretence of universal knowledge. ^PANTHEISM. The doctrine of Spinoza has been regarded by many as Atheism, " but quite erroneously." C. F. V. Pantheism, Classification of. Pantheism has different forms : Material Pantheism, according to which the mere matter of the universe, with its forces, including life and thought, as the result of organism, constitute the One All, which may be called God. 7/i.s/. of Scientific Ideas, ii. 258. 2 Ztschr. v. Fichte, xlviii. ' PARADIGMATIC. 805 Organic or Vital Pantheism, according to which all nature has life, and an impersonal power is substituted for a personal God. One Substance Pantheism, according to which there is but one substance. This substance is infinite ; a part of it is sub- stance finite, and man is such a part of the divine substance. This is the Pantheism of Spinoza. Ideal Pantheism, according to which God and the universe are creations of the mind of man. Schelling and Hegel. " Pan- theism is the poetry of Atheism." F. Newman, 1 C. F. V. See Krauth. 2 Pantheism, Ancient, Aeschylus : " Zeus is earth, air, heaven, and altogether all." Anaxagoras: " The nous is the princi- ple of the all." Parmenides: "The single substance is the one and all." Pantheism, Mediaeval and Early Modern. Giordano Bruno, Meister Eckart-, Scotus Erigena. Pantile- ism, Modern. Jacob Boehme, Spinoza. Pantheism, Re- cent. J. G. Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, Schwarz, Steudel. Pantheism, Opponents of. I. H. Fichte : " The spirit, the consciousness, is that very thing by which the absolute is God not a bare infinitude, but the eternal person separat- ing itself fronrTt." 3 Reichlin-Meldegg,Ulrici. Wirth : " Pan- theism has passed its meridian, and has shown most clearly that it is not able to give a completely satisfactory solution of the fundamental questions of philosophy." * PANTHEIST, one who accepts Pantheism." One of the first uses of this word is by Toland, in the Pantheisticon, 1720, where it has its ancient polytheistic sense. It is a little later that it passes from the idea of the worship of the whole of the gods to the worship of the entire universe, looked at as God. It is now used to denote the disbelief of a personal first-cause; but a distinction ought to be made between the Pantheism like that of Averroes, which regards the world as an emanation and sustained by an anima mundi, and that which, like the view of Spinoza, regards the sum total of all things to be deity." See Farrar. 5 F. V. 3. *Parable. PARADIGMATIC, PARADIGMATICAL (Gr.), presenting a 1 T)n/i.--m,i>.'2G. "Art. Punthnsm, in Johnson's Oydopsedia. 3 Ontologie, 373, 396, 50ii. 5o:;. * '/.tschr. r. Fichte, xxxvii. 276. & Bampton Lecture, p. 149. G<) 806 PARADOX. paradigm, pattern, model, plan, (Lat. Exemplar /) an argu- ment, proof from example ; showing by example ; consist- ing of examples. ^Paradox. PARALIPOMENA (Gr.), things omitted ; in philosophical lit- erature, a supplement. -Paralogism, Paralogy. *Paralogism of Pure Reason. Kant. 1 PARALOGISTICS, systematic treatment of fallacies ; sophistics. *Parcimony (Law of). PARENESIS (Gr.), exhortation, address, advice, counsel ; hence Parenetic, hortatory. PARERGON, PARERGA, PARERGY (Gr.), subordinate; matter introduced incidentally ; appendix. PARITY, in Logic, when one case has been demonstrated, simi- lar cases can be demonstrated by a like course of reasoning. PARONYM, *PARONYMOUS (Gr.), of like signification with ; formed from a primitive. See Conjugate. *Part. PARTHENOGENESIS (Gr.), virgin-production; in Biology, " the successive production of procreating individuals from a single ovum." " Reproduction without immediately ante- cedent impregnation." Richard Owen, F. R. S. 2 PARTICIPATION (Lat.), partaking, sharing. PARTICULAR (Lat.), of or concerning a part ; in Logic, ap- plied to propositions, in which the subject is taken in a part, indefinitely, of its extension ; the judgment of an indetermi- nate quantity, less than the whole ; opposed to indefinite, in- dividual, and universal, q. v. Hamilton. 3 PARTITION, division, q. v. PARUSIA, PAROUSIA (Gr.), presence ; in Plotinus, a presen- tiating intuition of the Absolute, or God, bringing man into direct union with Him. *PASSION, " highly excited and agitating feeling, violently urging toward a single course of action. Intense emotion, sometimes suffering." C. F. V. ^Passions (the). PASSIVE, " A passive state is the state of a thing while it is 1 Rein. Fern., 398 seq. ; Prolegomena, 39 ; Logik, g 90. 2 On Parthenogenesis, Lond., 1849. 3 Logic, 171, 172, 173. PERCEPTION. 807 operated upon by some cause. Everything and every being but God is liable to be in this state. He is pure energy always active but never acted upon, while everything else is liable to suffer change." See Harris, 1 F.V. 3. PASSIVITY, quality of the passive ; opposed to activity ; inter- nal and external sensibility. PATHOLOGICAL, pertaining to " the element of instinctive feeling, of instinctive sensational motive." Stirling. 2 PENALTY (Ger. Strafe], in Hegel's Doctrine of the Objective Spirit, the right, restoring itself against the particular will, the negation of the wrong. Theories that found the right of penalty on purposes to prevent, deter, intimidate, or correct, mistake the nature of penalty. Prevention, intimidation, etc., are finite ends, i. e., mere means, and these, too, uncer- tain means. But an act of justice cannot be degraded into a mere means : justice is not exercised in order that anything but itself be attained and realized. The fulfilment and sell- manifestation of justice is an absolute end, an end unto its own self. The special considerations which have been men- tioned can come to be discussed only in reference to the mo- dality of the penalty. The penalty which is realized in the person of a criminal is his right, his reason, his law, under which, then, he is justly subsumed. His act falls on his own head. Hegel defends, therefore, even capital punishments, the repeal of which appears to him untimely sentimentality. Schwegler. 3 PER ACCIDENS, in Logic, conversion by which we pass from A to I ; conversion by limitation. PERCEPT. -See Perception, PERCEPTIBLE, capable of being grasped by perception, q. v. ^PERCEPTION. Sir W. Hamilton 4 employs P. to denote the faculty and the perceiving act, and percept the object per- ceived. "A percept may be defined the cognitive element in an act of sensation." Lowndes. 5 " Descartes, Male- branche, Arnauld, Locke, and philosophers in general before Reid, employed perception as co-extensive with conscious- ness. By Leibnitz, Wolf, and their followers, it was used in a peculiar sense, as equivalent to representation or idea proper, 1 Dialogue concerning Happiness, p. 86, note. 2 Annotat. on Schwegler, 402. 3 History, tr. by Stirling, :537. 4 Reid's Wurks, 876 a. n. 5 Primary Beliefs, p. 48. 808 PERCEPTION. and as contradistinguished from apperception or conscious- ness. Reid's limitation of the term, though the grounds on which it is defended are not of the strongest, is imminent, and has been very generally admitted." Hamilton. 1 F. V. 3. Perception, Perceptions, Sense- (Ger. Wahrnehmung, Sinnes- perceptionen}. Aristotle: "Sense is not deceitful in what falls within its own province." "Respecting color, it is sight, and not taste, that judges ; and respecting juices, it is taste, but not sight; each of which never at the same time affirms about the same thing that simultaneously a thing is so and not so disposed." 2 " Composition and division are in the intellect, but not in the things themselves." 3 Carri- ere, Drobisch, I. H. Fichte, Liebmann, Lotze, Schellwien, Schopenhauer, Tittmann, Ulrici, and probably the mass of philosophers, hold that the external incentive, and the sense- impressions wrought by it, are something wholly different from the sensations and perceptions they evoke in us, and that the sense-impressions must be permuted into the sen- sations and perceptions which are different from them. This permutation is not possible without a respondent proper ac- tivity on the part of the percipient subject, the soul. The subjective activity, therefore, must be accessory to the sense- impressions, to bring about the perception which shapes itself in us. 4 Carriere, Drobisch, I. H. Fichte, Ulrici, and the metaphysicians generally, accept the undulatory theory of light, the explanation of color by different degrees of velocity in the undulations permuted . into sensation. Ul- rici : " It has been firmly established by modern science, that to things in themselves pertains neither color nor sound, neither smell nor taste ; on the contrary, what we perceive as color, sound, &c., is physically (in itself) wholly another thing; that is, it must be thought of as wholly another thing than that which to us it immediately appears to be." "Our sense-perceptions [of this class] do not correspond to the in- itself of things." "The same electric stream produces in the eye sensation as a spark, in the ear as a crackling, in the i Discussions, p. 75. 2 Metaphysics, Book iv. (in.), ch. v.; M'Mahon's Tr., 102, 103. 3 Do., Book vi. (v.), cli. 4 ; M'Mnhoif s Tr., 165. 4 Steudcl : Ihilosophie im Umriss, I., i. 260. PERCEPTION. 809 nose as a phosphoric odor, in the tongue as acidity, on the skin as stinging. Which of these diverse perceptions is the true one, corresponding with the objectivity ? " l In these views, however, is involved only the principle of a particu- lar class" of sense-perceptions, nor do they of necessity deny what I. H. Fichte specially maintains, that "the sense-per- ceptions point to something correspondent in the objective relations of things," and that " the independence on our will of what is contained in this sense-perception necessitates our conceiving that there is a real external world." 2 J. G. Fichte and all the strict idealists maintain that sense-per- ceptions are exclusively dependent on our consciousness, and yet " the activity of the Ego, which in itself reaches out into infinity, strikes upon the external limitations of the non-ego." 3 I. H. Fichte, 4 Schopenhauer, 5 Ulrici, 6 Wirth, and others explain the reference of the stimulation of the retina to external objects as a reasoning involuntary and un- conscious, grounded oh the law of causality. Friedrich Fischer : u Perception is given to us immediately as object- ive, and this objectivity is not brought about by inference: the ego enters the external objects ; the consciousness goes forth from the eye to the objects." 7 Kant: "Perception presents us only the manifold; to bring together this mani- fold into unities, into indivisible objects, an act of the un- derstanding is necessary. This act rests on the a priori unity of consciousness, and this bringing together of what is manifold in perception to the indivisible mental representa- tions, in virtue of this unity of consciousness, is the syn- thetic transcendental unity of apperception." 8 Leibnitz and Locke : see Nihil in Intellect!!. Thilo : " If our sense- perceptions correspond with no external reality, how is it to be explained that in all men the illusion takes the shape of precisely this concrete outer world?" 9 The inde- pendence on the will of sense-perception is urged as an argu- ment against idealism. See Krauth, 10 Steudel, 11 Wirth. 12 l Gl S ychl- ogie, I, '29 1-299, '270, 310. 3 Werke,V. 435. * Psychologic, 377, 174. 5 Vierfache Wurzel, Ed. 2, 51, 52, 68 ; Welt ah Wille, I., 520, 525. 6 Glawben und Wissen (1858), 12. 7 Begriffd. Philnsopht't'., 30-32. 8 Rein. Ve.rnunft, 376; Logil; Einl. v. 40 seq. 9 Ztschr. f. exach Phil., iv. -J02. 10 Prolegomena to Berkeley's Principles, xiv. u Philosophic im. Umriss, I., i. 2<>6. 12 Ztschr. von Fichte, xli. 191. 69* 810 PERCEPTION. Perception of Reason, in Jacobi, implies a " non-explana- tory, positively revelatory, unconditionally deciding reason or belief of reason. As there is a perception of sense, so also must there be a perception of reason, against which latter demonstration will as little avail as against the former." Schwegler. 1 ^'Perceptions (obscure). "PERFECT, in Logic, applied by Aristotle to the first figure, as a peculiarly evident and cogent form of argument. ^PERFECTIBILITY, THE DOCTRINE OF, is that men are capable, individually and socially, of reaching a state of per- fection. PERFECTIHABIA (barbarous Latin), perfection-having; a scholastic synonym of entelechy, q. v. -PERFECTION, " the full and harmonious development of all our faculties, corporeal and mental, intellectual and moral ; by happiness is meant the complement of all the pleasures of which we are susceptible. Human perfection and human happiness coincide, and thus constitute in reality but a single end." Sir W. Hamilton. 2 F. V. 3. PERIANTOLOGY (Gr.), talking about one's self excessively; boasting. PERIODIC, in Quantitative Induction, applied to changes of phenomena, alternately increasing and decreasing. ^PERIPATETIC, a. arid n. Hence, Peripateticism. PER SE (Lat.), in itself; used of a concept or thing, regarded apart from its relations to any other concept or thing. See Abstraction and Thing in Itself. *PERSON, "contrasted with thing and animal, a being capable of exercising understanding and will a self-determining intelligence." C. F. V. Person, in Hegel's doctrine of the objective spirit, " the indi- vidual, so far as he is capable of having rights, so far as he has rights and exercises them." Schwegler. 3 Person, in Kant, 4 1. A logical subject substance according to the pure concept that amid changes is self-conscious of numerical unity. 2. A real subject : abiding substance 1 History, Stirling's Translat., 252. 2 Metaph., I. 20. * Getckichtf., XLV., Hi. 2 a. * Grit, d. rein. Fern,, 1.408,412; Metaph. der Sitten, 65; C'ritik d. pract. Vernunft, II. 155; K Werke, II. 645, 647 ; V. 457. 4f>9. n Werke, II. 19, 27, 317, 319 ; XT. 0, 93, 200-202; XII. 542, for the per- sonality : II. Ifi; VII. 22; XI. 90; XII. 210,218, 219,226, and many other passages against tho proper personality. 12 Epiphnuie der ewiges Perwnlichkeit des Geistes, 27, 3(5, S2. 161-180; Natnrrecl,!, 11.266; Ztschr. "Der Gedanke," I. 43; 11.263; III. 53. 13 KeUgvms-Bf griff Hegel's, 38. 14 Werke, I., i. 180,200; iii. 600, 603; vii. 394, 403; viii. 73, 74, 81. 15 De divisione Naturse, transl. and edited by Noack, in the Philoso- phische Bihliothek (Kirclimann). 812 PERSONIFY. Fichte, 1 Franz Hoffmann, 2 Lotze, 3 Rosenkranz, 4 Schopen- hauer (" impersonal God is a contradiction in the adjective"), 5 Schwarz, 6 Ulrici, 7 Wirth. 8 See Steudel. 9 PERSONIFY, hypostasize ; to invest with the qualities of per- son, either actually or in thought. PESSIMISM (Lat.), worst-ism ; the doctrine that the world is the worst possible (not the worst imaginable] ; opposed to Optimism, q. v. Schopenhauer. 10 See Steudel, 11 Ulrici, 12 Hermann. 13 *PETITIO PRINCIPII. See Fallacy. PHANTASM, PHANTOM, FANTASM, FANTOM (Or.), an appearance, phantom; image; mere image, unreality, dis- tinguished by Plato from eikon. A mental image, given as if by sense-perception, but without an objective external ob- ject. PHANTAST, FANTAST, one who loves and believes in the phantasmal, or chimerical. PHANTASY, fancy. P. TRANSCENDENTAL, in Kant, im- agination, mental copying, the faculty of reducing sensations to phenomenon, of shaping from their order something cor- respondent with them like a picture in mosaic. Mellin. 14 PHASE (Gr.), appearance; changing appearance, aspect, as "the phases of humanity," "the phases of belief," "P. of Phi- losophy." PHENOMENOLOGY, PHENOMENOLOGY (Gr.), 1. "Asci- ence of things as they are recognized by our senses, and of the facts as they appear in our experience." C. F. V. See Nature. 2. In Kant, 15 that part of the metaphysical doctrine of nature which .considers the movement or rest of matter merely with reference to modality, that is, as a phenomenon of sense-perception. Phenomenology of the Spirit, Hegel's (1807), is thus di- l Idee d. Persdnlichkeit,13 seq. 2 ztscJir. " Der Gedanke," III. 58. s Mikrokosmm, III., 572, 576. 4 Schelling u. Hegel, 27, 28 ; Meine Rfform d. Hegelsche.n Philosophic, 18-20. 5 Pare.rga, I. ISO; Zureicliend. Grund.,13. 6 Forde.rungen an eine Philosophic der Ge- gi-nwart, 73; Gott, Nutur u. Mensch (18.V7), 33-36. i Zlschr. v. Fichte, xxvi. 152 ; xxvii. 06. System der Logik, 253, Aum. : Gott u. (He Natur, 424. 8 ztscfir. v. Fictile, x xxvii. 275. 9 Philosoph. i. Umriss, I., ii. 246-268. 10 Wr.lt als Wille und Vorstellung, II. 187 scij., 670-67:5, 003 ; Fraumsludt ; Xchopenhoue.r- Lexicon, Pessimismus ; Kranth's l^olcrjo/i/fiin, to Berkeley, 118,119. PMIosnphif. im Umriss,ll., i. 598-602. 12 Strauss, Kruutlfs Traiishit., 100. 13 Gryiisatz d. ClaRsischen u. d. romuntiwhen in h. d. to (ten, 44. 7 Religion innerhalb, 85*. 8 Logic, Pt. V., ch.- iii., \ 3. 70* 822 PRENOTTON. PRENOTION, foreknowledge. Berkeley. 1 PREPOLLENCE, predominance. ^Prescience. PRESENT ATIVE. See Knowledge. PRESENTIAL, implying actual presence. Norris. PRESENTIATE, to render present ; to render as present. PRESTABILISM (Lat. Prcestobilisnius), in Kant, 2 the teleological principle in regard to the generation of organic beings, ac- cording to which the Supreme First Cause, embodied in the original products of His wisdom, the plan, by means of which an organic being brings forth its like and the species preserves itself, as also the passing away of individuals is provided for by the continual compensation of the very nature which is active in their destruction. PRESULTOR (Lat.), one who dances before others; applied by the writer De Mundo to the supreme God, "the Coryphaeus of the world, or the precentor and presultor of it." Cudworth. 3 PRESTTPPOSAL, PRESUPPOSITION (Lat.), something as- sumed as known or admitted; an antecedent. PRICE (Lat.), that which buys; the equivalent which maybe substituted for another thing ; relative value. Kant. 4 PRIMACY (Lat.), the condition or state of one who is primus; the first place or rank ; preference ; preeminence. In Kant, 5 " in the case of two or more things conjoined by reason, the preference of one as the primary motive of the union with all the rest." P., in the Narrower, Practical Sense, in Kant, 6 the prefer- ence of the interest of the one, so far as the interest of an- other is subordinated to it, it being put second to no other. In this narrower sense, the practical reason has the primacy over the speculative reason the practical interest is su- preme, the speculative is subordinate. PRIMAL (Lat.), first, the very first, earliest; from or at the beginning; principal; originating, causal; as, P. matter. Duns Scotus, "the subtle doctor, created high above all vulgar common matter, a primary primal, a secondary pri- mal, a tertiary primal matter; and yet this matter was one." Milman. 7 * Sim, 314. 2 UrtheU si-raft, 375. 3 InMl. Syttem, 397. * Met. d. Sitten, 77. $ Prak- tisch. T en*., 215. 6 Fraktisch. tern., 215. * Latin Christianity, b. xiv., ch. iii. PRINCIPLE. 823 *PRIM ARY. " The most obvious mode of stating the differ- ence of primary and secondary qualities, appears to be that of Locke, slightly modified. Certain of the qualities of bodies, as their bulk, figure, and motion, are perceived im- mediately in the bodies themselves. Certain other qualities, . as sound, color, heat, are perceived by some medium. Our conviction that this is the case is spontaneous and irresist- ible; and this difference of qualities, immediately and medi- ately perceived, is the distinction of primary and secondary qualities." Whewell. 1 C. F. V. PRIMIGENIAL, PRIMIGENEOUS (Lat.), first-begotten ; first of all; original; primitive. Glanville. PRIMORDIAL (Lat.), first of all; original. H. Spencer. 2 *Principia essendi or Principles of Being. "PRINCIPLE. P. in Anaximander, " The eternal, infinite, indefinite ground, from which, in order of time, all arises, and into which all returns;" " that which comprehends and rules all the spheres of the universe, but which, underlying every individual form of the finite and mutable, is itself infinite and indefinite." Schwegler. 3 Principle, in Kant, as qualified by adjectives: 1. Absolute P., a synthetic cognition drawn from concepts. See Practical P., Speculative P. 2. Comparative P., relative; every cog- nition which can be used as major in a syllogism ; every universal proposition; every judgment which renders com- prehensible the possibility of another judgment. M. Exter- nal, Foreign P., lemma; concept derived from another sci- ence ; opposed to internal, native P. 4. Formal P. See Formal. 5. Material P. See Material. 6. Metaphysical P., Transcendental P., presents the a priori condition, in which alone objects whose concepts must be empirically given can be determined further a priori. 7. Native P., in- ternal, within the science; opposed to External P. 8. Prac- tical P., involving moral law. It is subdivided in the main : as a, apodictic; b, assertory; c, formal; d, material; e, prob- lematic. 9. Regulative P., either a, of the reason; or b, of the understanding. M ell in. 4 Principle, in Kant, as qualified by connection with a posses- i Hist, of Sclent, Ideas, Vol. I., 296. 2 p r . O f p 8 ych., ch. xvi., g 73. s Stirling's Trans- hit., 10. * Wurterbuch, iv. 703-712. 824 PRINCIPLE. sive. 1. P. of Affinity. See P. of Continuity of Forms. 2. P. of all Human Cognition. 3. P. of all Synthetic Judgments. 4. P. of Analogies of Experience. 5. P. of Anticipations of Perception. 6. P. of Autonomy of the Will. 1 '. P. of the Axioms of Intuition. 8. P. of Continuity. 9. P. of the Continuity of Forms or of Affinity, which requires a continuous transition from one variety to another by gradual growth of diversity. 10. P. of Dynamics. 11. P. of the Heteronomy of the Will. 12. P. of Homogeneity. 13. P. of Reason. 14. P. 'of Self-love. 15. P. of Specification. 16. P. of Taste. Mellin, 1 C. C. E. Schmid.' 2 Principle, Fundamental, of Philosophy. Chalybaus : "The concept of Philosophy itself is its real principle it is to be found in the individual human' spirit come to itself." 3 J. G. Fichte: " Every science must have a fundamental princi- ple." * Hegel : " Philosophy moves in a circle, at the begin- ning of which the intermediation swallows up the end," " that with which it begins must at the other end appear as result," " the postulate of a system of philosophy is its result, and where it goes in there it comes out." 3 Steudel : " In philosophical investigation there is a guiding principle, but it contains nothing; it is not a real principle, but only a regulative one. It is the principle which is valid in every sort of investigation : Philosophy must, at every cost, strive to establish the truth. There is no other fundamental prin- ciple in Philosophy there can be none." 6 ^Principles as Express or as Operative. ^PRINCIPLES OF ACTION, " either (1) the beginning as to knowledge, that is. the law of right conduct, as the princi- ples of justice; or (2) the beginning as to energy or motive force, as the principle of self-love." C. F. V. "^Principles of Knowledge. ^Privation. PRIVATIVE CONCEPTION, IMMEDIATE INFERENCE BY, in Logic, passes from any affirmative proposition to a negative proposition implied in it, or equivalent to it, or vice versa. Jevons. 1 Kunstaprache, s. v. 2 Wiirterbuch, s. v. 3 Ztschr.v. Ficltte, xviii. K5; FnnfUmnenldl Pliilowpliie, 5, 48-51. 4 Begriff d. Wlwenscliaftsltlire, Werke, I. 40,41. '> Werl-e, V. 338. -'Ul : VIII. 22; XVI. 98; Leben von Rosenkranz, 273, 545. * Philosophic im Um- /.*, T., i. 30-33. PROP^EDEUTIK. 825 Privative Terms, in Logic, express that a thing is deprived of a quality that it had, or might have had, as blind, dead. ^PROBABILITY. See Chances. *Probable. PROBATION" (probo, approbo, to prove). To prove is to evince the truth of a proposition not admitted to be true, from other propositions the truth of which is already established. In every probation there are three things : 1. The thesis, the proposition to be proved ; 2. The grounds or principle of proof; and, 3. The degree of urgency with which the thesis is inferred. The rules of probation are : 1. That no propo- sition can be employed as a principle of probation which stands itself in need of proof; 2. That nothing else be proved than the proposition for whose proof the probation was instituted. F. V. 3. PROBATIVE, furnishing proof. Mill. 1 *Problem, PROCEDURE, mode of proceeding. Spencer. 2 See Method, Principle, Fundamental. It may be analytic or synthetic. Hegel, 3 Schopenhauer/ Steudel, 6 Ulrici.* *PROGRESS.-See Perfectibility. PROGRESSIONIST, one who maintains the doctrine of pro- gression 1. In organic forms, opposed to Uniformitarian. Spencer. 7 2. In society. PROGRESSIVENESS, state of advancing. Mill. 8 PROLEPTIC, PROLEPTICAL (Gr.), anticipative ; in advance of. PROMANATION (Lat.), flowing forth; emanation. "PROMISE and POLLICITATION. " Promise is a voluntary pledge to do something at a future time." C. F. V. It is carefully to be distinguished from a simple statement of in- tention, though the circumstances of such a statement may give it the virtual force of a promise. *PROOF, " Evidence confirmatory of a proposition." C. F. V. PROPJEDEUTIK (Or., Ger.), PROPEDEUTICS, introductory preparation. See Jos. Beck (1869, 1876), Hagemann (1873, 1875), Stoy (1870), R. Zimmermann (1867). i Logic, pt. v.. ch. v. 2 Prin. of Psych., P. III., ch. i., p. 341, ed. 1855. 3 Werke, VI. 399,400; EncgMopUdie, l\ 227-229. * Welt uls Wflle, ed. 3d, II., 133. * Fhil- r>so)>1iie im Umriss, I., i. 220-222. 6 ztscltr. van Fichte, xxxv. 280, 281. 1 Biology, pt. iii., 1-10. 8 L gi c ^ p t. vi., ch. x, I 3. 826 PROPER. PROPER, singular. ^PROPERTY. " 1. That which pertains to a thing; 2. That which is the possession of a person." C. F. V. ^Property (Generic). ^Property (Specific). ^PROPOSITION. See De Morgan, 1 Hamilton, 2 Latham, 3 Mill, 4 Wbately. 5 PROPOSITIOKAX, of or pertaining to a proposition. Watts. ^Propriety. *Propriurn (The), .or Property. PROSYLLOGISM. -See Epicheirema, Episyllogism. PROTASIS (Gr.), in Logic, a proposition ; premiss. Aristotle. 6 PROTOPLASM, PROTOPLASMA (Gr.), primary organic sub- stance. Carpenter. 7 PROTOPLAST, original ; first individual, or pair of individuals of a specias. R. G. Latham. 8 PROTOTYPE (Gr.), in the first form, original, primitive ; arch- etype. PROTOZOA (Gr.), the simplest living organisms. PROTREPTIC (Gr.), fitted for urging on, hortative. Plato. 9 *PROVERB. Giuseppe Giuste has a collection of Tuscan proverbs, with notes, Florence, 1858 ; Trench, proverbs and their lessons. Disraeli, in his Curiosities of Literature, has a chapter on the philosophy of proverbs. Baur said : " The genius, wit, and wisdom of a nation are discovered by their proverbs." Scottish proverbs, gathered together by David Ferguson, sometime minister at Dunfermline, and put or- dine alphabetico when he departed this life, anno 1598, Edin., 1641. A complete collection of Scottish proverbs, by James Kelly, M. A., Lond., 1721. The Proverbs of Scotland, by Alexander Hislop, 12mo, Glasg., 1562. ^Providence. PROXIMATE, in Logic, of genus, next higher. PROXIME, in Logic, next, immediate. Watts. *PRUDENCE, " the habit of acting at all times with delibera- tion and forethought (in view of the lessons of experience)." C. F.V. PSEUDO (Gr.), false. 1 Syllab., $ 7, 8, 9, 16, 22, 23. * Discuss., p. 144. 3 Logic in AppKc. to Language, tf 1-3,17-20. 4 Loftic, pt. i., ch. iv., g 2, eh. vi., 1. 5 Lngic, b. ii., di. i., 1, 2. & AaL Pr., i. 1, 2. 1 Pliysiol., gen. and compar., 1851, g 558. 8 Hist, of the Varieties of J/aa. 9 Euthyd., '287 c. PSYCHOGKAPHY. 827 PSYCHAGOGIST, PSYCHAGOGUE (Gr.).-l. One who leads souls to the nether world or brings them from it. 2. One who wins souls by persuasion. PSYCHAGOGY (Gr.). 1. Evocation of souls from the other world. 2. Persuasion. PSYCHAL, psychical. PSYCHE (Or.). 1. Breath (Lat. anima), especially as the sign of life ; life of man and animals. 2. The soul or immortal part of man, as opposed to his body or perishable part; de- parted soul, spirit, ghost; the abstract notion of the soul or spirit of man (Lat. animus] ; the seat of thumos, that is, of the will, desires, andpassions ; the soul, heart; especially sensual desire, propension, appetite. 3. As the organ of Notts, that is, of thought and judgment, the soul, mind, reason, understand- ing. Plato. For a distinction made by Plato between Psyche and Nous, see Lewes. 1 4. The vital principle; and generally the anima mundi, or animating spirit of the universe, sup- posed, in the Ancient Philosophy, to pervade earth, sea, and heavens. 5. The butterfly (papilio brassicce), perhaps as being an emblem of the immortal soul, by reason of its passing through a kind of death in the chrysalis form. 6. As a proper name, Psyche, mistress of Eros or Love, emblem of the soul. She is represented in art with butterflies' wings, or as a butterfly. See Liddell and Scott. 2 PSYCHIATER (Gr.), a physician who makes mental disease the subject of his special study and practice. Hence, psychiat- ria, psychiatry, psychiatric. PSYCHIC and PSYCHICAL (Gr.), of the soul or mind; spir- itual ; mental ; " pertaining to the soul. Applied to force or phenomena distinctive of mind. Used in contrast with physical" G. F. V. See Dr. Forbes Winslow. 3 PSYCHICS, psychology. *PSYCHISM. Hence, Psychist. PSYCHOGNOSY (Gr.), thorough knowledge of the soul. Hence, Psychognostic. PSYCHOGONY (Gr.), progressive generation, development of the soul. Hence, Psychogonic. PSYCHOGRAPHY (Gr.), history, description of the soul and its faculties. Hence, Psychographic. (4th. cd., 1871). I., 2G6, note. 2 Greek-English Lexicon, Cth. ed. 3 Obscure ol'lhi' Jirin'it ami Afht'l. rli. v., viii. 828 PSYCHOLOGY. ^PSYCHOLOGY, " that part of philosophy which treats of the soul (de anima] ; the science of those things which are pos- sible through human souls." Wolf. 1 "A theory of the na- ture and powers of the mind based upon the analysis and interpretation of the facts of consciousness." C. F. V., Hamilton. 2 Hence, Psychologic, applied to analysis, divi- sions, powers, &c., Psychologist. See Butler, 3 N. Porter. 4 Psychology, Divisions, Parts of. P. is divided into empiri- cal P., and metaphysical, transcendental, or rational P. Wolf. 5 There are special applications of its principles : comparative, jural, medical, physiological, pragmatic. Psychology, Empirical, or Experimental, is that whose principles are established by experiment and experience. It follows the introduction to philosophy and is preliminary to Logic. Psychology, Metaphysical, or Rational, derives a priori from the concept of the soul all that observation has de- duced a posteriori. Its object is the internal of which the external offers itself to P. empirical. It is a part of special metaphysics, and is placed between cosmology and natural theology. Stockl. 6 Psychology, Empirical, is divided into : I. The psychical life . in general, II. The psychical life in its special manifesta- tions : i. Faculty of cognition ; ii. Faculty of feeling, the emotions; iii. Faculty of appetition, desires, will. III. The psychical life in its progressive conditions and history : i. Pe- riods of life ; ii. Waking and sleeping ; iii. Special peculiar- ities, temperaments, character; psychical differences of the sexes, race, and nation ; iv. Mental disorders. Psychology, Rational, is divided into: I. Essential nature and fundamental distinctions in the soul ; substantiality ; personality; individuality; simplicity; spirituality and in- corporation of the soul; materialism. II. Relation of the soul to the body. III. Freedom, destination. IV. Origin and immortality. Jos. Beck. 7 Psychology, Literature of. I. As a part of encyclopa3dics 1 Logic, I 58, D. 2 Lects. on Metaph., I., 135. 3 Hist, of Anc. Philosophy, lect. iii. * /him an Intellect, 70. *> Logic, D, 111, 112. c Lehrbuch der Pfiilosoptiie, 4th ed., 1876. 7 r/,-;n/'//'/'. ilrr Knifiirisclien l'tyckolo(/ie,l'2t\i ed., 1870; Bncykioptfdieder Theoretinchen hif, 4th ed., 1809. PSYCHOPHYSICS. 829 and introductions. Jos. Beck (12th ed., 1876). II. In mis- cellanies, collected works, periodicals. III. In works on Theoretic Philosophy. Dressier (2d ed., 1870), Enneraoser (1849). IV. Systems, manuals, competids. Herbart, Lehr- Imch (2d ed., 1834), Principia (1822), Mathematik auf Psy- chol. (1822), P. als Wissenschaft (1824, 1825), Beneke (1850), Drbal (1868), Drobisch (1842), Cams (1846), Erdmaun (4th ed., 1868), I. H. Fichte (1864), Fortlage (1855, 1869), Hage- mann (4th ed., 1874), Weisse (1869), Bantain (1853), Prosper Despine (1868), Lotze (1852), Schultz-Schultzenstein (1855), Schnell (1860), Feclmer (Nanna, 1848, Zendavesta, 1851, Seelenfrage, 1861), Jessen (1855), George (1854), Ulrici (I8G6), v. Hartsen (1869), Lindner (3d ed., 1872), Maudsley (1870), Herbert Spencer (1872, 1873), L. P. Hickok (Rational Psychology, 1848, Empirical Psychology, 1854), J. B. Meyer (1869), K. C. Planck (1871), Noah Porter (Human Intellect, 4th ed., 1869). V. Bibliography. See Metaphysics, Lit- erature of. PSYCHOMACHY (Gr.), soul-battle; conflict of soul arid body. It is the title of a poem by Prudentius. PSYCHOMANCY (Gr.), divination by calling up the souls of the dead. PSYCHOMETRY (Gr.), measure of the faculties of the soul. PSYCHONOMY (Gr.), doctrine of the laws and development of the soul. PSYCHONOSOLAGY (Gr.), doctrine of the diseases of the mind. "PSYCHOPANNYCHISM. Whatever may have been Luther's confusion of views on the world of the dead while he was still under the influence of early education, there is no satisfactory evidence that he ever held that the soul sleeps between death and the resurrection. His mature judgment against it has been expressed most decidedly in his latest and, in many respects, the best of his larger works, his Commentary on Genesis. 1 He says in that : " In the interim (between death and the resurrection), the soul does not sleep, but is awake, and enjoys the vision of angels and of God, and has converse with them." PSYCHOPATHY (Gr.), mental disease. PSYCHOPHYSICS (Gr.), a special department of Anthropology, 1 In Cfepes., xxv. o21. Interim Anima non dormiat. 71 830 PULLULATION. which investigates the relations of the psychical and the physical, in their conjoint operation in man. G. T. Fechner 1 (who originated the name). PULLULATION, germination ; budding ; growing. PUKE, "applied by Kant to an exercise of mind which has no admixture of the results of experience, involving only what the mind itself gives; and also to the power of mind by which such exercise is possible. Thus he uses the ' pure Idea/ and ' pure Reason/ which is reason in itself alone, without any mixture of sensibility, or play of the sensory. So, also, 'pure Eeverence ' is reverence for moral law, where that is the sole or single motive for action." C. F. V. " Pure and applied, as usually employed in opposition in German Philosophy, are not properly relative and correlative to each other ; pure and mixed, applied and unapplied, are properly correlative." Hamilton. 2 On pure and modal propositions, see Judgments. On pure logic, see Logic. PURISM, in Ethics, extravagance, or affectation of purity. PYRRHONISM. See Scepticism, Academics. PYTHAGOREAN, pertaining to Pythagoras (540-500 B. c.), his doctrines, his philosophy. See Cosmology, Metempsy- chosis, Number. *QUADRIVIUM. See Trivium. QUALIFIED, in Kant, marked by a degree of a quality, which shows itself in act, and deserves a name. (Fr. Qualifie.) He applies it to envy, ingratitude, and malignant joy. QUALITATIVE, involving quality opposed to quantitative; as Q. correlations. ^Quality. '^Quality (occult). QUANTIFICATION OF THE PREDICATE.-The quantity of a proposition taken as a whole depends upon the subject being universal or particular; but it is equally important to consider the quantity of the predicate. In all affirmative propositions the predicate must be regarded as particular, while in all negative propositions it is universal. All that we assert in an affirmative proposition is that the predicate in- i Elements der Psycliophysik, 1860. 2 Logic, Am. ed., 44 RATIO. 831 eludes the subject. Thus in the proposition : All stones are minerals, we only employ the word minerals in so far as it coincides with the word stones ; that is, only in a part of its extension (all stones are some minerals). Jn a negative proposition, we assert that no part of the subject is contained in any part of the predicate. Thus, when I say : " No stones are metals," I exclude the notion " stones" from the entire extension of the word "metals," and consequently use it in its whole generality. Morell. 1 The quantification of the predicate is much insisted on by Sir W. Hamilton, 2 Baynes. 3 F. V. 3. QUANTIFY, endue with, mark with the sign of quantity. QUANTITATIVE, QUANTITIVE, estimable according to quantity. ^'Quantity. ^Quantity (discrete and continuous). QUANTUM (Lat.), in Kant, concrete quantity, q. v. QUATERNARY (Lat.), group of four, consisting of four; regarded with great respect by the Pythagoreans. QUATERNIO TERMINORUM^ in Logic, fallacy of four terms. "QUIDDITY or QUIDITY, " is the being of a thing considered in order to a definition explaining what it is. The being of a thing considered in order to its existence is its essence; in order to its operation, its nature." Mellin. F. V. 3. QUINTESSENCE, fifth essence ; distinct from and superior to the four essences or elements (fire, air, earth, water). Ap- plied to the heavens ; pure essence. QUODLIBET, as many as you please ; in Scholasticism, for miscellaneous writings. Quodlibetary or quodlibetic ques- tions were questions for the exercise of students in philoso- phy ; point, subtlety. Hence, quodlibetarian, quodlibet- ical. QUOTIETY, in Scholasticism, marks the relation of an object to number; to the question : How many, quot? *RACE. See Species. RAMEAN TREE. See Arbor Porphyriana. *RATIO. " Proportion. Lat., a reason." C. F. V. 1 Handbook of Logic, p. 25. Lects. on Loyic, i. 3 New Analytic of Logical Forms. 832 RATIOCINATION. -RATIOCINATION (RATIOCINATE), " Reasoning." C. F. V. In J. S. Mill, 1 syllogism or deduction. Hence, Ratio- ci native. RATIONAL, endowed with ratio, reason ; accordant with rea- son. Hence, nationality. :i: RATIONALE. " The rational basis for a system or order of things." C. F. V. -RATIONALISM, in philosophy. ""Rationalism, in religion, " More restrictedly, the acceptance of the teaching of revelation only in so far as reason can explain its doctrine." C. F. V. Hence, Rationalize, Ra- tionalizing. See J. H. Newman. 2 REACTION, reciprocation of action, of impulse or force. READVERTENCY, reapplication of mind. Norris. L. J. *REAL, THE. Hence, Reality. See Whately. 3 The real and the ideal, being and thinking. Steudel.* *REALISM. Hence, Realist, See I. Disraeli, 5 Hallarn. 6 REALITY, Actuality, Determinateness. Hegel: 7 "As the object is in intuition or representation, it is only phenome- non ; not until it is in thinking, is it in and for itself, that is, objective. It has, therefore, this objectivity in the notion." " This notion posits itself as objectivity by its own activity. This objectivity is simply the reality of the notion. It is the actual and real totality. This totality is the idea. All ex- istent has truth, therefore, only so far as it is an existence of the idea ; for the idea alone is the truly actual." " The in- definite being is the first." See Spinoza, below. " The basis of all determinateness is negation; only opinion destitute of thought considers the definite things as positive, and holds fast to them under the form of being." " What is rational is actual, what is actual is rational." 8 Kapp: 9 "Reality without determinateness ceases to be." Schelling : 10 " The first step in philosophy, the condition essential even to an entrance on it, is insight into the truth that the absolutely ideal is also the absolutely real ; and that, apart from the l Logic, pt. ii., ch. i., 3. 2 Developm. of Christ. Doctrine, ch. i., sect. iii. 3 Logic, Append. 4 Philotopliie im Umriss, I., ii. 290-303. 5 Curiosities of Lit., Literary Contro- vert., Compos, of Words. 6 Hist, of Literal., b. iii., 67. i Werke, V. 16. VI. 165, 180, X. 140. 8 P/iilnsophie dcs Kechts : Werl.r, VIII. 17. He explains and defends his words in his Knci/khpHtlie, Kinl., \ ; m-rke, VI. 10, 11; g 142 Do., 281 ; Wallace, 7, 221. Ft . W. J. v. Schelling. 360. \y tr kc, I., ii. t>8. REASON. 833 absolutely ideal in general, reality can only be sensuous and conditioned, never absolute and unconditioned." Spinoza: " Every determination is negation." See Hegel, above. Steu- del : 1 "Actual being is reality or actuality. What is real, is exterior to thinking and independent on thinking, or, as Tittmann 2 says, ' Being actual is antithetical to being thought.' That is ideal which is simply thought, without being exterior to the thinking. This real existing meets us, presents itself to us in sensation and perception. The nat- ural understanding is, therefore, in no doubt that what we perceive as exterior to our thinking, representing mentally, and feeling, is a real and actual existent." REALIZE, to render real ; to render or construe as real to the mind ; actualize. ^REASON. " This word is used in a variety of senses. 1. A gen- eral name for the intellectual nature of man ; 2. The faculty of the higher intuitions, or of a priori truth. This is Kant's use of the word in contrast with reasoning. 3. The evidence or rational ground upon which a conclusion rests." C. F. V. Hence, Reasonableness. *Reason (spontaneity of ). ' *Reason and Understanding. " The perplexity referred to by Whewell may be easily escaped by distinguishing the reasoning power from the reason. The reasoning or discur- sive process is carried on by the judgment, understanding, or reasoning powers. There is no ambiguity here when, as the result of the reasoning process, we are said to understand the subject. Reason is the faculty perceiving self-evident truth." C. F. V. J. G. Fichte : " Reason is the absolutely posit- ing faculty in the Ego." "It is the universal thinking, which does not pertain to the individual, but of which the individual may be possessed ; the understanding is an inter- mediate faculty, standing between the reason and the imagi- nation, a faculty in which the mutable element of intuition is fixed and made intelligible. It is a quiescent, inactive faculty of the mind, the mere retainer of what is brought forth by the imagination, and of what is determined or is yet to be determined by the reason, and may be described ritilosopJiie im Umriss, I., i. 298-301. 2 Aphorismen, 136. 71* 3D 834 HEASON. as the imagination fixed by the reason, or as the reason pro- vided with objects by the imagination. In the understand- ing alone is reality ; in it the ideal produced by the imagi- nation is rendered real by conception and comprehension." l 1. H. Fichte : " The reason is identical with the creative and prescient phantasy possessed of the faculty of cognising the An-sich (the per se) of things, by its own activity." " Re- flected thinking is but a depotentiated reason." "Reason is an absolutely non-individual thing, or rather it is super- individual ; it. abrogates everything simply individual in the spirit, and depresses the individual to the recognition of the universal validity of reason itself; it is therefore the unin- dividualizing in us, because it is in us the cognizing and deciding, eternal, superpersonal reason." 2 Fries : " The un- derstanding is the superior cognitive faculty, self-cognition. To it is pre-eminently given to lead us to consciousness, which we have in us, not in itself as intuitive cognition ; the faculty of this non-intuitive cognition is the pure reason." 3 Formstecher: " Reason is the faculty of comparing all phe- nomena with the primal types, and judging of them in accordance with their truth ; as arbitress she is in Art called Taste, in Ethics, Conscience." 4 Frohschammer: "Reason, in opposition to the understanding, as the faculty of logical activity, is the faculty by which the human spirit is capable of religious faith, and of the immediate a priori conscious- ness of God, as also, in connection with the activity of the understanding, the faculty of the further unfolding of the consciousness, in metaphysical investigation and cognition of the absolute. It is a faculty, furthermore, by which it experiences in conscience the ethical nature of its manifesta- tion of will, and attains to essentially ethical nature." " It is the faculty of the immediate consciousness of the supra- mundane and divine, and manifests itself in our race, as religion and philosophy." 5 Gleisberg : " Reason is no psy- chical activity sui generis, but is a potentiated understanding ; it is in essence the reference of our individual Ego to the i Grnndl. d. ges. Wissenschaftslf.hr e, Werke, I. 233, 234 ; Tliatsach. d. Bewusslseyns, UVr/.-e, II. 008. 2 Anthropnlogie, 565-569 ; Psychologic, I. 462, 463; Seelenfm-tdauer und die Wellstdlung des Mensclien, 134; on the obscurity of the term " Reason," Do., 282. 3 Astern der Logik, 3d ed., 1837, 88. * Die Religion d. Geistes. & Athenanm, III. 256- 262, 592. REASON. 835 world of ideas, to a higher order of the world; it is the ca- pacity of forming notions, of abstraction, the capacity of de- termining action in accordance with definite norms, delivered to it or cognized by itself." l Harms : " We give to the pre- cognitive power in us the name of reason ; it can cognize objects as they are in themselves." 2 Hegel, in his earlier period : " Reason is only understanding." " Reason is iden- tical with the productive imagination, and thus, so far as it fixes the categories as notions, is understanding." 3 Hegel, in his later period : " The understanding is taken as the faculty of determinate notion, which is established for it through the abstraction and form of universality ; the inference, however, as the completely established no- tion, is the rational, and all the rational is an inference." 4 " Reason is the phenomenon of the absolute, and because the absolute is eternally one and the same, every reason which has been directed upon itself, and has cognized itself, has produced a true philosophy." " Reason is com- prehending cognition, and its content is the philosophical idea." 5 "Reason without understanding is nothing; un- derstanding without reason is still something." 6 Herbart: " Understanding is the faculty which, in mental represen- tation or thinking, directs itself in accordance with the quality of the thing represented or thought; reason is the faculty of deliberation in accordance with grounds, and of decision." "Deliberation takes place: 1. in connection with the premises of a syllogism ; hence, reason is a logical faculty. 2. In the extension of notions to the infinite and unconditioned. 3. In choosing among aims, consequently in the establishment of practical maxims ; hence the reason is a moral faculty." " Reason is the faculty of penetrating to the connection of universal truths." "The understand- ing has reason, and the reason has understanding; they can- not be coordinated, for they do in strictness exclude each other." " One thinker endows reason with his categorical imperative and his transcendental freedom ; another endows it with his intellectual intuition of the Ego, or of the abso- lute ; a third, with his marvellous revelation of the reality 1 Instinct nnd freier Wille, 82. 2 f fuller Monntschrift, August, 1852. 3 Werke, 1. 4, 25. 4 Werke, V. 115. 5 Werke, I. 169 ; VIII. 19. * LeJten von Ro&enkranz, 546. 836 REASON. of the external world. Thus reason becomes the plaything of systems, and the real facts are darkened." 1 Jacob! : "The impulse to search into his origin, to recognize himself in it, through it, from it to experience the true in regard to himself man calls reason. Reason is the eye of the soul itself, as far as it has clear notions. That which in man the Ego clearly expresses, he calls his reason." 2 Kant. See ^Reason and Understanding. Kirchmann denies that there is any difference between the two. 3 Lotze : " Under- standing and reason are allied in their attempt to reach a comprehension of the manifold; but the leading thought which reason pursues in this effort, the assurance that the sum of actuality can exist only as completed unity and total- ity, is not the principle in accordance with which the un- derstanding searches only for the form of conjunction be- tween every two members, without deciding in regard to the shape, which must be the result of the union of the whole of them." * Michelet, in accordance with Hegel's doctrine: " There is one only impersonal world-reason; all individual spirits are one spirit only, that impersonal rea- son ; in regard to it, the history of the scattered members shows that this reason only is the absolute actual, and that the subjective is un-reason and evil." 5 Heiurich Hitter: "Theoretic reason wishes to know the truth, to strip it of all illusion." "The revelations of our reason we re- ceive from God; every revelation must reach us through it ; it is the universal medium through which the crea- ture attains the consciousness of God ; without reason, there would be nothing to respond to the call of God as Creator, nothing to which His revelation could be opened, nothing by which His work would be understood." 6 Schelling: " The understanding is an inferior sort of cognition. To its sphere belongs what, with a large part of philosophers, has passed for reason." "Those who, in this sort of cognition, are searching for philosophy, have not yet approached its threshold.' 1 "Understanding is fallen reason." "The un- i Werke, I., 269, 304; II., 359 ; VI., 52-58, 152, 153 ; VIII., 217. 2 GotUichen Dingen, C; David Hump, 195. a Berginimii, Piiilnsnphischf. llfnnatshefte, I., -155. 4 Jl/ikrokosmus, I.. 257-260. 5 ZfitiicJir. vnn PicJite, xxii. 67, 69; Zeitsckr. " Dcr GedanU." I., 123; II., 204, 265. c Philosophise! te l\radoxa, 11, 47, 1^7, 134. REASON. 837 derstanding is also reason, but reason in its non-totality; it has no life of its own ; it has life only through reason, not as an intractable, but as a pliant instrument of it. The errors of the understanding spring from a judgment which regards things in their non-totality." "The reason is only in a certain sense higher than the understanding ; in the understanding there is something more active, efficient; in the reason, something more passive, self-surrendering. Rea- son is the understanding in its submission to the higher something, the soul. Reason is but the receiver of truth and the touchstone of it." "Reason is the principle of univer- sal equality; the understanding is the principle of inequality among men. Reason, therefore, is on the side of the people; understanding on the side of the king. The people can largely display reason, but as a people they never display understanding." "No man can describe reason; it must describe itself in every man, and through every man. It bears in itself sense, understanding, and imagination, with- out itself being any one of these in particular." "It is the mode of cognition in which the finite and infinite is beheld in the Eternal, but not the mode in which the Eternal is beheld in the finite and infinite." " It is that knowing in which the eternal equality of the subject and object cognizes itself." "Philosophy is simply reason conscious of itself or coming to that consciousness." "The real and the ideal all flow together, in reason, into absolute identity. The essen- tial nature of reason, or the essence of the soul, is nothing more than the absolute affirmation of the idea of God." "God is the archetype, reason the ectype the reflex of deity, reason not as it reveals itself in man merely, but reason as it is the substance of all things, and dwells in the entire universe." "There is no reason which we have, but there is a reason which has us. This reason does not have the idea of God, but is that idea." l Schopenhauer : " Draw- ing inferences is the proper function of reason." "It has also the capacity for abstract general mental representations and notions. Its content is not material, but formal. Its nature is feminine ; it must get before it can give, receive be- i Werl-f, I., iv. 299-301 ; II. 377; IV. 114-116, 301 ; V. 270, 381; VI. 43, 495-197, 516, 556, 564; VII. 42, 146, 147, 471, 472; IX. 336; X. 174, 204. 838 REASON. fore it can conceive. Every simpleton has reason. Give him the premises, he can draw the conclusion. The understand- ing, on the contrary, whose essential nature consists in the consciousness of the law of causality, delivers the primary and intuitive cognition. -In this lies the distinction between the two faculties." " Reason is transcendental understand- ing." " A reason for which is claimed immediate cognition of the supersensuous and absolute, can only be conceived of as like the sixth sense of a bat it is a purely visionary metaphysical instinct." " The understanding of man differs only in degree from that of the animals." : Heinrich Schwarz : "To exalt knowing to actual cognizing is the peculiar fea- ture of the intelligence of the understanding. The under- standing abstracts the essential character from the object of perception. But to penetrate thoroughly to the essential character, the interior, belongs not to the intelligence of the understanding, but to that of the reason. The point of view assumed by reason is that of sinking into, penetrating into the primary essence in general. The understanding surmises the actuality and necessity of such principles, but is unable to reach them. It cannot get beyond the antitheses, for which the reason provides unity ; it cannot come to repose till it grasps the first principle, the final cause." 2 Tittmann: 11 It is best to comprehend in the term understanding the entire faculty of thinking, and to refer the reason to the har- mony of the individual intellectual being, in its action, with the universal law. The understanding, in forming notions, judgments, and syllogisms, cognizing the law of the world, and accepting it as cogent, is reason. To observe and follow law is the peculiar characteristic of reason. To the under- standing the good and beautiful are simply object, to the reason they are aim." 3 Ulrici : " Understanding in general is discriminating activity." " Reason, if we distinguish it from understanding, making it a special mental faculty, is that power and mode of activity of the soul which enable us to bring to consciousness the ethical ideas, to recognize them in their rights and universal validity, and to will and l Vierfache Wurzel, ed. 2, 72, 73, 100-109, 116 ; Welt ah Willr, oil. 3, I., xxviii. 46, 59, 539, 575. 618; Grtmdprobleme, 147-149; JVachlass, 26S, 290. 2 gott, jVufwr uud Mensch, 1857, 131-133. 3 Apliorismen, 102. REASON. 839 act in conformity with them." " Reason is the faculty by which we know the nature of God, and bring into our con- sciousness the divine ideas of law, order, the end and aim of the world, and in this implicitly the ideas of the good, the beautiful, and true. Reason enables us to cultivate these ideas, and in conformity with them to judge and draw infer- ences, to will and to act." 1 Vischer: "The understanding is a mere valet-de-chambre." 2 Wirth : " The eternal primal feeling of our own essential nature, and mediately of the essential nature of all being; a feeling which the soul bears in it, strives of itself for self-comprehension, and thus takes the name of reason, which is conscious intelligence of the essentiality of being." 3 See Steudel. 4 ^Reason (Determining- or Sufficient) (Ger. Sate des Grundes, S. des zureichenden (?.). I. H. Fichte : "The principle is fundamental, alike for the real ground and the ground of cognition." 5 Hegel identifies it with the law of causality. 6 Kant : " It is a very common thing for the juggler in meta- physics to make the pass, and skip from the logical principle of the sufficient reason to the transcendental principle of causality, and assume the latter as involved in the former." 7 Katzenberger : "The meaning of the law is, that in the formation of our thoughts in accordance with our thinking nature, we are compelled to reflect upon the ground on which we are compelled to think and judge, in this or that way, and in no other." " This logical ground is to be dis- tinguished from the notion of cause. Logic has nothing to do with the real ground." 8 Leibnitz. See ^Reason (De- termining or Sufficient), and ^Sufficient Reason (Doctrine of ). Schopenhauer distinguishes between the ground of cognition and the real ground, but embraces under the principle of the sufficient reason both the law of causality arid the logical law of the ground. 9 Ulrici combines the two: "The principle is indeed primarily and immediately a law of thought, but we transfer it involuntarily to the real l Glauben und Wissen, 203; Zeitschrift von FicMe., xxviii. 130. 2 Erhabene und Xomische, 46. 3 Zeitschrift von Fichte, xxxvi. 186, 190. 4 Philosophic im Umriss, I., i. 115-185. 5 Zeilschr., liii. 212. 6 Werfo, IV. 74, 116. 7 l n a letter of 1789, WerJce, XI. 95. Kant has been charged with falling, at an earlier period, into this very mistake. Werke, I., 12, 16; II., 170; Rfin. Vwn. (ed. 1794), 246. GrUudfragen d. Logik, 235, 236. 9 Vierfache Wurzel, ed. 2, 14, 21, 33, 99. 840 REASON. being of things. It is better to call it the law of causality than the law of sufficient reason." l Wirth : " It is but a law of thinking; the law, 'Lay down nothing without a ground/ or that, whenever we lay down anything, we must be determined to do so by a process of thinking which affirms the being and excludes its non-being." 2 See Steu- del. 3 Reason, Finite. See Reason, Limited. "Reason (Impersonal). See Reason and Understanding. Reason, Legislative, law-giving ; the archetypal, divine rea- son. Reason, Limited, finite; in Kant, that which needs for its . personal activity the co-operation of the faculties and forces of the senses. Reason, Perverted, perverse; turned from its proper objects or methods. Reason, Practical (Ger. Praktische Vemunft}. In Kant, the reason " in as far as it makes comprehensible to us the sum of all that ought to be and to happen ; " " the faculty of all the principles of human cognition which involve the practi- cal ; " " the faculty of aims in general." 4 Kant naturalized the term. Before him, the only terms in this connection were understanding and will. Mellin. 5 Practical and pure, in Kant, mark one and the same faculty in different rela- tions and activities. See Steudel. 6 Reason, Practical (Critique of ) (Ger. Orttik der praktischen Vemunft}. The second of Kant's series of critiques of the intellectual powers (1788). See Critique of Pure Reason, Judgment, Critique of the. Its divisions are: I. Element- ary doctrine of the pure practical reason : i. Analytic of the pure practical reason ; ii. The dialectic of the pure practical reason. II. Methodology of the pure practical reason. 7 Reason, Pure (Ger. Heine Vemunft]. See Critique of Pure Reason. Reason, Sufficient. See Reason Determining', Sufficient Reason. i-Glauben und Wissen, 10, 11, 91; Zeitscfirift von Fictile, xxiii. 137-193; Iv. '201-204; System der Logik, 112, 113. 2 Grundfrngen der Logik, 235, 236. 3 PMosnphie im Um- risx, I., i. 200-203. * Originalideen ilb. d. empir. AnthropoL, 17, 142; Tuueudl'lire. 30. 5 A'unrfxpracte, s. v. 6 philosophic im Umriss, II., i. 609-612. 7 Werke (1838), IV., 95- 290. REDISPOSING. 841 Reason, Theoretic, in Kant, 1 Reason, so far as by theoretic principles it makes comprehensible to us the sum of all that is and takes place. See Reason, Practical. Reason, Cognition of the, is rational cognition. If it be in accordance with concepts, it is philosophical cognition. It is formal or material. See those words. Reason, Concept of the (Ger. Vernunftbegriff), idea; opposed to concept of the sense (Ger. Sinnlicher Begrijf], and concept of the understanding, or notion (Ger. Verstandesbegriff}. See Krauth. 2 Reason, Faith of (Ger. Vernunftglaube}, in Kant, 3 rational faith ; a faith resting on grounds of reason ; a faith which grounds itself on no other data than those furnished in the pure Reason. ^REASONING, "the application of the reason to determining whether this or that be or be not so." Kant. Whately. 4 REATTIS (Lat.), the condition of a reus, an accused person, a state of impeachment ; the offence charged. See Reus. HECEPTIBILITY, RECEPTIVITY, capacity of receiving, as R. of impressions. RECOLLECTION. See Remembrance, RECREMENTITIOUS (Lat.), abounding in recrement; that which should be sifted away ; drossy. Reid. 5 RECT (Lat.), in composition, right. RECTITUDE." Rightness ; the quality of an action as in ac- cordance with moral law." C. F. V. RECTOR (Lat.). Ruler, as God is R. of the world. REDARGTITION, refutation. Bacon. 6 REDINTIGRATION (re-integro) (reconstruction), is used by Lord Bacon, in his letter to Sir Geo.Villiers, as synonymous with resuscitation. As used by Sir W. Hamilton, it denotes the fact that the parts of any total thought, when subse- quently called into consciousness, are apt to suggest imme- diately the parts to which they were proximately related, and mediately, the whole of which they were constituent. Hamilton's Reid. F. V. 3. REDISPOSING, adjusting anew. A. Baxter. 7 i Ori(iinnKdeen,W. * Annotate., Berkeley, 338. 3 Religion innerhalb, 247. * Logic, B. IV., ch. ii., I 2. 6 Inq. into Human Mind. Adv. of Learning, B. II. "> On the Soul, I. 0^9. 72 842 REDUCTIO. REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM. See Argument. "'"Reduction in Logic. REDUPLICATIVE, double ; in Logic, the repetition of a phrase so as to exclude all consideration of the object except in one respect white as white, men as men. ^REFLECTION. "Attention directed upon the facts of personal experience. In a wider sense, thought or the reasoning pro- cess, whatever be the object on which it is directed." C. F. V. REFLEX ACTION, "muscular activity which is the direct re- sult of an impression made upon the sensitive organism. Action of the motor nerves consequent upon a sudden im- pression upon the nerves of sensation, as in the sudden start on the infliction of pain. Reflex action stands in contrast with voluntary action." C. F. V. Reflex Sense. " Hutcheson's name for a mental power, analo- gous to the senses, by which we have a perception of truth concerning relations. Its exercise is an act of perception, but it depends upon the understanding for its materials. He regards conscience as a reflex, sense." C. F. V. REGRESS, the passing back from the conditioned to the con- ditions. Like progress, it is to the infinite and to the indefi- nite. REGRESSIVE, by process of regress, analytical method; a principiatis ad pr'incipia. R. synthesis involves a series on the side of the conditions ; as from the father of a living man to the father of his father, and so on. REGULA(Lat), rule. ^REGULATIVE, " Kant's designation for forms of knowledge which are conditions for the ingathering of knowledge, without affording in themselves a test of objective truth. Regulative stands in contrast with Constitutive, q. v. Thus, according to Kant, space and time are only mental forms regulative of the mind in its use of the sensory." C. F. V. R. is applied by Whewell 1 to the principle of a genus, or of any other natural group. REGULATOR, one who controls by rule ; applied to God. ^Relation. ^Relative. RELATIVITY OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE. " The doc- 1 Scientific Ideas, 1858, vol. ii., 120. RELATIVITY. 843 trine that the nature and extent of our knowledge is deter- mined by the nature, range, and conditions of our cognitive powers. In knowing, we know not the thing itself, but the thing as related to our faculties and capacities. Carried beyond this, the doctrine leads to sceptical results." C. F. V. That our knowledge of things is relative or proportioned to our faculties, must be admitted. Omne quod cognoscitur non secundum sui vim cognoscitur sed secundum cognoscentium potius comprehendata facultatem. Boethius. We only know things in so far as our faculties are capable of apprehending them. That external objects have more qualities than our senses make known and that with more senses we might have known more qualities, if there be more to know, must be admitted ; but this does not invalidate the knowledge which we have. So long as we are men, our knowledge must be according to the measure of a man. But this is not the doctrine of the relativity of our knowledge among phil- osophers. According to some (as Berkeley or Hume), we know nothing of things but the sensations or feelings which they give us. Of the things in themselves we know nothing, and there is no evidence of there being anything correspond- ing to what we call substance. Others think there is in knowledge a phenomenon and a noumenon a knowledge of things as they appear to us, and a knowledge of things in themselves. This second form of the doctrine is held under various modifications. According to Kant and others, the mind invests external objects with certain forms, which modify our knowledge. External things exist and have a na- ture; but we know them only as they appear to us relative to our faculties of apprehending them ; quiquid recipifur, re- cipitur in modum retipientium. " To assert that a representa- tion is untrue, because it is relative to the mind of the re- ceiver, is to overlook the fact that truth itself is nothing more than a relation. Truth and falsehood are not proper- ties of things in themselves, but of our conceptions, and are tested not by the comparison of conceptions with things in themselves, but with things as they are given in some other relation. My conception of an object of sense is true, when it corresponds to the characteristics of the object as I perceive it; but the perception itself is equally a relation, 844 RELIGION. and equally implies the co-operation of human faculties. Truth in relation to no intelligence is a contradiction in terms ; our highest conception of absolute truth is that of truth in relation to all intelligences. But of the conscious- ness of intelligences different from our own we have no knowledge, and can make no application. Truth, therefore, in relation to man, admits of no other test than the harmo- nious consent of all human faculties; and as no such faculty can take cognizance of the absolute, it follows that corre- spondence with the absolute can never be required as a test -of truth. The utmost deficiency that can be charged against human faculties amounts only to this : that we cannot say that we know God as God knows Himself; that the truths of which our finite minds are susceptible may, for aught we know, be but the passing shadow of some higher reality, which exists only in the Infinite Intelligence/'' Mansel. 1 " Everything which man sees, either with the eye of the body or with the eye of the mind, is in some degree an ap- pearance different from the reality ; God alone sees the per- fect reality of things God alone knows or can know abso- lute truth." Killer. 2 F. V. 3. See Knowledge, Know- ing, Character of. *RELIGION. " Homage to the Deity in all the forms which per- tain to the spiritual life, in contrast with Theology, the the- ory of the Divine nature and government." C. F. V. Religion, Definition of, Philosophical, Recent attempts at. Beneke : " We can form to ourselves an idea of the king- dom of God, but the actualizing of this idea cannot be the aim of our efforts. That would be a fruitless wandering in empty space. Our activity must select an aim more near and well defined." 3 Chalybaus : "Morality (Ethos] and religion are at the beginning not conflicting, and in the consummation are no longer in antithesis, but brought into unity and harmonized, so that in man the religious principle and the ethical are mutual presuppositions." 4 Feuerbach: " The good has its ground of sanctification in itself. Where there is morality in earnest, it takes its place as a divine 1 Limits of Religious TJiought, p. 149. - On Goodness, Wisdom, and Power of God, p. 258, 12mo, Lonrt., 1858. 3 Grundlegung der Physik der Kitten, 99. * System der Speciila- tiven Ethik, I. (io, 64. RELIGION. 845 power, in and of itself. If it has no ground in itself, then it has not an internal necessity of its being, and is aban- doned to the fathomless arbitrariness of religion. As theol- ogy grounds ethics on 'the will of God, it sets up a principle of ethics which is arbitrary, immoral, annihilating the very basis of ethics, for the good has no other power than its own. There can be no ground of moral obligation to do what is good, beside the conception of the good in and for itself; and it is nothing but refined selfishness to do good not from love to the good but from love to God." l J. G. Fichte passed through several gradations of view which may be best understood by taking them in their chronological order. 1. Previous to 1799: " The true faith is a faith in the possibil- ity of realizing the moral law ; there is no other faith, and this faith lies in the striving to realize the kingdom of God. Virtue alone leads to true faith, for it alone brings us convic- tion of God as a moral being. By theoretical arguments we reach not the idea of God as moral, but simply as an Om- nipotent Being, the admission of whose existence would be a matter of supreme indifference so far as the morally good is involved. The supreme cause of all moral progress we call God. He who acts morally believes practically in the un- conditioned character of the moral, and in' the possibility of carrying out the moral law, believes therefore in God. Faith in God cannot be the ground of morality. On the contrary, morality is the principle of faith Faith comes from it. There is no such thing as virtue for the sake of God. The recognition of the moral law in us precedes faith in God." 2 2. In his essay on the " Ground of our Faith in a Divine Government of the World" (1798), 3 Fichte advanced views which subjected him to the charge of atheism. His words are cited in the article, Order, Moral, of the World. 3. In his "Appeal to the Public" (1799), called forth by this charge, he says : " Morality and religion are absolutely one ; both are a grasping of the supersensuous the first by doing, the second by believing. Religion without morality is supersti- tion, which betrays the victim with a false hope, and makes him incapable of any reformation. What claims to be moral - 1 Wegf.n d. Clirislentliums, 366; Pierre Bayle, 45, 100, 10'!, 277, note. 2 Vmiesungen von dem Jalire 1799; Ztschr. v. Fichte, xxiii. 214-U17. 3 Werke, Y., 185. 846 RELIGION. ity, yet is without religion, may indeed lead to an externally decent mode of life, but it is a life in which a man never loves the good and does it for its own sake. Those who say, ' Though a man be in doubt as to whether there be a God and immortality, he must still do his duty/ combine things ab- solutely incapable of union. Certainly the sense of duty does not rest on faith in God, but, on the contrary, faith in God and immortality rests on the sense of duty." l 4. In his " Characteristics of the Present Age," (1804), a modification of his earlier views is manifest : " The fear of God, or of the gods, is superstition, a remnant of heathenism, a superstition which philosophy has to correct. Where there are good morals and virtues, there is still religion, whether men know it or not. Internal, true religiousness does not- come forth in phenomenon. It drives a man to nothing whatever which he would not have done without it; but it perfects him in- ternally in himself. His morality obeys the command of duty implicitly, because duty commands, because this obedi- ence is duty, without, however, understanding the command. Religion, however, opens to man the significance of this com- mand as the one eternal law. The religious man grasps this law, and feels it living in himself as the law of the eternal unfolding of the One Life (of God)." 2 5. In his "Guide to a Happy Life" (1806), he teaches a self-revealing will of God, and that we should love God. Here God has become to him personal. " It is purely impossible, it is a downright contra- diction, that a man should love in two different sorts or have two aims. The love of God blots out absolutely, personal self-love. Only by the annihilation of the second do we come to the first. The love of God endures no other love with it. We must will the Will of God solely for its own sake, and not for the sake of happiness, not even of the happiness which attends it. The expression of the fixed frame of mind of the truly moral and religious man is the prayer: 'Thy will, O Lord, alone be done.' It has no will but that God's will be done. Everything which such a man purposes and steadfastly pursues, has for him value only because it is the direct manifestation of God, which he assumes in him as a distinct individual." 3 6. In his "System of Ethics," 1812, he l Werke, V. 209, 210. 2 Werke, VII. 228-233. Werke, V. 519-535. RELIGION. 847 endeavored to rise from mere Ethics to Theology. " Ethics need know nothing of God, but it is not then Philosophy. A philosophy whose supremest principle is morality only, has not reached an end. Such is Kant's. Theology lying higher than Ethics shows that the conception is the image of God, and absolutely determined by His inward essence." 1 I. II. Fichte : " Eeligion is the living power of morality, a power which has become conscious of its origin, and which mani- fests itself ceaselessly in moral achievement. The fact of a power of will making itself known in us, a power which overcomes our self-will and selfishness, cannot be explained entirely by the subjective fiuiteness arid individuality of our nature. We must recognize in it the properly superhuman in man, without which no morality would be possible. A dead, self-manufactured obligation of duty can never free us from the bonds of self, and its shifting, pitiful little aims. Morality without religion is inconceivable. Morality be- comes religion; it is, on the side of the moral consciousness, religious, a consciousness of the inward bond with God ; it is conscious that its power to work is from God alone. By this consciousness of the inward bond with God, the moral sentiment is exalted to a genuine personal assurance. The practical ideas are eternal, divine ideas. Religion, in its purest expression and in its completeness, is conscious mo- rality, a morality which in virtue of that consciousness is mindful of its origin from God. Morality is perfected only by being interpenetrated with clearness and self-assur- ance, by reaching the grade of religion. Morality without religion is a mere instinctive insecure thing an enigma. Religion without morality is a mere external belief super- stition conjoined with confidence in the merit of outward acts. Not until they come together can the moral character be complete. In religion lies the consummation of the moral process." 2 Frauenstadt : " The assertion of the theo- logians, that without faith no true virtue is possible, and that the virtues of the atheist are glittering vices, is ridicu- lous; the very converse is more nearly the truth the vir- l Nachgdass, Werke, III. 4-30. See Religious Life in Germany, by William Naur. Triinsl. by Mrs. Sturge, lid ed., 1872, ch. viii. 2 Ethik, I., 23, 51 ; II., i., ix., 10, 11, 188, 254, 255; ii., 4.>5; Psychologic, II., 189, 190. 848 RELIGION. tues of the theist, which are practised for the sake of God, are glittering vices." * v. Hartmann : " When Ethics is separated from Metaphysics, it hovers in the air, and is at best a natural philosophy of human impulses and incli- nations with reference to their consequences to society. Ethics in the true sense, as the science of the actuality which is to be corrected, is possible only as the basis of a monistic metaphysics." 2 Hegel: "The ideality of morals must obtain an absolute shape, so that, as God of the people, it may be looked at and worshipped. Right and morality have, for the people, their ultimate test only in the form of an actual religion. Only in so far as man knows of God as spirit, and of the determinations of spirit, are these deter- minations essential, absolute determinations of rationality, of that in general which is duty in him, and immanent in him. In morality, the harmony of religion with actuality, with the world as it is, is brought to existence and perfec- tion." 3 Hiilsmann : " The living, felt relation of the soul to God gives a moral sanctity to life." 4 Kant: "Religion is the knowledge of all our duties as divine commands." " Moral religion is the religion of a good course of life." " It consists in regarding, in all our duties, God as the law- giver entitled to universal reverence." "Morality is the harmony of the maxims of our action with the law." See Mellin. 5 v. Oetingen : " Without religion, there can be no moral organic shaping of life. All moral norms of life to which we feel ourselves bound, go back to a faith in an abso- lute will, and an absolute law. The personal relation of sentiment toward God is the principle and basis of moral- ity." " Morality and religion are not to be separated. 'Thou shalt ' always points us to an intelligent ordniner of the world." " That is morally good in the objective sense which harmonizes with the will of God, which reveals itself in the world; and morally good, in the subjective sense, is the will in which that divine will has become the motive of internal impulsion." 6 O. Pfieiderer: "Moralism without religion l Sittliche Leben, 271-273 ; Blatter f. litt. Unterh. von 1851, Nr. 132, 1187. 2 Selbst-Zer- setzung des Christentfiums, 84. 3 Werke, I., 400 ; see Krautlfs /?7.vM/, 104. 4 Pliil. Monatfthffte von Bergmann, II., 88. & Kunstsprache, s. V. 6 Jttoral-Xtattstik, I., 598, 814, 815, 95G, 970, 971. RELIGION. 849 professes to seat the ethical spirit of man in himself; in fact, in so doing, it seats it in the air, withdraws from its feet the firm ground, the establishment in an absolute principle. For wherein are we to suppose that the ground of obligation to the moral law lies? Not in the plurality of individuals ; not in society. Moral obligation can lie only in dependence on the absolute will of God. In the struggle of actual life, morality destitute of religion grows lame; it is devoid of the enduring power of patient and hoping persistence ; a power which is possessed by religion alone, which exalts man above the world in making him bow before God. Morality destitute of religion is more stubborn, more harsh, more rigorous, in the proportion in which it is more earnest ; the autonomic moral person is ordinarily destitute of mildness and love, that love which comes forth only from faith. As, nevertheless, morality is dependent on religion, and must constantly correct itself by it, so does it exercise on religion a reflex influence, in opposition to quietistic mysticism, against a heartless religion of the head, and against an external spu- rious piety. Virtue is the reception of the will of God into our own will." J Plank : " The moral is the purely immanent law of the mind itself, and not a course of conduct toward an ob- jective power, which can only be an object of the moral action, and can never be the ground of the internal determination of the moral itself." 2 Riehl : " If the moral ideas are to have an influence on life, they must be secularized. Hence- forward, men are not going to project their ideal and their moral aims into an imaginary world to come." 3 Scheliing: " The tendency of the soul to be one with its centre, God, is morality. The soul ought to be wholly one with God. so that it would be impossible for it to act otherwise than in accord with the idea of God. It is no more a question about fol- lowing God's commands ; for the soul which is in identity with God, there is commandment no longer; it acts in con- formity with the necessity of its nature. It is false to derive God from morality, because if there were no other reason, no morality is the morality of man, there is no morality which the individual as such can give himself. It is an abomina- i Wesen dcr Rdiyion, 119-123, 337. 2 2)ie Weltalter, I. 300. 3 Phtiosoph. Monatshefte, VIII. 177, 181. 3E 850 RELIGION. tion to wish to deduce God from morality, as if God were a family medicine, to be taken as a tonic for morality. It is the deepest perversion to suppose morality first, and to put God after it. Without God, man can be nothing. But that of which God is the spring is not bare morality. It is more than this. It is religion. The first meaning of religion is conscientiousness, the highest unity between what we know and what we do, which makes it impossible that what we do should contradict what we know. The man to whom this is in a divine manner impossible, we call religious, conscien- tious in the highest sense of the word. To the conscientious man, it is impossible to act otherwise than right. We call those men of God, in whom the knowledge of God passes at once into action. To him who is in identity with God, neither command nor reward is necessary. He acts in con- formity with the internal necessity of his nature." l Scho- penhauer : " Experience has shown that the arrangements of the law and police are not entirely sufficient for the aims of society, and this has suggested the theory that morals are dependent entirely on religion." 2 D. F. Strauss : " In man's struggle with his sensuality and selfishness his own moral longing is not enough ; he wishes for himself a purity and perfection which he knows not how to procure of himself, which he may hope to attain in the blood of the Redeemer, by faith. Yet the moral way seems to be the only true and right way to reach the goal of his wish ; the religious way seems to be the way of a pleasing self-delusion." 3 Trendelenburg : " Man transmutes the shall into a will, when he wills what he should, when he wills what God wills. The ethical principle is therefore to be apprehended thus : We are to take things and determine them in accordance with the divine determina- tion." 4 Ulrici : " The ethical feeling stands in original unity with the religious, and is of one and the same origin. In relig- ious feeling the existence and works of God make themselves known, and thus man conceives of the ethical determina- tion of his life, and thus the feeling becomes a feeling of duty. Thus the religious and the ethical feeling reciprocally com- 1 Philosophic u. Religion (1804); WerJce, I., i. 55; System dtr gesammten Philosophic (1804), Do., 556-565; Mrnslich. Freiheit (1809), Do., VII. 392. * Grund-Probleme, 186. *Alte u. neue Glaube, 134, 135. *Nuturrecht, ed. 2 ; 25,40. RELIGION. 851 plete each other. Especially does the feeling of duty involve a feeling of the being and essential attributes of God. The religious and the ethical feeling are not indeed absolutely identical, but they belong directly and inseparably together. In the religious feeling there is an immediate revelation of the metaphysical side of God ; in the ethical feeling there is an immediate revelation of his ethical side. Both feelings are, however, but a feeble and tender, though devout affec- tion of the soul." l " On the point of view assumed by sci- ence, ethics is the basis of religion, and of the philosophy of religion, not the converse." 2 Waitz: "Moral conceptions arise from a totally different source from that of religion. It is a mistake to deduce the two from conscience as a common root." 3 See Riehl, above. Wirth : "Our moral consciousness is the source of our cognition of the divine will, not the converse, that religious faith is the source of morals. When we have once derived our ethical notions from the moral consciousness, we are compelled to find their ultimate verification in the idea of a holy primal will; and philosophical ethics itself, if it is to be thorough, will rise to its pinnacle in the religious moral life; but ethics cannot make its start from the religious principle." 4 Zeller : " While theology habitually regards morality, in its ultimate respect, as a relation of man to God, and explains the moral law as a positive divine command, it lies in the essential nature of philosophy to regard moral duty as necessary in and of it- self, and moral action as directly demanded by the very con- ception of man. In man and his own proper nature, we are to seek the root of morality and the ground of the distinc- tion between good and evil." 5 See Steudel. 6 Religion, Philosophy of, the science of religion ; the applica- tion of philosophical principles to the discussion of its gen- eral character, origin, and claims. It presents : I. Religion in general. II. Revealed religion. III. The Christian re- ligion. IV. The Christian Church. Stockl. Apelt (1860), Beneke (1840), Chateaubriand, Denzinger (1857), Fichte, Hegel ( Werke, XL), Kant (Religion inner haib, with Kirch- l Leib u. Sr.de, 719-722. 2 NaturrecJit, 97, 98. 3 AntJtrapologie der Natur-TSlkrr, I., 324. *Ztschr.r. Fichte, xliv. 65. 5 Tlieolngische Jahrbucher, vi.29, 33. 6 Philosophic im Umriss, II., i. 324-336. 852 REMEMBRANCE. mann's notes), Krug (1819), Pascal (Pemees], Otto Pfleiderer (1869), Hem. Ritter (1858, 1859), Arnold Ruge (1869), Schlei- ermacher (Monologen], F. X. Schmid (1857), Spinoza. REMEMBRANCE, REMINISCENCE, RECOLLECTION, " recalling of past experience, whether voluntarily or invol- untarily." C. F. V. ^Reminiscence, Reminiscency. ^Reminiscence, according to Plato. 1 REMISSION, cessation of intenseness, as of the mind in think- ing. Locke. REPLETIVE, filling. REPOSE, in ^Esthetics, the character of harmony and propor- tion in works of art which gives rest to the eye and to the mind ; the opposite of glaring, obtrusive, sensational. REPRESENT (Lat.), to make present, to bring before; to show, exhibit. REPRESENTATION, in Hamilton, 2 as re-presentation, second presentation, the faculty or "power the mind has of hold- ing up vividly before itself the thoughts which by the act of reproduction it has recalled into consciousness." In Kant, representation ( Vorstellung] is the genus which covers every mental determination, every modification of mind, whether accompanied by consciousness or not. For the Kantian and Hamiltonian usage of this term and associated terms, see Krauth. 3 REPRESENTATIVE, of or pertaining to representation It is applied to the idea in perception, to experience; as opposed to presentative, to knowledge, to perception. REPRESENTING, Capacity or Faculty of; REPRESENTA- TION, Capacity or Faculty of, Receptivity of ; REPRE- SENTATIVE POWER the faculty or possibility pos- sessed by the mind of having representations. REPRODUCE, in the Critical Philosophy, to present again to the mind, through the imagination, the sensations previously experienced. REPRODUCTION, the capacity, faculty, or act by which the mind reproduces. In Hamilton, 4 " the process of recovering the absent thought from unconsciousness not its represen- tation in consciousness." 1 See Meuo rnxl Phifdo, 72, E. 2 /><. nn MrtapTi., xxxiii.,p. 450. 3 Annvtat. to Berke- ley s I'l-inciplea, 337-040. * Lf.ct. on Metapli., xx. 275. RESPECT. 853 Reproduction, Synthesis of, in the Critical Philosophy, an element of empirical intuition furnished by the self-activity of the imagination and understanding. See Apprehension and Recognition. REPRODUCTIVE FACULTY, in Hamilton, 1 the third of the special cognitive faculties ; " the faculty of recalling knowl- edge out of unconsciousness into consciousness commonly confounded with the conservative, under the name of mem- ory, but most erroneously." REPUGNANCE, OPPUGN ANCE, in the Critical Philosophy, a concept of reflection, in which the determinations of things are in such a relation that their consequences annul each other, if they are united in one subject. I have debts of just three dollars, and have just three dollars to pay my debts. I pay, and the result is, I have no debts and no dollars. Mellin. RESEMBLANCE (Fr.), likeness, conformity. See Mill.* RESENTMENT. " Antagonism of feeling directed against a person on account of some act done by him in violation of our own rights or the rights of others." C. F. V. RESERVATION, MENTAL, in Ethics, the keeping back in the mind; equivocation, by phrase which means one thing to the users, and another to those who hear it. RESIDUAL PHENOMENA, in Logic, Residues, Method of, in Induction: "Subduct from any phenomenon such part as is known by previous inductions to be the effect of certain antecedents, and the residue of the phenomenon is the effect of the remaining antecedents." J. S. Mill, 3 Jevons. 4 RESISTANCE, quality of not yielding to force or external im- pression, the opposition of " body to the entrance of any other body into the place it possesses." Locke. Hence, Reals tibility. RESOLUTION (Lat.), untying; in Logic, analysis; solution; explanation ; especially of a sophism. RESPECT (Lat.), looking at, regard ; in Logic, relation of con- cepts, in which one member can be considered as the source of the other. The source is terminus relationis ; the deriva- tive is subjectum relationis. Used in Metaphysics, when two objects, or a mental representation and its object, are in such i Lvc.t. on Meiaph., xx. 275. 2 Logic, Pt. I., b. v., ? 6. * Logic, Book III., ch. 10. * Lesson* in Lojic, Loss. xxix. 73 854 REST. relation that the one is in whole or in part the ground of the other. Mellin. 1 BEST (Lat. Quies; Fr.Eepos; Ger. Ruhe), "cessation or ab- sence of motion ; " " abiding presence in the same place." It may be distinguished as either absolute, complete, perfect ; or as relative, respective. The former is ideal. All the rest presented in experience is relative. There is nothing in the universe known to be in absolute rest. See Motion. RSSTAURATION (Lat. Restauratw), restoration, renewal. RESTITUTION (Lat. jRestitutio), restoring ; restoration ; giving back; replacing; reinstating. RESTRAIN, RESTRINGE, RESTRICT (Lat,), to limit; in Kant, applied to the limiting or conditioning of the catego- ries by the Schemata. RESTRICTION (Lat.), limitation; as, R. of freedom. See Steudel. 2 R. mental, mental reservation. RESTRICTIVE, in Logic, applied to a proposition in which the predicate is limited to a part of the content of the subject- concept, and this part itself is expressed; as, "a king, as a man, is the equal of the bondman ; " " Man, as rational, is superior to the other animals." RESULTANT, that which comes from, as the result. "The properties of a compound are resultants of the properties of its components." Spencer. 3 RETAIN (Lat.), hold, keep fast ; as, the mind retains ideas. Locke. RETALIATION (Lat.), return of like for like ; in Ethics, re- turn of like evil for evil. RETENTION. " The conservative power in our nature by which we keep in possession knowledge received." C. F. V. See Conservative Faculty. RETENTIVE, having the power of retention ; as, R. faculty. Glanville. Hence, Retentiveness, as R. of memory.- Sir M. Hale. RETINA (Lat.), continuation and expansion of the optic nerve at the back of the transparent parts of the eye, upon which the pictures of external objects fall as objects of vision. L. J. Carpenter, 4 Herbert Spencer, 5 Ulrici. 6 1 Wortcrbuch d. Kritisch. Philosophic, art. Beziehung. 2 Plains, im Umriss, II., i. 85. 3 Data of Biology, ch. i., g 1. . * Hum. Physiology, 1864, 606. 5 Princip. of Psychology. 6 Leib u. Seele, 2d. ed., 1874, 226-267. RIGHT. 855 RETORSION, RETORTION, RETORT (Lat.), twisting back; bending back ; turning or casting back ; driving back ; fling- ing back ; as, R. of an argument, turning it against the man who uses it; R. of a charge, making the charge against the bringer of it. In international law, retaliation. RETRIBUTION (Fr. ; Lat.), paying back; applied especially to the rewards and punishments in which God, as a moral judge, marks the character of human actions. REITS (Lat.), a party to an action (Res), either plaintiff or de- fendant; afterwards restricted to the party accused, defendant, prisoner ; a party obliged, or under obligation, to do or pay anything; one answerable or responsible for anything; a debtor; one guilty of any crime or condemned to any pun- ishment. REVERIE, REVERY, " Castle-building, a kind of waking dream." Ancillon. 1 REVIVIFICATION, vivid renewal, as of impressions made in early life. REVOLUTION (Lat.), a rolling back, return to a former place or condition ; change. R. is moral, political, social. REVOLUTIVE, capable of revolving, carefully meditating. Feltham. L. J. REVOLVE (Lat.), to turn round in the mind, carefully to weigh and consider. REWARD. Recompense for good. It is one part of Retribu- tion, q. v. RHETORIC, PHILOSOPHICAL, the application of philosoph- ical principles to the definition, constituent elements, laws and applications of eloquence and oratory. Stockl. 2 RHODOSTAUROTIC (Gr.), of the Rosy Cross; used by B. Jon- son for Rosicrucian, of which it is a Greek equivalent. L. J. "RIGHT, " adj., describes the quality of an action as in confor- mity with moral law ; subst., the claim of a person upon others consequent upon the equal subjection of all to moral law." C. F. V. J. S. Mill: 3 "The following ambiguities of the word right (in addition to the obvious and familiar one of a right and the adjective right) are extracted from a 1 Ancillon Ess. Phil., ii. 162 ; quoted in Hamilton's Lect.on Metaph., 459, and from Hamilton, in Dr. Forbes Winslow, Obsc. 'Diseases of the Brain and Mind, ch. xii. *Lehrb. d. Philosophic, I. 10. s Syst. of Logic, pt. v., cb. vii. 856 . RIGHT. forgotten paper of my own, in a periodical: 'Speaking morally, you are said to have a right to do a thing, if all persons are morally bound not to hinder you from doing it. But, in another sense, to have a right to do a thing is the opposite of having no right to do it, i. e., of being under a moral obligation to forbear doing it. In this sense, to say that you have a right to do a thing, means that you may do it without any breach of duty on your part ; that other per- sons not only ought not to hinder you, but have no cause to think worse of you for doing it. This is a perfectly distinct proposition from the preceding. The right which you have by virtue of a duty incumbent upon other persons, is obvi- ously quite a different thing from a right consisting in the absence of any duty incumbent upon yourself. Yet the two things are perpetually confounded.'" Right, adj., and Right, sw&s/. Right, relatively used, refers to a superior end ; Right absolutely used ; Rights must exist ; Rights separately proved ; five primary kinds of, are reali- ties ; Rights and Right. Jus, the doctrine of rights and obli- gations. Whewell. 1 Jus of rights and obligations; Rights in general ; R. of the person ; R. of property ; R. of contract; R. of marriage ; R. of Government, or States Rights ; 2 inter- national Jus, Rights and obligations between States; R. of War ; International R. of property ; R. of jurisdiction ; R. of intercourse. 3 For Fichte's and Hegel's theory of right or rights, see Schwegler. 4 See Jurisprudence, Jus. ROMANTIC. " The real and proper use of the word romantic is simply to characterize an improbable or unaccustomed degree of beauty, sublimity, or virtue. For instance, in matters of history, is not the Retreat of the Ten Thousand romantic f Is not the death of Leonidas? of the Horatii? On the other hand, you find nothing romantic, though much that is monstrous, in the excesses of Tiberius or Commodus. So again, the battle of Agincourt is romantic, and of Ban- nockburn, simply because there was an extraordinary display of human virtue in both these battles So, then, this feeling, this secret and poetical enthusiasm in all your hearts, which, as practical men, you try to restrain is, indeed, one lEIenifiiils of Morality .]>lne, 1*77. 3 FIudd wrote Apologia Cnmpmdiaria, fraternitatf.m de Rowa ('nice sn.iiH'rinnix / infmnix iiutculis aapersnm abhi"ns, 8vo, Leyd., 1616; Traclfiis Apo'in'./rt- ?'<:KS iiilfi/rilatein Sncidutis de Rosta Crnce defenders, Rvo, Leyd., 1617 ; and under the siiia-rriini of Uudolplms Otre.b Tractatus t/fologn-philosnpJiicus de vita, mnrte. et resurrrc- tionf, fmtHiKs Kose;e Crucis clicatun, 4to, Oppenheim, 1617. 4 Origin of Spedus, o97, and Glos^n-ij, 430, 431. "Translat. of ITrgeFs Logic. 173. 6 Court of the Gentiles, 1671, pt. ii., I), i , oh. iv., 6. 7 Roman Empire., ch. 1. 8 Discourse on the Persians. 9 Old and J\'eiv Ti'ftnm., connected, pt. i., b. iii. ; Life of Mahomet, 1723, p. 7::. 10 Transl. of Koran, Pi-fl. Disc., sect. i. n Hist, of Philos., 1662, pt. i., sect, i., vol. iv., pp. 81-85. 73* 858 SALTUS. by Claude Henri, Count de Saint-Simon (1760-1825); Social- ism. It involves the abolition of all hereditary privileges, radical modification of the laws of property, the exaltation of labor above capital, equality of the sexes. Bazard and En- fantin were adherents of this system. Fourier and Louis Blanc represent the same general tendency with special modifications. SALTUS (Lat.), a leap, spring; violent transition; in Logic, a jumping at a conclusion. In Metaphysics, in the principle in mundo non datur salus in the world there is no violent transition. This is the law of continuity, and marks the gra- dation characteristic of nature in her changes. *Sarne. ^Sanction. SANGUINE (Lat.), of blood, blood-colored, abounding in (ar- terial) blood ; one of the four chief temperaments, q. v. *Savage and Barbarous. ^Scepticism, Skepticism. SCHELLING (F. W. J. von, 1775-1854), PHILOSOPHY OF, SYSTEM OF, SCHELLINGISM.-l. Originally, the phil- osophy of Identity, the doctrine of the absolute identity of the Ideal and the Real, of being and of thinking ; pantheistic Philosophy of Nature. 2. Ultimately, a positive and histori- cal Philosophy, divided into: a. a purely speculative part, the negative philosophy or "doctrine of potencies;" and b. a part applied to history and tradition, the ''positive phil- osophy " as a theory of the divine essence. 1 ^SCHEMA (Or.), form, shape, figure, conformation; charac- ter, characteristic property ; sketch, outline, plan, scheme, geometrical form, diagram ; in Aristotle's Organon, mode of a syllogism. ]. In the Leibnitzian system, the name of a principle essential to each monad, and constituting its proper character, and without which the monads would be indis- cernible. 2. In Kant, the purely mental modification which results from the general procedure of the imagination in providing for a Notion its image. When a square, triangle, and circle are drawn in our presence, we say these are fig- ures; that is, in the word figures we give to the three indi- vidual intuitions their image, we bring them under their schema. We can draw figures or a figure, but we cannot i Werke, 14 vols., 185&-1861. Life: Michelet, 1843; Plitt, 1869-1871. SCHOLASTIC. 859 draw figure. To bring under their schema is to deter- mine the class to which they belong, the classes always constituting general notions. Lossius. It is "a mere skel- eton of a concrete thing or group of things an outline image an extremely abstracted whole." Porter. 1 3. The schema of an idea, or of a science, is the plan of its parts. Kant. 2 Schema Transcendental, in Kant, the reduction of a pure or a priori notion, that is, a category, to the sphere of sense, by connecting it with phenomenon. SCHEMATISM, the reduction of a Notion to the sphere of sense. 1. To the explication of our cognition the S. of analogy. 2. To the enlargement of our cognition the 8. of the determining of the object. The Schematism of pure reason is the act of the transcendental imagination which produces a schema; the procedure of the understanding with this schema ; the mode in which the understanding transfers its unity thought of as general, transfers it to the general form of all intuition; and the mode in which spon- taneity and receptivity act in the production of cognition. SCHEMATISTIC, of the nature of the schema; S. construc- tion. S. hypotyposis. ' SCHEMATIZE, in Kant, to render a notion comprehensible by analogy with something sensible. C. C. E. Schmid. 3 SCHESIS (Gr.), habitude; state of anything with respect to others. Norris. L. J. *Sch elastic. ^Scholastic Philosophy, Scholasticism. According to Cous- in, 4 it has three epochs : 1. From the eleventh century to the thirteenth, and the organization of the university of Paris. This is the infancy of .scholasticism. 2. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. This is the age of its manhood when all the great universities of Europe and the great religious orders flourished. 3. From the fifteenth to the close of the sixteenth century. This is the period of its decay. And if from scholasticism you eliminate theol- ogy, it will be found, as a philosophy, to be the quarrel between nominalism and realism. This quarrel may also 1 Hum. Intellect, 268. 2 Rein. Vern., 861. 8 WGrterbuch, s. v. * (Euvres intdites tFAbelard, Introd., p. 45. 860 SCHOOL. be said to have three epochs : 1. Its birth, occasioned by a phrase of Porphyry's. 2. After the struggles of this period succeeded the apparent reign of one of the opinions. 3. The opinion which had been vanquished during the first period, and condemned to silence during the second, re- vived and triumphed in the third; and its triumph was the time of scholasticism. Of these three perio.ds, the second forms the golden age of the philosophy of the Middle Ages. It is the age of the Dominicans, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, and Vincent de Beauvais ; of the Franciscans, Alexander de Hales, Bonaventura, Duns Scotus, and Roger Bacon. F. V. 3. SCHOOL. 1. Particular system of doctrine, with its adherents. 2. Scholastic. SCHOOLMAN, writer or adept in the scholastic method. SCHOPENHAUER (Arthur, 1788-1860), Philosophy of, System of; see Pessimism. The world is my mental representation; the principle of cognition is the proposition of the ground ; the thing in itself is the Will, which comes into phenomenon in things-; the intelligible character in man is free, defined by man himself; the empirical character is determined; affirma- tion and negation of the will to live; asceticism ; starvation. 1 ^SCIENCE. " Rationalized knowledge. It is identical in mean- ing with philosophy; but, as matter of convenience, the word ' science ' has come to be applied to the philosophy of physical existence ; the word 'philosophy' to the science of mental existence." C. F. V. For the different views on the question whether philosophy is entitled to be considered a science, see Steudel. 2 ^Sciences (the Occult). *Scientia (Media). *Sciolist. *SCIOMACHY. " Conflict with imaginary foes." C. F. V. SECOND INTENTION. -See Intention. ^Secularism. SECUNDI AD JACENTIS, of the second adjacent ; an expres- sion in incorrect Latin applied to a grammatical sentence or proposition containing only two parts, the subject and verb, without a distinct copula. Jevons. *Secundum Quid. 1 We.rke., 6 vols., 1S73, 3874. Frauenstadt: S. Lexiknn, 1 vols., 1871. Krauth's Bi'r'.-i-ley. I'roleyDiitnut, 105-122. Harris: Journal of Speculative Philosophy, I. 61, 232; VIII. 310, et. al. * PliUosnphic im Umriss, I., i. 23-25. SENSATIONALISM. 861 SELECTION NATURAL. - See Darwinism. SELF " is that conscious, thinking thing, whatever substance made up of (whether spiritual or material, simple or com- pounded, it matters not), which is sensible or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that consciousness extends." Locke. 1 See Ego, Person. Self, in its combinations, is very varied. S. Activity (Ger. Selbntthatigkeit), in Kant, 2 "absolute freedom, the first in the series of conditions in respect of causes." S. Approbation, S. Approval (Ger. Selbsibilliguny}, in Kant, s " the subjective operation of the law upon feeling, so far as the pure practical reason is the sole cause." S. Consciousness, in Kant, 4 " Apperception, the mental repre- sentation of that which is the condition of all unity, yet is itself unconditioned," the Ego. " The knowledge which the mind has of itself in every form of experience." C. F. V. See Steudel. 5 S. Contradictory, in Logic, applied to a term which combines contradictory attributes or qualities. S. Determination, a determination whose motive force lies within the. person acting. See Liberty Human, Neces- sity. SELF-EVIDENT, "carrying the evidence of truth in itself. A self-evident proposition is one whose terms need only to be understood in order that it may be accepted as true." C. F. V. *SELF-LOVE, " a rational regard to one's own good." C. F. V. '""Selfishness. *Sematology. SEMILOGICAL, in Logic, applied to fallacies distinct from the purely logical. They are the first six enumerated under Fallacy, q. v. ^SENSATION, "the feeling which is the result of a single im- pression on any part of the sensitive organism." C. F. V. *Sensation and Perception. SENSATIONALISM, " the theory which makes sensation the sole origin of human knowledge. Its formula is, nihil est in 1/fMiH. Umln-*t., B. II., ch. xxvii., gg 17-25. * Rein. Jem., 446. * P,;tctisch. Fern., 143. 4 Rein. Vern., 139 (401). 5 Philosophic im Umriss, I., i. 99-106; ii. 62-65. 862 SENSE. intettectu, nisi prim fueril in sensu" (C. F.V.), there is noth- ing in the understanding which was not previously in the sense. *SENSE, SENSES. Dr. T. Brown, 1 Whewell. 2 *Sense and Idea. ^Senses (Reflex). SENSED, perceived by the senses. Glanville. L. J. ^SENSIBILITY, " capacity for receiving impressions belonging to the extremity of the nerves of sensation, wherever situ- ated in the body. This stands in contrast with sensation." C. F. V. *Sensibles, Common and Proper. *SENSISM, SENSUALISM, or SENSUISM (see Sensational- ism), in Ethics, the regarding of the gratification of the senses as the highest good, and pain as the highest evil. ^SENSITIVITY, Sensibility, q. v. SENSORIUM, SENSORY. Hartley, 3 Sir I. Newton, 4 Spencer. 5 SENSUAL (Lat.). 1. Metaphysical, endowed with feeling or sensation; sensitive. Tertullian. 6 2. Ethical, devoted to the pleasures of sense. SENSUALISM. 1. Sensationalism, q. v.; opposed to intellectu- allsm. 2. See Sensual, 2. SENSUALITY, character of the sensual, q. v., whether meta- physical or moral. *Sensus Communis. SENTENCE, INDICATIVE, in Logic, the grammatical equiv- alent of a proposition, or of a number of propositions. SENTIENT, adj. and noun, mark the power or act of sensation or perception. ^SENTIMENT, " a form of feeling consequent on a judgment. Moral sentiments are forms of feeling dependent upon judg- ments as to the moral actions of ourselves and others." C. F. V. ^Sentiment and Opinion. SEPARABLE, is applied to accidents which can be changed; opposed to inseparable, which can never be changed. Hence, Separability, Separableness. SEQUENCE, order of succession. Mill. 7 SERIAL, of or pertaining to a series. Spencer. 8 1 Phil, of Mind, lect. x. 2 ff ov , Org. Ren. Aplior., b. i., aph. i.-v. 3 On Man, vol. i., p. 97. 4 In L. J. 5 Pfinc .of Psychol. c Aniin., 43. i Log., pt. i., ch. v., g 6. % Biology, pt. ii., ch. x., g 98. SOMNAMBULISM. 863 SERIES, sequence, order. Mill. 1 SEYN (Ger.), translated Esse, or Being, and signifying bare, empty existence, admitting of no predicates. See Werden, Wesen. SIGNIFICATES OF A TERM are things denoted or signified by it. SIMILARS, SUBSTITUTION OF, a principle developed by Je- vons (1869), in cases in which one term agrees with another to the extent of being identical with it. :: SIMILE.-See Metaphor. SIMPLE. See Apprehension, Conversion. SIN. See Evil. ^Sincerity. SINGULAR. See Term. Applied also to a proposition which has a singular term for its subject. SOCIAL, relating to society. Mill. 2 ^SOCIALISM, " the theory which advocates community of property, on the ground of the abrogation of personal and individual rights." C. F. V. See Saint-Simonism. SOCIALIST, adherent to the theory of Socialism. See Latham. 3 ^Society (Desire of). ^Society (Political, Capacity of). SOCIOLOGY, or SOCIAL SCIENCE, "treats of the laws of the social development of the human race." C. F. V. SOLIPSISM. 1. In Ethics, egotism ; 2. In Metaphysics, egoism, q. v., limiting existence to the single self of the thinker. *SOMATOLOGY.-See Nature. SOME, in Logic, sometimes equivalent to all. De Morgan. 4 SOMETHING, that which has real existence; an entity; op- posed to nothing, q. v. Kant 5 classifies the notion of Some- thing, thus: 1. According to Quantity, object with form ens phenomenon. 2. According to Quality, concept with object ens reale. 3. According to Kelation, form with object ens substantiate. 4. According to Modality, object with concept ens possibile. SOMNAMBULISM (somnus, sleep ; ambulo, to walk), sleep- walking. " The state in which the sleeper prosecutes active exercise, with observation of external objects, and definite 1 Log., pt. iv., ch. viii., 4. 2 Logic, pt. vi., ch. ix., 3. 3 Johnson's Dictionary, s. v. Syllabus, $ 14. 5 #,,. Vernunft, 348 ; Meiklejohn, 207, 208 ; Mellin, Marginalia, 78. 864 SOMNAMBULISM. purpose in his efforts. In this state the eyes are commonly open, but bear no evidence of exercise in perception. Yet external objects are recognized, and are avoided or utilized as occasion requires." C. F. V. See Carpenter, 1 Horstius, 2 Bichter. 3 F. V. 3. Gleisberg* and Perty 5 both have a story of a fisherman who, finding " that the fish were gone from his live-box, in the morning, set a trap for the supposed thief. He was caught in it himself. He had gone night after night, in a somnambulic condition, and had unlocked the live-box, and let the fishes out." Schopenhauer: "In somnambulism, in its original and proper sense as morbid sleep-walking, there takes place, as in magnetic slumber, a dreaming of the actual, which reaches, however, only to what is immediately around, because that is sufficient for the aim of nature in a case of this sort. For a condition of this sort is not like that of magnetic sleep, of spontaneous somnam- bulism, and of catalepsy ; the vital force does not in it, as it does in them, as via medicatrix, suspend the animal life to concentrate its entire strength on the organic life, that it may be able to remove the disorders which are prevailing in that life. On the contrary, in consequence of a morbid state, to which the age of puberty is most subject, it here presents itself as an abnormal superfluity of irritability, which Nature tries to throw off, by the walking and climbing in sleep. At the same time Nature calls forth a guardian of the sleeper in these perilous steps, in the form of a dream- ing of the actual, which extends in these cases only to what is immediately around, because this is sufficient in these cases to prevent accidents. The dreaming of the actual has therefore, in these cases, only the negative aim of preventing injuries, while clairvoyance has the positive aim of discover- ing aid from without; in this originates the great difference in the range of vision in the two cases." 6 " Not always are the objects of our dreams illusory; there is a condition in which we sleep and dream, but we dream what is actually around us. This condition is not as remote from waking as 1 Princip. nf Human Fhysiolog., 1853, g 827. 2 De Natvra differentiis e.l cnusis eorum qui dormientes ambulant. Lips., 1593. 3 Dissertatio de statu mixto snmni ft Viffilife, etc., Goeth., 1756. * Scelrnleben d Thie.rr. u. Meiischen (1861), lfi(i, 244. 5 Blicke in d. ver- borg. Leben des Menschi-ngeistes (1869), 65. 6 Parerga, 2d ed., I., 277. SOMNAMBULISM. 865 the condition of the ordinary dream. In waking from it the change which takes place in us is merely subjective; we sud- denly perceive a change of the organ of our perception. It is this sort of dreaming which has been called sleep-waking ; not as if it might be a state between sleeping and waking, but because it may be designated as a being awake in sleep itself. It would be better to call it Wahrtraumen dream- ing the true." l Somnambulism, as associated with Magnetism, Animal Magnetism, and Clairvoyance, Attempts to Define its Character, on the part of those who accept it as estab- lished. La Saulx : u The soul stands in connection with the soul of the world and with God, and in prophetic moments the individual soul is plunged into the total soul, in the great uni- versal sense of the life of nature, and of the world of man." 2 Schelling : "The animals are natural somnambulists, and all nature is in somnambulism." 3 Schopenhauer: "The brain with its consciousness isolates the human individuals ; the unconscious portion, on the contrary, the vegetative life with its ganglionic system, is a common life of all, by means of which, in exceptional cases, they are even able to hold communication." * " Animal magnetism, sympathetic cures, magic, second sight, dreaming the actual, visions of spirits, and visions of every sort, are allied phenomena, branches of one trunk, and give sure and irresistible indications of a nexus of beings which rests upon a wholly different order of things from that of Nature, whose basis is the laws of space, time and causality, while this other order lies deeper, is more primal, and more direct. Hence, before it the first and most general laws of nature are invalid, inasmuch as they are purely formal ; here, consequently, time and space no longer separate the individuals, and the dissociation and isolation which rest on the purely formal no longer impose insepara- ble barriers to the communication of thoughts and the im- mediate influence of the will." 6 "In magnetic somnambu- lism the consciousness is duplicated : two series of cognitions arise, each coherent in itself, but completely distinct from i Purfrga, 2<1 od., I., 254-267. - Prophetische Krfi der Mcnsrldidien Scelf. (If58 . quoted in Stoudcl, Phil, itn Muris*, I , ii. 172. 3 Werke: Abtheiluug I., Bd. vii. !.':>!. 4 HV !i ah Willc, II., S72. 5 Pctrerga, I., 282. 74 3F 866 SOPHISM. the other; the waking consciousness knows nothing of the somnambulic. But the will retains in both the same character, and remains throughout identical, manifesting in both the same inclinations and aversions. For though the function may be duplicated, the essential nature cannot be." l Wirth : " The perception of somnambulists is the perception of the Total Life which streams through all things ; the somnambulists are immerged into the ganglionic animal life, that life which in itself immediately feels after and feels with the Universal Life." 2 *Sophisin, Sophister, Sophistical, Sophistry. *Sorites. SORTAL, marking sort or species. Locke. L. J. *Soul. SOUL, Attempts in Modern Philosophy to Define. Baggesen : " It is not / that think, but it thinks in me ; and it is not / that am, but it is something in me." 3 Carus: "There are three stages of development in the psychic life : unconscious psychic life, consciousness of the world, and self-conscious- ness, represented by plant, animal, and man ; the soul of man passes successively through the three stages, ultimately con- serving them by comprehending them into one threefold being in himself." * Chalybiius : " Spirit is a substance, im- mediately immanent in thinking, or of which thinking is immediately the form of activity ; spirit is thinking substance the soul is dynamically present in the entire organism." 6 Cornelius (of the School of Herbart) : " Beyond doubt the psychical phenomena are the result of a reciprocal action of diverse real essences." ' (Herbart's " Reals.") " Therefore we are compelled to suppose that there must be a real essence as the substantial bearer of all psychical conditions. This essence is the soul. It must stand with other real essences in causal relation, in order to the generation in it of mani- fold internal conditions. In brief, the soul needs the body, the body needs the soul." 6 Drossbach : "In the organism, formed of atoms, which are spiritual essences, one unfolds its spiritual force to the point of self-consciousness; this l Welt. ate Wille, 3d cd., II., 276. 2 Thenrie des Somnambulism, 222. * Zttchr. v. Fichte, xxxiv. 153. < Vorlesungen iiber Psychologic, 133. & Zeitschr. von Fichte, xx. 69. *Ztschr.fiir exacte Philosoph., IV., 99-102. SOUL. 867 atom, which as gasiform atom interpenetrates the entire organism, and occupies space as a centre, is the soul. It is invisible, but a local and not unphysical essence. The mass of the brain is an organized state of living essences, which are directed by one of their own number in the midst, as a choir of music by their leader." l Erdrnaun : " When many single constituents give up their separation and individu- ality in order that'an internal aim may hold them together, so that each serves the other and in this serves itself, they form a soul-endowed totality they have a soul. Soul is in this point of view that by which a composite becomes an actual whole in accordance with an aim immanent in it." a Fechner : " The phenomena of body and soul hang together as internal and external phenomena of the same essence. This primary essence is, however, nothing more than the conjunction of phenomena themselves in the unity of a general consciousness. The soul becomes aware only of its own proper phenomena, the body becomes aware only through that which appears of it to the soul itself. It is a common essence which appears externally as body, internally as soul." 3 J. G. Fichte: " The Ego posits itself, that is, itself and its being, by virtue simply of its being. That whose being (essence) simply consists in positing itself as being, is the Ego, as absolute subject. As it posits itself, it is ; and as it is, it posits itself. The Ego is consequently ab- solutely and necessarily for the Ego. What is not for itself, that is, is not conscious of itself, is not Ego. The question is sometimes started : What was I before I came to self-con- sciousness ? The natural answer to this is : 7 was not at all, for I was not Ego. The Ego is, only in so far as it is con- scious of itself. The possibility of the question involves a confusion between the Ego as subject, and the Ego as object of the reflection of the absolute subject, and is in itself wholly inadmissible. It is a question which involves the substratum of consciousness. In putting it, we unawares add, in thinking, the absolute subject as having in its intui- tion that substratum ; that is, in thinking, we add unawares the very thing which we ought to keep abstract, and are 1 Harmoni?. (h-r Errjrbrn'xse /*, I, 96, 97, 204-207, 23:1, 270- 3-10, 4(50-403; II., 242, .-79, 611, 642; V., 264; Nadtgelassene Werlce, I., 85, 271, 362. SOUL. 869 acquires for itself an organic body." "The external material body is but the changing image of the internal process of soul and life." 1 Friedrich Fischer: "No soul, no spirit, exists without corporeal basis. The soul does not dwell in the interstices of any organ, as, for example, the brain, but dwells through the entire organ, and pervades it, and is omnipresent within the nervous system. Man takes over into himself the vegetable and the animal to humanize it. Spirit is but a higher-potency, a mere continuation of devel- opment of the animal soul, and the animal soul itself is a mere exaltation of the vital force of the plant. These three principles are in man, in virtue of his self-consciousness, comprehended into one and the same Ego." 2 Fortlage : "We are not spirits in antithesis of the body, but members in the universal spirit, which is the basis of the entire universe." 3 Frohschammer : "The soul is a substantial essence. The inmost essence, the Ego, is unattainable to our cognition." 4 German : " The soul is the principle of the unity of our spiritual bodily organism, the internal central unity of the functions of life. It is related to the body as form to matter. It can as little exist without body as form can exist separate from matter. Nor can the body exist without the soul; both develop and involve each other. The soul permeates the entire body; is omnipresent in every molecule of it. The substratum of the psychical, however, is one which is extended through the entire world, and linked into one system by universal force." 5 Goschel: " Remembrance is the heart of self-consciousness, and of consciousness, by which the two come to what they embrace ; it is the condition of the identity of the Self with itself." 6 Griesinger : " Soul without respect to the body, and the converse, are not to be thought of; the conception of the unity of the two is to be held fast. The soul of man appears first of all as that unity which pertains to the animal soul also which may be compared with accord or harmony. It appears also as a higher and conscious unity, as from the l Ztschr., xii. 240; xxv. 176-178; Anthropologie, 90-101, 170, 257,286; Seelenfrage, 23; Ptychologie, 54; Seelenfortdaue.r, 53, 62, 104, 156-159, 296. 2 MKtcpJiysilc.. 36-38: Sitz (hr ,SV/e, 8, 16. 3 Ztschr. von FicJite, xxx. 281. *At! N. ///,>- ff.rge.ist n. WMstoff, oder die Welt im Werdvn, 65, 123-132. *> Ztschr. von FicMe, xxiv. 221. 74* 870 SOUL. alternations of the states of the soul, one unity, seemingly abiding, collects itself, the Ego. The brain seems constantly burdened with a multitude of modifications, of which a vast majority abide in dim repose, while only a few intensive ones come forth to the light of consciousness." 1 Hegel : "The pure reference to myself the reflection in which I no longer refer myself to some other, but refer myself to myself, or am object to myself this is the Ego, the root of the infinite being itself. It is the complete abstraction from all that is finite. The Ego as such has no contents given by nature or immediate, but has only itself as contents, as it is only by means of abstraction from every other. This pure form is at the same time its contents. At first the Ego is the purely indeterminate. It can, however, by its reflection, pass from indeterminateness to determinateness ; for ex- ample, to seeing and hearing." "The Ego is thinking; 'I think ' is an identical proposition. Ego is perfectly simple. We can, in the sense in which we are Ego, say we think always, for Ego is always the simple identity with itself, and that is thinking." " The body is the same life as the soul, and yet they may be spoken of as lying asunder. A soul without body would be nothing living, and the converse is true. The existence of the notion is its body; the body obeys the soul which has brought it forth. The germs have the tree in them, and embrace its total force, though they are not yet the tree itself. The tree corresponds entirely to the simple image of the germ. A body which did not cor- respond with the soul would be a pitiful thing." " The soul posits and produces itself; it has a body in itself, not with- out which it composes one total and actual, and in which it is omnipresent." "The soul generates the unity of the body, and is its permeating vital force." 2 Herbart: "We have no cognition of what is strictly the essence of our soul we cannot reach the Ego itself with our consciousness. We can only reach it in the constantly shifting modifications, as it thinks, feels, wills, especially as it possesses the power of representation. The Ego represents itself as self-represent- ing; the Self again is the self-representing, and so on infi- u. Tlterapie d. psychisch. Krankheiten. * Werkc, XVIII., 21, 93; XV. 339; V., 16; VIII., 22, 23. SOUL. 871 nitely. Thus we have a representing without anything represented, which would be a manifest contradiction, a perpetual circle ; and we are forced to confess that the Ego is itself unknown, possesses no representation of itself, con- sequently is no Ego. The Ego is a complexion of purely accidental marks, a complexion which, when all these marks are separated from it, is equivalent to zero. If we remove the individual distinction, nothing is left but an empty place. We should, in this case, have to think of our Ego as a mathematical point in the centre of things. The Ego knows itself only as a limitless train of representations. The question, therefore, What is the Ego ? is eternal and un- answerable." " These representations are the self-preserva- tions of the Ego." " The soul is a simple essence without parts, and without plurality in its quality, whose intellectual manifoldness is conditioned by a varied concurrence with other and yet other real essences. In this concurrence the soul remains as a simple subject with manifold modifications working together and counterworking." l Horn : " The Eg.o can as little be demonstrated as the world can. There is no room for more than faith in its reality. If we propose to penetrate to the substance of the soul, we must make an ab- straction of it from the accidents, sensations, perceptions, etc. When we do this, however, nothing remains but the pure, empty Ego an empty notion, a constant echo which can only repeat itself. That the Ego, nevertheless, does not surrender its unity, lies in the continued consciousness which, however, has its ground in feeling only." 2 Kant: "The Ego, as subject or substratum of all inhering accidents, is substantiality. It is in this case alone we can have direct perception of substance; we have, in fact, derived the notion of substance in general from the Ego. The Ego is an abso- lute unity, and, as it is no object of outward sense, is imma- terial ; and though it is present in space, and operates in it, occupies no space, and has no special place in the body." "As simple substance, it does not rise or pass away in accordance with the laws of nature; it is not begotten with the body, nor is it dissolved with it. The body is, rather, i Werkf., I., 193; IV., 280, 281; V., 109, 267-286, 289; VI., 228-259, 408; XII., 38-51. *Zur Pldlosophie, 13-17. 872 SOUL. but the form of the soul ; and birth, life, and death are but the diverse conditions of the soul. Birth is not its beginning ; rather, does that which had previously been in a spiritual life, come by birth into a prison, a cave which restrains it in its spiritual life." " The conception of soul can only be reached by deductions. It. can be no concept of experience, and we know not how the soul enters into the body." " An immaterial thinking essence, endowed with consciousness, is a spirit. Spiritual essences are essences which are indeed united with a body, but which can continue their modifica- tions, their thinking and willing, though they be separated from the body. If the soul can do this, it is of a spiritual nature. We can only think problematically of immaterial incorporeal spirits as possible ; we cannot demonstrate their existence ; nor, on the other hand, is it possible to adduce any a priori reason against them." 1 Kirchmann : "The existence of the soul consists in feeling and desire." 2 Kym : " Consciousness comes from the firmly founded relation of the mental modifications, a founding which implies a some- thing, relatively in repose, which transcends in force the single modifications. This thing of relative repose is the Ego." 3 Leibnitz: "The senses furnish the material for thinking, without which thinking would be impossible. Created souls and spirits cannot dispense with instruments of sense, and sense modifications. About what could a rational being think, if there were no movement, no matter, no senses? Hence, there is no rational creature without an organic body, no created spirit separated from all matter." 4 Lichtenberg : " We know nothing in us but the existence of our sensations, mental representations, and thoughts. We ought to say, ' It thinks,' as we say, ' It lightens.' To say ' Cogilo,' is already to say too much, if we translate it '/ think.' " 5 Lotze : " The what of the soul, its nature, comes as little into view as does the essential nature of things in general ; the essential nature of the soul in itself remains unknown to us, before it comes into a situation within which alone its life unfolds itself. Though the coming forth of an l Vortesungen iiber Metaphysik, 133-254 ; Werke, VII., GO-78. 2 PfntosopJi. Motiatshefte vmi Bergmann. i. 437. 3 Ztschr. von Fichte, xxix. 253. * Nouveaux Essais sur rentende- meiit huntain, 171. 6 Vermiscfite Schriften (1844), 70, 99. SOUL. 873 intellectual condition cannot be derived from those attributes of matter to which we have respect when we call it matter, yet there is nothing to forbid our supposing that in the cor- poreal element there is besides those attributes a treasure of inner life, which finds opportunity for manifestation in what we call intellectual life. The visible substance may carry on a double life, externally appearing as matter, internally, on the contrary, moved intellectually. But the fact of the unity of consciousness compels us, in the explanation of the intellectual life, to put in the place of that visible substance a supersensuous essence as supporter of the phenomena, and to suppose that there is a completely indivisible unity in the subject which exercises the comprehending activity of con- sciousness. Thus we attain a conviction of the supersensu- ous unity of the soul. The soul is also the focus into which flow together the movements of the bodily life which play hither and thither. The soul neither arises from the body, nor from nothing, but goes forth from the substance of the infinite with the same substantiality which pertains to all the actual in nature, which has sprung from the same infinite source. The soul neither comes fortuitously to this or that particular body, nor does the body create the soul by its organization; rather are souls a creation of the Infinite, who, in this creation, proceeds by a self-given law. Our person- ality is not, however, compounded of body and soul ; rather does our true essence lie exclusively in the soul, and the body is but the most intimately affianced part of the external world, which a higher power has given us as exclusively our own." " The definite seat of the soul is in the brain, in a structureless parenchyma, into which all the nerve-filaments run together." "The spirit is something higher than the soul. In the spirit is the unity of our being, our true Ego. The soul is but an element in its service. At death the soul passes away, the spirit ripens to a new existence." l Mai- mon: " The soul is a substance; that is, it must be thought of by us as the same Subject in diverse conditions, if its modifications are to be regarded as possessed of objective reality." 2 Mehring: "The human soul is a self-compre- U/ro*v>smtts, I., 72, 163-180, -207, 209, 341, 427; II., 135-139, 143; III., 571; Sbrdtsdu'iften, I., 138. 2 Vorrede zu Baco'a Neues Organon, 81-83. 874 SOUL. bending, personal being, whose essential character is that it becomes itself object and problem of investigation, cognition, and science." "The soul is neither subject nor predicate, but the copula, the movement, the energy, which unites the two." "In the sphere of the inorganic the soul reveals itself as anima mundi soul of the world ; but it would be an error to identify this with God. In the elementary, this psychic shows itself as movement; in the crystalline, as formation. In the organic it comes to unity of the material itself, and changes it into its own nature." 1 Planck : " The organizing and spiritual principle is in its origin corporeal, for only the corporeal can work upon the corporeal ; spirit, therefore, is only possible as the internal personality of a corporeal being." 2 Reiif (following J. G. Ficlite) : " The Ego is the constant process of detaching ourselves from nature, and of being in nature, object to ourselves." s Rosen- kranz: " Spirit is the idea cognizing itself. This definition is sufficiently general to cover both the divine and human spirit." 4 Schaller : " It is thoroughly wrong to say that the soul is something which has percipience, is a percipient subject, for such language really means that the soul is a lifeless thing which lives, an impercipient thing which has percipiency. The soul is rather the act of perception itself, and this process is its substantiality. It is percipient subject, in virtue of the fact that at every moment it exalts the divisible corporeity to an articulate indivisible whole." 5 Schelling: " My Ego is only so far, and can be thought only so far, as it thinks itself; it is only because it thinks itself, and it thinks itself only because it is. It brings itself forth by its thinking by absolute causality." 6 These citations are from Schelling's earlier or Fichtean period. We now give some from his later writings : " The Ego, or human spirit, abstracted from its powers and acts, is nothing. The soul is not something existing in itself, and which could con- sequently exist if it neither felt, nor thought, nor willed." " The soul, as it exists by relative antithesis to the body, 1 Philosophisch-kritischen Grundsiitze der Selbsterkeimtviss ndei- Seelenlelire, I., gg 1-18 ; III., H 96, 97. 2 Wissenschaft d. Natur, viii. 270-272. 3 Wichtige Punkte in d. Philos- opliie, 2-6, 53. * Epilegomena, 75;" JHcine Reform," 17. & Leib u. Sede, 24, 25. 139, 140 ; Ztschr. v. FicUte, xxi. 65-67. Werke, I., i. 96, 97, 167. SOUL. 875 consequently not in itself, appears only by this antithesis as determined to existence. It is on the one side, one with the body, and on the other it is the infinite cognizing. To the soul, so far as it is finite, we must ascribe all the relations which are of necessity ascribed to the body. In its infinite cognizing, the infinite thinking has become objective. On this being, at once subjective and objective, infinite and finite, rests the Ego. It is the unity of the subjective and objective." " There is no such thing as a body opposed to the soul." " We give the name of spirit to the power which, in its being exterior to itself, still abides with itself." l Schellvvien : " The soul, the consciousness a posteriori, is nothing but the individual being, so far as it is conscious, and can neither be, nor be thought of, apart from that in- dividual being." " Human monads have existed from eternity; otherwise they could never emerge into phenom- enon." 2 Schopenhauer: "The individual is not thing in itself, but is phenomenon only. It is purely impossible for us to be conscious of ourselves, independently of the objects of knowing and willing. When we enter into our- selves, and begin to reflect on ourselves, we lose ourselves in a fathomless emptiness, in a darkness in 'which all cognition ceases, and we grasp nothing but an insubstantial spectre. The Ego itself remains after it all a riddle. The soul has no definite seat in the brain. The notion of an immaterial soul dwelling in the brain has nothing to justify it. It is an hypothesis without foundation and without utility, to which nothing has led but timidity in the presence of the question, How the brain can think." 3 Schwarz : " The rise of the subjective spirit is a self-lifting of the one profoundest essence presenting itself in the universe. The subjective spirit is at once the consummation of nature, and specifically different from nature. The human soul, which is essential spirit, is energy over the body, and entelechy in itself. The subjective spirit is at once microcosmos, and microtheos. It is microcosmos as the loftiest pinnacle of nature; it is microtheos as the consummation of the self-revelation of God." 4 Striimpell: "The word Ego implies a very com- i in;rA-e, II., 193-195 ; IV., 283-290 ; V., 270 ; TT.. ii., 57. 2 Scyn nnd BeuniKsfsei/n, 117, 122. 3 WM ah Wille, I., 327, Anm. * Gott, Natur u. Mensch, 71-74; Noack, Jahr- biichu; L, iv. 64-67. 876 SOUL. plicated process of thought, dependent on multifarious causal relations." 1 Tittmann : " The soul in its dim un- conscious nocturnal life is far more than in its conscious- ness." 2 Ulrici: "The Ego in each individual moment, in which it knows and speaks of itself, designates no more than the soul in some or other of the definite modifications proper to it designates it as sentient (feeling), concipient, willing soul over against the individual objects of consciousness. Only in such a determinate modification, which we are to distinguish from the unity of its essence, is the soul in each individual moment of consciousness immanently objective to itself. But to these individual mutable moments are opposed a continuity and steadfastness of self-consciousness, and by the side of the multifarious, variously shifting contents there comes into play at every moment the consciousness of the unity and identity of the Ego; and this consciousness, though it may be dim and undefined, attends every act of our intellectual life. The Ego which now apprehends itself as sentient, or percipient, now as putting forth effort, willing, etc., knows itself at the same time as one and the same, the same abiding self. It is but an expression of this conscious- ness of unity when we speak of our own soul, and impute to it this or that predicate; that is, when we distinguish our own soul, with its manifold characteristics, from ourselves, and in this act, implicitly contrast ourself as unity with the mutation and manifoldness of our intellectual life; or when we ascribe to our Ego consciousness and self-consciousness, and thus distinguish the Ego from ourselves, the Ego from the Ego." " The Ego is but 'the one unchanging power and activity of the distinction itself; it is that through which alone consciousness and self-consciousness arise. This power we apprehend as our own inmost self, and distinguish it from the limited Ego of self-consciousness; it lies endur- ingly as the basis of the unchanging unity of consciousness and self-consciousness, through all the alternation of that which passes through them. Thus the fundamental dis- tinctive character of the soul lies in that one fundamental power of the distinction which is constantly operative in the same way." u The substance of the spirit consists in the l Ztscfir. v. Ficlite, xxvii. 1&4. *Aphorisnten, 84. SPECIALIZATION. 877 activity distinguishing itself in itself, by which the spirit posits itself as the unity of manifold moments." l Weisse: " The psychic life is to be regarded, if not as a product of matter, yet as an educt of matter." 2 Wirth: "The ideal, which exists in all points of the body as the simple unity, and as constantly incorporates itself, as it returns from the outer into itself, is the soul of the body. The spirit is some- thing ideal, which without the body as a substratum, and without the expression through the bodily senses, could not be thought of and could not operate extrinsically. It is but the ideal form of the body, and the body is therefore the necessary organ of its activity. It is the unsensuous power of the body ; no power, therefore, and consequently not the soul, can be thought of without such a sensuous substratum. The body, on the other hand, is the ideal form of the soul ; that which is originally formed by the soul, or constantly coming into formation." " Spirit, or soul, and body in man are the different life-poles of one and the same human primary essence. The spirit is the primary essence as re- flexive unity with itself, as controlling personality, true entelechy, existing for itself, infusing soul into the bodily organism." 8 See Porter, 4 Steudel. 5 *Soul of the World. Auima mundi, q. v. SOUND, the sense-perception of which the ear is the organ. See Porter, 6 Ulrici. 7 *SPACE. See Aristotle, 8 Sam. Clarke, 9 Crusius, 10 Des Cartes, 11 Epicurus, 12 Hamilton, 13 Hobbes, 14 Kant, 15 Leibnitz, 16 Locke, 17 Herbert Spencer, 18 Whewell. 19 Space and Time. See Time and Space. SPECIALIZATION, the restriction of a name to a narrower l Glauhen wnl Wissen, 04-66; Zeitsclir. von FicMe, xxxvi. 232, 234; Gott u. die Natur, 414-417 ; fdjttp.m der Logik, 343, 344. * ZtscJir. v. FicMe, xxix. 36-54. 3 Theorie des frHnainl>nli.<72: Logic (Am. od.), 73, 74; Metaphysics (Am. ed.), 346, 401,525; Reid, 841-817, 861, 878, 882. " fttilos. Prima, ch. vii. MCrit. d. rein. Ve.rnunft, 37-59. M Opera, Erd- ma-nv, xcix. 17 ffinn. Understanding, Book II., ch. xiii. 18 Principles of Psychology. los. f Inductive Sciences, pt. i., b. ii., ch. ii., jj 1. 75 878 SPECIALIZATION. class, the extension being decreased and the intension in- creased opposed to Generalization. Specialization, special determination. Spencer. 1 SPECIALIZE, differentiate or determine in a special manner. Spencer. 2 ^SPECIES (Lat.), a seeing; that which is seen, outward appear- ance ; that which is seen by the mind, idea, notion ; the particular thing at which we look, particular sort," kind, or quality (Ger. Art). In the scholastic use a special idea was called a species, a common nature agreeing to several indi- viduals, as horse is species to the name of a particular horse, e. g., Goldsmith Maid. In Logic, genus and difference make the species, as rational and animal constitute man, so that in reality the species contains the genus, that is, implies it. In the philosophy of nature, Whately says, " Species, when applied to organized beings, is always applied, when we are speaking strictly as naturalists, to such individuals as are supposed to be descended from a common stock, or which might have so descended ; to wit, which resemble one another, to use Cuvier's expression, as much as those of the same stock do." Prichard says, "the meaning attached to the word species is very definite and intelligible; it includes only the following conditions, namely, separate origin and distinctness of race, evinced by the constant transmission of some characteristic of organization." Dr. Carpenter: " When it can be shown that two races have had a separate origin, they are to be regarded as of different species ; and in the absence of proof, this is inferred when we see some peculiarity of organization, characteristic of each, so con- stantly transmitted from parent to offspring that one cannot be supposed to have lost, or the other to have acquired it through any known operation of physical causes." T. Vernon Wollaston : " While genus is merely suggestive of a particu- lar position which a creature occupies in a systematic scale, species expresses the actual creature itself, belongs to a single race alone, which it therefore exclusively indicates." Dar- win: "In considering the origin of species, it is quite con- ceivable that a naturalist, reflecting on the mutual affinities of organic beings, on their embryological relations, their geo- 1 Prin. of Psychology, p. 607. 2 Induct, of Biology, pt. ii., ch. vii. SPIRITUALITY. 879 graphical distribution, geological succession, and other such i'acts, might come to the conclusion that each species had not been independently created, but had descended like varieties from other species; but such a conclusion, even if well founded, would be unsatisfactory, until it could be shown how the innumerable species inhabiting this world have been modified so as to acquire that perfection of structure and co- adaptation which most justly excites our admiration." Dar- win's answer has stamped his name upon the system. Owen : " One main aim of Cuvier's successors is, and long will be, to determine whether there be any point at which the mutation of a species necessarily stops." See Carpenter, 1 Darwin, 2 O\ven, a Prichard, 4 Whately, 5 T. Vernon Wollaston. 6 SPECIES AND ORGANISMS (Rise of).- See Darwinism. Steudel. 7 *Species in Perception. SPECIFIC, determining species, or determined by species. SPECIFICATE, mark by notation of specific qualities. Sir M. Hale. L. J. "Specification, Specificness (The Principle of). ^Specification (Process of). ^SPECULATION. The speculative part of philosophy is meta- physics ; "that which carries us into a region transcending experience, and which has, therefore, been named trans- cendental." C. F. V. SPINOZISM, the System of Spinoza, Pantheism God the one Substance, phenomenal beings its modes. 8 SPIRIT. See Mind, Soul. Spirit and Ego. See Ego, Soul. Spirit and Matter. See Matter. SPIRITUALISM. 1. The doctrine of the substantiality of spirit opposed to Materialism. 2. The doctrine that spirits manifest their presence by rapping and similar manifesta- tions. SPIRITUALITY, of the nature of spirit, immateriality, as S, of the soul. 1 Princip. of 7%\/o/or/y, 1851, \ 737. 2 Origin of fHpecifg, 2. /)* Brmide and Cox's Dictionary. * Physic. JIM. of ManUnd, b. ii., ch. i., sect. i. * Logic, b. iv., ch. v., 1. 6 Variidimi of ffyecfes, ch. vi. ^ Philosophic im Umriss, I., i. 407-478. 8 See Spinoza, Works in Philoaftphinche RibUotlirlc, with notes by Kirchmann ; editions by Girorer (1830), Bruder (1843-1846); Ethics, Tr. by Willis, 1870, D. D. S., New York (Van NOB- trancl), 1876. 880 SPONTANEITY. ^SPONTANEITY, SPONTANEOUSNESS, "the characteristic of an occasional act, springing from the single and imme- diate operation of the laws of exercise belonging to a mental power. We have examples of spontaneity in the unex- pected play of memory, or in the rise of pity at the sight of suffering. Spontaneity thus stands conlmstcd with the uniform play of fixed law in the physical world, and with mental activity, which is the result of volition." C. F.V. ^Spontaneous. ^STANDARD OF VIRTUE, "is, 1. primarily, moral law; 2. proximately, the Divine Will; 3. ultimately, the moral per- fection of the Deity. It is the law of God, whether dis- covered by conscience or presented in Revelation." C. F.V. *STATE OF MIND, " an expression employed to describe each successive form of our experience, however complex." - C. F. V. ^Statistics. STATUTE (Lat.), a thing laid down or decided; ordinance. Hence Statutory, enacted by statute, applied in ethics to morality. SteudeL 1 ^STOICS. In morals, their maxim was to live agreeably to nature (o/zo/loyoty/evwf rrj Aids to Jtf flec- tion, p. 6. 8 Introd. to Metaplnj*. 9 Logic. Vol. I., p. 60, 1856. Ethics, Def. Bk. I. 12 Philo/s. of Induct. Sciences, b. vi., ch. Hi., g 2. ^ Metupftysik, B. I., VII., VIII., XII. !* irt.-!,rit'ten (K. Fischer), 180. Werke, I., 201, 202; II., 563. 75 * 3 G 882 SUBSTANCE. substance, but also as subject." 1 Herbart: "The thing in which the marks inhere; none other than the unknown unit, the positing of which represents all those positings which primarily belong to the marks." "The subject which is missed, which is lacking in our cognition, but cannot be lacking in nature." " The supporter of the attributes of a thing, their substratum." "Thus the notion of the thing- vanishes, and the notion of substance takes its place. We have believed that we knew the thing the substance re- mained unknown. When we note that the things -cannot be the sums of qualities, we transmute the things into sub- stances." " The substances are real essences, equivalent to the monads of Leibnitz." 2 Kant: "The abiding, superior to change." "The subject, as opposed to the predicate." " Anything, especially the Ego, from which the notion of substance is derived." " Matter and body are not substance, but only phenomena of it." " The substantial is the some- thing in general." " The ultimate subject of existence, that which does not pertain as predicate to the existence of an- other." 3 " Schelling, in his Bruno, adhered to the common view of substance, as that which is essential in things, over against the accidental. Subsequently he concurs in the defi- nition by Spinoza, and identifies substance with the absolute, though he considers the individual finite things as sub- stances so far as the absolute substance is presented in them." 4 Schopenhauer: "The notion of substance is noth- ing more than a broader abstraction of the notion of mat- ter." 5 Spinoza: "That, the notion of which needs the notion of nothing else. It is necessarily infinite, and there is no substance but God." 6 Wirth: "Identical with the notion of the individual essence, and is either fundamental essence or potential essence." 7 See Hitchcock. 8 *Substance (The Principle of ). From Substance, Substan- tiality. SUBSTITUTION. See Similars. SUBSTRATUM, substance. Locke. 9 i Werl-e, II., 14, 42 ; V., 6-12. *Werke, II., 245 ; IV, 103; V., 66; VI., 274. 3 See Stendel, I., i. 307 ; Mellin : Kunstsprache, s. v. * Wcrke, I., iv. '244; II., iii. 218 ; I., ii. 199, vi.' 254, vii. 189, 203. 5 Welt ah Wille, I., 582. 6 Opera (Gfriircr), 287-293. 7 Zlschr. von -Ficlde, B. XXII., XLIV., XLVI. 8 Soul and Substance (N. A. Review, May-June, 1877). o Hum. Under st., B. IV., ch. 6. SUPERNATURAL. 883 *STJB SUMPTION, in Mill, 1 expresses the third mode of ex- plaining- a law by showing it to be a particular case of a more general law. ^SUCCESSION, SUCCESSIVENESS. See Ingleby, 2 Locke," .Mill, 1 Whewell. 5 ^Sufficient Reason (Doctrine of). SUGGESTION (Lat.), a heaping up; adding to; intimation. " Contribution to thought, either spontaneously from within, or by communication from without." C. F. V. 'SUICIDE, is more than self-killing, which may be accidental. S. may be either sudden or slow, and takes place even in insanity, where the volition acts, though in a diseased man- ner. Its moral responsibility is involved where men pursue a course not indeed for the purpose of killing themselves, but with a knowledge that it will kill them, as in drunkenness and sensuality. It is not to be confounded with a voluntary surrender of life for those great ends which God has taught us are more sacred even than life, as in martyrdom, service in a just war, rescue of the perishing. SUICISM, egoism, selfishness. Hence, Suist. SUI GENERIS (Lat., of its own genus or kind), applied to a thing so peculiar and unlike other things that it cannot easily be brought into one class with them. Jevons. SUMMUM.-See Bonum, Genus. SUMPTION (sumo, to take), in Hamilton, the major premise of a syllogism. SUPER (Lat,), above, beyond ; in composition, as Superconse- quenee, remote consequence Sir T. Browne; Superessen- tial, Ellis; Superethical, Bolingbroke. SUPERIOR, in Logic, applied to the higher or more comprehen- sive genus. SUPERNATURAL. "That is supernatural, whatever it be, that is either not in the chain of natural cause and effect, or which acts on the chain of cause and effect in nature, from without the chain." Bushnell. 6 "We may speak of what- ever is supposed to be beyond the natural as preternatural. The phrase will apply not only to the divine action, but to i Lcxjic, Boole III., ch. 12-14. 8 Introd. to Metaph., $ ISO. 3 Hum. Underst., B. II., cli. vii. 9, eli. xiv. G-12. * Logic, B. III., ch. v., g 1. & Hist, of Scientific Ideas, Vol. I., p. Ui 6 Mature and the Supernatural. 884 SUPERSTITION. the agency of such beings as ghosts and demons to all such operations as witchcraft and necromancy. We may reserve the phrase supernatural to the Supreme Being and to the works performed by Him, and to the objects created by Him beyond the natural sphere, such as angels and the world to come. We would confine the word miracle to those events which \vere wrought in our v. r orld as a sign or proof of God making a supernatural interposition or a revelation to man. We must not view creation as supernatural, but we do look upon it as miraculous." McCosh. 1 ^Superstition. SUPPOSITION" (Lat.), a placing under; Hypothesis, q. v.- SUPRA-MUNDANE, above, beyond, distinct from the world; applied to God; opposed to intramundane in the Pantheistic sense. *Supranaturalism. SYLLABUS, abstract or compendium. De Morgan. 2 'SYLLOGISM (see Induction), SYLLOGISTIC, SYLLOGIZA- TION, SYLLOGIZE, SYLLOGIZER. See Bentham, 3 Dr. T. Brown/ De Morgan, 5 Hamilton, 6 Hegel, 7 Hobbes, 8 Locke, 9 Mill, 10 Stewart, 11 Whately. 12 SYLLOGISTICS, doctrine, theory, science of syllogism. Lam- bert, 13 F. A. Lange, 14 Trendelenburg, 15 Ueberweg. 16 *SYMBOL. See Myth. In Logic, a substitute, such as a letter of the alphabet, for the thing. Whately. 17 SYMBOLICAL. See Knowledge as . . Symbolical. SYMPATHETIC. 1. "Having mutual sensation; being affect- ed either by what happens to the other ; feeling in conse- quence of what another feels." 2. Involving an occult re- lation between objects ; as, S. cures, S. conveyances, " to confer at the distance of the Indies." Glanville. L. J. ^SYMPATHY, marks an occult relation between objects. See Sympathetic. 1 On the Supernatural, pp. 146, 147. 2 Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic. Pref. 3 Rationale of Judicial Evidence, b. iii , ch. x., g 4. 4 i n j,. j. 5 Formal Logic, ch. v. G Discussions, Art. IV., Append. II. ; Logic, Lect. XV., XVI. ; JUetuph., 175. 1 Sulyec- tii-e Logic, trausl. by Sloinan & Walton, ch. iii.; Logic, transl. by \V. Wallace, gg 181- Itio. 8 Logica, ch. 2-G; see Hallam, Literature, pt. iii., ch. ii., g 151. 9 Hum. Underst., 15. IV., ch. xvii. 10 Logic, vol. i., p. 234. " Elem. of Pliilnsoph. ~of Human Mind, 1854, p. :!(). 12 Logic, ch. iii. 13 Xfitea Onjmion, 17C4, 1., iv., gg 229-233. " Logisclic Studitn, 1877, 7-i. 15 Log. Utders., 3d Aufl., II., S53 seq. 1G Logik, %% 99 seq. " Log., i., g 4. SYNTHESIS. 885 *SYNCATEGOREMATIC. See Categorematic. See Latham. 1 ^SYNCRETISM (Gr.), mixing together, blending; a mixed, blended nature. "Bruno's syncretism of the tenet of a per- vading spirit, an ' anima mundi.' " Hallam. 2 SYNCRETISTS, in Ethics, the Latitudinarians of coalition over against the Latitudinarians of neutrality. They maintain that some actions and characters of men are at once good and bad. Both classes of Latitudinarians are opposed to .Rigorists, q. v. Kant. 3 *Synderesis. SYNDROME (Gr.), concurrent action. Glanville. L. J. *Syneidesis. *Synteresis. ^SYNTHESIS. S. in Fichte: 4 "If we consider a judgment with reference to its ground of relation, the aim of the re- flection is a synthesis. The ground of relation is therefore the ground of all synthesis of judgments, that is, the ground of all thinking in general. If the Ego be considered as the ultimate and supreme ground of relation, the principle of all possible synthesis is furnished in it, and without the Ego no further synthesis is possible, because outside of the Ego we can reach no higher ground of relation in which antitheses may be united." S. in Kant : " conjunction of mental repre- sentations; the act of uniting various representations to each other, and comprehending their multiplicity in one cognition;" "the mental representation of unity in the manifold." S. Progressive, "the S. of a series which ad- vances on the side of the conditioned," "from the immedi- ate consequence to the more remote." S. Pure, " that S. which rests upon a ground of synthetic unity a priori." " When the manifold in synthesis is given, not empirically, but a priori, it is pure," as in numeration; opposed to S. empirical. S. Qualitative, "the advancing in the series of the subordinate from the condition to the conditioned." S. Quantitative, " the advancing in the series of co-ordinates from a given part, through its subordinate parts, to the whole." S. Regressive, " the S. of a series on the side of the conditions," " from the nearest conditions to the remot- 1 Logic, as Applied to Language, 107. z Literal., 1843, vol. i.. p. 13. 3 Religion inner- It lb ( Kircliuiann), 23. * Wisnenschaftslehre (1794), quoted iu BuLle : Geschichte, vi. 754, 886 SYNTHETIC. est.' ; The species of S. have three varieties: 1. Apprehen- sion, q. v. ; 2. Reproduction ; 3. Recognition. Mellin, 1 C. C. E. Schmid, 2 Willich. 3 SYNTHETIC, SYNTHETICAL, in Logic, marks a syllogism in which the conclusion stands last; opposed to Analytic, q. v. S. Method begins with the parts and goes to the whole. See Ingleby, 4 Kant. 5 ^SYSTEM, In Kant: " 1. As idea, the unity of manifold cogni- tions under one idea. 2. As science, any complete sum of homogeneous parts of knowledge, which are linked by the reason;" "a total of cognition arranged in accordance with principles." Mellin. ^System, Economy, or Constitution. SYSTEMATIZATION, SYSTEMIZATION, act of reducing to system. TABLE, TABULAR VIEW, outline of a system, or part of a system, so arranged as to aid the comprehension and the memory by the eye. In this Vocabulary will be found a synthetical table of the entire philosophical sciences, and special tables of the leading topics. See Arbor Porphyri- ana, Categories, Categories of the Pure Understanding, Collision, Critique of Pure Reason, Fallacy, God, Attri- butes of, Judgment, Judgment, Critique of, Judgments, Forms of, Jus, Metaphysics, Philosophy, Theology, Vices, and others. *TABULA RASA. This image is employed by Zeno the Stoic. Perhaps the best physical illustration (they are all defec- tive) of the relation of the mind to the objective image is that of paper prepared for the reception of the photograph it gives law as well as takes impressions and its innate conditions need excitation, yet determine, as one essential factor, its results. 6 TACIT, in Logic, marks a silent or understood premise. *Tact. 1 Kimstsprache, s. v. 2 Wb'rterbuch, s. v. 3 Elements of the Critical Philosophy, ISO. 4 Inirod. to Metaph., b. ii., div. ii., 135. 5 #<,/. Ycrn., 12, 14, 148, 160 s., 194 s., 364, 704; sec Hay wood's Trausl., Introduce., p. iv. 6 See Krauth's Berkeley, l*rolegomena, 124. TERM. 887 TACTILE, TACTION, TACTUAL, mark touch, and suscepti- bility to it. See Ingleby, 1 Spencer. 2 *TALENT. In genius, capacity waits on faculty; in talent, fac- ulty waits upon capacity. "Taste. TAUTOLOGOUS, TAUTOLOGICAL, or TRUISTIC, in Logic, marks propositions which merely affirm the subject of itself, and give no information whatever; as, " Whatever is, is." TAXONOMY (Gr.), principle of classification. Whewell. 3 TECHNICS (TECHNOLOGY, TECHNICAL) (Gr.), relating to art, skill; method of art; in Aristotle, that part of prac- tical philosophy which relates to the mechanical production of material works in accordance with plan. T. of Nature, in Kant, " the procedure, the causality of nature, in refer- ence to those products which reveal an aim, in opposition to the mechanical. It is intentional where there is conformity with final causes; it is natural, when that is really involved in the mechanical causality of nature, which coincides with our notions and rules of art." Mellin, 4 Schmid. 5 'TELEOLOGY (TELEOLOGICAL, TELEOLOGIST). It may be ultimate, reaching to God, or proximate, contemplating the more immediate purpose. Teleology was applied to the deduction of the existence of a Supreme Being by Anaxag- oras, by Socrates and his school, and the Stoics. It was criticised by Maupertius and Kant, and is one of the vital questions of our own day. "TEMPERAMENT, "prevailing bias of disposition, whether natural or acquired." C. F. V. See Paulus CEgineta. 6 "^Temperance. ^TENDENCY, "a cause which will produce an effect unless there be opposite causes, which, in combination with it, counteract and disguise that effect; a cause which mayor may not be counteracted." Jevons. TENSION, stretching; straining; intensity; as, muscular ten- sion, tension of thought. Spencer, 7 Dr. Forbes Winslow. 8 *TERM, TERMS. *(Absolute),*(Abstract),*(Cornmon),-(Com- patible), ^"(Concrete), ^(Consistent), ^(Contradictory, Oppo- i Intr. to Metnph. * Princ. of Psych , gg 53, 62. 3 Hist, of Scientific Ideas, 1858, vol. ii., 123. * Kunstsprach, s. \. ^Worterbuch, s. v. 6 Lib. i., sec. 60, translated by Dr. Ailain-, vol. i., p. *4. ' Priiif-. <>f I'sychrt., I '~. s Obscure Diseases, ch. iv. 888 TERMINISM. sition of), *(Definite), ^(Indefinite), ^(Negative), "^(Non-rela- tive, Absolute), ^(Opposite), ^(Privative), *(Relative), ^(Sim- ple), -(Singular). TERMINISM, determinism. TERMINISTS. See Nominalism. TERMINOLOGY, a scientific treatment of terms ; the defini- tion of the nomenclature ; glossology, q. v. " Decandolle and others use the term glossology instead of terminology, to avoid the blemish of a word compounded of two parts taken from different languages. The convenience of treating the termi- nation ' ology ' (and a few other parts of compounds) as not restricted to Greek combinations, is so great, that I shall venture, in these cases, to disregard this philological scruple." Whewell. 1 TERTII ADJACENTIS, of the third adjacent, an expression in incorrect Latin, applied to a grammatical sentence or proposition in which the subject, copula, and predicate are all distinctly stated. Jevons. ^TESTIMONY, "is like an arrow shot from a long bow the force of it depends on the hand that draws it. Argument is like an arrow from a cross-bow, which has equal force though shot by a child." Bacon. ATHEISM, "the theory of the universe which regards an abso- lute Being, infinite in intelligence and perfect in moral good- ness, as the author of all things." It is not absolutely op- posed by its derivation, "though essentially opposed as a theory of the universe," to Pantheism. C. F. V. ^Theocracy. THEOCRASY (Gr.), God-mixture; mingling with God; the intimate union or blending of the soul with God. ^THEODICY. Bledsoe, 2 Chalybaus, 3 J. G. Fichte, 4 !. H. Fichte, 5 Frauenstiidt, 6 Hegel, 7 Horn, 8 O. Pfleiderer, 9 Schelling, 10 Schol- ten, 11 Steudel, 12 Strauss, 13 Thilo, 14 Wirth, 15 Zeller. 16 l Hist. nfScienlif. Ideas, Vol. II., p. 109, note, ed. 1858. 2 Theodicy, 1856. 3 der Specid. Ethik, 30-73, 177, 179. * Werke, V., 184-188, 268, 394, 3.)5; V., f,49; JS'./r/i- gelassen. W>.rkr, III., 84, 85. & Speculative Tlieologie, 1846 ; Psychalogif, II., 176; Theis- tischu WM-Aiisicht, 109-227; Characteristik d. neuen Philosophic, eil. 2, 99. c Blicke in die intdlectuelle, phijsiche u. moraliache Welt (1869), 65-71. * Werke, I., 152, 153; II., 281-283, r,(i() ; VF., 294, 382, 406 ; XII., 271-281, 533 ; XV., 684 ; XVIII., 144, $ 82, 83. *Zur I'iixrplii<; 11. 12. 9 Wesen der Iteliyioti, :)t)-329. 10 Werkf, I., vi. 42-45, 545; vii. ;',52-40S. n Freie Wtllr, ii.lifrs. von Man<;ht, 219. 12 I'hilosajihit im Inm-iss, II, i- 377-452. w Christ! ich* lilmbensbhre, II., 369-:!S4. M Xtuchr.f. exacte Phil., viii. 21-31. 15 System der tipecul. h'thik; 19-48, 395. 10 T/ieolog. Jahrliicher, v., vi. THINGS. 889 T. Authentic, in Kant, is that in which we determine the purpose of God, from the principles of practical reason a priori. T. Doctrinal, is that in which the grounds are de- rived from the consideration of nature itself a posteriori. Mellin, Schmid. *Theogony. -THEOLOGY. Hence, Theological; as, T. Ethics, T. Physics. ^Theology (Natural). Theology, in Kant, Tabular Classification of. A. Revealed T. B. Rational T. I. Transcendental T. : i. Ontotheology ; ii. Cosmotheology. II. *Natural T. : i. Physicotheology ; ii. Moral Theology. *Theopathy. THEOPHANY (Gr.), manifestation of God. THEOPHILANTHROPY, (THEOPHILANTHROPISTS), a form of deism organized during the French revolution (1796- 1801). THEOREM (Gr.), a speculation, theory ; a principle or rule reached by theory ; in the plural, the arts and sciences ; po- sition laid down as an acknowledged truth ; position requir- ing to be proved; opposed to problem. *THEORY, "a rationalized explanation of facts." C. F. V. " Knowledge of principles, as opposed to practice." Jevons. Hence, Theoretical, Theorists. " x "Theosophism, Theosophy. THERAPEUTICS, scientific treatment of disease; applied to the social body by Mill. 1 THESAURUS (Lat.), treasure; storehouse; in philosophical literature, a collection of valuable matter. Reeb. 2 "THESIS (hence THETICAL), laid down ; positive. THEURGY (Gr.), divine work ; miracle ; magic, sorcery. Hence, Theurgic, Theurgist. THINGS (Ger. Dinge), the individual parts of the objective ; the components of the universe. Drossbach : "The atoms are spiritual essences. Everything is an association of atoms, of which, in organic creatures, one supreme atom is always at the head." 3 Du Bois-Reymond says that "the essential nature of things is incomprehensible." 4 Fechner: 1 Logic, [it. vi , cli. vi., \ 1. 2 Thcsnuru* Phil osophnr urn (Cornoltli), 1871. 3 Harmonic d. Ergcbnixse d. Xaturforschung, 109-131. * Tiiierisch Electricitilt, Vorred. XLI. 7G 890 THINGS. "All concrete being must of necessity come into phenomenon ; a concrete thing which does not come into phenomenon is unthinkable." 1 J. G. Fichte : "Things appear absolutely as they are, for they are nothing beside their phenomenon." " The very fact that these things are visible and audible is proof that they do not exist." " The accidents, synthetically united, give the substance; and in the substance no more is embraced than the accidents ; and after a perfect analysis of the substance, there is nothing but accidents things are the totality of their accidents, with no substratum as their base." 2 I. H. Fichte : " The truth in things is their notion, lying in them, immanent or pre-existent, which the process of human cognition simply detaches from them in investiga- tion, and thus embodies in consciousness." 3 George : " The subject of the thing is one fundamental activity, fundamen- tal attribute, to which all its other qualities pertain as predi- cates." 4 Hegel: "The thing is the totality, as the develop- ment of the determinations of the ground and of existence posited in one over against indeterminate, abstract matter, it is determinate matter." 5 Herbart : " The sum of a num- ber of non-existents can only be nothing, can never furnish any real existent. The thing is the substance, in which the marks inhere."* See Monads. Kant: see An Sich, Nou- men. Leibnitz: see Monads. Lotze concurs with Du Bois- Reyrnond. 7 Michelet, like Hegel : " It is not our mental representations which harmonize with the objective processes, it is the thought (the Hegelian 'notion'), which does." 8 Schelling: "The idea of a thing in itself must, according to Kant's own deductions, involve a contradiction. For a thing in itself means nothing more nor less than a thing which is no thing. Where there is sense-intuition, there is the non-ego, and where there is a non-ego, there is sense- intuition. The intellectual is no non-ego, but simple ego in- tuited." "All that is, all things, pertain to the being of the infinite substance, which not only dwells in them, but pro- duces them." "The special things in the infinite real sub- stance have a duplicate life, a life in the substance and a life in themselves, or a special life." " We call that the objec- 1 Zlschr. v. Fichts, xxiii. 84. Werke, II., 622; V., 466 ; I., 204. 3 zisrJir., xxiii. 154. * Zl*c>ir. r. Fichte, xxix. 110. 5 Encyklopadie, '$ 126, 127. c Allgemrine Mc.taplujtik, I -Jl: : Werlf., IV., 108. ' Mikrokosnius, III., 233. 8 ztschr. " Der Gedanke," III., 290. THINKING. 891 tive in anything, whereby it is in the substance considered as its ground ; the subjective is that whereby it is in itself." "The more a thing is single, and abides in its singleness, the more does it sunder itself from the eternal Notion of all things the more does it belong to the primal night, the mother of all things." l Schopenhauer concurs with Kant in maintaining that " we do not cognize the essence and the in-itself of things." " The objective world exists only as mental representation, is but a brain-phenomenon. The supposition that things exist also outside of our conscious- ness, and independent on it, is absurd. The intellect creates the order of things." 2 Ulrici : " We find that, throughout, it is the a priori elements of our thinking, that is, the im- manent laws and norms (categories) of our distinguishing, comparing, judging, inferring activity, by which the objec- tivity of individual sense-perceptions is vouched for. There is an immanent necessity of thought involved." 3 THINKING.-See Thought. Thinking and Being. See Being, Idea, Ideal, Reality. See Steudel. 4 Thinking, Philosophical, Method of. See Speculation. Hegel : " Speculation is the activity of the one universal reason directed on itself." "The speculative consists in grasping, cognizing the opposed as unity, and holding fast to contradiction in thinking. It is a mystery to the under- standing." 5 Schelling : " Those systems which forever hover between heaven and earth, and have not the courage to press to the last point of all knowing, are far safer from the most perilous errors, than that system of the greatest thinker whose speculation soars on the boldest wing, who hazards everything on the throw, and who is determined to have the whole truth in all its compass or no truth at all. On the other hand, I would have the reader bear in mind that he who is not bold enough to follow truth to her last pinnacle, may indeed now and then touch the hem of her garment, but can never win truth herself. The after-time, more just than the current hour, will place the man who, despising the privilege of tolerable error, had the courage to launch l Werkf., I., i. 210, vii. 189; II., 199; VI., 218-476. 2 Well als Wille, II., 0-14, 311, 323. ZGlaubenu. Wissen,22l. * Philosophie im Umri&s, I., ii. 290-303. ^Werke t l.,ll; III., 42; IV.. 67, 68; XII., 483; XVII., 3i7 ; XVIII., 148, 149. 892 THOUGHT. bravely forth to reach the truth, far above the timorous man, who lay forever at anchor, rather than hazard striking on rocks or sand." l Ulrici : " The productive, supplement- ing, and completing view, by which, from the parts and frag- ments which lie before us, the totality of a scientific con- templation of the world is, as it were, brought before the gaze, and from the unity (of the idea) thus viewed, the parts furnished are arranged, and the parts wanting are supplied this is the true nature of that speculation which it is the fashion of the day to decry." 2 ^Thought and Thinking. Thought, Kules of. 1. The principle of identity or har- mony. 2. Of contradiction or non-contradiction, dictum de omni et nullo. 3. Excluded middle. 4. Of the ground or sufficient reason. See all those terms. Steudel. 3 *TIME AND SPACE. I. vEnesidemus: "Time is corporeal, for it is not different from that which is, and from the ele- mentary bodies." Aristotle: "That space (place) exists, is proved even by the local motion of bodies, which, as a fact, confutes all who deny its existence. Space is neither form nor matter ; for these cannot be separated from phenomena, while space can be separated from what it contains, as a skin-bottle from the water that is in it. In space, a thing is embraced in the strictest sense." " Whether time be some- thing actual, and what it is, is hard to determine. It seems to be nothing actual, for it allows of no distinction of parts." "Time is the numeration of that which in movement is before and after." Democritus : " Time is the image pre- sented to the mind (phantasma) by day and night." Various dogmatists in the ancient world defined time as the move- ment of heaven, the celestial sphere, as objective; the dis- tinction of the movement of this world, that movement itself, as subjective. Epicurus, as Democritus: "Space is the intangible an accident of accidents." Heraclitus, as ^Enesidemus: Leucippus regarded space as it is regarded in the popular view extended emptiness, objective. Plato distinguishes between pure and empirical time. Pure time is eternal and infinite (Aeon) ; in it the things are in thern- i Vom Ich als Princip. d. 1'hih.wphie (1795) ; Werke, I., i. 152. 2 Glauben und Wissen, 202. 3 Piiilfisophie im rnirix*, I , i. 1R7-210. TIME. 893 selves, and endure, without change, from moment to mo- ment; it has in it no coming into being, but only essential being. Empirical time is finite, has come into being simul- taneously with the rise of the world of phenomena the mobile image of the Aeon. It is the condition not merely of the existence of phenomena, but of things themselves." Plotinus embraced space in the notion" of form. Sextus Empiricus argued at large against the objectivity of time. The Stoics maintained that time is incorporeal, and a merely intelligible object. Strato the Physicist enlarged Aristotle's definition, and makes time " the measure of all movement and rest." Zeno denied the objective reality alike of move- ment and space. 1 II. Des Cartes considered time a mere mode of thinking. Hobbes : " Space is the mental image (phantasma) of a thing existent as existent, that is, no other accident of that thing being considered, except that it ap- pears exterior to the person having the image." " The idea of space is not a priori, but derived from experience." " Time is the mental image (phantasma) of movement, so far as we imagine in the movement a before and an after, or a succession." " It is not a priori, but derived from the ex- perience of bodies in motion." 2 More : ''Space is an immov- able extended, distinct from matter, which is movable. This is not an imaginary something, but is at least real, if it be not divine. But the extended Real, as distinct from matter, can be nothing but deity itself, for it has the attributes of the divine essence. It is infinite, simple, immovable; it is the inmost place of all things nothing is inside of it (intra), and nothing is beyond it; it is eternal, complete, independ- ent ; within it, all changes, but it never changes ; it is incor- ruptible, necessary, immense, increate, omnipresent, all- determining, all -impenetrating, all-embracing. It is by being, and of itself; while corporeal nature depends upon another being. It is actual being (ens act a], for it is con- ceived as existing without cause. It is pure being (purus acta], because it is necessarily existent of itself, and nothing can affect it, add to it, or take from it." 3 Spinoza, as Des Cartes: "Space is not to be distinguished from extension, Bulilc : GoschicMe, Vol. I. 2 De Corp., P. II. ; Philosoph. Prima, ch. 7. 3 Enchirid. tap/iysic., ch. 8; Opera, I., 165-169. 76* 894 TIME. and no limits are to be put to it, for beyond any limits there must be other spaces." l Samuel Clarke : " Space is not a substance, but a property. Space and duration are im- mediate and necessary consequences of God's existence, and without them his eternity and ubiquity [or omnipresence] would be taken away. Space is in itself essentially one, and absolutely indivisible. Space and time are not the mere order of things, but real quantities. Space is the place of all things and of all ideas ; just as duration is the duration of all things and of all ideas." 2 Leibnitz developed his views of time and space, especially in the controversy with Dr. Clarke. In a letter written by Leibnitz, 1715, he had said : " Sir Isaac Newton says that space is an organ, which God makes use of to perceive things by." Dr. Clarke denies this charge, and says that Newton considers things in the universe " as real things, formed by God himself, and seen by him in all places, wherever they are, without the intervention of any medium at all. And this similitude is all that he means when he supposes infinite space to be (as it were) the sensorium of the omnipresent Being." In the later papers which grew out of the controversy opened between these great men, Leibnitz says: "Real absolute space is an idol of some modern Englishmen. They maintain that space is a real absolute being. Some have believed it to be God himself, or his immensity. I hold space to be something merely relative, as time is. It is an order of co-existences, as time is an order of successions." 3 Locke : " The considera- tion of duration, as set out by certain periods, and marked by certain measures or epochs, is time." Locke devotes a chapter to space, but does not define it. He maintains "that the idea of it is derived from sight and touch ; that it is not body; that its parts are inseparable; that it is immovable and infinite; that we do not know whether it is substance or accident." 4 Newton : see Clarke and Leibnitz. The views of Kant are accepted in substance by the great mass of mod- ern thinkers : Time and space are subjective forms and conditions of sense-intuition ; not innate ideas, but innate l Opera (Gfrorer), 51, 58, ch. 4. 2 Dr. Clarke's Fourth Reply to Leibnitz. 3 A 'Collec- tion of Papers which passed between Leibnitz and Clarke, 1715, 1716. London, 1717. 4 Hu- man Understanding, Works, I., 282-300, 307. TRIAS. 895 conditions evoked into necessary and invincible activity by sense-perception, and presupposed in the very possibility of experience. TOPICS (Gr.), concerning T^TTO/, or common-places; name of a treatise of Aristotle l on the method or theory of drawing conclusions in probable matter, the art thereof being the dialectic. TOPOLOGY. See Memoria Technica. TOTALITY, in Kant, 2 plurality considered as unity, as the human race. TOTUM DIVISUM, a class or notion which is divided into parts by a difference. Jevons. ^Tradition. TRADUCE, TRADTJCIANISM, relate to the doctrine that the offspring, in both soul and body, is derived from the parents; opposed to Creationism and Pre-existence. See Krauth. 3 TRADUCTION, in Logic, a process of reasoning in which each conclusion applies to just such an object as each of the pre- mises applies to. Jevons. *Train of Thought. TRANSANIMATION (Lat.), transfer of souls from one body to another, Metempsychosis. TRANSCENDENT, TRANSCENDENTAL.-" 1. In Kant's sense, transcendental applies to the conditions of our knowl- edge which transcend experience, which are a priori, and not derived from sensitive reflection. 2. The speculative problems which concern supersensible or supernatural being, transcending the range of sense and consciousness." C. F. V. See De Quincey, 4 Ingleby. 5 TRANSFER, in Logic, applied to words which have become equivocal by being taken from the thing they originally de- noted, and given to some other thing habitually connected with it. Jevons. '-Transference and Translation. *TRANSMIGRATION.-See Metempsychosis. TRANSPOSITION.-See Conversion. TREE OF PORPHYRY.-See Arbor Porphyriana. TRIAS, TRIAD (Gr.), the number three; the three unities; in 1 Top., i., 1, 1. 2 Rein. Tern., 37. 111. 8 Conservat. Reformation, 371. * Works, vol. iii., 96. 5 Litrod. to Metaph., b. i., p. 65. 896 TRICHOTOMY. Neoplatonism, being, intelligence, soul ; in Plato, God, the divine understanding, and the anima mundi proceeding from God as a plastic power. TRICHOTOMY (Gr.), division into three parts; opposed espe- cially to dichotomy, division into two parts. It is applied to the divisions of man's nature, as body, soul, spirit ; and to mental phenomena, as the Platonic T. TRIFORM (Lat.), having three forms, shapes, or natures ; three- fold ; triple ; applied to the mundus, as composed of air, earth, and water. Ovid. 1 TRILEMMA, in Logic, an argument resembling a dilemma, but in which there are three alternatives. Jevons. TRILOGY (Gr.), three dramas or dialogues ; generally opposed to tetralogy, four dramas. Both have been used in arranging the Platonic dialogues. TRIMORPHIC (Lat., Gr.), presenting three distinct forms; hence, Trimorphism. Darwin. 2 TRIMOURTI, TRIMURTI (Sanscrit, three-form). In Hindoo Philosophy, the trinity or triad of the Vedas, going forth from the bosom of Brahm. It embraces Brahma, the creator, Vishnu, the preserver, and Siva, the destroyer, by whom the recurrence is made to the unity. They are three forms of manifestation of one impersonal substance. TRINAL (Lat.), threefold ; applied by Spenser to the triplicity, and by Milton to the unity of the Godhead. L. J. By Chase, to the basis of Comte's Philosophy. 3 TRINITY (Lat.), tri-unity, three-one-ness; in the philosophical doctrine of religion, unity of God in triplicity. Boehm con- nected this "thought of a one that in itself differentiated itself, with the doctrine of the trinity ; and the trinitarian schema accordingly, in many an application and illustra- tion, underlies Boehm's conception of the divine life and differentiating process." Hegel " points out that the Trinity is only unintelligible when conceived as three separate nu- merical units, while speculatively it involves an absolute and divine sense; ' it would be a strange thing if there were no sense in what for two thousand years has been the holi- est Christian idea.' " " To Hegel the doctrine of the Trin- ity was the essential basis of religion." 4 For the attempts i Metamnrph., 15, 859. 2 O rig. of Species, 35, 252. 3 Symbolism, 279. * Schwcglor- Stirling, 155, 355, 422, 425, 426. TRUTH. 897 of recent speculative philosophy in modifying the church- doctrine of the Trinity, see Peip. 1 The term is sometimes applied to man in Trichotomy, q. v. TRIPARTITE (Lat,), divided or divisible into three parts; threefold. See Trichotomy. TRIPERSONAL (Lat.), consisting of three persons. Milton : " One tripersonal Godhead." 2 Hence, Tripersonality, triper- sonal character. See Trinity. TRIPLICITY (Lat.), character of the triple; threefoldness ; trebleness. See Chase. 3 Similar words are duplicity (logi- cal), quadruplicity. TRITHEISM (Gr.), a species of Polytheism which embraces three gods only, or three principal gods ; opposed to Mono- theism and Trinitarianism. *TRIVIUM. Hence, trivial, relating to the trivium ; as, T. schools. TROPES, the ten sceptical points or arguments ; " turns." * TRUE, THE, associated with the beautiful and good, as the ob- ject of practical philosophy. Cousin. TRUISM, self-evident and undeniable truth. Hence, Truistic. See Tautologous. *TRUTH. Hegel: " In common life, the agreement between an object and our conception of the object. In the philo- sophical sense, the agreement of the subject-matter of thought with itself." 5 Truth, Criterion of. Cartesius : " That which we compre- hend clearly and plainly is true." Czolbe : "The profound- est riddles of the world have often remained concealed, not because of their great intricacy, but because of their exceed- ing simplicity." 6 J. G. Fichte: "The sense of truth is a dim feeling of what is the right." " Faith is an element of all assurance." 7 Schelling : " Reason is the touchstone of truth," but "the science of reason is not to be removed from the control of experience." " The truth is by no means of such a kind as to, be reached only by unnatural straining, and to be expressed only in unnatural words and formulas. Very many spoil themselves at the very entrance on philoso- ! IlVr/.oijfs Peril Enci/l-Jopadif, Art. Trim'tdt. 2 Reformation in England, b. ii. 3 Sym- bolism, $ 305-326. * Schwegler-Stirling, 135. & Logic, Wallace's Tr., 43. 6 Enlsiehung dcs Sclbslbewusstseyns, 57. 1 Werke, I., 73 ; V., 182. 3H 898 TRUTHS. phy by the unnatural tension of their effort to approach what they consider the right tone of mind. Men judge of the degree of scientific mastery by the degree to which, in the face of nature, a system of philosophy, has fallen into distortions and dislocations. We may, however, convince ourselves that the very reverse of this is true, and that what can be expressed in nothing but strained and distorted phrase is shown, by that very fact, not to be the true and right. The true is easy, says one of the ancients ; not that we reach it without trouble, for the finding of this easy, sim- ple thing, is the hardest. Most men conceive that the truth must be hard in order to be the truth; but when the truth is found, it always proves to be somewhat like the egg of Co- lumbus." 1 Schopenhauer: "Truth is no harlot, ready to throw herself on the neck of careless passers-by, but a maiden so coy that he who sacrifices all to win her favor is not sure to win it." " Truth enjoys but a short time of tri- umph between two long eras in the first of them it is con- demned as paradoxical, in the last is despised as trivial." 2 Ulrici: "Philosophy herself acknowledges that the result of her investigation, despite its scientific character, has not the authority of knowledge, in the strict sense of that term, but only of a scientific faith. The solution of her problems remains but an attempt, which is constantly conditioned by the results and advances of the particular sciences." " When we throw aside everything, for which we have nothing but this scientific faith to plead, the science of philosophy shrivels up into a little remnant of propositions." 3 See Certainty, Error. See Hamilton.* *Truths, First. *TYPE. See Hamilton, 5 Mill. 6 Whewell : " A T. is an example of any class, for instance, a species of a genus, which is con- sidered as eminently possessing the characters of the class." 7 Kant uses the terms T. of the moral law, T. of the judg- ment, and T. of an intelligible nature. T. comes into the composition of various philosophical words, as archetype, ectype, prototype, diatyposis, hypotyposis. l PMosopMe der Offenbarunff, WerJee, II., ii. 18, 19. Welt als Wille, Vorred. XV., XVIII. 3 Glauben ^i. Wissen, '290 ; Gott und die Natnr, 8. * Logic, 376-G90. '> lieuP* Works, 948, 949. Logic, L. J, 1 Hist, of Scient. Ideas, 1858, Vol. II., p. 121. UNCONSCIOUS. 899 UBICATION (Lat.), in Scholasticism, whereness; local rela- tion. Glanville, Leibnitz. 1 DUBIETY, equivalent to Aristotle's TTOV. See Categorem. UBIQUITY (Lat.), every where-ness ; omnipresence. ULTIMATE (Lat. Ultimum), the last and highest; applied to good. See Bonum Summum, Good, The Chief. Cicero calls it the ultimum bonum. 2 ULTRATOTAL, used by Hamilton, 3 when, in both the premises together, the quantification of the middle term is more than its quantity as a whole. ULTRONEOUS, spontaneous ; voluntary. Jeremy Taylor. UNBELIEF (Ger. Unglaube), withholding of due belief; in Kant, the withholding of assent to that which, though objectively insufficient as a ground of cognition, is subjectively sufficient as a ground of faith. Moral U. is the rejection of that which, though we cannot know it, is yet morally necessary, as faith in God, freedom, and immortality. It arises from want of moral interest. It is called Naturalistic U., when it is indif- ferent or opposed to revelation. The U. of reason is the making our reason independent of its own needs the re- nunciation of the faith of reason Vernunftunglaube against Vernun/tglaube. Mell i n .* UNCERTAINTY (Ger. Ungewissheit), "A mingled feeling, in which assent' and doubt alternate." Kant. 5 "UNCONDITIONED (Ger. Unbedingt), original; originary ; ab- solute; "dependent on no other." Kant. 6 See Porter. 7 UNCONSCIOUS, THE, PHILOSOPHY OF, a system, devel- oped by Karl Rob. Eduard von Hartmann, 8 to which Sch el- ling, Hegel, and Schopenhauer are the chief forerunners. It rests upon the principles : I. That the laws of nature con- trol those beings in nature who know nothing of these laws. It rejects materialism, Darwinism, and mechanism; main- tains that there is a strict conformity with plan, and main- tains with great emphasis A teleology, II. The cause which l Opera (Erdmann), 666. 2 j) e -pinib.^ \. iii., c. 7. 3 Logic, Append., 584-589. * TH/rt- erbuch : KunstspracJie Vcrstand. 6 Original Ideen ilber AnthropoL, 148. 6 Pract. I'ern., 1'JS. 7 Human Intellect, 649. 8 Philosophie des Unbewussten, Berl., 1869; 3d ed., 1872; f>th ed. (1st stereotyped), 1873; tr. into French by Nolen, 1876. Schelling's Positive Philosophic als Einheit von Hegel wid Schopenhauer, 1869. Das Ding an Sick und seine Beschaffen7ieit,l8tl. P/dlosoph. Abhandlung, 3. Phil. d. Unbew.1812. Erlduterungen, 187 1. Darwinism, 1875 (tr. into French by Guerolt, 1877). 900 UNDERSTANDING. operates in conformity with plan and end is unconscious. The pulsation of the heart, the tone of the arteries, the in- testinal movements, the vegetative processes in the body ; the animal instincts ; the embryonic development, are independ- ent of our consciousness : hence the cause of them operates unconsciously. Von Hartmann also argues to the same con- clusion from the phenomena of magnetic somnambulism, . d. Lritisch. Phihisaph., ii. 7->7. 4 Utilitarianism, p. 9. 5 Introduci. to Metaphysic. c Induct, of Biology, 43, 904 VACUUM. VACUUM (Lat.), empty space ; either absolute or relative; lo- cality without content. See Space. The intervals in bodies, pores, interstices, considered as empty, are called V. dissemi- natum. VAISECHICA, in Hindoo Philosophy, one of the three semi- orthodox systems. It was founded by Kanada, and is simi- lar to the system of Empedocles. It is the philosophy of individuality, and largely a system of physics. The V. ad- mits the existence of atoms, but of natures as various as the general phenomena of nature. The V. is considered as com- plementary to the Nydya, q. v., and its six categories are usually added to those of the latter. Both will be found under Categories, Hindoo. The third system is the Sankhya. See Yoga-Sontras. VALENTINIAN SYSTEM, system of Valentinus, an Alexan- drian gnostic of the second century A. D. Gnostic Panthe- ism : Evil was created by the desire of the Eons to unite with Buthos. VALUE (Ger. Werth), intellectual or moral estimate of worth; and then, by transfer, the thing on which the estimate is put. Intrinsic value of a thing, as absolute, would involve the favorable estimate of every right mind; ordinarily, it is applied to that whose value is relatively fixed. Holiness is intrinsically valuable, absolutely; temporal good, or that which secures it, has a relative value only. Price is the pub- lic judgment in regard to value not intellectual or moral. VANA ARGUTATIO (Lat.), empty subtlety, quibbling. (Ger. /Spitzfindigkeit, eitele Vernunftelei.} Kant. 1 VAPOR, POTENTIAL, OF METAL, in the Hermetic Phi- losophy, the essence, splendor, soul of metal. VARIATION (Lat.), alteration ; changing; diversification ; dif- ference. (Ger. Veranderung .} In Kant: 1. "The conjunc- tion, in one and the same subject, of contradictory predi- cates." 2. "A mode of existence which follows upon an- other mode of existence of the same object." 3. "The succession of opposed determinations." 4. " When some- thing that was not comes into being, or something that was passes out of being rise and passing away." Mellin. VARIATIONS, CONCOMITANT, method of quantitative in- i Logi k, 80. VERISIMILITUDE. 905 duction; in Mill: 1 "Whatever phenomenon varies in any manner whenever another phenomenon varies in some particular manner, is either a cause or an effect of that phenomenon, or is connected with it through some fact of causation.' 7 See Periodic. VARIETY, in Esthetics, that species of manifoldness which is consistent with unity, but prevents it from degenerating into monotonous uniformity. Variety, Native, in Kant, special variety of the human kind, so remote from another that the offspring of the two is hy- brid, with a tendency to die out ; as negroes and whites. VEDA, VEDAS, in Hindoo Philosophy, the name of the most ancient sacred books of the Hindoos. Veda is from the Sanscrit Vidya, knowledge, law. The Vedas are in Sanscrit, and contain the primordial views of the Hindoo Philosophy, in regard to God, the creation, the soul, and its relations to God. The collection of them is attributed to Vyasa, the compiler. The Vedas are four in number: 1. Rig -Veda, hymns and prayers in verse ; 2. Yadjour- Veda, q. v. ; 3. Sama- Veda, the Saman, prayers to be chanted ; 4. Atharvan, Athar- van- Veda, which is comparatively modern. The prayers are called mantras, the dogmas brahmanas. Hence, Vedic, VEDANTA (called also Oustard), in Hindoo Philosophy, liter- ally, '" the conclusion of the Veda" name of one of the ortho- dox expositions of the theologico-philosophical part of the Vedas. It is attributed to Vyasa (see Vedas). It denies the existence of a material world, and of all individual existence. The other orthodox exposition is the Purva. The two sys- tems bear the common name Mimansa. Hence, Vedantine, Vedantism, Vedantic. *Velleity. VENDIDAD, in the Parsee Philosophy, the twentieth nosk or division of the Zendavesta, q. v. It is in the form of a dia- logue between Ormuzd and Zoroaster. *Veracity. VERB, in Logic, the grammatical predicate. -Verbal. VERISIMILITUDE, VERISIMILITY (Lat.), resemblance of truth; probability; likelihood. 1 Logic, book iii., ch. 10. 906 VERITAS. *VERITAS ENTIS, transcendental or metaphysical truth, *Veritas Cognitionis. *Veritas Signi. VERNUNFT, in Kant, the intuitional faculty or reason, which he divides into theoretical and practical, and which gives birth to ideas (Ideen], the highest perceptions of the inind, which are innate, but stimulated into action by experience. M. T. M. VERSTAND, in Kant, understanding or intellect ; also divided into theoretical and practical; the parent of conceptions or notions (JBegriffe), which are the generalizations of thought,, and mediate representations of things. They are divided into conceptions derived from experience, and conceptions derived from the understanding itself. M. T. M. See Krauth's Berkeley}- VESTAL, VESTALATE, used in Fourierism, in connection with a body of unmarried young persons. VESTIGE (Lat.), tracking; footprint; track; trace; mark; sign; token ; in Aquinas, the effect representing the cause, without reproducing its form. Smoke represents fire by way of image; but the whole creation represents the Trinity by way of ves- tige. VIBRATION (Lat.), tremulous, quivering motion ; supposed as a necessary condition of the nerve in producing sense-per- ception. See Porter. 2 VICE (Lat. Vitium; Ger. Lasfer], fault; defect; blemish; imper- fection ; moral fault; failing; error; offence ; crime. 1. Sub- jectively, the propension to an action contrary to the moral law. 2. Objectively, the immoral action itself. It is opposed to virtue. Vices, as in Conflict with the Duties of Virtue, tabular view of, according to Kant: I. Vices in conflict with the duty man owes to himself, i. Of barbarousness of nature: 1. Suicide; 2. Carnalism; 3. Intemperance in eating and drinking, ii. Of culture: 1. Lying; 2. Avarice; 3. False humility. II. Vices in conflict with the duties man owes to others, i. Misanthropy, hatred of one's kind: 1. Qualified envy ; 2. Qualified ingratitude; 3. Qualified malignity .See Qualified, ii. Contempt of one's kind: 1. Pride; 2. Detraction; 3. Scorn. 3 i Annotations [S], - Human Intellect, 126. 3 Kelig. inncrhalb. (Kirclmiunu), 27-43; Tugendlehre, H 7, 36, 41 ; Xechtslehrt, $ 24. VISION. 907 *VIHTUAL. T r . distinction, admitted by the Thomists, between the essential attributes of a thing. " Between the animality and the rationality of man there is a V. distinction." " V. is less than formal." ^VIRTUE. " 1. An act which is in harmony with moral law. 2. A disposition harmonizing with a special form of moral law, and which has the force of fixed habit." C. F. V. Virtue (Ger. Tbgend), in Kant: 1. "The moral strength of the human will in the pursuit of duty." 2. "Readiness, in free moral actions, to determine one's self in conduct by the con- ception of the law." 3. "Courage in the presence of oppo- sition to our moral sentiments." 4. "Strength of principle in submission to moral duty." 5. "Strength of maxims in pursuit of duty." 6. " The moral faculty of self-control." 7. "The harmony of the will with every duty, a harmony established in a firm moral sentiment." 8. "Moral strength of will." 9. "Firmly grounded sentiment involving the complete fulfilling of duty." 10. "The conformity of senti- ment with the law of duty." 11. "The morally good." 12. "The moral sentiment in struggle." 18. "The senti- ment conformed to law out of regard to the law." Mellin. 1 Virtue is distinguished as noumenon in its essential character, and ph&nomenon as revealed in external characteristics. It is characterized as adopted, when it is prompted by inclina- tion or a native bent of mind; genuine and ethical, when prompted by principle. VISHNU, VICHNOU. See Trimourti. VISION (Lat,), sight. 1. The act of sense-perception, of which the eye is the organ. See Porter, 2 Ulrici. 3 2. V. in God, the theory of Malebranche, that the sense-perceptions are not really organic, but are made possible by the connection of the soul with God, and of God with the soul. "God has in Himself the idea of all the beings He has created. He sees all these beings by considering the perfections He includes, to which they are related. God is most strictly united to our souls by this presence ; so that He may be said to be the place of spirits, as space is the phice of bodies. These two things being supposed, it is certain that the mind can see i Kunst*pruche. "Human Intellect, 152-168, 180-189. 3 Letb u. Sede, 2d eel., 1874, 226-268. 908 VISPERED. what there is in God which represents created beings ; that being most spiritual, most intelligible, and most' closely present to the mind. And so the mind may see in God all the works of God, supposing God willing to discover to it what He has in Himself that represents them." l VISPERED, in the Parsee Philosophy, a book of the Zenda- vesta. VITAL FORCE (Ger. Lebenskraff).Czo\be: "The power of or- ganisms cannot be explained by the planless and formless physical and chemical activities." "Nothing is left us but to throw ourselves into the arms of mysticism by accepting a supersensuous vital force, or in acknowledging the eternity of matter, to acknowledge also the eternity of form." 2 J. G. Fichte : " One of the two, spirit or nature, we must let drop ; the actually true and real being is spiritual, and there is no other being." 3 I. H. Fichte: "One and the same faculty (the soul) is active in the bodily processes, and in the changes of consciousness, and manifests itself diversely in accordance with the grades of its intensity." 4 Flentje has shown, from the position of natural science, how untenable is the idea that, in organisms, no other forces are at work than those of inorganic nature, as, specially, of chemistry. 5 Hegel : " The spiritual is the union of the spiritual and natural, in such way that the natural takes its law and bounds from the spiritual. God is not alongside of things, but actually in them : He is the subsistence of all things." "The consideration of the harmony in the organic brings at once with it the feeling of a higher something which has established this harmony." 6 Fr. Hoffmann, like Baader, maintains the identity of spirit and nature. 7 Lotze: "So little do we find in organic bodies that native, self-sufficient vital force, that, on the contrary, we can look upon them only as those places in space in which the materials, the forces, and the movements of the general course of nature interlace in such happy relations, that changeable masses for a long time condense themselves to a shape, though it l ffectierchfi (If. Ja Vcrite, L. III., ch. vi.; Bulilc: Gesclnclde, III., 444 seq. 2 Eat. s/.-//- iir, ,1. SclbKtlHWHsst.v'i/ns, 1856, 5n, 56. * Nacliegdassene Werlce, III. 32. *Anthrr>poln- gie, 474,475. 5 Lebcn n. d t.. Na tur t I860; Riiclmer's Kraft u. Sloff . . b<;leuchtft,lS'iG. c Werlcc, XI. '202, 203. T zisclir. :. Fichte. XLI. 135. VITAL FORCE. 909 be ever in transition, and their reciprocal operations can run like melody through the round of bloom and decay." l Mehr- ing 2 holds the same view as I. H. Fichte. Moleschott op- poses the doctrine of vital force, as he defines it a force without substratum, and yet endowed with personal quali- ties. 3 Planck maintains that the organic originates in influ- ences which animate the surface of the earth from its inte- rior, and pronounces it " nonsense to believe that by the knowledge of the activity of chemical and physical forces in organism we have set aside the notion of vital force as a principle distinct from these forces." 4 Schaller directs at- tention to the distinction between the chemical and the organic; that in the chemical process, after the completion of a single occurrence, the process comes to rest; while in organic nature there is a continuous, self-conserving, living process. 5 Schelling has the same view. 6 Schleiden denies the vital force, but lays down an impulse of self-preserva- tion, and a formative impulse as the bases of self-preserva- tion, and of the shaping process in organisms, as a law in accordance with which both are united to each other. 7 Schop- enhauer pronounces the polemic against the supposition of a vital force, stupid. " The denial of the vital force is ab- surd. Were there not a peculiar force of nature, to. which it is as essential to act in conformity with aim as it is essential to gravity to draw bodies toward each other; did it not move, guide, regulate the whole complicated mechanism of organism, life would be an illusion, an imposition, and we should have a mere automaton, a plaything of mechanical, physical, and chemical forces. It is not disputed that physi- cal and chemical forces are at work in organism ; but that which holds them together and guides them, so that an organism conformed to its purpose comes- into being and subsists, that is vital force." " The vital force certainly uses and brings into its employ the forces of inorganic na- ture, but by no means consists of them ; just as little as a blacksmith consists of his hammer and anvil. Hence, not MilroJcotmus, 2d. ed., 1869, I. 155. 2 philosoph. kritisch. Grundscitze d. Selbster- 7.-!vwfniM, Thl. 1. 213-218. Krrisluttf, 353-356. < Wistewchafl der fiatvr, 27H, 274. * Mb u. Seele, 125. Werhe, I., ii. 499 ; IV. 211. V Steudel : Philosophic im Uwrits, I., l.ltt. 910 VITAL FORCE. the very simplest plant-life can be explained by those forces, as, for example, by capillary attraction or by endosmosis, to say nothing of animal life." "A fundamental distinction be- tween the vital force and all the other forces of nature has been found in the fact that, when the vital force once for- sakes a body, it never takes it into possession again. Of the forces of inorganic nature, some, for example magnetism and electricity, depart only in exceptional cases from the bodies which they once control; others, as gravity and chemical quality, never depart from a body. But the vital force, after it has once forsaken a body, can never again take it into possession. The ground of this is that it never, like the forces of inorganic nature, cleaves to the mere ma- terial, but primarily cleaves to the form. Its activity con- sists, in fact, in the production and preservation of this form ; hence, so soon as it departs from a body, its form is destroyed. But the production of the form has its regular, systematic method, following a distinct line of succession. Hence, the vital force, wherever it enters anew, must begin its texture from the beginning. It must start ah ovo." "As regards the vital force, up to thirty-six we live on our inter- est, after that we begin to draw on our capital." 1 Schwarz* holds the same view as Hoffmann. Spiess 3 takes the same view as Schaller, Though he takes ground against vital force, he yet places the essential nature of organism in the fact that in it all the activities are directed to a common aim, and all the individual forces are bound together into a higher unity. Ulrici discusses the vital force under the following heads: I. Relation of the organic and inorganic in a chemical respect. II. Different views entertained on this subject by Regnault, Strecker, Limpricht, Graham-Otto, Kekule. III. Points of difference between organic and in- organic unions. IV. Can organic substances be produced by artificial methods? V. Answer of Liebig and v. Gorup- Besanez to this question. VI. Difference of the chemical processes in organic and inorganic bodies. VII. The vital force accepted by recent chemistry, rejected by recent physi- ology. VIII. The opponents of vital force: G. A. Spiess, * Parerga, II. 172 seq. ; I. 517 ; Willen in Natur, Vorr. VI. ; Welt ah TT377, 1. 169. Gott, Natur u. Mensch, 17 ; Ztschr. v. Fichte. XLVII. 235. 3 Jfeuen-r VORSTELLUNG. 911 J. W. Schleiden, Du Bois-Reymond, J. M. Schiff, C. Luthvig, A. Fick. IX. Attempts at a reconciliation of views by Claude Bernard and R. Virchovv. X. H. Lotze, the leading representative of a tendency to mediation, which yet sets aside vital force. XI. E. Haeckel, the leading representa- tive at present of the materialistic tendency, which denies all distinction between mechanism and organism. XII. Proof that the inorganic forces cannot produce life and its phenomena. XIII. Result: The vital force and the modes of operation distinctive of it are the presupposition of all organization. "So long as we speak of an electrical force, so long, in spite of the variety of its manifestations, we are justified in speaking of a vital force; that is, in using this term to designate the cause of those phenomena by which in the main in similar ways organic bodies are distinguished from the inorganic." 1 "VOLITION, " an exercise of will." C. F. V. (Ger. Wollen.) Bp. Wilkins: "To say that we cannot tell whether we have liberty because we do not understand the manner of volition, is all one as to say that we cannot tell whether we see or hear, because we do not understand the manner of sensa- tion." L. J. Hence, Volitional and Volitive. VOLUNTAS (Lat), will, q. v. Hence, Voluntary. VORSTELLUNG (Ger.), in Kant, representation (the Gr. av- Taoia), applies to intuitional and sensational perceptions, and also to conceptions which are their generalizations. M. T. M. See Verstand. It is Kant's most general term for men- tal modifications of every kind. See Krauth's Berkeley? Ulrici 3 classifies the conscious soul in its relations to itself under the heads of: I. Life of feeling. II. Life of mental modifications ( Vorstellamjsleben]. III. The life of instinct. Under the second he embraces : 1. The faculty of memory ; 2. Of the association of ideas ; 3. Imagination and memory. Kant applies the adjective "dunkelj* obscure, to those Vor- stellungen, modifications, of which we are not conscious. It is opposed to clear, which marks distinct perception. Com- plex V. (gehdufte) are those in which the main V. are accom- panied by other V. springing from subjective grounds, out Gott. und die. Ntdur, Dritte, nou bearb. Aull., 175, '210-290. * Annotations, Tabular View, p. Go 1 *. 3 i n t be psychological part of Leib u. Seele, 2d. ed., 1874, 207-301. 912 VORTEX. of the situation in which we are or were. They are pure when free from everything which pertains to sensation ; op- posed to empirical. Thus, space is a pure V. ; body, which fills it, is empirical. They are called sensible (sinnliche) as aroused by a distinct object and referred to it; as, V. of sound, shape, movements, smell. They are rational, as pro- duced by a free operativeness of the mind of man, with the consciousness of an aim. Vorstellungs-fahigkeit, Vorstellungs- kra/t, and Vorstellungsvermogen, express the receptivity, ca- pacity, power, faculty of mental representation, the repre- sentative power, that on which, in general, rests our power of having mental modifications. Mellin. 1 VORTEX, (pi. Vortices} (Lat.), whirling motion; whirl (Ger. Wirbel). In Des Cartes,' 2 system of matter moving in gyrations (Fr..Tourbillons), and carrying the heavenly bodies with it. WARMTH, " a distinct sensation which, under certain circum- stances, is present and comes to our consciousness. Physics has demonstrated that the rise of it is conditioned by dis- tinct movements of the ethereal atoms, and in a certain re- spect of the ponderable atoms, the 'minutest portions' of a mass; that is, it arises when these movements meet nerves sensible to them, capable of excitation by them." Ulrici. 3 WATCH, as a familiar piece of mechanism, has been largely used in philosophical illustration. Berkeley. 4 WATER, in Thales of Miletus (640-550 B. c.), the head of the Ionic physicists: "The principle (the first, the primary cause) of all things : everything is of water, and to water everything reverts." Schwegler. 5 WEAK, WEAKNESS, applied in Ethics to human nature, the human heart ; infirmity ; frailty. (Ger. Gebrechlichkeit, Schwachheit. Kant. 6 WEAKENED CONCLUSION, is applied to the five moods of the syllogism, which, though valid, are of little use, because 1 Kunstsprachf, s. v. ; Worterbuch, s. v. 2 Princip. Philosoph., P. iii. 3 Strauss, K rauth's Translat., 128-130. 4 Principles, % 62. See Ueberweg's Notes, 77, 78, Krauth's Transla- tion. 5 Gesch. d. Philosophic, 9th ed., 1876. 6 Religion innerhalb, 21, 22 ; Tugendlehre, 114. WESEN. 913 the conclusion is particular when a general one might have been drawn. Jevons. WEALTH' (Ang. Sax.), that which contributes to weal, well- being, welfare; prosperity; riches. (Ger. Reich th'um. ) H. C. Carey : " W. consists in the power to command the ser- vices of the always gratuitous forces of nature. . . The more thoroughly the great natural forces are subjected to human control, and the more numerous these unconsuming slaves the natural farces the greater becomes the power of production, and the greater is the tendency towards that accumulation of wealth which manifests itself in the physi- cal, mental, moral, and political improvement of a people." * Malthus: "The material objects necessary, useful, or agree- able to man, which have required sorne portion of human exertion to appropriate or produce." 2 Wealth comprises " all the articles or products that are necessary, useful, or agreeable to man, and which, at the same time, possess exchangeable value; the power or capacity to exchange for or buy some quantity of labor, or of one or more commodi- ties or products obtainable only by means of labor." J. R. M'cCulloch. 3 " The annual labor of every nation is the fund which originally supplies it with all the necessaries and conveniences of life which it annually consumes, and which consist always either in the immediate produce of that labor, or in what is purchased with that produce from other nations." Adam Smith. 4 Whately has grouped and criti- cised a number of definitions of wealth. 5 WEIGHT (Ang. Sax.), gravity; measure of gravitation, q. v. (Ger. Schwere.) -'Well-Being. WERDEN, DAS (Ger.), in Kant, the Ease in a state of action, i. e., active existence; differing from it as dynamical from static electricity. M. T. M. WESEN, DAS (Ger.), real concrete existence, or essence mani- fested in qualified or conditional nature. W. logisches, logi- cal essence, "the primary, internal principle of all that per- l Wealth: Of What does it Consist? Penn Monthly, October, 1870. % Definitions in Pnlifical Ecc.nomy (Cazenove), 1853, 7, 32, 30. 3 Smith's Wealth of Nations, new ed., 1838, 1, note. 4 Wealth of Nations, Introduct. 5 Logic, Appendix I. (Sheldon & Co.), 385. 78 31 914 WHEN. tains to the possibility of a thing;" " the internal possibility of the concept; " " the sum of essential parts." Absolutely necessary W. is essence " whose non-being is impossible." Organized W., or being, is that " in which everything is end, and is at the same time reciprocally means." Hence, Wes- entliche, essential; as, W. Stlicke, essential parts. Mellin. 1 WHEN, marking time, WHERE, marking place, in the Aris- totelian categories. See Category. * Whole. Whole and Parts. Hegel: "The immediate relation (in which the two sides are quasi-independent) is that of the whole and the parts. The content is the whole, and consists of the parts : these parts are the form and the reverse of the content. The parts are diverse one from another. It is they that possess independent being. But they are parts only when they are connected with one another as identical, that is, when equated ; or, in so far as they make up the whole when taken together. But this term * together ' is the re- verse and negation of the part." 2 *WHY ? " for what reason ? " C. F. V. *WILL, " the power by which we determine personal jaction. Its result is a personal act, mental or bodily, in contrast with a spontaneous act, as involuntary recollection a reflex act, as shrinking under pain and the loose sense in which we speak of the action of the laws of nature. On account of its essential connection with intelligence, it is denominated a power of rational self-determination." C. F. V. See Des Cartes. 3 Will, Definitions of, arranged in the Classified Alphabeti- cal Order of the Authors of them : I. Ancient and Mediaeval. Aquinas, 45 Aristotle, 45 Au- gustine, 5 Epicureans, 5 Justin, 5 Neoplatonists, 5 Pelagius, 5 Plato, 5 Plotinus, 5 Stoics, 5 Tertullian. 5 II. Modern, previous to Kant. Arminius. 5 Buddeus: "The will is a faculty whereby we first perceive good and evil ; and then desire the good and turn from the evil. Nor does the will seem to differ from the understanding, except in office 1 Kmstsprache, s. v. 2 Encyklopadie (Rosenkrnnz), 135 ; Logic, Wallace's Trans hit. 211. 3 Principles, xxxii. * Quoted in the article Will, in Fleming's Vocabulary. 6 Bain : History of the Free -Will Controversy : Mental, and Moral Science, 406-428. WILL. 915 and operation. The will sometimes follows the understand- ing, sometimes precedes it, and determines it to the know- ing this or that more accurately. It is customary to call the understanding a necessary power, which, when all the requi- sites of understanding are supposed, cannot but understand, judge, reason. But from the will, it is said, man derives the power of acting spontaneously, that is, he is not determined to act by any internal necessity, but is himself the author of his own action ; as also the power of acting freely, that is, if one object be proposed, he can act or not act in regard to it, can choose it or reject it ; or, if a number of objects be proposed, can choose one and reject the others. lu the sense here claimed, it seems to me, the will, equally with the under- standing, is destitute of all liberty. For as soon as the will perceives anything represented as good, whether by the un- derstanding, the imagination, or the senses themselves, it cannot but love it and desire it ; and, on the other hand, the evil, which it perceives as evil, it necessarily shuns and dis- likes." 1 Calvin, 2 Collins, 2 Sam. Clarke, 2 Des Cartes, 2 Jona- than Edwards, 2 Gassendi, 3 Hobbes,* Hooker, 11 Leibnitz, 5 Locke, 6 Price, 7 Priestley. 8 Regis: "The will is the faculty of affirming or denying, of doing or letting alone, what the understanding presents to it as true or false, good or bad. The ordinary opinion that the soul determines itself, and is a self-active essence, is to be rejected, for the only immedi- ately operative cause is God ; all other causes are but medi- ate instruments, which operate through the Godhead." 9 Reid, 10 South, 11 Spinoza. 12 Systeme de la Nature: "Will, the result of brain-action, is not free ; its action is necessi- tated." 13 III. Modern, subsequent to Kant, to our own day, Ameri- can and British. Bain : " The primitive elements of the will are: i., the spontaneity of movement; and, ii., the link be- tween action and feelings, grounded in self-conservation." u Carpenter: "A self-determining power within us." Chase: 1 Element. PMlosoph. Praclic., Edit. Spptima, 1717, 23, 24. 2 Bain : Mental and Moral Science : History, 406-428. 3 Physic, sect, iii , lib. x., ch. i. ; Opp. II., 409 seq. * Bain, 411-414. 6 Bain, 415, 416. 6B a i n ,4i3. 7 Bain, 420. Bain, 421. AMaph., I. 203. See Buhle: GeschicMe, III., 413-415. 10 Bain, 422-425. " Will, in Fleming's Vocabu- lary. 12 Bain, 414. 13 Buhle, vi. 109. 14 Mental and Moral Science, 1868, book iv., 8 U5-429 ; The Emotions and the Will, Gd edit., 18?6. 916 WILL. "The spontaneous form of spontaneity." ' Coleridge. 2 Cope: " W. may be considered in two aspects: first, as a control over the origin of mental and bodily movements ; and sec- ond, as a control over the direction which those movements take." " All actions may be divided into two classes : those which are performed with the design of securing the pleasure of the subject, and those whose motive is to secure pleasure for the object, as distinct from, that is opposed to that of the subject the appetent and the altruistic" 3 Green, 2 Hamil- ton, 4 Hazard, 5 Mansel, 6 Jas. Mill, 2 J. S. Mill, 7 Stewart, 2 Tap- pan, 8 Thompson, 2 Whedon. 9 IV. Modern, subsequent to Kant, to our own day, Conti- nental. Bouillet: "Faculty of willing, of self-determining. Sometimes the word is synonymous with activity, and is then divided into spontaneous W., or instinct, and reflective W.; but, ordinarily, it designates that particular form of activity which succeeds spontaneity, and which supposes reflection. Its determinations take the name of volitions. Each of these comprehends the following elements: 1. Self-control, being possessor and master of our faculties. 2. Conception of the idea of an action, the means of accomplishing it, the mo- tives for it or against it (sentiment, interest, duty). 3. De- liberation, judgment of the moral character of an act. 4. Free determination. 5. Execution of the determination. It differs essentially from desire, with which Condillac and his school have confounded it, and from the understanding, from which the Cartesians have not sufficiently distinguished it; it ought to control the desires and receive illumination from the understanding. It is one of the conditions of mo- rality and of responsibility, and consequently of personality. Maine de Biran, who has laid much stress on the study of the will, has endeavored to explain, by the action of that faculty, many acts or important states of the soul, as atten- tion, sleep, &c." 10 Feuchtersleben. 2 J. G. Fichte : 1. " What is the meaning of the expression : I find myself willing ; and l Symbolism, 60. 2 Article Will, in Fleming's Vocabulary. 3 The Origin of the Will, Penn Monthly, June, 1877. Do.: Consciousness in Evolution, Penn Monthly, August, 1875. 4 Metaphysics (Am. ed.), 128 ; Bain, 425, 426. 5 Freedom of the Mind in Willing ; or, Every Being that Wills a Creative First Cause, 1866. c Bain, 426. ? Bain, 426-428. 8 Treatise on the Will, new ed., 1857. The Freedom of the Will, 1864. 10 Didionnaire Uaiversel : Art. Volorite. WILL. 917 only as willing can I find myself? What it means to will is assumed as known. This concept is not capable of a real explanation, and needs none. Every one must be aware, in himself, by intellectual intuition, what it means, and this he can accomplish without the least difficulty." l 2. " The will in the phenomenon is never determining, but always deter- mined: the determining has already taken place; had it not taken place, we should not have it manifested as will, but as inclination." 2 I. H. Fichte : 1. " Will is only the becoming real of what is thought, a becoming which has already been controlled by the intelligence. The thinking determines itself immediately to willing, not the converse." 3 2. " The incitant of the will must, first of all, enter into conscious mental representation. This represented something is the starting-point and the first excitant of the act of will, which is produced by feeling. Cognition, feeling, and willing are inwardly inseparable." 4 3. "Our willing is co-willing of that which was primarily willed (of God), that which is laid down in the ethical ideas." 5 V. Hartmann (see Schopen- hauer), 1. looks upon the functions of the individual organs of a living body as unconscious acts of will. 2. "A mental representation is the motive and the excitant cause of the will. The will is nothing besides the faculty of will- ing; it is incapable of all other activity; its essential na- ture is only the ability of willing." 6 See Unconscious, Philosophy of. Hegel: "The distinction between think- ing and willing is merely the distinction between the theo- retical and the rational respect. They are not two faculties ; the will is a special mode of thinking. The beast acts by instinct." 7 Helfferich : "Resolution is nothing more than the product of diverse mental representations inter- lacing or co-working." 8 Kant. See special article Will in Kant. Liebmann (see v. Hartmann) : " W. is the function of the Ego by which it determines itself to action." 9 Scho- penhauer. See special article Will, in Schopenhauer. Ul- i Werke, IV. 19 ; System der Sittenlehre, 1798. 2 Werke, VIII., 413 ; Recension of Crf.u- z/r's slept, lli'tradif,. iib.d. Freilieit d. Willens, 1703. 3 Charalteri stile d. neurrcn PJdln- snph., ed. 2, 766, 767. 4 Psychologic, II. 133. & Do , 31. 6 Pliilnxnph. d. TTnbeiviisxt.. 2<1 ed., 2]."., 217 ; Erlauter. z. Metaphijs. d. Unhtwmst., 3(i. 1 Wtrl-r., VIII., 34-3S ; Philoso- RccJits. 8 Metnpliysil; 235. e Beweis d. Freiheil d. WiUens, 11. 78* 918 WILL. rici : "The volition is by no means identical with the mere tendency, not even with conscious tendency and desire. So long as it is impossible to overthrow the fact, to which there is a universal testimony, that the will is able to set itself in opposition to those tendencies which come into our con- sciousness, to resist the force of the impulse to gratify those tendencies, and to act with that end in view ; so long as the will can hem these in and limit them, it is simply im- possible (impossible, for it involves a logical contradiction) to identify the will with tendency and desire, or to derive it from the faculty of desire, the appetitive faculty." 1 Will, Willing, in Kant, practical reason (voluntas, facuttas appetitiva superior], 1. " Everything in nature works accord- ing to laws. A rational being alone has the faculty of act- ing in accordance with conception of laws, principles, that is, has a will. As reason is required that we may deduce action from laws, the will is nothing more than practical reason. If the will be in itself in complete conformity with reason, it is the faculty of choosing that only which the rea- son recognizes as good ; in opposition to this, the determina- tion of the will is necessitation." 2. "A perfectly good will cannot be conceived of as necessitated to actions in conformity with law. Hence, for the will of God, and for a holy will in general, there can be no imperatives. The shall is out of place, the will is of itself in necessary harmony with law." 2 3. "The will is thought of as a faculty, which determines itself to action in conformity with the conception of certain laws. The objective ground of the self-determination of the will is the end; the ground of the possibility of the particu- lar act which accomplishes the end is called the means. The subjective ground of desire is incitement; the objective ground of willing is motive." 3 4. In the transition from the metaphysics of morals to the critique of the practical reason, Kant's first proposition is that "the concept of liberty, g. v., is the key to the explanation of the autonomy of the will." "The will is a species of causality pertaining to living be- ings, in as far as they are rational ; and liberty is that attri- bute of this causality, in virtue of which it i? operative inde- 1 Gott u.der Mmsc>>, weitfr Tlifil ; I. Das y,iturrccht (1ST3); We'se.n v. Deijriff d. Willens, 12-35. 2 Grumlleg. z. Metaph. d. Kitten, 36. 3 Grundl. d. iletaplt., 63. WILL. 910 pendently of extraneous causes determining it. Necessity of nature would mark that it is determined to activity by extra- neous causes. The freedom of the will is its attribute of being a law to itself, that is Autonomy t q. v." 1 5. "The au- tonomy of the will is the exclusive principle of all moral law, and of all duties in accord with it. The autonomy is freedom in both the negative and positive sense." 2 6. " The will is the faculty of desire, so far as it is capable of deter- mination to act in conformity with the conception of an end. Conformity to an end is applied to a thing only because we can deduce the possibility of it from a will." 3 7. " The faculty of acting in accordance with the conception of the law-principle." 8. " The faculty of determining one's self to action in conformity with the conception of certain laws." 9. " The faculty of determining in regard to certain objects correspondent with conceptions, either to bring them forth, or at least to determine itself to the production of them whether the physical power to do so be adequate or not that is to determine its causality," Mellin. 4 Will, Willing, in Schopenhauer. The wide range of topics embraced in Schopenhauer's doctrine of the will may be thus classified: 5 I. Willing; Wollen ; Volition. i. The subject of the willing. The subject, Ego, is divided into the subject of the willing and the subject of the cognizing See Ego, Subject, ii. Identity of the subject of the willing and the subject of the cognizing. "The word 'I' designates this identity, and includes both." 6 iii. Indefinable character of willing: "As the subject of willing is immediately given to self-consciousness, it is impossible to define or describe fur- ther what willing is ; rather is it the most immediate of all our cognitions; in fact, it is that whose immediateness must at last shed light on all the rest, which are mediate in a high degree." 7 iv. Wisdom of language in applying the term " willing." " In many, perhaps in all languages, the opera- tion of incognitive, in fact of inanimate bodies, is expressed by ' willing.' A will is consequently presupposed in them, lOrundJ. z. M. d. , 97, 102. * Tract. Fern., 29, 57, 77. 3 Ur thr.il skr aft, $ 4-10. * Ktmxtftprache. 3 Frauenstiirlt: Schopenhauer- Lea-ikon, 1871. 6 Zure.ich. Grunde, :;d td., lio. 1 Zureiclt. Grunde, 141 ; IJundschr. JVucItUus, 161 ; Wdt uls Wille, 3d ed. 215). 920 WILL. but never a cognition, conception, perception, think- ing." * II. Will, Wille. i. The will, as thing in itself: 1. In what sense the will is to be considered as thing in itself. See An Sich, Noumen, Thing's. "The perception, in which we cognize the movements and acts of our own will, is far more immediate than any other; it is the point at which the thing in itself comes most immediately into phenomenon, and is illuminated in the closest proximity by the cognizing sub- ject. By every coming forth of an act of will from the dark deep within us into cognizing consciousness, there takes place an immediate transition, into phenomenon, of the thing in itself which lies exterior to time. The act of will is indeed, according to this, no more than the most direct and clear phenomenon of the thing in itself; yet it follows that, if all the other phenomena could be cognized by us as immedi- ately and intrinsically, we should feel compelled to claim for them what we claim for the will in us. In this sense, con- sequently, we must conceive of the internal essence of every- thing as will, and must call the will the thing in itself." 2 2. Antithesis between the will and its phenomenon. "The will as thing in itself is completely diverse from its phe- nomenon, and completely free from all forms of it, into which it must enter that it may produce phenomenon, forms, there- fore, which relate to its objectivity, but are extraneous to the will itself. Even the most universal form of all conception, the conception of an object as involved in a subject, does not pertain to it; still less do those subordinate forms which are expressed by the principle of the ground. The will as thing in itself lies outside of the principle of the ground in every shape, is simply without ground, though its phenomena are throughout subjected to the principle of this ground. Fur- ther, it is free from all multiplicity, though its phenomena in time and space are countless. It is itself one, though never in the sense in which an object is one thing, in antithesis to possible plurality ; nor even as a concept is one thing, which has arisen from plurality only by abstraction ; but it is one thing as that which, exterior to time and space, imparts to Willen in der Natur, 3d ed., 95-97. 2 Weli als Wille, 3d edit., II., 221 ; see Krauth's Berkeley, 111-114. WILL. 921 the principle of Individuation, q. v., the possibility of mul- tiplicity." 1 3. Antithesis between the magical and physical operation of the will. " Magic is an immediate operation of the will itself, freed from the causal conditions of physi- cal operation, consequently of contact in the widest sense of that term." 2 See Somnambulism, ii. Objectivation of the will in nature: 1. Objectivation in general. 2. Special grades of Objectivation ; nature and forces, iii. Exhibition of the grades of will in art: 1. Art as exhibition of ideas or of the grades of will in general; works of art, genius. 2. The special arts as exhibition of special ideas; architecture, gardening, sculpture, painting, poetry. 3. Antithesis be- tween music and the other arts. 3 iv. The ethical determina- tions and manifestations of will ; bad, character, conscience, duty, ethics, freedom, good, morals, virtue, v. Affirmation and denial of the will. 1. Significance of this antithesis; quietive and motive. 2. Identity of this antithesis with the Christian antithesis between nature and grace. 3. Antithe- sis between man and animal in respect to the possibility of deciding to affirm or deny the will. 4. Phenomena of affir- mation. 5. Phenomena of negation, asceticism, sanctity. "So far is suicide from being a negation of the will to live, that it is, in fact, a phenomenon of violent affirmation of that will. The self-murderer wishes for life, and is merely dissat- isfied with the conditions under which it comes to him. He is like a sick man who interrupts the painful operation which would bring him a complete cure, and keeps his sick- ness. Instead of making sorrow the quietive of the will, he throws it from him by destroying the body, which is but the phenomenon of the will, destroys it that he may leave the will itself unbroken." 4 6. The two methods of negation of the will to live: through complete resignation or sanctity, through suffering as purely cognized, or suffering as actually felt. 7. Relation of the moral to this affirmation and nega- tion. 8. The " nothing " which remains after the negation of the will. " What remains after a complete negation of the will would certainly be, in the eyes of all who are yet full of the will, nothing. But the case is reversed to those 1 lit-// <(/* Will", 134, 15-2. 2 Parerga, 2d ed., 281 seq. 3g e e Krauth's Berkeley, 116. * Weit alt Wille, 1 , 471-473. 922 WILL. in whom the will has turned and denied itself. To them this world of ours, so very real, is, with all its stars and its galaxies, nothing." 1 *Will (Freedom of)." Will," says Kant, "is that kind of causality attributed to living agents, in so far as they are possessed of reason ; and freedom is such a property of that causality as enables them to originate events independently of foreign determining causes." F. V. 3. See Liberty. WILLKUR. 1. Represents the Lat. Arbitrimn, as Wille repre- sents Voluntas. W. is absolute will; arbitrariness; free will; free choice; the power and act of capriciousness; with no real reason, no proper motive. 2. It sometimes represents Voluntas, Will, q. v. According to the character of the in- fluences operative on it, it is called rational or irrational, human or animal, bond or free. *WISDOM. Kant: 1. " The harmony of the will with the final aim of all things, the supreme good." 2. " Keason which teaches us to eradicate what is in conflict with the moral law, and does, in fact, eradicate it." He qualifies it as hu- man, practical, theoretic. Mellin. 2 Wisdom, Doctrine of (Ger. Weiskeitslehre), philosophy. Kant: "The doctrine which defines the idea of the supreme good practically, that is, so as to make it sufficient for the maxim of our rational conduct. As science, it is philosophy." 3 WISE MAN, THE, in Antisthenes, "the man sufficient for himself, independent of all, indifferent to marriage, family, and state, as also to riches, honor, and enjoyment." In the Cynic view: "Master over all his wants and desires, without weakness, free from the fetters of societary law and societary custom the peer of the gods." In the Stoic view: "He who actually possesses a true knowledge of divine and hu- man things, as well as the absolute moral perception and strength that flow from it, and who, by consequence, unites in himself every conceivable perfection of humanity." 4 In Kant: "He who, like a poet, personifies virtue in absolute purity, wholly free from the influence of all extraneous im- pulses, as a thing solely of duty as an ideal toward which we must ever be drawing closer." 5 1 Weltals Wilte, I., 485-487. 2 Kunstsprache. 3 Pr. Vernunft, 194. < Schwegler-Stir- ling, 54, 55. 129, 130. & Tugendlehre, 9. WIT AND HUMOR. 923 WISSEN (Ger.), in Kant, science ; sometimes knowledge, but never cognition (Erkenntniss, q. v.). M. T. M. WISSENSCHAFTSLEHRE (Ger.). 1. "Theory of science (Fr. Theorie de la Science] ;" "science of knowledge;" phi- losophy considered as a scientific exposition of the essential nature of cognition. 2. The name of the theoretic philoso- phy of Johann Gottlieb Fichte. " Philosophy is a science ( Wissenscha.fi}. Science affirms something which it actually knows and can know (weiss and wissen kann}. How and in what way can a multitude of propositions, very diverse in themselves, become one science, one and the same total ? There must be at least one proposition which is certain, which in some way imparts its certainty to the rest, so that, when and in as far as this one is granted as sure, a sec- ond one is also sure; and if the second one is sure, a third one, and so on, must be sure. Thus all would have sure- ness, the same sureness, one sureness in common, and thus become one science. . . How is it possible to reach the con- tent and form of a science in general, that is, how is science itself possible? Anything in which this question would be answered would itself be a science, and in fact the science of science in general. The nation which shall discover this science would be well entitled to give it a name from its own tongue, and might simply call it science or the doctrine of sci- ence ( Wissenschaftslehre}. What has hitherto been styled philosophy would then be the science of science in general." l *Wit. *WIT AND HUMOR. Barrow, 2 Kames, 3 Spectator* Sydney Smith, 5 Thackeray, 6 Ben Jonson, 7 S. Bailey. 8 Sir Henry Bulwer, 9 has a chapter on wit. According to Sydney Smith, " The feeling of wit is occasioned by those relations of ideas which excite surprise, and surprise alone." " True wit is nature to advantage dressed ; What oft was thought, but ne'er so well expressed ; Something, whose truth convinced at sight, we find, That gives us back the language of our mind." POPE. l Ueber den Eegriff der Wissenschaftslehre, 1794, 1798; Werke, I. 27-81. 2 Vol. I., sermon 14. 3 Criticism, ch. xiii. * Nos. 58-63. 5 Mor. Phil, Humorists. T Every Man in his Humor. 8 Discourses Literary and Philosophical, 1852. o France, Social, Literary and Political. 924 WOLF. Aristotle 1 defines wit as " chastened insolence." And 2 he says: "The ludicrous consists in a thing being out of place, anomalous, ugly, and faulty, though not in such a way as to cause any sense of apprehension or pain." This definition has been made by Coleridge 3 the text for his dissertations on wit and humor. WOLF (Christian, 1697-1754). SYSTEM OF, elaboration and systernization of Leibnitzianism, q. v. WONDER (Grer.Wunder).!. The emotion, the feeling which, " according to circumstances, is denominated surprise, aston- ishment, admiration, wonder ; and when blended with" " the intellectual necessity of refunding effects into their causes, and the intellectual necessity of carrying up our knowledge into unity or system," " it obtains the name of curiosity. It is a powerful auxiliary to speculation, and adequately ex- plains the preference with which certain parts of philosophy have been cultivated, and the order in which philosophy in general has been developed. Plato, Aristotle, Plutarch, and Bacon, have all concurred in testifying to the influence of this principle." Hamilton. 4 2. Object of the feeling; won- derful thing. WORD (GeT.Wort). 1. An articulate sound which designates or helps to designate a concept or idea; a part of speech ; the notation of such a sound by characters. 2. The Logos, q. v. See Berkeley, 5 Locke, 6 Ueberweg. 7 WORLD, in Philosophy (Gr. itda/wc; (see compounds of Cosmo) ; Lat. Mundus, both implying order and beauty ; Fr. Le Monde, VUnivers; Ger. Welt, Weltatt}. The created universe; never, in its proper philosophical use, applied to our globe simply. "World is the great collective idea of all bodies whatever." Locke. "It comprehends heaven and earth, all creatures visible and invisible, spiritual and corporeal." Furtmair. In Kant, we have the world distinguished as metaphysical, intelligible, transcendental, moral. World, in the History of Philosophy. I. Ancient. Anax- agoras : 1. " So far as reason conceives of the world as a sys- tem of aims and that such is the judgment of reason, con- 1 Rhet., II., xii. 16. 2 p oe t., v . 2. 3 Literary Remains, Vol. I. 4 Metaphysics, Lect. IV., 5-1-50. 5 Principles, % 20. 2 1. Human Understanding, II., xiii. 18, 28. * Notes on Berkeley's Principles (Kruuth's Translat.), [6], [7]. WORLD. 925 sciousness irresistibly declares the world cannot be ex- plained mechanically." 2. "There is & spirit of the world, author and governor of the universe, whose nature is reason, and who is the ground and source of all rational being." See Hombomeria. 1 Aristotle: "There must exist a first, immovable cause of motion, a cause which depends on noth- ing else, eternal and indestructible, active from eternity., and as everything which is, has its being through movement, is the eternal cause of the eternal world, and preserves it by the constant movement of the heaven in its course." 2 Philo: " The Logos, as the first-born Son of God, is God's instrument in the creation of the world. He is the ideal of the world, after which God gave shape to matter. He is the instrument through which God governs the universe, and preserves it in its course." 3 Plato: "The world is the work of an intelli- gence shaped in accordance with the highest aims of rea son. Its constituent parts are matter and spirit, whose powers and laws are subordinated to the operative force of that intelligence which works in conformity with aims. The world is the sum of all substances in general, its uncon- ditional author, the Godhead, alone excepted." * Plotinus: "The existence of the world pertains to the essence of the Godhead; the world is consequently from eternity, and can be destroyed by no exterior cause." 5 So also Proclus. 6 II. Mediaeval and Modern, before Kant. Giordano Bruno, Meister Eckart, Scotus Erigena, and Spinoza teach that God is all in all, the alone-existent, the being of the world, and entirely present in it as His creation, in the sense of Panthe- ism, q. v. The great mass, however, of philosophers of this era maintain the proper creation of the universe, its coming into being by the free will of an omnipotent personal crea- tor. III. Kant to Schopenhauer. J. G. Fichte denies the real being of the world, and of things, and the substantial being of God. Over against Spinoza, he rejects the being of sub- stance as the bearer of accidents. "Substance is nothing i Sec sources given in Buhle : Geschichte, I. 66. 2 Ausc.plnjs,, lib. viii. ; Buhle, I. 3.31. 8 Buhle, I. 623-634. 4 Phuedo, 217 ; Philetus, 244; SopMsta, 266 ; Polit., 80 ; De rep., VI. VJ1, VII. 158;Tinmei!s,300; Buhle, I. 201. 5 Buhle, I. 672-751 ; Tiedemann : Geist d. spcculatir. PJiilosftpJi., III. 6 Buhle, I. 765. 70 92G WORLD. separate and peculiar, but only the accidents themselves under the form of thought. The world of the changeable does not exist; it is pure nothing. The world is not a mirror, an expression, a revelation, a symbol of the eternal, but rather a struggle of being and non-being, the absolute internal contradiction. The concept of being is not of itself, but comes from thinking, and this being is in itself dead. There is no other being than life; the sole life is the life of God, or the absolute ; life and absolute are one and the same thing. There is nothing whatever in existence except the immediate and living thinking ; not even a thinker, as a dead substance in which the thinking inheres. The real life of this thinking is in its ground, the divine life." l Hegel : " God is essential process, and the world a moment in this process. God is the true God only as the living process, to posit his alter, the world. The finite, and the infinite also, are but moments of the divine life, or the divine process. The idea is throughout only as the movement. God is this movement in itself, and only thereby living God. Without world, God is not God ; it is as moment in Him. God, as spirit, is essential self-revealing, the living process ; He did not create the world all at once, but is its eternal creator ; this self- re veal ing, this actus, is eternal. This is the concept of Him, this the determination. His reality is revelation. Nature is in itself divine. Nature and the world are incor- porations of the divine idea. Nature is the first moment of the self-realizing spirit." 2 Herbart supposes, as a second material principle beside the absolute, not crude matter, but an infinite sum of uncreated " reals," out of the configura- tion of which the material world arose. Without the princi- ple of finiteness, no understanding of the world is possible. 3 Kant: "The world (metaphysical) is the sum of all phe- nomena;" W. transcendental; "the total which is not a part of any other total;" "the total to which pertain all substances with their causes; " "the series of all things con- tingent, whether simultaneous or successive, connected with each other." Mellin.* Schelling: I. " Creation is nothing i W,-rke, II. 503, 86, 87; Nacltgelassene Werke, III. 358; Werlce, V. 445, VI. 361. 2 Werke, VII. 22, 28 ; XI. 27, 28, 193, 194, 201 ; XII. 198, 210, 412 ; VI. 413 ; Hegel's Leben, 113. 3 Steudel, Philos. im. Umriss, I, ii. 344 ; for Herbart's "Reals," see Schweg- ler-Stirling, 280-283. < Kunstsprache, Welt. WORLD. 927 but the presentation of the infinite reality of the absolute Ego in the limitations of the finite." 1 2. "The absolute produces from itself nothing but the absolute, the absolute again. Things are the ideas in the eternal cognitive act of the absolute; they are the essential nature of pure absolute- ness, in the form of subject-objectivating. In the world, the eternal things or ideas come into existence. This takes place not by the intervention of substance or matter, but by the subject-objectivating of the absolute." 2 3. "Apart from the absolute reason, there is nothing; in it is everything. All that is, is the absolute identity itself. There is no indi- vidual being, or individual thing, in itself. The absolute identity is not the cause of the universe, but is the universe itself. What we call matter is not in itself matter, but is the absolute identity itself." 3 4. " The essence of the one is the eternal and invisible Father of all things, who, inasmuch as He never comes forth from His own eternity, grasps infinite and finite in the same act of divine cognition. The universe sleeps in the eternal unity of the infinite; as in an infinitely fruitful germ. The essence of the absolute reflected in being is the infinite body, but reflected in thinking or in activity, as infinite cognizing, it is the infinite soul of the world." 4 5. " The sequence of things from God is a self- revelation of God. But God can only be revealed in that which is like Him, in free being, self-acting. To nature belongs a deriva- tive absoluteness, or divinity." 5 6. " There is no ground on which the world can be explained except the freedom of God. All true freedom, that is, all absolute freedom, is in- deed, in another aspect, absolute necessity." 6 IV. Schopenhauer divides the world into: I. World as mental representation, world of phenomenon, Vorstellung ; 7 and II. World as will, als Wille (thing in itself.) 8 I. World as mental representation. 1. Ideality of the world as mental representation. See Externality, Object. 2. Fundamental form of the world as mental representation. See Object and Phenomenon. 3. Physiological condition IcJi, Werke, I, i. 140 scq. 2 Meen zu eincr Philosophic der Natur, WerJce, I., ii. 61, 65. 3 Darstelhmg m. Systems der P/iilosopM; Werk,-, I., iv. 114-147. * Bruno, W-irke, I., iv. 252-259, 305. *Wesen d. menschlichen Freyhc.it, Werke, I., vii. 346, 347. * Stutt- gart Privat-rorlemngcn, Werke, I., vii. 429. iWeU als Wille u.Vorstdlung, Books I., II. 8 Do., Books III., IV. 928 WORLD. of the world as mental representation. See Brain and Con- sciousness. 4. Division of the world as mental representa- tion. " The world, as mental representation, is divided into : a, the world of individual things, the world subject to the principle of the ground; and b, the world of ideas, which is independent on that principle." See Cognition, Object, Phenomenon. " The world of mental representation subject to the principle of the ground may again be divided into : i, the perceptible, and ii, the conceptible; or into i, the world of the understanding, ii, the world of reason." See Concept, Intuition, Perception, Reason. On the world of ideas, see Idea. II. The world as will (thing in itself). 1. Cognizability of the thing in itself, or of the internal essential nature of the world. See Ding an Sich. 2. Relation of this thing in itself to the world of phenomenon. 3. Division of the world as will. " The world, as will, is divided into a, the physical, and b, the ethical." The former is treated in the second book of the Welt ats Wille, and in the work Ueber den Willen in Natur. See Nature. The second is handled in the fourth book of the Welt als Wille, and in Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik. See Ethics, Morals. 4. Abro- gation of the world of will. See Will. 1 V. Most recent views. Chalyb'aus: "Spirit is thinking substance; God is no mere thinking; rather is there in Him a moment of substance. He posits within his own substance relative centres, which arrange themselves to a system of heavenly bodies." 2 Drossbach's view has been styled " a doctrine of atomic deities." " Every atom fills from its centre the whole infinity of space, through the mutual interpenetration of all atoms. 1 ' 3 I. H. Fichte: 1. "Philoso- phy cannot, out of the absolute as the abstract in itself, de- duce the relative of the finite, not in itself; cannot, out of the one thought, make two. The question why God has created the finite is therefore, for us,, destitute of meaning, and falls outside of our point of view, because we can nei- ther put ourselves in God's place, nor make out of him a l Frauonst;icH: Scliopoiiliauer, Lexicon, Art. WilU; Krautli's BerkeJey, 111-11,". 2 Zladn: v. Firldc, XX. C!'-7l>. 3 Ucbenve-: Gesdi. d. ritilos. d. Neuzeil, Viertc Aufl., 1875; Morris's Translat., II. 335. WORLD. 929 heuristic principle of deduction." l 2. " The absolute is infinite substantiality, and actualizes itself to the world ; the absolute substance determines itself in accordance with its concept, to infinite accidentality, or to the world. The con- cepts, actuality of the world and actuality of God, run com- pletely into each other, and reciprocally exhaust each other. All concrete determinations are but the accidents of the one absolute substance, which possesses itself, in them, in its totality. Only the absolute substance is; the infinite indi- vidual is that which is forever rising and vanishing in this unity. The creating of the world is, in its deepest root, no more than the infinite self-preserving and self-creating of the absolute; what God creates is but God himself. The world is the infinite other of God. That reciprocal inter- penetration of God and the world is only possible in the unifying consciousness of God; it is the ideal existence of the world in His thinking, which comes to be the actual world." 2 K. Ph. Fischer coincides in the main with Hegel. 3 German : " Spirit is the life of matter, matter the life of spirit. The matter which forms the bodies of the universe is the result of an eternal process, in which the divine dis- tinguishes itself in a visible external element from its inter- nal invisible element. The universe is a creative process of the spirit of God .perpetually taking place, a process in which the eternal essentiality of God and the world puts itself into effect. To abrogate the world, God would have to abrogate Himself. It is His eternal work, but on that account no more identical with Him than any other work is identical with its artificer ; yet God dwells in it in a manner very different from that in which an artificer dwells in his work. God is, whether within the world or exterior to it, a being who bears the world in Him, as the mother bears her child." 4 Franz Hoffmann: "In the higher region of His being God is spirit, in the lower region He is nature." 5 Lotze: "All finite things are inwardly-founded parts of the absolute." 6 Michelet : "'The divine idea has interpreted * Die Tdee dfr Pe.rsonlichkeit, 1834, 56. 2 Ontologie, 26, 363-396, 418, 519, 520. 3 p rti . heil d. mcns-hl. Willens,I2; Wissenschaft d. Metttphysik, 100-103. * Schopfergeist u. Wt-Uxtnff, oder die Welt im Werden, 19-39. 5 ztschr. v. Fichte, XLI. 135. G Mikrolcos- mits, II. 45. 79* 3K 930 WORLD. itself in the world ; the world is a necessary moment of the divine essence and life, and belongs, as phenomenon, to the actuality of God." * " The divine essence is not an abstract substance which dwells beyond the world ; it is the essence of things themselves, which lives in the phenomena." 2 Ulrici, in his discussion of the relation of God and of the world, presents : I. The difficulties involved in the relation of God to the world. "It is universally acknowledged, as the common dogma of religion and philosophy, that the ab- solute, as such, can be one only, eternal and infinite." It is on the inference that hence " the absolute is of necessity the one and sole being and essence," the struggle arises, the dif- ficulties of a personal theism and of pantheism. II. Discus- sion of the concepts of eternity and infinity. III. God dis- tinguished from the world in accordance with the logical categories according to the category of time and space the category of the whole and the parts internal and ex- ternal, essence and phenomenon, substance and modification, ground and sequence, cause and effect, co-working and re- ciprocal working (preservation and government of the world by God), means and end, concept and idea. 3 "In the things lies the norm of their substantial determinateness; but as this norm must be the prius of the existence of things them- selves, this norm or law cannot itself have a natural mate- rial being ; it must, therefore, be an ideal being ; nature, therefore, is to be conceived of as grounded in the thought of a thinking being, as established by the author of that law. And as the aims and laws of nature are immanent in things, the author of this conformity with aim and law in nature, cannot merely have elaborated a given material in conformity with aim, but must necessarily, at the same time, be creator of the world." 4 " That power which established the distinction of the atoms must have established the atoms themselves; it could not have derived the atoms from itself, as if, so to speak, it had decomposed itself into atoms ; it cannot be of one substance and essential nature with the atoms, but it determines them as another thing diverse from its own spiritual essence ; in a word, as material. A decom- l PersonlicJikeit d. Absoluien, 21-23. 2 ztschr. von Fichte, XXII. 41. 3 Gott u. die Na- tui; Dritte, nene aufgearb. Aufl., 1875, 648-679. * Ztschr. v. Fichte, XXVIII., 124-126. WORSE. 931 position of the spiritual unity of the absolute spirit into what is externally separated is impossible, and, as a contra- diction, unthinkable." l "God is in one respect immanent, in another, at the same time, transcendent cause of the world. He is immanent so far as He is the ground of His own self-determination and self-comprehension, but in this self-comprehension distinguishes Himself in Himself, dis- tinguishes His self from His self-activity, and Himself from another which He is not. He is transcendent cause so far as He distinguishes the world, which is His creation, not only from Himself, but also from the producing-distinguishing activity of His creative thinking, and with this again distin- guishes the thought, in and with which, and in accordance with which He establishes and determines the world, from this, its content, from the world as the object in thought." 2 Wirth: "The world is a real essential counterpart of the Godhead. The other, which God is not, cannot be a second Godhead, but something non-divine. This non-divine is the world. But as the world is established from the divine es- sence, it must in a certain degree be participant of it. The world, then, as diverse from God, is non-divine, yet as the revelation of the fulness of the divine life, is at the same time divine or in affinity with God." 3 World, Philosophical Topics associated with. 1. Begin- ning of the world. (Lat. Principium Mundi ; Ger. Weltan- fang.} 2. Architect of the world; (Ger. Weltbaumeister] . 3. Concept of the world, cosmological concept, cosmological idea, idea of the world, cosmic concept, cosmic notion; (Ger. Weltbegriff). 4. Quantity of the world ; (Ger. Weltgrosse). 5. Course of the world, course of nature ; (Ger. Weltlaufe). 6. Author, cause, creator of the world. See Cosmotheol- Ogy, God, Theism. (Ger. W. Ursache, W.Schopfer, W. Urheber.} 7. Bounds of the world; (Ger. Weltgrenze}. World, Soul of the, Spirit of the, anima mundi, q. v. WORSE RELATION of subject and predicate, in Hamilton, 4 marks that a negative relation is worse than an affirmative, and a particular than a universal. i Ztschr. v. Fichte, XXVIII. 118. 2 Qott u. die Natur, 672 ; see also &jsfcm d. Lcyik, 256 seq., :VJ9 ; Compendium d. Logik, 138 seq., 190; Ztschr. v. Fichte, LXIIL, 1873, 259 seq. a Ztschr. v. Fichte, XXXIV. 98, XLVIII. S3. * Logic (Am. ed.), 584. 932 WRONG. WRONG, WRONGS, in Jus (Aug. Sax. Wringan, to wring or wrest). " Wrong is merely wrung or wrested from the right or ordered line of conduct." "The distinction of public wrongs from private, of crimes and misdemesnors from civil injuries, seems principally to consist in this: that private wrongs or civil injuries are an infringement or privation of the civil rights which belong to individuals, considered merely as individuals ; public wrongs, or crimes and misde- inesuors, are a breach and violation of the public rights and duties due to the whole community, considered as a commu- nity, in its social aggregate capacity." Blackstone. 1 WYASA, in Hindoo Philosophy, probably a generic name of the founders of the Vedanta, q. v. X has been transferred from mathematics to metaphysics as a mark of the unknown. "The thing in itself is x" XANTHOS (Gr.), yellow, auburn, red; in Anthropology, applied to the fair races of men. Prichard. 2 XENO (Gr.), guest-friend ; stranger ; in composition, as Xeno- dochy, entertainment of a stranger or guest; Xenomania, irrational love of the foreign. XENOPHANES, of Ionia, founder of the Eleatic school, 580- 480 B. c. Pantheist : Elements, water and earth. See Brandis (1813), Karsten (1830), Porter. 3 XYLO (Gr.), wood; in composition, as Xylomantics, divination by wood. Y, employed, like X, q. v., to designate a second unknown. YAfNA (lit., sacrifice), in Parsee Philosophy, a book of the Zend-Avesta, q. v. YADJOTJR-V&DA, second of the Vedas, q. v. YANG, in the Chinese philosophy, one of the two images, gen- erated by Tai-Jd, or the supreme principle; it is a perfect, 1 Cmitmi'ntarics, b. iv., c. 1. 2 Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, b. ii., ch. vii., soct. i. 3 Hum. Intellect, S'.V2. ZERDUSCHT. 933 subtle, celestial, luminous nature. Yang is represented in the Konas (the most ancient Chinese writings, the trigrams of Fohi,) by a continuous line. See Yn. Y-KING, in Chinese Philosophy, "the book of changes," one of the most ancient books of China; a sort of encyclopedia, embracing physics, ethics, and metaphysics. YN, in Chinese Philosophy, one of the two images generated by Tai-ki;- it is matter, imperfect, crude, earthly, obscure. It is represented by a broken line. See Yang. YOGA, in Hindoo Philosophy, doctrine of the eternity of matter and spirit, which are identified with deity, as no more than its modifications. It gives also the means of final emancipa- tion. YOGA-SASTRA, YOGA-SOTJTRA, in Hindoo Philosophy, a book attributed to Patandjali. Its principles accord with the Sankhya, q. v. See Stockl. 1 ZAHAB (Heb.), gold (as a mineral) ; used by Locke to illustrate, in the case of Adam, the rise of the names of substances. 2 ZEAL (Crr.), fervor, passionate ardor; it is good or bad, as it is directed to proper or improper objects, or as it is restrained or unrestrained in due proportion by principle. ZEND-AVESTA (lit., living word), in the Parsee Philosophy, title of the sacred books which form the most ancient monu- ment of the religion and philosophy of Persia. It is attrib- uted to Zoroaster, g. v. It comprises : 1, the Vendidad, q. v.; 2, the Izeschne or Ya^na, q. v. ; 3, the Vispered, q. v. ; 4, the Bounclehesch. The first three are written in Zend, the fourth in Pehlvi. See Maurice. 3 ZENONISM, doctrine, philosophy, system of Zeno. 1. Of the first Zeno, the Eleatic, disciple of Parmenides, in the fifth century B. c. See Eleaticism. See Gerling (1825). 2. Of Zeno of Cittium, 340-260 B. c. Stoic, q. v. Hence, Zenonic; Z. points, indivisible points, from Zeno, the Eleatic; Zenonist. ZERDUSCHT. See Zoroastrianism. 1 L'i,rb. d. Geschichte d. Philosophie, $ 6, 7. 2 Hun. Undent., B. II., ch. vi., 40, 47. 3 Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy, P;irt I., ch. v. 934 ZERO. ZERO (Arab., Ital., Fr.), nothing; naught; point from which graduation is marked. Hamilton : " Oken, if he adhere to the intuition, intrepidly identifies the deity or absolute with zero." * ZETELIC (Gr.), seeking, inquiring; making research. ZOE (Gr.), life; in the Gnostic Philosophy, name of one of the eons of the Valentinians. ZOO (Gr.), pertaining to life; animal; in composition, as Zoog- ony, Zoography (Boyle, Glanville), Zoolatry, Zoology. " Zo- ology is the noblest part of natural history, as it compre- hends all sensitive beings, from reasonable man, through every species of animal life, till it descends to that point where sense is wholly extinct and vegetation commences ; and certainly none will deny that life and voluntary motion are superior to a mere vegetating principle, or the more in- active state of the fossil kingdom." Pennant. 2 *Zoonomy. ZOROASTRIANISM, system of Zoroaster (Zerduscht, lit., golden star), probably in the sixth cent. B. c., reformer of the Medo- Persian religion. See Zend-Avesta. See Ed. Roth (1846). "I am inclined to think that a pantheistic scheme of ab- sorption or nihilism must have preceded Z., which was a speculative advance upon the former system. And Manichse- ism was only a revived Zoroastrianism ; it was just the in- troduction of the Persian philosophy into Christianity."- Dr. John Duncan. 3 1 Discussions (Am. ed.), 28. 2 British Zoology, Pref. 3 Colloquia Peripatetica, 7. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. (From Tennemanri) with a few additions. B.C.! Rome 'Olymp. 640 114 35,1 630 116 35,3 629 125 38 611 143 42,2 G08 146 43,1 608 156 45,3 507 157 45,4 584 170 49 561 193 55,1 557 197 56 548 206 58,1 547 207 58,2 543 211 57,2 540 214 60 536 218 61 604 250 69 500 254 70,1 496 258 71,1 494 260 71,3 490 264 72,3 489 265 72,4 480 274 75,1 472 282 77 470 284 77.3 469 285 77,4 400 284 80 456 298 81 450 304 82,3 444 310 84 Thales born, ac. to Apollodorus. Solon born. Thales born, ac. to Meiners. Anaximander born. Pythagoras born, ac. to Larcher. Solon published his laws. Pherecydes born abtut the same time. Thales foretold an eclipse. Pythagoras bom, ac. to Meiners. Solon died. Anaximenes flourished. Thales died. Anaximander died. Thales died, ac. to some. Pherecydes died. Pythagoras founded a school at Croto. Xenophanes settled at Elea. Pythagoras died. Parmenides flourished, ac. to some. Anaxagoras and Philolaus born. He.'aclitus and Leucippus nourished. Anaximenes died. Ocellus Lucanus flourished. Democritus born. Battle of Marathon. Pythagoras died, ac. to some. Battle of Salamis. Diogenes of Apollonia flourished. Democritus born, ac. to Thrasyllus. Soci'ates born. Parmenides flourished. Parmenides came from Elea to Athens with Zeno Democritus born, ac. <", Apollodorus. Empedocles flourished, ac. to some. Anaxagoras repaired to Athens. Xenophon born. Melissus. Gorgias wrote his treatise npi vosw 935 936 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. JB.C 442 432 431 430 429 428 427 414 407 404 400 389 384 380 364 361 360 356 348 343 340 339 337 336 335 324 323 322 320 316 314 313 305 300 288 286 285 280 272 Rome 312 322 323 324 325 326 327 340 347 350 354 365 370 374 390 393 394 398 406 411 414 415 417 418 419 430 431 432 434 438 440 441 449 Olymp 86 87,1 87,2 87,3 87,4 88,1 88,2 91,3 93,2 94,1 95,1 97,4 99,1 100 102 104,1 104,4 105 106 108,1 109,2 110,1 110,2 110,4 111,1 111,2 114,1 114,2 114,3 115 116,1 116,3 116,4 118,3 454 I 120,1 466 468 469 474 482 123,1 123,3 123,4 125,1 126,4 Protagoras and Prodicus flourished. Beginning of the Peloponnesian war. Anaxagoras accused. Plato born, ac. to Corsini. Plato born, ac. to Dodwell. Pericles died. Anaxagoras died. Gorgias sent ambassador to Athens. Diagoras ft Diogenes of Sinope born. Democritus died, ac. to Eusebius. Close of the Peloponnesian war. Socrates died ; his disciples retired to Megara. Euclid and Archytas flourished. Plato's first voyage to Syracuse. Aristotle born. Pyrrho born. Antisthenes and Aristippus flourished. Aristotle repaired to Athens. Eudoxus flourished. Plato's second voyage to Syracuse. Plato's third voyage to Syracuse. Xenophon died. Alexander born. Plato died ; Speusippus succeeded him. Aristotle became preceptor to Alexander. Diogenes and Crates (the Cynics) Pyrrho and Anax- archus flourished. Zeno of Cittium born. Speusippus died. Xenocrates began to teach. Battle of Cheronsea. Epicurus born. Philip, king of Macedon, died. Aristotle opened his school at the Lycseum. Diogenes the Cynic died. Alexander the Great died. Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, succeeded him in Egypt. Aristotle died ; Theophrastus succeeded him. Demetrius Phalereus, and Dicasarchus of Messana flourished. Arcesilaus born (or later). Xenocrates died ; Polemo succeeded him. Theophrastus became celebrated. Crates. Epicurus opened his school at Athens. Stilpo, and Theodorus the Atheist, flourished. Zeno founded a school at Athens. Diodorus and Philo. Pyrrho died. Tht^phrastus died. Pyrrho died about the snme tinifc ; succeeded by Strato. Ptolemy Philadelphus became king of Egypt. Chrysippus born. Timon flourished. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 937 B.C. Rome Olyrap. 270 484 127,- , Epicurus died. 269 485 127,3 Strato died : succeeded by Lyco. 264 490 128,3 Zeno, the Stoic, died (or later) ; succeeded by Cleanthes. 260 494 130 Persaeus. Aristo of Chios. Herillus flourished. 241 513 134,1 Arcesilaus died (or later). 217 537 141,3 Carneades born. 212 542 143 Zeno of Tarsus flourished. 208 546 144 Chrysippus died, ac. to Menage. Diogenes of Babylon. 185 569 148,4 Pansetius born (ac. to some, later). 155 599 156,3 Embassy from the Athenians to Rome. (Critolaus, Carneades the Stoic, and Diogenes of Ba,bylon). 146 608 158,3 Greece and Carthage subjected to Rome. Antipatcr of Tarsus. 142 612 159.3 Macedon became a Roman province. 135 619 161,2 Posidonius born. 129 625 162,4 Carneades died ; succeeded by Clitomachus. 115 639 Paneetius accompanied Scipio Afdcanus to Alex- andria. 107) or 647 167,2 Cicero born. lOOj 170 Clitomachus died ; succeeded by Philo. Posidonius flourished. 84 666 171,1 Sylla took Athens. Philo retired to Rome. Antiochus. 86 667 171,2 Lucretius born (ac. to others, earlier). Posidoniua i i died. 69 685 178 Antiochus died. 63 691 172,2 Judaea became a Roman province. 50 182,2 Posidonius died ; succeeded by Jason. Lucretius died. 48 183,1 Cratippus, the Peripatetic, flourished. trl 711 184,2 Cicero died. 43) 30 724 187,3 i Egypt became a Roman province. 2-7 727 188,2 ; Augustus became Emperor. Philo the Jew born 80 938 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.C. Roman Emperors. 1 Augustus. Birth of Christ. 3 Seneca the philosopher born. ^ Sextus the Pythagorean. Nicolaus of Damascus, and Xenarchus flou- rished. Athenodorus the Stoic. 14 Tiberius. 15 Sotion. 33 Crucifixion of Jesus Christ. 34 Philo the Jew flourished. 37 Caligula. Flavius Josephus born. 41 Claudius. 50 Plutarch of Chseronea born. 54 Nero. 65 Seneca died. 66 Cornutus and Musonius exiled. 69 Galba, Otho, Vitellius. Apollonius of Tyana flourished. 79 Vespasian, Titus. 81 Musonius Rufus recalled from exile. 82 Domitian. Domitian banished the philosophers and ma- 89 thematicians from Rome. Justin Martyr bofn. Epictetus flourished. 90 Apollonius of Tyana died. 95 97 Nerva. Plutarch flourished. 99 Trajan. Tacitus. Gnostics. 118 Adrian. Secundus of Athens. Plutarch died. 120 122 Euphrates the Stoic died. 131 Galen Born. Favorinus. Basilides the Gnostic. 134 Arrian flourished. 138 Akibha.the Rabbin died. 139 Antonius Pius. Calv. Taurus. Apollonius the Stoic. Basilides the Stoic. 160 Apuleius. 161 M. Aurelius An- Alcinous. Numenius. toninus. 165 Peregrinus the Cynic, and Justin Martyr rliorl 170 180 Commodus. Lucian. Athenagorus and Tatianus. Atticus the Platonist. Bardesanes. Maximus of Tyre. Death of Antoninus. Irenseu?. Juda the Rabbi. The Talmud. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 939 Roman Emperoro. Pertinax. Julianas. Sept. Severus. Caracalla. Macrinus. Antoninus Helio- gabalus. Alex. Severus. Maximinus. Gordian. Gordian the son. Philip. Trajanus Decius. Trebonianus. Gallus and Vi- bius. Hostilianus. yEmilius Valeria- nus. Flavius Claudius. Aurelian. Flavius Tacitus. Aurel. Probus. Aurelius Carus. Diocletian. . Constantine and Maximianus. Constantine the Great. Constantine con- verted to Chris- tianity. Constantius and Constans. Origen born. Ammonius Saccas founded a school. Clemens of Alexandria. Alexander Aphrodisias. Galen died. Plotinus born. Philostratus. Clemens of Alexandria died. Tertullian died. Plotinus became a disciple of Ammonias. Porphyrius born. Ulpianus. Plotinus travelled into Persia. Plotinus came to Rome. Amelius became a disciple of Flotinus. Longinus flourished. Origen died. Plotinus died. Longinus put to death. The Manichaeans. Arnobius. Porphyrius died. lamblichus flourished. Arnobius died. Lactantius died. lamblichus died. Thcmistius. Eu?eb'us bishop of Cwsarea died. of 940 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.C. Roman Emperors. 354 Augustine born. 355 Themistius tauglit at Constantinople. 360 Julian. Sallustius. 363 Jovianus. 3G4 Valentinianus and Valens. 379 Theodosius the Eunapius. Great. 380 Nemesius flourished. 384 St. Jerome flourished. 391 Gregorius of Nazianzus died. 394 Gregorius of Nyssa. 395 Arcadius and The Roman empire divided. Honorius. 398 St. Ambrosius died. 400 Nemesius died. 401 Plutarch the son of Nestorius flourished. Greek Emperors. 402 Arcadius. 408 Theodosius II. 409 Macrobius. Pelagiua. 410 Synesius. 412 Proclus born. 415 Death of Hypatia. 418 Pelagius condemned. 430 St. Augustine, and Plutarch the son of Nes- torius, died. 434 Syrianus flourished. 450 Marcianus. Hierocles and Olympiodorus flourished. Syri- anus died. 457 Leo I. 470 Clandianus Mamertinus flourished. Boethiua born. 474 Leo II. Marcianus Capella flourished. Zeno Isauricus. 476 End of the Wes- tern Empire. 480 Salvanius. Cassiodorus born. 485 Proclus died. Ammonius the son of Her- mias. Hierocles. 487 JEneas of Gaza flourished. 490 Marinus died. 491 Anastasius. Marinus succeeded by Isidorus. 518 Justin I. 526 Boethius beheaded. 627 Justinian. 529 The Schools of philosophy closed at Athens 533 Philoponus flourished. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 941 1 A.C. Greek Emperors. 539 Cassiodorus retired to a convent. 549 Damascius and Simplicius flourished. 563 Justinian II. 575 Tiberius II. Cassiodorus died. 582 Mauritius. 602 Phocas. 604 Gregory the Great died. 610 Heraclius. 622 Flight of Mahomet. 636 Isidorus of Seville died. 641 Constantine III. and IV. Constans II. 668 Constantine V. 673 The venerable Bede born. 685 Justinus II. 694 Leontius. 698 Tiberius III. 711 Philippicus. 713 Anastasius II. 716 Theodosius III. 717 Leo III. Isauricus 735 Bede died. 736 Alcuin born. 741 Constant. VI. 753 Almanzour the Khalif. 754 John of Damascus died. 776 Rhabanus Maurus born- 796 Irene. Emperors of Germany. 800 Charlemagne. Haroun al Raschid. Alkendi flourished. 804 Louis the Pious. Alcuin died. 814 Lothaire. 840 Louis II. 855 856 Rhabanus died. 875 Charles the Bald. J. Scot Erigena came to France. 877 Louis III. 879 Alfred the Great. 880 Charles the Fat. 886 Erigena died. 887 Arnolphe. 891 Photius died. 899 Louis IV. 912 Conrad. 79* 942 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A. C. German Emperors. 919 Henry the Fowler. 937 Otho the Great. 954 Alfarabi died. 974 Otho II. 980 Avicenna born. 987 Otho III. 999 Gerbert, Pope Sylvester II. 1002 Henry II. 1003 Sylvester II. died. 1020 Mich. Const. Psellus born. 1025 Conrad II. 1034 Anselm born. 1036 Avicenna died. 1039 Henry III. 1042 Lanfranc entered the convent of Bee. 1055 Hildebert of Lavardin born. 1056 Henry IV. 1060 Anselm became prior of Bee. 1072 P. Damianus died. Algazel born. 1079 Abelard born. 1080 Berengarias of Tours died. 1089 Lanfranc, archbishop of Canterbury, died. 1091 Bernard of Clairvaux died. 1092 Roscellin found guilty of heresy at Soissons. 1096 Hugues of St. Victor born. 1100 Psellus died (later, ac. to some). Eustrachius of Nicsea. 1107 Henry V. 1109 Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, died. Alghazali d. at Bagdad (ac. to Hammer). 1114 Alanus of Ryssel born. 1117 Anselm of Laon died. 1118 Abelard taught at Paris. 1120 Abelard became monk of St. Denis. William of Champeaux, bishop of Chalons, died. 1126 Lothaire. 1127 Algazel died at Bagdad. 1134 Hildebert died. 1138 1139 Conrad III Moses Maimonides born. 1140 Hugo of St. Victor died. 1141 Gilbertus Porretanus became bishop of Poic- tiers. 1142 Abelard died. 1146 Assembly of ecclesiastics at Paris and Rheiins to oppose Gilbertus Porretanus. 1160 Lnmbardus wrote his Sentences. \YilI. of Couches died. Rob. Pulleyn died. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 943 A. C. ieu et de soi-m$me j Traite de la Concupiscence. Prescience. Faculties of the Mind (Classification of). 2. (Euvrts. 59 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1825. Distinction. Error. Quietism. BOSWELL, James (17401795). Life of Johnson. Equivocation. BOUGEANT, Father (16901743). A Philosophical Amusement on the Language of Beasts. 1739. Instinct. BOUVIEB, Bishop of Mans (b. 1783). 1. Institutionea philosophic a, logica, metaphy8ica,et moralia. 1 vol. 12mo. 2. Histoire abregee de la philosophic. 2 vols. 8vo. (1844.) Art. BOWEN, Francis (b. 1811). 1. The Principles of Metaphys. and Ethic. Science applied to the Evi- dences of Religion. (Lowell Led. 1849.) New Edit, revised and annotated. Boston, 1855. Appetite and Instinct. 2, Essays on Speculative Philosophy. Boston, 1842. Consciousness. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 971 BOYLE, Robert, Hon. (16261691). 1. Works. 6 vols. 4to. Lond. 1772. 2. Enquiry into the vulgarly received Notion of Nature. I2ino. Lond. 1685. Macrocosm. BOZZELLI, F. De V Union de la Philosophic avec la Morale. BRACH. Sensation. Bit A HE, Tycho (15461601). Hypothesis. BRAHMA. Metempsychosis. BRETON LE RAOUL. Super Lib. Poster Analyt. Intention (First and Second). BRKWSTER, D., Sir. Letters on Natural Magic. &th Ed. 1842. Magic. BRIDGEWATER, Earl of, Rev. F. H. Egerton (17561829). Treatises. Cf. 1. Chalmers. 2. Kidd. 3. Whewell. 4. Bell. 5. RvgeU 6. Auckland. 7. Kirby. 8. Prout. (New edit. Bohn.) Causes (Final, Doctrine of). Design. BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Phrenology. BROUGHAM, Henry, Lord (b. 1778). 1. Preliminary Discourse. Analysis and Synthesis. 2. Natural Theology. Space. BROWNE, Peter, Bishop (d. 1735). Human Understanding. 2 Edit. 1729. Notion. BROWNE, Thomas, Sir, M. D. (16051682). 1. Works. (Bonn, 1852.) 2. Pseudodoxia Epidemica ; Enquiries into Vulgar and Common Er- rors. (Qth Ed. 1672.) Metempsychosis, Nature (Course or power of). Idiosyncracy. BROWN, John, Dr. (1736-88). (Brunonian School). Temperament. BROWN, Thomas, M. D. (17781820). 1. Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind. 1820. Association. Conceptualism. Credulity. Faculties of the Mind (Clas- sification of). Friendship. Identity. Taste. 972 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS BROWN, Thomas. 2. Observat. on the Nature and Tendency of Hume's Doctrine concerning the delation of Cause and Effect. 1804. M Edit. 1818. Causality. 3. Lectures on Moral Philosophy. Will. Analogy and Metaphor. Combination. Fitness. Hypothesis. Physi ology. Power. State. Suggestion. Train of Thought. BRUCKER, J. J. (16961770). Tentamen introduction-is in historian doctrines de ideis. Jena, 1719. 4to. Association. BUCHANAN, David. Historia AnimcB Human ae. BUCHANAN, J. Faith in God and Mod. Atfteism compared. 2 vols, 1855. Atheism. Certainty. BUDDEUS, J. J. (16671729). Elementa philosophic practices. Halle, 1697. Anima Mundi. BUPFIEU, Claude (16611737). 1. Court general des sciences (Traite des premieres verites a. Trea- tise of First Truths ; \). Logic). Fol. 1732. Design. Principles. Truth. 2. (Euvres Philosophiques (Bouillier). 1842. Relation. Sentiment. BUHLE, J. T. (17631821). Commentatio de Libris Aristotelis, Exot. et Acroamat. in his Edition of the Organ. Rhetor. & Polit. of A. Deux Fonts., 1792. Strasburg, 1800. 5 vols. 8vo. Acroamatical. Anticipation. Notion. BUNSEN. Hippolytus and His Age. 4 vols. Land. 1852 Theodicy. BURKE, Edmund (17201797). 1. Works. 17921827. (Bohn, 1857.) 2. Reflections on the French Revolution. 1790. Classification. 3. Philos. Enquiry into the Origin of our Idexs on the Sublime and Beau tiful. 1773. Beauty. Sublime (The). Taste. 4. Letters on a Regicide Peace. Analogy and Metaphor. 5. Defence of Natural Society. Irony. BuRLAMAQtir, J. J. (16941748). Droit naturel (Principles of Natural Law). 17(?6-68. Rule. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 973 BURNETT PRIZE ESSAYS. See THOMPSON, R. A., and TULLOCH. Causes, Final (Doctrine of). Design. BURTON, Robert (1576 1639). Anatomy of Melancholy , (1651.) Apprehension. BUSHNAN, J. S. Philosophy of Instinct and Reason. Instinct. BUTLER, Joseph (16921752). 1. Fifteen Sermons. 1726. ( Upon Human Nature, or Man considered as a Moral Agent.) Apathy. Benevolence. Conscience. Injury. Nature (Human). System. 2. Six Sermons, preached on Public Occasions. Appended to 1. i later editions. (New York, 1848.) 3. The Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature. 1736. 4to. With two Dissertations : a. On Personal Identity ; b. On the Nature of Virtue. Analogy. Association. Evidence, o. Identity ; b. Fitness. Habit. Moral. Natural. Theodicy. 4 Letters to Clarke. Space. BUTLER, Sain. (16121680). Hudlbras. 16631678. Form. Intention (Logical). Physiognomy. BUTLER, Win. Archer (18141848). Lect. on the History of Anc. Philosophy, ed. by Thompson. Camb. 1856 Philad. 1857. Ontology. BYRON (17881824). Poetry. Skepticism. CABANIS, J. G. (17571808). Rapports du Physique ft da Moral de I'homme. 1802. 2 vol. 8vo. Life. CAIRNS, Wm. On Moral Freedom. 1844. Originate. CAJKTAN. De Norn. Analog. Analogy. CALDERWOOD, Hen. Philosophy of the Infinite. 1854. Absolute. Infinite. Unconditional. CALIXTUS, George (15861658). Syncretism. 83 974 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS CALOVIUS, Abr. (1612-86). Treatises on the Doctrine of First Principles. 1651. Noology. CALVINISTS. Metaphysics. CAMBRIDGE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY. Sophism. CAMPANELLA, Thorn. (15681639). De Sensu Rerum et Magia. 4to. Franc/. 1620. Pant, 1637. Magic. CAMPBELL, George (171996). 1. On the Gospels. Preliminary Dissertations. Blasphemy. 2. Philosophy of Rhetoric. Evidence. Wit. Wit and Humour. 3. Dissertation on Miracles. Miracle. Testimony. Psychology. CARDAILLAC, J. J. S. De (b. 1766). Etudes Element de Philos. 2 vols. 1830. Analysis and Synthesis. CARLETON, Compton. Philos. Univer. de Anima. Scnsibles. CARNEADES (B. C. 160). Academics. CATJPENTER, W. B., Dr. Principles of Human Physiology. Lond. 1846. Ideational. CARTESIAN. (See Des Cartes.) Certainty. Egoism. Form. Notion. Perception. Soul. CARUS. History of Psychology. 8vo. Leipzig, 1808. Life, Psychology. CASAUBON, Meric, D. D. (15991671). A Treatise concerning Enthusiasm. Lond. 1655. Enthusiasm. CASMANN, Otto. Psychologia Anthropologica, sive animce humance doctrina. (Hanau, 1594.- Psychology. CATHOLIC PHILOSOPHY. Lond. Choice. CHALMERS, Thomas, D. D. (17801847). Works, 25 -ols. Glasgow. 1. Natural Theology. Atheism. Holiness. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 975 CHALMERS, Thomas, D. D. 2. Sketches of Moral and Mental Philosophy. Emotion. Gratitude. Mental Philosophy. 3. Bridgewater Treatise. Adaptat. of External Nature to Moral and Intellect. Uonttit. of Man. 3d Edit. 1834. Obligation. CHALYB^US, H. M., Dr. Historical Development of Speculative Philosophy, from Kant to Hegel. Transl. by E. Ebersheim. Edinburg. T. & T. Clark. i854. Dogmatism. Notion. Ca. \RMIDES. Academics. CHAURON, Peter (15411613). De la Sagesse. Rouen, 1623. Nature. CHASTEL, Mons. Lea Itationalistes et les Traditionalisms. 12mo. Paris, 1850. Reminiscence. CHAUCER. (13281400.) Canterbury Tales. Prologue. CHAUVJNS. (16401725.) Lexicon Philosoph. 1692. Contingent. Essence. Faculty. CHRETIEN. Essay on Logical Method. Conception and Idea. Logic. Realism. CHRISTIANITY. Fate. CHRYSIPPUS. (B. C. IVth Cent) Axiom. Eudemonism. Fatalism. CICERO, Marcus Tullius. (B. C. 10743.) Life by Middleton, 1741. /. Opera. ( Verburgius.) 11 vols. 8vo. Amst. 1724. 1. Epistolce ad P. Atticum. Acroamatical. 2. De Natura Deorum. (Tr. by Francklin, 1775.) Anthropomorphism. Anticipation. Consent (Argument from Uni. versal). Innate Ideas. Nature. Religion. Society (Desire of). 3. De Oratore. Art. Definition. Idea. Ideal. Memoria technica, or Mnemonics, Method. Tradition. 4. Tusculanarum Dispittationum. Lib. V. Authority. Consent (Argument from Universal). Entelechy. Gym Eosophist. Reminiscence. Stoics. 976 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS CICERO, Marcus Tullius. 5. De finibi(8 honor urn et malorum. Lib. V, Bonum Summura. Ends. Good (the Chief). Justice. Method. Rectitude. Utility. 6. De Officiis. Consent (Argument from Universal). Occasion. Philosophy. So- ciety (Desire of). Society (Political, Capacity of). *. De Fato. Ethics. Fatalism. 8. De Inventions Rhetorica. Faculty. Ideal. Occasion. 9. Latins sen de Amicitia. (Tr. ly Yonge, 1851.) Friendship. 10. De claris Oratoribua (Brutus.) Method. 11. Paradoxa. Paradox. 12. Academicarum Quast. Principle. 13. De Legibus. (Tr. by Barham, 1841.) Society (Desire of). Argument. Argumentation. Eclecticism. Economics. Essence. Evil. Magnanimity. Perception. Scholastic Philosophy. Temperance. CLARKE, Dr. John. (d. 1759.) An Enquiry into the Cause and Origin of Evil. (Boyle Lectures.) Lond. 1720-21. 2 vols. 8vo. A Priori. Evil. CLARKK, Samuel, D.D. (16731729.) /. Works. 4 vols. folio. Lond. 1738. 1. Sermons. 10 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1730. Adjuration. Chance. Deist. 2. Letter to Dodwell concerning the Immortality of the Soul, with four defences. 6th Edit. 1731. Adscititious. 3. A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes of God, in opposition to Holies, Spinoza, &c. (Boyle Led.} 1705. With Butler's Letters and Clarke's Answers. (XVI Serm. on the Being and Attrib. of God, the Obligat. of Natur. Relig., and the Truth and Certainty of the Christ. Revelation.) Choice. Eternity of God. Nature (Course or Power of ). Possible. Space. Volition. 4 A Collection of Papers which passed between Leibnitz and Clarke on Nat. Philosophy and Religion. With Remarks on a Book entitled, A Philtitophiccrl Enquiry concerning Human Liberty. Lond. 1717 Necessity. Sensorinm. Spnce. A Priori. Evil. Fitness. Nature of things. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 977 CLBMKNS, Alerandrinus. (About A. D. 150120.) Opera. (Potter. Oxf. 1715. Venice, 1757. Leipz. 1831. Stromata, Lib. vii.) Eclecticism. Metaphysics. CLITOMACHUS. (B. C. 160.) Academics. JLODIUS, Chr. Aq. H. (Born at Altenburg. 17721836.) De Virtntibus qnas Cardinalee ajipellant. 4tO. Leipts. 1815. Cardinal Virtues. COGAN, Thomas, M. D. (17361818.) 1. A Philosoph. Treatise on the Passions. 2d Edit. Bath, 1802. Passions (The). 2. An Ethical Treat, on the Passions, founded on the principles investi- gated in the Philos. Treatise. Part I. On Well-being or Happi- ness. 1807. Part II. On Conduct conduc. to Happiness. 1810 Bath. Admiration. Appetite. Benevolence. Desire. Ethics. Passions (The). 3. Theological Disquisitions, a. On Natural Religion, b. OH the Jewish Dispensation respecting Religion and Morals. 1812. Monotheism. COLEBROOK, H. T. (17651837.) Gymnosophist. COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor. (17721834.) 1. Physiology of Life. Hints towards the formation of a more compre- hensive Theory of Life. Posthum. Edit, by Watson. 1848. Analogy. Life. 2. Aids to Reflection. (1825.) 5th Edit. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1843. Aphorism. Attention and Thought. Happiness. Instinct. Morality. Prudence. Reason and Understanding. Theology. Understand, ing. Unity. Well-being. Will (Freedom of). 3. The Friend. 1809-1810.) Fourth Edit. (H. N. Coleridge.) 3 vola, Lond. 1844. Apologue. Method. Nature. Reason and Understanding. 4. Church and State. (1830.) Lond. 1839. Conception. Contraries. Form. Sensation and Reception. 5. Notes on English Divines. (1853.) Conception and Idea. Enthusiasm. Person. Understanding. 6. Works. 7 vols. 8vo. N. Y. 1853. Instinct. 7. Literary Remains. 4 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1836-39. Reason (Impersonal). 8. Biographia Literaria. London, 1847. Memory. Transcendent. 9. On Method. Introduct. to Encyclop. Metropol. Method. Pscychology. 83* 3N 978 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS COLERIDGE, Samuel Taylor. 10. Lay Sermons. 1. The Statesman's Manual, or the Bible the best guido to politic, skill, etc. 2. Isaiah 32 : 20. Understanding. Unity. Causes (final, Doctrine of). Fancy. Talent. Theosophism. COLLARD, Royer. (Etivres completes de Reid trad, par Jouffroy, avec une introduc. notes, fragm. de M. Royer-Collard. 6 vols. 8vo. 18281835. Consciousness. Induction (Principles of). Rationalism. Sensibles. Space. Time. Virtual. COMBE. Phrenology. COMENIUS, Amos John. (d. 1671.) Anima Mundi. COMMUNISM. Socialism. COMTE, Auguste. (1798.) Cottrs de Philosophic positive. 1839. Fetichism. Force. Observation. Positivism. COMTE, F. C. L. (17821837.) 1. Traite de Legislation, ou expose" des lois gener. suiv. lesq. leu peupl, prosptrent, &c. 1826. 4 vols. 8vo. 2d Edit. 1832. Method. 2. See Say, J. B. Society. CONCEPTUALISTS. Conceptualism. Nominalism. CorfDiLLAC, L'abbe" JStienne BONNOT DE (1715 1780). 1. L' 'Art de raisonner (in vol. VIII. of the edition of his Works published in 1798). 2. Traite des Systtmes. 2 vols. 12mo. 1749. (VIIL vol. ed. of 1798). 3. CEuvres Completes. 23 vols. 8vo. 1821-22. Analogy and Experience. Attention. Empiric. Idea. Ideology. Memory. Metaphysics. Rationalism. Sensism. Sensualism, Soul. Train of Thought. CONDORCKT, J. A. DE CARiTAT, Marquis de (1743 1794). (Envres Completes. Didot. 12 vols. 8vo. 18471849. Perfectibility. COPERNICUS. N. (14731543). Hie revolutionibns orbium Coslestibus. Nuremberg, 1543. Hypothesis. Theory. COPLESTON, Edward, D.D., Bp. of Llandaflf (17761849). 1. An Enquiry into the Doctrines of Necessity and Predestination In four Discourses. 8vo. Lond. 1821. Analogy (p. 21). AND OF PROPER NAMES. 979 COPLESTON, Edward, D. D., Bp. of Llandaff. 2. Remain*. 8vo. Loud. 1854. Certainty (p. b4;. Time. Truth. COUPER, R., M. D. Genius. COUSIN, Victor (1792). (Euvres jjhilosophiques de. 12 vols. 8vo. (1840-46). 1. 1st Series. Cows de la Philosophic Moderne. 5 vols. 8vo. 1846. 1 1st vol. Histoire des princip. syst. de Philosoph. Causation. 3 2d u Idies dn beau, du vrai, et du bien. a. Philosophy of the Beautiful. Translated by Daniel* New York, 1849. b. The True, the Beautiful, and the Good, Lectures on. Translated by Wight. New York, 1852. Ideal. Sublime (The). *3d " Ecol. sensualiste. * 4th " Ecol. Ecossaise. 5 5th " Ecol. de Kant. Infinite. Innate. 2. lid Series. Cours d'Hist. de la Philos. mod. (1828.) 3 vols. Svo. 1841. Course of Hist, of Modern Philosophy. Translated by Wight. 0. W. New York, 1852. * 1st vol. Introd. d V Histoire generate de la Philos. 11 2d " Esquisse d'une Hist. gen. de la Phil, au XVIHe Siec. Space. * 3d " Exam, du Syst. de Locke translated by C. S. Henry, D.D. 4th Edit. New York, 1856. Time. Consciousness. Identical Proposition. Ideology. Infinite. Monad. Mysticism. Myth. Psychology. Reason (Spontaneity of). Reflection. Sentiment. Species, Synthesis. 3. Hid Series. Fragment Philosophises. (1826.) 4 vols. Svo. 1840. ' 1st vol. Phil, ancienne. 10 2 d " " scholastique. 11 3d " " modcrne. ia 4th " ft contemporaine. Eclecticism. Scholastic Philosophy. 4. Abailardd', (Etivres intdites. 4to. Paris, 1836. Do. Opera Note, &c., adj. v. Cousin, &c. 1849. Macrocosm. Nominalism. Scholastic Philosophy. 5. De la ]\fe,taphysique d'Aristote snivi d'un Essai de traduction de ler et du I2e livres de Metaph. 2d Edit. 1838. Entelechy. 980 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS COUSIN, Victor. 6. CEuvres Completes de Platon, trad, dn grec en franc , accomp. d'argur* philos. et de notes histor. et philol. 18251840. 13 vols. 8vo Myth. Absolute. Apperception. Causality. Empiric. Idea (p. 224), Realism. Pteason (Impersonal). Succession. COWLEY, Abraham (16181687). Works. 12th Edit. 2 vols. 12mo. Land. If 21. (BW. 1772). A Discourse concerning the Government of Oliver Cromwell. Work* II. 579 Sciomachy. COWPER, Wm. (17311800). Taste (Powers of). CRACANTHORP. Logic. Notion. CRAIG, John, Dr. (2d part of XVIIth Cent). Testimony. CRATES (B. C. 328). Cynic. CREUZER, F. (b. 1771). Symbolik. 3d Edit. 1836. Trad, par Guigniaut. Par. 1825-36. Myth and Mythology. CHOMBIB, Alexander, LL.D. (17601842.) A Defence of Philosophical Necessity. 8vo. 1793. Libertarian. CROSS, J. Attempt to establish Phystogn. upon Scientific Principles. Glasg. 1817. Physiognomy. CROUSAZ, John Peter de. (16631750.) 1. Trait6 de Beau. Beauty. 2. Art of Thinking, (a new treatise of,) concerning the conduct and im- provement of the mind. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1724. Proprium (The), or Property. 3. Examen du Pyrrhonisme, anciente et moderne, (against Bayle.) Folio. Hayc. 1733. Skepticism. CITDWORTH, Ralph, D.D. (16171688.) 1. The True Intellectual System of the Univ., wherein all the reason and philosophy of Atheism is confuted, &c. (Originally publ. 1678.) Andover, 1837. With Mosheim's Notes. 2d Edit. 1773. Transl, by Harrison. 3 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1845. Anima Mandi. Archetype. Atheism. Atom. Cosmogony. Deism. Design. Ditheism. Fatalism. God. Nature or Force (Plastic) Nature of things. Potential. Skepticism. Theism. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 981 CDDWORTH, Ralph, D. D. 2. A Treatise concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality. !731.)~ Contained also in all the editions mentioned under 1. Certainty. Sympathy. CULVERWELL, Nathaniel. (1650.) An eleg. and learn. Discourse of the Light of Nature, (on Prov. 20 : 27.) 4to. Lond. 1661. Nature (Law of). CUMBERLAND, Richard, D. D. Bp. of Peterborough. (16321718.) De Legibus Natures Disquiaitio Philosophica. 4to. Lond. 1672. Benevolence. Suggestion. CYRENIC School. Hedonism. DAMIRON, Ph. a794.) 1. Count d' JEsthetique. 8vo. Paris, 1842. ^Esthetics. 2. Essai aur VHistorie de la Philosophic en France au dixneuvieiM siecle. 2 Tom. 8vo. Par. 18281834. Eclecticism. Ideology. DARWIN, Erasmus, M. D. F. R. S. (17311802.) Zoonomia, or the Laws of Organic Life. 2d Ed. 4 vols. 8vo. Edinb. 1801. Instinct. Zoonomy. DAVIES. Sir John. (15701626.) On the Immortality of the Soul. 1599. Fancy. Reason. DAY, Jeremiah, (b. 1773.) On the Will (Self-determining power of ). 1838. Ability. Inability (Moral). Power. DEGERANDO. 1. Hist. Compar. des Systimes de Philosophic. 4 vols. 8vo. 1847. Method. 2. Des Slgnes et de I' Art de Penser. 4 vols. 8vo. 1800. Sign. DELISLE DE SALLES. Philosophic de la Nature. 10 vols. 8vo. 1804. Naturalism. DKMOCRITUS. (B. C. 460357.) Atheism. Atom. Cosmogony. Crite-ion. Empiric. Fatalism. Na ture or Force (plastic). Species. DE MORGAN, Augustus, of Trinity Coll., Cambr. Formal Logic. Logic. DE QUINCEY, Thomas. (17861860.) 1. Sketches, Critical and Prographical. Genius and Talent. 982 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS DE QUINCEY, Thomas. 2. Confessions of an English Opium-eater. 3d Edit. Lond. 1828. Memory. DERODON, David. (16001664.) Opera. 1644. 1. Pkys. Art. Form. 2. De Prcedicam. Cause. Quantity. Space. 3. De Universalibus. Difference. 4. Pram. Metaphys. Metaphysics. 5. Logica Restit. 1659. Proprium (The), or Property. Species. Universal. Whole. DE SALES, Francis. (15671622.) (Euvres Completes. 16 vols. 8vo. Par. 1833. Ecstasy. DBS CARTES, RENE (15961650) and Cartesians. I. (1) a. Opera Omnia. 9 vols. 4to. Amst. 169217011713. b. Geo. metria. Vol. iv. c. Epistola. Vol. vi viii. b. Instinct. II. (2) Opera Philosophica. Edit. Quart. Amst. 1663. (3) Jtleditat. de Prima Philosoph. in quibns Dei exist, et anim. hum. a corp. dist. demon, cum respons. auctoris, et Epist. ad Vcetium. Imagination. Infinite. Objective. Thought and Thinking. (4) Principia Philosophic;. a. De Principiis cognit. human. b. De Princip. rerum material. Attribute. Essence. Indefinite. Perception. Quality. (5) Dissert, de Methodo. On Method. Error. Method. (6) Tractatus de passionibus animce. ( Traite des Passions de I'dme* Par. 1650.) Affection. Passions. III. (7) (Euvres par Cousin. 11 vols. 8vo. 1826. Life. (8) Regulas ad directionem ingenii. Mathematics. Notion. Axiom. Category. Causes (Final, Doctrine of). Cause? (Occa- sional, Doctrine of). Certainty. Doubt. Empiric. Enthy. meme. Extension. Genius. Idea (225). Impression. Matter. Mode. Optimism. Perfect. Primary. Psychology. Reason Sensorium. Syncretion. Theology. Virtual. DES MAISTUE, Joseph. Soirees de St. Petersbourgh. 2 vols. 8vo. 1850. Notion. Savage. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 983 DE TRACT, Destutt. JSttments d'ldeolcgie. 6 vols. 18mo. 1827. Attention. Metaphysics. DKVEY, J. Logic. 1854. Introduction (Method or Process of). D'HOLBACH, Baron P. II. T. (1723-89.) Systeme de la Nature. 1770. Naturalism. DIAGORAS of Melos (or Delos.) (420 B. C.) Atheism. DICK, Sir Thomas L. EsHay on Taste. Pref. to Price (q. v.) on the Picturesque. 8vo. 1842. Picturesque. Taste. DICTIONNAIRE des Sciences Philosoph. Paris, 1844-52. 6 vols. 8vo. Argumentation. Asceticism. Assent. Being. Consciousness (llljt Contraries. Creation. Determinism. Dogmatism. Entelechy. Faculty (185). Modality. Mode. Negation.. Notion. Physio. logy. Quality. Quantity. Socialism. Spiritualism. Stoics. DIOGENES (B. C. 413324). Cynic. Motion. DIOGENES LAERTIUS (2d Cent. B.C.). De vitis dogmatis et apophthegmat. eorum qui in philoeophia clamerunt, libri X. Gr. et Lai. (Aldobrand, StepJiani, Casaubon, Menagii). Folio. Lond. 1664. Amst. (2 vols. 4to) 1692. The Lives and Opi~ nions af Eminent Philosophers. Translated by Yonge. Lond. Bohn, 1853. Anticipation. Axiom. Cynic. Eclecticism. Element. Idea (223). DOBRISCH. Abstract. DONALDSON. 1. New Cratylus. 1839. Ethnography. 2. Varronianusj or Introd. to Latin. 1844. Religion. DONNE, John (15731641). Biathanatis. A decl&r. of that naradox or thesis, thai self -homicide is not so naturally Sin that it may never be otherwise. Lond. 1644, 1700. Suicide. DODBLADO. Letters. Elements. DOUGLAS, John, D. D., Bp. of Salisbury (17211807), 1. Select Works. Saliel. 1820. 984 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS DOUGLAS, John, D.D. 2. The Criterion ; or, Rules by which the Miracles in the New Teat, are distin g. from the Spurious Miracles of Pagans and Papists. New Edit. 1807. 4th Edit. 1833, and in his Works, p. 383. Miracles. Testimony. DOTE. Theory of Human Progression. Political Science. DREW, Samuel (17651833). An Orig. Essay on the Immater. and Immortal, of the Hum. Soul, founded solely upon Physic, and Hat. Principles. (1802.) 4th Ed. Land. 1819. Materialism. DRUMMOND, William, Sir (d. 1828). 1. Academical Questions. 1805. Idealism. Principle. 2. (Edipus Judaicus. 8vo. Lond. 1811. Irouy. DRUSIUS, John (15501616). A Collection of Hebrew and Arabic Apothegms. 1612. Apothegms. DRYDEN, John (1631 1700). Works, ed. by Sir Walter Scott. 2d Edit. 18 vols. 8vo. Edin. 1821. Attribute. Genius. Type. DUMARSAIS. Essay on Abstraction. (Euvres Completes (Duchosal & 3fillon). 7 vols. 8vo. 1797. Abstraction (10). DUFF, Rev. W. Essays on Original Genius. Lond. 1767. 8vo. Genius. DUNS SCOTUS, John (ab. 12651308). Opera Omnia. Lugdun. 1639. 12 vols. fol. Scholastic Philosophy. DURANDUS DE, St. Pourcain (d. 1333). Species. DUTROCHET, R. J. H. (17761847). Theorie de V Habitude. 1810. Habit. DlJVAL-JoUVE. Loaique, Traitt de. 1844. Language. D WIGHT, Timothy (17521827). Thology explained and defended, in a Seriet of Sermons. (1818.) 4 vols. 8vo. New TcrTf, 1846. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 985 EARLE, John, Bp. of Salisbury (16011665). Tabula Kasa. ECPHANTUS. Atom. EDDERSHEIM. (See CHALYB^US.) EDWARDS, Jonathan, President (17031758). 1. A careful and strict Inquiry into the prevailing Notions of the Freedom of the Wilt, icith Remarks on [Lord Kames's~\ Essays on the Prm- ciples of Morality and Natural Religion, in volume I. of his Works. Land. 1834. Choice. Motive. Necessity. Will. 2. A Dissertation on the End for which God created the World. Do. 3. The Christian Doctrine of Original Sin defended. Do. ELLIS, John, D. D. 1. The Knowledge of Divine Things from Revelation, not from Reason or Nature. 1743. 3d Ed. Lond. 1811. 2. Some Considerations upon Mr. Locke's Hypothesis, that the Idea of God is attainable by Ideas of Reflexion. An addition to a book entitled, The Knowledge, &c. Lond. 1743. Innate. ELYOT, Thomas, Sir (1546). 1. The Governour. 1564. (New ed. by Eliot. 1834.) Abstinence. Virtue. 2. The Castell of Health. (1534). Element. EMPEDOCLES (ab. 442 B. C.) Atom. ENCYCLOPEDIA BUITANNICA. 1th Edit. 21 vols. 4to. 1842. Bth Edit, by Traill (now publishing). The Dissertations (Stewart, Mackintosh). 9 vols. 4to. 1842. ENCYCLOPAEDIA METROPOLITAN. 50 vols. 4to. 1845. Sciences (The Occult). ENFIELD, Wm. (17411797). The Hist, of Philosophy, from the Earliest Times to the Beginn. of th Present Cent., draicn up from Brucker. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1819. Theosophism. EPICTETUS (B.C. 90). Enchiridion (Wolf}. Lond. 1670. Abstinence. EPICURUS (ab. 344 B.C. 271) and Epicurean Philosophy. 1. Physica et Meteorologica. (Schneider.) Leipz. 1813. 2. Fragmenta. (Orellius.) Leipz. 1818. Anticipation. Atheism. Atom. Certainty (86). Cosmogony. Cri terion. . Eclecticism. Epicurean. Endemonism. Fatalism. Idea. Logic. Naturdism. Utility. 84 986 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS EQUIVOCATION, A Treatise of , from a MS. written ab. 1600. 12m:. Land. 1851 Reservation (Mental). ERASMUS, Desiderius (14671536). I. (1) Opera Omnia. 10 vols. in 111 fol. Lugd. Bat. 1703. (2) Adagiorum Opus. Do. Vol. II. (3) Apothegmatum. 12mo. Basil, 1558. Venice, 1577. (Extracted from the Adages.) Adage. Apophthegm. ESSAY ON CAUSALITY, by an Undergraduate. Lond. 1854. Causality (80). ESSAY ON CAUSE AND EFFECT. 8vo. Lond. 1824. Causality (78). ESSAYS, CAMBRIDGE. (1856.) Casuistry. ETHKRIDGE. Hebreio Literature. 8vo. Lond. 1856. Kabala. ETHNOLOGICAL JOURNAL. (1848.) Ethnography. EUCLID (ab. 280 B. C.). The Elements of Euclid. (Simeon.) 15th Ed. Lond. 1811. Intuition. Knowledge. EULER, L. (1707-83). Lettres d line princesse d'Allemagne (Letters to a German Princess). Pe- tersb. 1768-72. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1812. Antecedent. FEARN, John. Essay on Human Consciousness. 1811. 4to. Consciousness. FKINAGLE. New Art of Memory. 1812. Mcmoria Technica. FENELON (16511751). 1. (Euvre/t Completes. 10 vols. imp. 8vo. Par. 1851. 2. Maximes des Saints. II. 223. Maxim. Quietism. 3. Sur I'cxistence de Diev. I. 89. Prescience. Reason. 4. Sur le Quietinme. II. 223. III. 572. Evil. Mysticism Quietism. FERGUSON, Adam. (17241816.) 1. Essay on tht History of Civil Society. 7<7/ Edit. Lond. 1814* Art. Civility. Savage and Barbarous. Society. 2. Moral and Political Science. 2 vols. 4to Edinb. 1792. 3. Institutes of Moral Philosophy. 1770. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 987 PERKIER, James, Prof. Institutes of Metaphysics. Edinb. and Land. 1854. Agniologj 7 . Contradiction. Epistemology. Essence. Harmony. Influx (Physical). Phenomenon. Philosophy. Truth. FEUCHTERSLEBEN. 1. Medical Psychology. 8vo. 1847. Imagination. Sensation. Temperament. 2. Dietetics of the Soul. 12mo. Lond. 1852. Temperament. Will. FEUERBACH, L. A. (b. 1804). Das Wesen der Religion. Leipz. 1845. Acostnist. FICINUS, Marsilius. (14331491.) Opera Omnia. 1471. Basil, 1561. Paris, 1641. Hermetic Books. FICHTE, J. G. (17621814.) Sammtliche Werke. 8vol. Berl. 1845 46. (Ed.byht88on,J.ff.Fichte.) ./Esthetics. Idealism. Intuition. Nihilism. Objective. Sensism. FIGUIER, Louis. L'Alchemie et Les Alchtmistes. Paris, 1850 1856. Alchemy. Rosicrucians. FILIANGIERI, Gaetano. (17521788.) Scicnza delta. Legislazione. Naples, 1780. Society. FISCHKRUS, John Henr. Dissertat. de Stoicis Apatheias falso suspectit. 4to. Leipz. 1716. Apathy. FITZGERALD. Notes to Aristotle's Ethics. 8vo. Dublin, 1850. Objective. Quantity. Soul. Spirit. Mind and Occasion. FLAVEL, John. (16271691.) Discourse of the Occasion, Causes, Nature, Rise, Growth, and Remedies of Mental Errors. London, 1691. FLUDD, Robert. (15911637.) Opera. Oppenheim, 1617 1638. 6 vols. folio. Macrocosm. Theosophism. FONTENELLE, Bern, le Bov. (1657 1757.) (Euvres. 11 vols. 12mo. Par. 1667. Perfectibility. FORMEY, J. H. S. (17111797.) Le Philosophe Chretien. 2d Edit. Leide. 1752. Psychopaanychism. FOSTER, C. J. Elements of Jurisprudence. Post 8vo. Lond. ( Walton), 1854. Jurisprudence. yoo BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS TOUCHER, Simon. (16441696.) Dissertat. sur le reck, de la Veritl, ou snr la pJi'.loaopli. des academic, Paris, 1690. 12mo. Disaertat. de Phil. Academ. 12mo. Port*, 1692. Academics. FOURIER, F. C. M. (17721837.) 1. Theorie des Quat. Mouvem. 1808. 2. Assoc. Domest. Agric. 1822. 3. Nouveau Monde. 1845. 4. PiSges ct Oharlatanisme. 1831. 5. Fauase Industrie". 1835-36. 2 vols. 12mo. Socialism. FRANCK, Adolphe. 1809. 1. La Kabbate, ou philosophic rtligieuse des ffebreux. Par. 1843. 8vo. ( Tr. into Germ, by Gelinclc, 1844.) Kabala, 2. Dictionn. des Sc. pJiilos. q. v. FRANKLIN, Benjamin. (1706 1790.) Workt. (Sparks.) New Ed. Philada. 1858. 10 vols. 8vo. Experimentum Crucis. FRENCH. Zoological Journal, No. I. Instinct. FULLER, Thomas. (16081661.) The History of the Worthies of England. (Nutall.) 3 vols. 8vo. Land 1840. Assertory. Dichotomy. GAIUS. (Xllth Cent.) Jnstitutiones (Bcecking) Bonn. 1842. 12mo. Nature (Law of). GALEN, Claudius. (131 200.) Opera Omnia, gr. et lat. (Kuhn.} Leipz. 1821-33. 20 vols. 8vo. Empiric. Temperament. GALILEO, Galilei. (15641642.) Opera. Milan. 1808. 13 vols. 8 vo. (An edition designed to be mort complete than any other was commenced in 1842, at Florence.) Invention. GALL, Fr. Joseph. (17581528.) Sur leu Fonctions du Cerw.au et sur celles de chactine de e partiet, Paris, 1822-25. 6 vols. 8vo. Organ. Phrenology. (TAMBIER, Rev. James E. Introduction to the Study of Moral Evidence. Rivinyton, Lond. 1824 8vo. Evidence. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 989 GARAT, D. J. (17491833.) Analyse de V Entendewcnt humain. 1794. Ideology. GARNIKR, Adolphe. (b. 1801.) 1. Traite des Facultes de I'Ame. Par. 1852. 3 vols. 8vo. (Crowned by the Fr. Acad. in 1853.) Consciousness. 2. Cf. Diet, des Scien. Philos. Judgment. Soul. GASSENDI, Peter. (15921655.) 1. See Bernier, F. 2. Opera Omnia. 6 vols. fol. Leyd. 1658. 3. a. De Vita, Moribus et Doctrina Epicur. Lyons, 1647. b. Syntap Phil. Epic. 1649. Epicurean. 4. Disqnisit. MetapJi. sen dubit. et instant, adv. Cartesii Metaphytica***, et reap. Amst. 1644. A priori. Atom. Idea (228). Impression. GATAKER, Thomas. (1574 1654.) See Antoninus. Dissertatio de Disciplina Stoica. Stoics. GERARD, Alex. (17281795.) 1. Essay on Genius. Land. 1767 1774. Genius. 2. An Essay on Taste. (Gold medal, 1759.) 1780. Taste. GERLACH, G. W. (b. 1786.) Commentates Exhib. de. Probabilit. Disputat. 4to. Gotting. GEHSON, John. (13631429.) I. (1) Opera Omnia (Du Pin.) 5 vols. fol. Antw. 1706. (2) De Mijstica Theologia Speculative Oper. III. 361. Ecstasy. GEULINCX, Arnold. (1625 1669.) 1. QiKBstiones Qnodlibeticae. 1652. 2. Logica. 1662. 3. EtJiica. 1675, 4. Compendium Physical. 1688. 5. Annot. ad Cartesii Principia, 1690. 6. Annot. Majora. 1691. 7. Metaphysica. 1691. Causes occasional (Doctrine of). GOJBON, E. (17371794.) Hintory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 12 vols. 8vo Lond. 1815. (Milman, 2d Edit. 1846. 3d. Smith's Notes. 55.' ftohn's Ed., with variorum Notes. 54. Asceticism. 5*BBONs, Thomas, D. D. (17201785.) Sermons, with an hymn to each subject. Lond. 1762 Eternity. 84* 990 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS GILLIES, John. (17471836.) 1. Transl. of Aristotle's Ethics and Politics. 2d Edit. 1804. 2. Supplement to the Analysis of Aristotle's svec. Works. 3rf Edition 1813. Automaton. Cause (76). Praedicament. Time. GLANVILL, Joseph. (16361680.) 1. Lux Orientalis ; or an enquiry into the opinion of the Eastern eaget concerning the pre-existence of souls; being a key to unlock the grand mysteries of Providence, in relation to man's sin and misery. 1662. 12mo. (Annot. by More, 1682, 8vo.) Idiosyncrasy. 2. The Vanity of Dogmatizing ; a discourse of the shortness and uncer- tainty of our knowledge and its causes. Lond. 1661, 8vo. Immanent. 3. Scepsis Scientifica, or confessed ignorance the way to science; in an Essay on the van. of dogmat. Lond. 1665, 4to. (A development o/2.) Scepticism. Transcendent. GLASSFORD, James. Essay on the Principles of Evidence. 8vo. Edinb. 1820. Evidence. GOCLKNIUS, Rudolph, Sr. (15471628). Psychofogia ; h. e., de homin. perfectione, anima et imprimis ortu ; com- mentat. et disputat. theologorr. et philosophorr. nostrce cetatis Marb. 1590, 1597. Psychology. GOOD, John Mason, M. D. (17641827). The Book of Nature. 1826. 3 vols. 8vo. Instinct. GOODWIN, Thomas, D. D. (16001709). Works. 5 vols. fol. Lond. 1681. Causation. GREEN. J. H. (Cf. COLERIDGE.) 1. Vital Dynamics. Hnnterian Orat. 1840. 2. Mental Dynamics. Hunterian Orat. 1847. Instinct. Will. GREGORY, John, M. D. (17241733). 1. Observations on the Duties, Office, and Qualifications of a Physician^ and on the Method of prosecuting Inquiries in Philosophy. Edinb, 1769. 8vo. (French by Verlac. Par. 1787.) 2. Works. ( Tytler.) 1788. Edinb. 4 vols. Svo. Hypothesis. GROTE, George (b. 1794). History of Greece. 12 vols. Lond. 18461855- Dialectics. Fetichism. Myfh. Sophism. AND OP PROPER NAMES. 991 SROTIUS, Hugo .(15331645). 1. Philosopher um Sentential de Plato. Op. om. theol. ///. 379. Fatalism. 2. De Jure belli ac pads. Lib. III. (Gronovii, Barbeyrac.) Jurisprudence. Law. Nature. 3. Annot. in IV Evangelia. Opera Theolog. (Lond. 1679) //. part I. Amst. 1720. Soul. GitovR, Henry (16831737-8). A System of Moral Philosophy. 2d Ed. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1749. Justice. GUEIUCKE, H. E. F. 1. Kirchengeschichte. 8th Ed. 1854-55. 2. Symbolik. Id Ed. 1846. 3. Arch'dologie. 1847. 4. Einleitung in das 2f. T. 1843. Supranaturalism. GUIGNIAUT, J. D. (b. 1794). 1. La Theogonie d'Hesiode. Par. 1835. Theogony. 2. Religions de V Anti quite. Tr.from Creuzer, and developed. 10 vols. 8vo. Par. 18251851. GUIZOT, F. P. G. (b. 1787). 1. Meditations et etudes morales. 3d Edit. 1855. Belief. Education. 2. History of Civilization. Tr. by W. Hazlitt. 3 vols. sin. 8vo. Lond. 1846. (Hist, gener. de la Civilis. en Europe Civilis. en /V (18281830.) Immateriality. Theocracy. GURNEY, Joseph John (17881847).. Thoughts on Habit and Discipline. 6th. Ed. 1852. Prescience. HALE, Sir Mathew (1609 1676). 1. The Primitive Origination of Mankind considered and examined ae~ cording to the Light of Nature. Fol. Lond. 1677. Law. Ratiocination. 2. Works. (Thirlwall.) Lond. 1805. 2 vols. 8vo. 3. Contemplations, Moral and Divine: Works, vol. II., Of Affliction^ p. 200. Verbal. II.VLB8, John (15841656). 1. Works (Lord Hailes'). 3 vols. 12mo. 1765. 2. Golden Remains. (1659. 2d Edit. Lond. 1673.) AoroaiLatieal. 992 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS HALL, Joseph, D. D., Bp. of Norwich (15741656). Works (Hall). 12 vols. 8vo. Oxford, 1837. Contemplation* on tie and N. T. Works I. & II. Being. HAMILTON, Sir William, Prof, of Log. and Metaph., Univ. of Edinb. (1788 1856). 1. Discussions on Philosophy and Literature, Educat. and Univ. Reform. Chiefly from Ed. Rev. 8n>. Lond. 1852. 2d Edit. '53. N. Y. 1855, with Introd. Essay on Hist, of Phil. Specul. by Tumbull. Absolute. Argument. Causation. Conception. Consciousness. In- duction. Infinite. Logic (295). Necessity (Logical). Notions (First and Second). Origination. Quality (Occult). Reason (Im- personal). Sensism. Subject, Object. Thought and Thinking. Understanding. 2. Works of Reid. Pref. Notes and Supplementary Dissertation by Sir Wm. Hamilton. 5th Ed. 1858. Edinb. Anticipation. Apperception. A priori. Axiom. Belief. Brocard. Category. Cause. Concurring. Concept. Conceptualism. Con- sciousness. Definition. Deontology. Determinism. Dichotomy. Ego. Egoism. Euthymeme. Faculty. Fancy. Feeling. Form. Idea. Ideal. Impression. Intellect and Intelligence. Intuition. Knowledge (280 and 284). Logic (294). Matter. Maxim. Mode. Motive. Nature. Necessity (Doctrine of). Nihilism. Noology. Notion. Objective. Operations (of the Mind). Organon. Parci- mony (Law of). Perception. Pneumatology. Power. Primary. Quality. Real. Realism. Reason. Retention. Sensation. Sen- sibles, Common and Proper. Sensus Communis. Sentiment. Sen- timent and Opinion. Species. States of Mind. Subjectivism. Subsumption. Suggestion. Thought and Thinking. Transcendent Truth. Truths (First). 3. Edinburg Review. N. 115, vol. LIT. Art. Elimination. Ideology. Notions (First and Second). Real- ism. 4. Lectures on Logic (quoted by Dove). Science. Criterion. Ethology. HAMPDEN, Renn Dickson, D. D., Bp. of Hereford 1. Introd. to Mor. Phil. 2d Ed. 1856. Analogy and Experience. Causes (Final, Doctrine of). Moral. Ob- servation. 2. Philosophical Evidence of Christianity. 1827. Analogy and Induction. 3. The Scholastic Philosophy consid. in its Relation* to Chr. Theology (Bampton Lect. 1832). Zd Edit. Lond. 1848. Element. Obligation. Rationale. Scholastic. Substance. AND oi PROPER NAMES 993 HANCOCK, Thos. Essay OH Instinct. Innate. Instinct. HARRINGTON. (See COLERIDGE.) Aids to Reflection, Reason. HARRIS, James. (17091780.) Works. Oxford, 1841. 1. Philosophical Arrangements. Art. Capacity. Common Sense. Element. Genius. Macrocosm. Matter. Metaphor. Quality (414, 415, 416). Quantity (Discrete and Continuous). Relation. Soul. 2. Dialogue on Art. Art Cause. Common Sense (the Philosophy of). 3. Dialogue concerning Happiness. Happiness. Passion. Rectitude. Society (Desire of). 4. //. Lond. 1824.) Civility. KRAUSE, C. C. F. (17811832.) Absolute. LABARTE. Hand-book of the Middle Aget, Naturalism. LACOUDRJS. List. Philos. Autotheists. Factitious. Pantheism. 1000 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS LACTANTIUS, L. C. F. (3d and 4th Cent.) Divinae Institntiones. (Opera, Par. 1748.) Religion. Society. LjELius and Hortensius ; or, Thoughts on the Nature and Objectt of Taste and Genius. Edinb. 1782. Genius. LAFARGE. Causes, Occasional (Doctrine of). LAMBERT, J. II. (1728-77.) Das Neue Organon. 1763. Organon. LAPLACE, P. S. (17491827.) Essai Phil, sur les Probability. 5th Edit. Chances (Theory of). Method. Testimony. Theory. LAROMIGUIERE. Attention. LATHAM, Dr. Natural History of Varieties of Man. Lond. 1830. Anthropology. LAUDER, T. D., Sir. (17841846.) (See PRICE, Sir Uvedale.) Beauty. LAVATER, J. C. (17411801.) Physiognomy. (Tr. by Hunter.) 5 vols. 4to. 178t-98. Physiognomy. Temperament. LAW, Edmund, Bishop. (1703-87.) (See King.) Innate. LAW, Rev. William. (16861761.) Theosophism. LE BRUN. Genius. LE CLERC, John. (16571736.) Bibliotheque Choisie. 28 vols. Amst. 1703-13. Atheism. LE GRAND. Institut. Philosophies. 1675. Extension. Individual. LEIBNITZ, Godfrey William. (16461716.) 1. Opera Omnia. 6 vols. 4to. Genev. 1768. 2. Opera Philosophica. Berlin, 1840. 3. CEuvre$ Historiques. Fol. Hanovre, 1843. 4. CEuvres Mathematiques. Berlin, 1849-50. 5. (Euvres d'apre* les MSS. Originaux. Tome Premier. Didot Fr Par. 1859. Anticipation. Apperception. Automaton. Cause. Causes (final, Doctrine of). Conceiving. Concept. Continuity (Law of). Con- AND OF PROPER NAMES. 1001 LEIBNITZ, Godfrey William. tradiction. Definition. Determinism. Dynamism. Eclecticism. Empiric. Essence. Evil. Force. Harmony. Hylozoism. Idea. Identity (personal). Indefinite. Indiscernibles (Identity of). In- dividual. Inertia. Jurisprudence. Knowledge. Monad. Neces- sity (Doc':rine of). Noogonie. Noology. Notions (intuitive). Optimism. Perceptions (obscure). Perfectibility. Prescience Privation. Psychology. Reason (determining). Scientia Media Soul. Space. Spontaneity. Sufficient Reason (Doctrine of) Tabula Rasa. Theodicy. Theology. Truth. Ubiety. Unity. LKIGHTON, Robert. (1613-84.) Theological Lectures. Translated. Land. 1828. Reason. Well-being. LELAND, John. (16911766.) View of Deistical Writers. Lend. 1837. Deists. Theism. LELUT. Da Demon de Socrate. 1836. 1850. Demon. LEMOINE, A. A Treatise on Miracles. 8vo. Lond. 1747. Miracle. LENNEP. Memory. LEUMINIER. Sur le Droit. Jurisprudence. LESSING, G. E. (1729-81.) Perfectibility. ^ESTRANGE, Sir Roger. (16161704.) Fables of ^Esop and other Eminent Mythologists. Fol. Lond. 1704 Fable. LKUCIPPUS. (Bet. 4th and 5th Cent. B. C.) Atheism. Atom. Cosmogony. Criterion. Force. LEWES, G. H. 1. Biographical ffi*t. of Philosophy. 4 vols. 1845. Acosmist. Belief. Idealism. 2. Comte's Philosophy of Sciences. 1vol. 1853. Positivism. LEWIS, Sir G. C. 1. On the Influence of Authority in Matters of Opinion. Authority. Fact. Opinion. 2. Afethods of Observation in Politics. Custom. Law. Rationale. Science. Species. Statistics. 85* 1002 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS LINDLEY. Introduction to Jurisprudence. Law. LINGLET, Du Fresnoy. (1674 1755.) Histoire de la Philosoph. Hermen. 3 vols. 12mo. 1742. Hermetic Books. T.IMMSUS, Chas. (1707-78.) Life. LINUS. Cosmogony. LIPSIDS, Justus. (1547 1606.) Manuductio ad Stoicam Philosoph. 4to. Antw. 1664. Anticipation. Stoics. LOCKE, John. (16321704.) Works. 3 vols. fol. London, 1714. 8th Edition, 1777. IQth Edition, 1801. 1. An Essay concerning Human Understanding. (~L5th Edit. 1760.) Combination and Connection of Ideas. Combination of Ideas. Con- sciousness. Custom. Definition. Enthusiasm. Error. Essence. Evidence. Experience. Extension. Faculties of the Mind (Clas- sification of). 'Identical proposition. Identity. Identity (Personal). Idealogy. Inference. Innate (Ideas). Intuition. Knowledge. Language. Liberty of the Will. Maxim. Memory. Mode. Na- tural. Notion. Perception. Power. Prejudice. Probable. Qua- lity. Reason. Reflection. Relation. Remembrance. Society (De- sire of). Space. Substance. Succession. Suggestion. Syllogism. Tabula Rasa, Testimony. Thought. Time. Unity. Universals. Volition. Will. Wit. 2. Thoughts concerning Education. Qth Edit. 1732. Education. 3. A Discourse of Miracles. Miracle. 4. Of the Conduct of the Understanding. Theology. 5. Life by Lord King. 2d Edit. Lond. 1830. Obligation. Abstraction, logical (p. 10). Analogy. Antipathy. Archetype. Association. Axiom. Body. Casuality. Causation. Certaintj". Choice. Conception and Idea. Conscience. Continuity. Dura- tion. Ecstasy. Empiric. Factitious. Idea. Idealist. Illation. Noogonie. Noology. Observation. Psychology. Rationalism, Sanction. Senses (Reflex). Sensism. Soul. I.JNGINUS, C. (210273.) Trinon Magicum. 12mo. Francf. 1616. Magic. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 1003 LOWHAN, Moses. (16801740.) Civil Government of the Hebreioa. Land. 1740. Theocracy. LUCRETIUS, C. T. (b. B. C. 96.) De rerum Natura. Natural Superstition. LITLLY, Raymond (12351315). Kabala. Scholastic. LUTHER. (14831546.) Psychopannychism. LYELL, Sir Charles. 1. Manual of Elementary Geology. 4th Edit. 1852. 2. Principles of Geology. 8th Edit. 1850. Species. MACAITLAY, T. B. (1800-60). Essays. 2d Edit. Lond. 1844. Apophthegm. MACCALL, Willianu Elements of Individualism. 8vo. Lond. 1847. Individual. M'Cosn, James. 1. The Method of the Divine Government, Physical and Moral. Edinb. 1850. 3d Edit. 1852. 5th Edit. 1856. Antimony. Archetype. Art, Consciousness. Innate. Law. Pro- vidence. 2. Typical Forms and Spec. Ends in Great, (by M. & Dickie}. 2d Ed. 1857. Analogue. Chance. Classification. Homologues. Homotypes. Imagi- nation and Memory. Morphology. Wit and Humour. MACKINTOSH, James, Sir (1765 1832). 1. Miscellaneous Works. 2d Edit. Lond. 1851. Observation. 2. Dissertation on the Progress of Ethical Philosophy. Encyc. Brit ( Whewell) Emotion. Eudemonism. Natural. Theory. Train of Thought 3. A Discourse of the Law of Nature and of Nations. ( Works, 161.) Jurisprudence. 4. On the Philosophical Genius of Bacon and Locke. ( Works, 147.) Critick. Understanding. Wisdom. MACUOBIUS, A. T. (mid. of Vth Cent). Saturn. Custom. \cVicAR, John G., D. D. 1. The Philosophy of the Beautiful. Edinb. 1855. ^Esthetics. 2. Enquiry into Human Nature. 8ro. Edinb. 1853. Apperception. 1004 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS MADAN, Martin (17261813). Thelyphthora ; a Treatise on Female Ruin. 1780. Polygamy. MAGENDIE. Life. MAGI. Dualism. MAHOMET (510632). Fate. MAIMONIDES (11351205). De More Nevochim (tr. Buxtorf). Basil, 1629. Sabaism. MAISTRE DE, Count (17531821). Du Pape. Theocracy. MAJOR, John. Commentary on tJie First Book of the Sentences. 1510. Theosophism. MALEBRANCHE, Nicolas (16381715). 1. De la recherche de la viritt. Sept edit. 4 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1721 (The Search after Truth, transl. by Taylor. Oxford, 1694.) Anthropomorphism. Causes (Occasional, Doctrine of ). Error. Evil Excluded Middle. Passions. Perfectibility. Prejudice. 2. Entretiens Metaphysiques. Optimism. 3. Traitt de Morale. Rotterd. 1684. Order. Psychology. Reason. Spiritualism. MAMMERTUS, Claudianus (Flour. 470). Immateriality. MANDEVILLE, B. (16701733). Benevolence. MANES (Hid Cent. A. D.) and MANICHEANS. A priori. Dualism. Evil. MANSEL. 1. Prol. Logic. Conceiving. Concept. Definition. Faculties of the Mind (Classifi- cation of). Induction. Intuition. Judgment. Law and Form. Matter. Metaphysics. Ontology. Syllogism. Thought. 2. Aldrich, with Notes. 1849. Definition. Intention. 3. An Examination of Mr. Maurice's Theory of a fixed state out i>J time. Eternity. 4. Lectures on the Philosophy of Kant. Infinite. Phenomenon. Absolute. Abstract. Acosuiist. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 1005 MANUEL DE PHILOSOPHIE, A L'USAGE DE COLLEGES. Paris, 1846. Reminiscence. Theodicy. Utility. MAKSH. Preliminary Essay to Coleridge's Aids to Reflection. (See COLK- RIDGE). Speculation. MARTIN, Saint. Pneumatology. Theosophism. MARTIN, T. H. Philosophic Spiritnaliste de la Nature. 2 torn. Par. 1849. Nature (Philosophy of ). MARTINI us. Person. MATTER, J. (b. 1791). 1. Hist. Critique du Gnosticisme. 3 Tom. Paris, 1843. Manicheism. 2. Histoire de la Philosoph. dans sea Rapports avec Religion. Paris, 1854. Understanding. MAURICE. Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy. Acroamatical. Electicism. Entelechy. Eternity. Secundum Quid. MAYNE, Z. Notion. MAYO, H. (d. 1850). Catelepsy. MEIKLEJOHN. Transl. of Kant's Criticism of Pure Reason, with Notes. Apperception. Apprehension. Ideal. Opinion. MEINERS, C. (17471810). Melanges. Apathy. MEJERUS (1662). Noology. MKLANCTHON, Philip (14971568). Opera. ( Witem. 1601. Bretschneider. 28 vols. 18391860.) Entelechy. MELITO (ab. 177). Anthropomorphism. MENDELSSOHN (1729-86). Esthetics. MERCIER. De la Perfcctibilile Humaine. 8vo. Paria 1842. Perfectibility. 1006 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS MICHAEL ANGELO (14751564). Genius. MICHELET. Examen Critique de la Metaph. d'Aristote. 8vo. Par. 1856. MICKIEWITZ, Adam. Tradition. MILL, James (17731836). Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind. Lond. 1829. Ideation. Will. MILL, John Stuart, Dr. 1. A System of Logic, ratiocinative and inductive. Zd Ed. 2 vols. 8v Proverbs. PARACELSUS. (14931541.) Anima mundi. Archaeus. Macrocosm. Theosophism. 86 3P 1010 BIBLIOGRAPHICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS PARMENIDES. (b. ab. 536 B. C.) Criterion. Motion. PARR, Samuel, Dr. (17471825.) 1. Essay on the Sublime. Works. 8 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1828. Sublime. 2. Sequel to the printed Paper. 2d Edit. Lond. 1792. Theory. PASCAL, Blaise. (16231662.) Treatise of a Vacuum. GEuvres. (5 vols. 8vo., d la ffaye. 1779.) V. 4 Perfectibility. PASQUALIS, Martinez, (d. 1779.) Pneumatology. PATHJCIUS. Translation of Philoponut. Metaphysics. PAUL. Analysis of Aristotle's Ethics. Ends. Method. PAULICIANS. A priori. PAYNE, George. Elements of Mental and Moral Science. Zd Edit. 1845. Conscience. PEEMANS. Introd. ad Philosoph. 12mo. Lovan. 1840. Analysis and Synthesis. Art. Attribute. Ethics. Existence. Philosophy. Whole. PERE, CONSEILS D'DN SUR L'EDUCATION. Education. PERIPATETICS. Form. Idea. PETERSEN. Testimony. PETRONIUS. Scholastic. PHILO JUD^EUS. (1st Century.) Opera. Mangey. 2 vols. fol. London, 1742. Pfeiffer. 5 vols. 8vo, Erl. 1785. Ecstasy. Space. Syncretism. PHILON. Academics. PHILOPONUS. (See PATRICIUS.) PlCCOLOMINEUS. '. Philosoph. de Moribua, Franco/. 1688 Chance. Reminiscence. AND OF PROPER NAMES. 1011 Picus, J. Paris. Cabalistarum Selectiora Obscurioraquc Dogmata. 12mo. Venet, 1569. Kabala. PIERRON. (See ZEVORT.) Introd. d la Metapliys. d'Aristote, 1840. Contradiction. PLATO (B. C. 430347) AND PLATONISTS. Opera. Franc. 1602. 11 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1826. 10 rols. Stattbawn. 1. Republica sive dejusto. Criterion. Justice. Method. Myth. Society (Desire of). 2. Convivium sive de amore. Demon. 3. Gratylus, sive de recta nominum ratine. Grammar (Universal). 4. Phasdo, sive de animo. Immortality (of the Soul). 5. Tim