HOW TO TEACH AND LEARN MODERN LANGUAGES SUCCESSFULLY, ESPECIALLY FRENCH, AXD ITS TEACHING AT SCHOOL. BY FRANCIS LICHTENBERGER, PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES AND MUSIC. LONDON : NEWMAN AND CO., 43, HART STREET, OXFORD STREET. 1880. INTRODUCTION. ASPIRATION to authorship appears to have been a very common malady among pro- fessors of modern languages, especially among professors of the French language ; for, on examining catalogues of educational works, one cannot help being struck with the amaz- ing number of books produced by -them. There exist innumerable grammars, scientific as well as elementary ; the list of books intended to teach conversation is truly bewil- dering, In it we find Ollendorf s and Otto's Conversational Methods, associated with somebody's ' Deux Perroquets ' and De Porquet's ' Speaking Fables ;' there are reading-books containing ' French Classics ' 1057571 iv Introduction. for advanced readers, and others intended to teach ' French at Sight,' which, of course, are intended for beginners. The learned pro- fessors have not spared either age, sex, or condition; and to their ingenuity we owe ' Manuals for Travellers,' ' The First Step of the Child in French,' ' Guides Fran9ais pour les jeunes Filles,' ' La petite Institutrice,' ' Le petit Fablier,' ' Household French,' ' Self- Interpreters/ etc. Even poor Father Time has been encroached upon, as there exist compilations which profess to teach French in nine or six months, and there are many adventurous individuals who undertake to teach it in even less than that time. Judging from the great variety and number of these publications, almost every professor of some standing must have contrived to swell the list with a book of his own. Any- how, we must give them credit for having eclipsed, in point of profusion, every other branch of education. But what is most to be wondered at is, that their tremendous Introduction. efforts have not produced corresponding results, and that every Englishman has not long ago become a perfect French scholar. I confess my weakness. I also had deter- mined to write a grammar a grammar that should throw into the shade everything that had been previously achieved but the sight of the voluminous catalogue disheartened me ; in short, it convinced me that success in that line was impossible. I threw my pen away in despair. But, on examining the list of French works once more, an idea occurred to me, whether a good one or no, I leave to others to decide. Finding that books which give practical hints as to the method of teaching modern languages are not to be found in the said catalogue, I determined upon supplying that want by giving, in the present little volume, my own experience, not only in teaching, but also in learning several languages, and pointing out in this manner, to teachers and students, how to teach, and how to learn modern languages. vi Introduction. In my opinion, teachers, as well as students but muck more so 'the former have com- mitted a grave mistake in attaching too much importance to handbooks; and, whenever the result of tJteir labours did not realise the ex- pectations they entertained, the unfortunate handbook was made the scapegoat, whilst the fault lay really with the master s defective method of teaching, and the student's inatten- tion and idleness in appropriating the contents of the book. F. LICHTENBERGER. CONTENTS. IMPORTANCE OK THE STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGES I THE RESULT OF THE STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGES 5 DIFFICULTIES OF THE STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGES ^ CAUSES OF THE POOR RESULTS OF THE STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGES - 12 THE STUDY AMONG NATIVES - 23 NURSERY STUDIES - 28 THE STUDY AT SCHOOL - - 33 FIRST COURSE. THE PREPARATORY OR INTRODUCTORY STUDY - 38 GENERAL REMARKS ON PRONUNCIATION - - 45 THE TEACHING OF PRONUNCIATION - 55 PREPARATION OF THE LESSONS - - 62 GRAMMAR - 67 THE HEARING OF THE LESSONS - - ' 7 2 CONVERSATION - - 77 THE EXERCISES - - - 87 THE EXERCISE-BOOKS - 89 CORRECTION OF EXERCISES - QJ GENERAL REMARKS ON CONVERSATION - 95 DICTATION - - 98 V viii Contents. SECOND COURSE, PAGE GRAMMAR - - IOI THE VERBS - 105 THE IRREGULAR VERBS 112 READING - Il6 PRONUNCIATION FLUENCY - I2O TRANSLATION OF THE READING LESSONS - 124 THE READING-BOOK - 127 THE VOCABULARY - 132 CONVERSATIONAL EXERCISES 134 THIRD COURSE. READING 140 GRAMMAR - 143 COMPOSITION 144 CONVERSATION 146 CONCLUSION ADVICE TO ADULT STUDENTS - 147 ERRATA. Page 5, line 3. Instead of ' their clerks and foreign masters, ' read : ' their foreign clerks and masters.' Page 141, line 6. Instead of 'synonymies,' read: ' synonymes. ' HOW TO TEACH AND LEARN MODERN LANGUAGES SUCCESSFULLY. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGES. I DO not think it necessary to demonstrate the usefulness and importance of an earnest study of modern languages by giving many reasons, as, for instance, how it would enlarge the mind and store it with new ideas ; how it would make travelling ever so much more pleasant and instructive ; how it would further the acquaintance of different nationalities with each other, and promote friendly relations between them, as merchants and tourists, who represent the most influential classes of the English nation, know but too well from their i How to Teach and Learn own experience what a boon the possession of a modern language is. No doubt the dearly-bought experience of those amongst us who are compelled to deal with foreign nations, or, from other reasons, are brought into contact with them, is the reason why, in England as well as among several Continental nations, it has been for some time admitted that a thorough know- ledge of foreign languages should be consi- dered as important a portion of a liberal education as an acquaintance with history and geography. The admission that the acquisition of modern languages, especially French, is of the utmost importance to Englishmen, we find practically illustrated by the fact that, in good grammar and boarding schools, most of the pupils learn French. In more recent times, German, and, perhaps, Spanish, have received our attention ; but, for various reasons, an acquaintance with French is con- sidered an almost indispensable accomplish- ment. The following fact will show how important a thorough knowledge of modern languages Modern Languages. would be to the middle classes. Some time ago, a number of letters, emanating princi- pally from clerks in merchants' offices, ap- peared in one of the principal newspapers, under the head of ' Marriage and Celibacy.' The leading theme in these pitiful letters was that England, being overstocked with men in search of employment, nothing but emigration remained to the middle classes in order to better their condition. One of the principal reasons which the authors of these letters brought forward to prove the hopelessness of making a successful fight for a respectable position in England, was the irresistible inva- sion of England by foreigners, who, with the advantage of their own languages, would carry the best places in our merchants' offices ; many amongst them, even, would work for a mere nothing. There is, indeed, some ground for their complaining of the pushing foreigners, for the number of those who make a good income as correspondents and teachers of languages, in England, is amazing. Strange to say that no one should have thought of advising the ' ingenious ' authors of those despairing and silly epistles to try and wrest I 2 How to Teach and Learn from the foreign invader those lucrative posi- tions. I have not the slightest doubt that they would be able to do so, were they but possessed of the courage and perseverance of their patient foreign rivals. Until some twenty years ago, music was considered quite as foreign a plant to English soil as French and German. It was thought there was no music among the English, hence foreign music-masters were quite the rage. The case is somewhat different now ; and I have no hesitation in saying that, in the end, the foreign music-masters will not only find successful competitors in Englishmen, but will be finally driven by them into a corner. Now what has been accomplished by Englishmen in music, might, with the greatest ease, be done with regard to foreign lan- guages. For music requires talent, unceasing drudgery and application for many years ; whilst languages, as I shall show in another chapter, demand only earnest application for a few years, and mental capabilities of no very exalted order. And how glad English merchants, and the Modern Languages. 5 better class of head-masters would be, could they find Englishmen to take the places of their clerks and foreign masters ! THE RESULT OF THE STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGES. THOUGH public opinion has almost unani- mously agreed upon the necessity and im- portance of the study of modern languages ; and, although they are ' taught by the most distinguished and efficient native masters, and continually spoken in our boarding schools', desirable results are not obtained. Compara- tively few of the pupils acquire what may be considered a fair knowledge of the subject ; and it is to be lamented, that, after years of tedious and expensive study, the pupil, when confronted by a person well acquainted with the subject, admits by his silence, or a ' Je ne sais pas' and ' Ich weiss nicht] that he has not learnt very much. In most cases he has not acquired a knowledge sound enough to serve as a foundation, should he wish to con- How to Teach and Learn tinue his studies at a riper age. In some cases it is so bad as to prove an obstacle to further studies, an obstacle which only ener- getic masters and pupils can overcome. When we now compare the importance which is attached to such accomplishments, and the sacrifices of time and money which are made in acquiring them, with the scanty, not to say miserable, results which the study of modern languages has yielded, is it not quite natural that we should seek for an explanation of that tremendous disproportion between effort and result, and ask why so vast a proportion of the students fail in their attempts ? Are the difficulties that beset the task so great, or is the acquisition of a foreign language beyond the capabilities of an English- man's mind and tongue ? I will try to answer these questions in the following paragraphs. Modern Languages. DIFFICULTIES OF THE STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGES, No doubt the difficulties which beset the study of modern languages are very great, as many who have successfully undertaken the task will know. Indeed, to speak a foreign tongue with a pure accent, to write it like a well-educated native, and also to think in it, are only reserved to a fortunate few endowed with special gifts. A sharp, quick ear that knows how to distinguish between the finest shades of sound., a ready, supple tongue, a never-failing memory, and a clear-sighted and penetrating intellect are required for such a success as, for instance, the late Charles Mathews achieved. In short, to master a language in its whole extent, to get hold of its peculiar character of the spirit that breathes in the very heart of it talent, nay, genius, is necessary. But to study a modern language to such an extent as to make it useful for business and tourist purposes, to understand it when spoken t and to make one's self understood in it, is not How to Teach and Learn a task of exceptional difficulty. As it is more a matter of a good memory, and earnest, steadfast application and energy, taste and liking, rather than talent, even persons of moderate abilities, but with an earnest desire to learn, cannot help succeeding in their endeavours to accomplish it, under the guid- ance of a good and conscientious teacher. The difficulties which the task presents have been, however, by a variety of circumstances magnified to such an extent that they have assumed so formidable an aspect in the eyes of English people, which has caused learners to arrive at the conclusion that the task of sur- mounting them is an impossibility. Do the Germans, who generally excel in their linguistic knowledge, for instance, French, owe their success to the possession of superior intel- lects, or have their tongues and other organs of speech not to encounter the same, or similar, difficulties as those of the English ? I leave the first of these two questions unanswered, sup- posing that everyone has made up his mind about it. As for the second, I have not the slightest hesitation in stating that the task is quite as difficult to them as to us, for Modern Languages. the Parisian ridicules the German as well as the Englishman on account of his ac- cent. But the truth is, the task of learning French is not so much a question of clever- ness and superior intellect, as of continued and patient plodding. The superiority of the German in this respect is simply due to the fact that he has the advantage of having re- ceived a good grounding : and, besides, he has an eye to business, and means to make his living by languages ; and then, the shrewd fellow knows that the greater his proficiency in a language, the better will be the remune- ration to be obtained by its means. Now take, for instance, the Frenchman, who is generally a very bad hand at learning foreign languages. The reason of that is, not that he lacks cleverness and abilities to learn them, but he has the ridiculous notion that his own language is the language ' par excellence la langue universelle] and, consequently, he thinks it beneath his dignity to acquire that of any other nationality. So much to explain the facility the Germans, and the inability the French show in ac- quiring modern languages. 10 The acquisition of the correct pronunciation of a foreign language is, by no means, a very easy matter, but to say that it is of such difficulty as to render it impossible to Englishmen to deal with it successfully is sheer nonsense. There are numbers of English people who pronounce remarkably well, and, judging from my own experience in teaching, I cannot say that I have experi- enced greater difficulties with English pupils than with others of German or Italian nation- ality in my endeavours to teach them how to pronounce correctly. I am of opinion that the pronunciation is by far the easiest part of the task of learning a language, yet the difficulty of its pronunciation is always made the principal excuse for an Englishman's ignorance of it. But this excuse is a mere cloak to hide his ignorance, for, as a rule, the one who pronounces as, for example, French in the manner so much and so very justly ridiculed in the comic papers of the day, will be found equally deficient in his grammatical knowledge, and his boast of being able to read it means only guess-work. And why this can only be so, and not otherwise, I Modern Languages. i r hope to show conclusively in the following chapter. In concluding this chapter, I maintain that he who confesses that a foreign language has proved too much for him, must either have been badly taught, or his perseverance and thirst for knowledge were not of the kind to enable him to succeed. He may fitly be compared to a traveller who pushes on gladly so long as his way lies in the plain ; but, when it becomes mountainous and rugged, when his progress is barred by towering peaks which must be climbed before the pro- mised land is reached, grows weary and dis- couraged, and shrinks back from the obstacles in his path, and, at last, relinquishes his enterprise, nothing remaining of his attempt but broken recollections, with which he gene- rally contrives to make himself ridiculous in the eyes of those who, being endowed with superior courage, have successfully achieved the journey. 12 CAUSES OF THE POOR RESULTS OF THE STUDY OF MODERN LANGUAGES. As I have already remarked in the preceding chapter, the acquisition of a foreign language, though a difficult undertaking, must not be considered as one which it is impossible to achieve ; yet, on the other hand, it ought not to be considered so easy as certain advertise- ments, or small publications, such as ' French in three or six months] or 'French at sight] etc., would lead us to suppose. The object which the student of modern languages has in view can only be attained by means of able arrangements, very careful training, and, above all, through the medium of really efficient teachers. Have we complied with the conditions necessary for rendering success in studying modern languages possible ? Are our teachers really as efficient as we suppose them to be ? Are they able to give the careful training the subject requires ? And, lastly, is the study carried on under satisfactory arrangements ? Modern Languages. 13 During the Franco-German war, the French and everyone else were surprised at the great number of German soldiers who were able to speak French. No such surprise could have been caused had people, outside Germany, known more about German school-regulations than they really did. In the * Gymnasium', the preparatory school for the universities, French is studied in the same thorough manner as Latin and Greek ; English has only been introduced in recent times, but the time may not be far distant when it will be considered as important as French. At pre- sent, no student is admitted to a university without possessing a thorough knowledge of French. And in schools, such as ' Real, Gewerbe und Hokere Burger Sckuten, which do not aim at a classical education, and pre- pare only for commercial and various scientific pursuits, the theoretical and practical study of French and English is rigorously insisted upon. The consequence is that a fair pro- portion of the better classes of German society speak either French or English, and that a far larger number of them have a sound theoretical knowledge of French at least. Of 14 How to Teach and Learn the latter it may be said, ' Us savent le franfais parfaitement, mais Us nont pas P habitude de le parler ; and in how surpris- ingly short a time a man who has a thorough knowledge of a modern language may make himself at home in a foreign country, the Franco-German war has given ample proof. All this Germany has achieved at little cost, by means of a judicious classification of schools, able arrangements, and, above all, with efficient, as native French teachers could not be had, German teachers. Now let us see how these things are managed in England. It is true, a boy, or rather his parents, may choose in almost every school between clas- sical and modern languages ; and, if there exist no distinct establishments for classical and modern education, as in Germany, the working plan of schools and the accommo- dating spirit of English headmasters admit of a classification of scholars within the school in these respects. French and German are also requirements in most examinations ; but it is not a ' thorough knowledge ' that is required of the Modern Languages. 15 candidates in these subjects, only a knowledge with which pupils may be crammed in the course of a few months, and which, of course, is forgotten in less time than it took to cram them. In the choice of teachers of modern lan- guages, England has also adopted a plan of her own ; she has gone in for foreign teachers. No doubt this plan would have answered very well a Frenchman or German must be better qualified to teach his mother-tongue than an Englishman if these foreign teachers had always had a fair knowledge of English, and had also been experienced in teaching. But the supply of native French and German teachers falling short of the excessive demand, English headmasters, in order to keep pace with the requirements of the times, had to take any foreigner they could get hold of; thus it happened that English schools became harbours of refuge for all sorts of foreigners out of work. I hope the case is altered now, or, at least, is improving ; but until very recently, numbers of foreigners, merchants' clerks, mechanics, waiters, etc., left, for various reasons, their 1 6 How to Teach and Learn native countries and came to England in the hope of making their fortune.* Not being able to find occupation in their trades, they gladly accepted anything offered to them. Many of them found their way into English private boarding schools, which they could do easily enough through the medium of scholastic agents. They may not always have been unedu- cated persons, but, even supposing them to have been well educated, that does not imply that they were good teachers. Becherelle says : ' Rien deplus commun, mallieureusement, que de voir des maitres fort instruits, et ne sacliant pas enseigner. Ce ne sont pas les con- naissances quileurmanquent, mats Us ne savent * It must not be believed that this statement is an ex- aggeration. A recent French writer I have forgotten his name says, in an essay on England, from which copious extracts appeared in the daily papers about three months ago : ' English people must not judge France by that France existing amongst them, as it is principally composed of barbers, tailors, waiters, communists, and various shades of political refugees. However this may be, certain it is that a number of ' mauvais sujets et igno- rants' found, and probably still find, their way into English schools. Modern Languages. 17 pas en tirer parti' And then they looked upon teaching as a mere makeshift, and cared little about their work, their mind being continually occupied with plans and resolu- tions how to make their escape from the thraldom of English boarding-school life. Take, for instance, the case of a foreigner who enters an English boarding-school with a very imperfect knowledge of English, per- haps none at all ; what good can we expect of such an individual ? Suppose him to be a good scholar and a first-rate teacher in his own native style. All that avails him nothing, as he is quite a stranger to our way of manag- ing boys. ' It is not sufficient that he is master of the subject he has to teach; he must, above all, be able to master those whom he has to instruct' And if the task of managing a class of our boys is difficult to English teachers, what chance has a foreigner, who lacks in most cases the principal means for the accomplishment of his task ? His im- perfect knowledge of English gives rise, justly or unjustly, to a series of misunder- standings and ridiculous scenes. As he does not possess the power of a clear and ready 2 1 8 How to Teach and Learn expression, he is quite helpless, and at the tender mercy of his pupils. When worried by them, he cannot help flying into a pas- sion, which affords great amusement to the tormentors, who, once having found out his foible, torment him systematically. If the matter is referred to the headmaster, the foreigner's cause is quite hopeless, because the boy knows how to plead, and he does not. Imagine what knowledge under these cir- cumstances he will be able to impart, and how careful the training will be which the pupils receive at his hands ! And why does the headmaster not support him ? Thereby hangs another tale. The headmaster, who is generally a great Greek and Latin scholar, has, in most cases, but a very indifferent knowledge of modern languages. Consequently, in choosing his foreign assistant, he depends entirely on the foreigner's dress and personal appearance, or engages him on the recommendation of his agent and other referees. Previous expe- rience having taught him that these sources cannot always be depended upon, he looks at Moaern Languages. 19 his assistant, from the very beginning, with a distrustful eye ; and when unavoidable squab- bles respecting the lessons, tasks, and espe- cially about the behaviour of the boys, occur, he is but too readily inclined to think that the foreigner is in the wrong, that he cannot manage the boys, and that he overtasks them. Very often the cautious headmaster does not want to interfere, as he might be compelled to be strict and just, which, he argues, might prove injurious to his business. ' He can always gel a foreign master through an agenf, but pupils are not so easily come by' The pupils, cunning rogues, are very sharp in finding out which way the wind blows, and take advantage of it. It is also to be deplored that parents, on finding that their children make no progress, do not take them from the school, instead of being delighted at hearing of the clever tricks their offspring are practising upon the poor assistant teachers. In many cases, especially in small schools, the study of modern languages is not regu- larly carried on, or, for the sake of saving money, not sufficient time is allowed for 2 2 2o How to Teach and Learn teaching them. The underpaid teachers are always on the look-out for a better place, and the continual change of masters thus brought about must also greatly impede the progress of the pupils. Some pupils begin the study too late, and the tall gentlemen, not liking to work with beginners, who are generally little boys, treat the subject with indifference, and become instrumental in upsetting the discipline of the class. To avoid this, they are perhaps put into a class of advanced pupils, where, of course, they are equally out of place. Another, and unfortunately very common cause, is, that many pupils, on some pretext or other, leave off learning modern languages for some time, and begin again when they have nearly forgotten what they had previ- ously learnt. Parents who give way to the whims of their children are much to blame. Young ladies and gentlemen are often allowed to discontinue their studies, as, for instance, on pleading their dislike to the master or governess who teaches them, whilst the truth is, that they only dislike the labour which the study entails. Moaern Languages. 2 i This is fostering the idleness and unwilling- ness to work which is quite natural with children. To tender-hearted mothers and unsuspecting fathers and masters, a retrospec- tive glance at the days of their childhood and the years they passed at school would be very instructive. It would teach them to understand children better than they generally do. ' Children look such innocent creatures, which no doubt they are. However, in lack of understanding, they are gifted with an admir- able tact, and are guided by a sort of instinct in finding out the foibles of those with whom they are brought into contact, so that they seldom fail to defeat the designs of their unsus- pecting parents and even their teachers? The latter ought, therefore, to be continually on their guard, that their children and pupils do not manage them, instead of being managed by them. In concluding this chapter, I cannot help remarking that the absurd notions which exist regarding the study of modern lan- guages, the easy way in which people are taken in by deceptive advertisements, and persuaded to buy books which teach Ian- 22 How to Teach and Learn guages in an incredibly short space of time, are not to be wondered at, if the school, which alone can foster a proper taste for such studies, does not do its duty nay, seems, on the contrary, to use every effort to nip it in the bud. 1 Plants that are not well tended in their early growth, but rarely grow up hardy and useful specimens. The study of modern lan- guages may be likened to a plant sadly neglected in the nursery, for the school is the nursery- ground of knowledge and study? V~ 3fc ?! & -VS" Before proceeding with the - subject with which my little essay has principally to deal, viz., ' The Teaching of French in Schools] I seize the opportunity of making a few remarks ' On Studying it among Natives] and on its ' Teaching in the Nursery! Modern Languages. 23 THE STUDY AMONG NATIVES. THERE are many who believe that modern languages must be learnt among natives, and cannot be acquired at home unless the study begins in early childhood, under the guidance of native nurses or governesses ; in short, that the same course must be taken as that by means of which we become gradually acquainted with our mother tongue. No doubt there is much truth in these theories, as either plan would greatly facilitate the task, but I must strenuously oppose the opinion, that they are the only ways that lead to a successful study of modern languages. The fortunate few who have had an oppor- tunity of learning French by a prolonged stay among the natives, will know ' that it is not so easily and quickly acquired as is generally supposed ; at all events, the idea that the mere breathing of Parisian air will inspire anyone with the French language is an erroneous one' People arriving with such Utopian notions 24 How to Teach and Learn in Paris will find themselves much disap- pointed, and, I am sure, will have a sorry time of it during the first year's stay, if they bring but little or no knowledge of the lan- guage with them. No one knows of those moments of despair, and even of tears, but the afflicted students themselves. More than ordinary courage and persistency are required for the attainment of a successful issue. A prolonged stay in Paris will not be of much use without earnest and hard studying. Of course, the plodding student stands a far better chance among the natives than he does at home. If this were not so, how could we account for the fact that there are so many foreigners who, although having resided amongst us for years, have but a very imper- fect knowledge of English ? Similar observa- tions, I dare say, may be made in any other country regarding foreign residents. I have known many educated persons who had lived for years in a foreign country, with- out learning much of the native tongue. Though deeply sensible of the value of such an accomplishment, they avoided the trouble of acquiring it, especially where it was not Modern Languages. 25 absolutely necessary to them as a means of gaining their livelihood. I remember, amongst others, an English clergyman in Italy, who, after having con- trived by means of signs, and a word put in here and there, to make some observations to the native who was cleaning the church, turned with a blush to me, and said : ' You see, though I have been here about ten years, I do not know much about Italian !' This and similar facts which I could relate, show that, in order * to learn a language among the natives, an earnest desire to acquire it, and not only a way, but above all a will, is necessary' Foreigners staying in Paris often cannot make much progress in learning the language, because they have no opportunities of making useful acquaintances. During my first six months in Paris, I added very little to my previous imported knowledge of French, if I may use the expression ; for, at the French lodging-house where I lived, I knew no one except the concierge, from whom I could not learn much, nor could I depend much on acquaintances that I occasionally made. The task of helping a foreigner who is just 26 How to Teach and Learn beginning to talk is a terribly trying one for a native, and I defy anything but love or money to produce the patience that is re- quired for it. The Frenchman is no excep- tion to the rule ; indeed, with him, it almost amounts to impoliteness to correct the mis- takes his foreign friend is making. When asked to give his assistance, he will, with the politeness so characteristic of his nationality, kindly and willingly offer his services, and, of course, in utter ignorance of what he is pledging himself to ; indeed, for the next few moments he is all energy, and you can't help being charmed with his readiness to help you ; but, alas ! that zeal which at first appeared inexhaustible, very quickly gives way to weariness. The cheapest and best way for a striving scholar is always to go to a school or a place where people are compelled to teach and assist him in every possible way. Many think it a great saving if they can find a place in a school or family. This is a great mistake, as it is certain to result in a loss of time and money, if it does not become a serious ob- stacle to a continuous and careful study. In Modern Languages. 27 the first instance, a foreigner, not knowing French, gets in a situation very little, if any- thing at all. Secondly, for the little salary he does receive, he is expected to work a great deal, and has very little time left for his own use. Moreover, being compelled to teach and speak his own language all day long, he hears but here and there a French sentence, and thus it takes him perhaps years to achieve what in a school would be only the work of so many months. On the other hand, the outlay for schooling is, compara- tively speaking, very small ; in fact, he could not live more economically anywhere else. The student, after six months' assiduous study, can look out for a place that offers better remuneration, and thus reimburse himself for the outlay in money at the school ; but the most precious gain is, that he has treasured up in that time a substantial and thorough knowledge, enabling him to make acquaint- ances and improve himself in many other ways. 28 NURSERY STUDIES. IT is well known how apt and quick children are, not only in catching the sounds of which a foreign language consists, and imitating them to perfection with their little pliable tongues, but also in retaining words and whole phrases. With incredible rapidity they make themselves at home in foreign countries, learn to understand their foreign playmates or the servants under whose care they are placed, and converse with them with as much ease as if they were using their mother tongue. If they are so placed as to have but few opportunities of speaking their native language, they soon prefer that of the country in which they live, and it often happens that they have more difficulties in expressing their thoughts properly in their own language, than in that which they have adopted. Being stationed for three years (1862-65) at the Central German Missionary School, in Paris, I had a good opportunity of making Modern Languages. 29 observations. In the schoolroom the pupils were Germans, but directly they entered the playground they became French. Indeed, we had great difficulty in keeping up their know- ledge of their mother tongue to the level of that of the French language. The French authorities made the most strenuous efforts to change every German working-man arriv- ing in Paris into a Frenchman ; still greater was the eagerness displayed by the Catholic clergy to make converts. One day, Baron Haussmann, at that time Prefect of Paris, entered my school, and inquired very particu- larly whether we taught our pupils French. ' You see,' he said, apologetically, ' there is such an immense number of Germans in Paris, quite sufficient to cause us the most serious embarrassment in case they choose to break out into open revolt.' He was very pleased in finding that, with the exception of the most recent arrivals from Germany, they all were able to express themselves fluently in French. There were many cases brought under my notice, where the children of the poor German labourers (chiefly street-sweepers) talked 3O How to Teach and Learn French fluently and willingly, whilst they spoke German very badly, and only when compelled. Before the establishment of these schools, the parents were very glad to have their children taken care of in French schools ; but as parents and children only met, when the former returned tired from their daily toil, the children gradually forgot their native tongue, so far that, in the end, they were unable to converse at all with their parents, who had neither time nor inclination to learn French. Thus it happened that parents and children became almost strangers to each other. Such and similar facts coming to the ears of the Prussian ambassador, Count Pourtales, permission was obtained from the Imperial Government to establish these German missionary schools. How are we to account for such facts, and what must be the inference drawn from them ? Simply, that the elastic minds of children are capable of assuming, without any perceptible effort, any shape or form, and easily give way to predominating circumstances. It is for this reason that they experience little or no difficulty in acquiring a correct pronunciation, Modern Languages. 31 and in getting hold of the most peculiar turns of a foreign language. That age then, when memory and the power to imitate are in pre- ponderance, must be the best time to begin the study of modern languages. No doubt careful nursery training at that period saves years of tiresome study after- wards. But if children do not get on well with their foreign attendants, if they receive an imperfect training, they will afterwards find more difficulty in continuing the study of the language at school than others who had no previous training, as it is often very diffi- cult to remedy the mistakes which inferior foreign attendants have made. Servants ought never to be entrusted with such a highly important task. Their employ- ment is not only objectionable on the ground that they impart an imperfect knowledge of the subject immediately concerned, but it is dangerous to employ them, as children often contract bad, low habits, which may impede the child's success at school nay, even in life. The success of the nursery training is fre- quently endangered by the praise which is 32 How to Teach and Learn often lavished upon the little scholars. If a sentence of a foreign language uttered by a grown-up person gives the impression of deep learning and inspires respect, it charms when it proceeds from tiny lips, and is per- fectly irresistible if the admiring listeners do not happen to understand it. Can we wonder, then, that the little scholars, even with the most imperfect knowledge, take by storm the hearts of fond parents and affectionate aunts and uncles ! How is it possible to shield such little conquerors from conceit ? They must get spoiled by hearing their cleverness extolled in a continuous strain of praise, in which visitors or friends are expected to join. Children spoiled in this manner are often very difficult to deal with at school, as they go there with the notion that they know French already ; the change from the playful memory-practice in the nursery, to the severe mental practice at school, is to them very distasteful. Even if nursery training had not these serious drawbacks, and was always superin- tended by able foreign attendants, who are by no means so numerous and so easily and Modern Languages. 33 cheaply to be had as is generally thought, it can only be considered a preparation for future and more serious studies, for ''The Study at School' THE STUDY AT SCHOOL. WHEN we take into consideration that the knowledge which the best nursery training produces can only serve as a basis for more serious work at school, and that study among natives is merely to be regarded as the finishing-up of the school or grammar teach- ing, it will be apparent that the latter does not owe its importance solely to the fact of being the principal means on which the largest portion of the middle classes relies for the learning of modern languages, but because it is as necessary to the two other methods as the backbone is to the body. And I do not hesitate for a moment to assert, that, without its care, the tender, graceful, and wonderful plant reared up in the nursery cannot thuive for the child is as apt to forget 3 34 How to Teach and Learn as to learn and the other would strongly resemble a house built upon the sand. As there are but few parents who can afford to keep an able foreign governess or tutor for their children, or send them for several years to school in a foreign country ; in short, as such methods are within the reach of the wealthier classes of society only, en account of the expenses which they entail, we are naturally driven to expect much more from the school than it has hitherto given. Till now, the school has either limited its instruction in modern languages to a dry, wearisome, uninteresting study of the grammar ; has, in fact, pursued a course similar to that taken in the teaching of the classical languages, or has, by making the study of the grammar a secondary object, adopted an aimless, rambling plan, in imita- tion of the nursery training and study among natives, and, of course, has signally failed in its endeavours to impart a thorough know- ledge of these branches of education. The inability of the school to deal success- fully with these subjects has produced the most disastrous consequences. For, with its Modern Languages. 35 imperfect efforts, the school has not only not fulfilled its mission, but has proved most fatal to the diffusion of the knowledge of modern languages. It has been inferred that they can only be successfully acquired by nursery training, or by going abroad, and that it is quite useless attempting their acquisition at school. Thus discouraged, masters and pupils have been carrying on a hopeless con- test, with what success we all know. No doubt the study of modern languages would have been abandoned altogether by many, had it not been thought that, for fashion's sake, a quarter or two of French or German was necessary. However, I am far from sharing such desponding views. Experience has shown me that the school can be made more useful, and I think that educational establishments which give only a commercial education, and consequently, have more time at their disposal for the study of modern tongues, can even compete with the two other rival methods with a fair chance of success, and without any detriment to other branches of education. It has but to adopt a method which embodies, 3 2 36 How to Teach and Learn to some extent, the principal duties of the nursery training, giving at the same time the elements of the grammar, and on the thorough knowledge of the grammar base the duties of the fmishing-up study. In short, instruction must be based upon a method which gradually improves the capacity and readiness of the memory, familiarises the ear with the strange sounds from the very beginning, develops by degrees the pliability of the tongue and the power of expressing one's self in a foreign language ; and, above all, causes the students to think and to take an interest in their lessons. Suppose that such a method is adopted, and carried out under the superintendence of suitable masters, success cannot be doubtful. Being gradually prepared for grammar and conversation, the pupils will not be frightened when each of these studies begins in real earnest ; and, if they are not excessively stupid, and suppose them to have lessons for live, six, or even seven years the time boys generally spend at school I do not think it would be at all unreasonable to expect that they must, at the very least, acquire ' a know- Modern Languages. 37 ledge sufficient for tourist purposes, a know- ledge which, with but little additional labour, might be utilised for more serious pursuits in life, such as correspondence and teaching! Should a pupil not be able to complete his study at school, on account of illness, or other causes which may lead to lengthened inter ruptions, he must at all events learn some- thing, a something forming a sound basis for future studies. In accordance with the above-expressed views, the whole study would have to be divided in three distinct stages or courses, viz. : 1. The preparatory or introductory course. 2. The study of grammar and reading. 3. That of composition and conversation. It must not be inferred, from the names given to the three courses, that there should be no grammar and reading taught in the first, or no conversation in the second, etc. Conversation, grammar, and reading will be found, to a certain extent, in every course, as I shall fully explain in the succeeding chap- ters. Before I proceed with the development of 38 How to Teack and Learn my scheme, I must mention that, in order to be better understood, to be clearer and more precise in my statements regarding- the duties of the master, I have thought it of advantage to single out one language on which I could illustrate my views. In selecting French, I have been guided by the fact that it heads the list of modern languages studied in English schools. Of course the method which I have sketched out for the teaching of French applies, except with some very small and insignificant changes, with equal force to other languages. FIRST COURSE. THE PREPARATORY OR INTRODUCTORY STUDY. I HAVE called this the preparatory or intro- ductory study, because the pupils acquire by /neans of it a general knowledge of the French language, become acquainted with its most simple forms, and are, in some measure, Modern Languages. 39 gradually prepared for conversation and a systematic study of the grammar. The pupils should begin the study as early as possible; perhaps as soon as they can read English fairly well ; at all events not later than at the ao-e of ten. I don't think it O advisable to teach pupils under that age with the aid of books ; nursery lessons for a few quarters would better answer the purpose. The pupils would have thus at least five or six years within which to acquire French. During the first course, young pupils ought to have three lessons a week at the very least, and, in cases where this number cannot be afforded, additional hours must be devoted to the repetition and preparation of the lessons with a competent person (vide 'Repeti- tion and Drilling-up '). For older pupils, say, of fourteen and upwards, two or three hours a week are sufficient, as they are able to supply the loss in tuition by their riper understanding, industry, and perseverance. Among the mass of handbooks to be re- commended, deserve especially to be men- tioned : Dr. Ahris First Course, adapted by different English authors, whose productions, 4O How to Teach and Learn though differing in some minor respects, are equally useful ; Dr. Ploetzes Elementary Grammar of tlic French Language^ adapted from the German by F. Schoefwinkel ; and Havet's First French Course. The latter two, however, not relying so much upon re- petition as gradation, are evidently more suitable for riper intellects. Havet's book I recommend especially to the attention of teachers, as it would give them an idea how to use Ahn's and Ploetze's books with success. For little pupils, however, the best book is Dr. Ahn's method, though it is capable of improvement here and there, and probably its merits have contributed to its general adoption. But excellent as these books are they become only useful in the hands of able, conscientious teachers, and industrious pupils. The teachers, especially those who have charge of classes of little pupils, must be able to explain themselves well in English ; and, as this is not very often a qualification met with in foreigners, I think it would be far better to employ English masters or governesses who possess a thorough know- ledge of French. Modern Languages. 41 The employment of English teachers is also preferable for the following reasons : Firstly. The teaching of French teachers has not produced results which speak in their favour. Germany, which, almost without direct French aid, manages to crive instruc- 7 o o tion in French, has obtained far better results than other countries have. Secondly. French teachers, with but rare exceptions, appear to understand that the principal means of learning a language are translation and frequent repetition, mind and memory-practice combined, principles which are thoroughly'recognised in books of German origin. They go so far as to say that the Ger- man authors did not know French perhaps they did not; anyhow, Dr. Ahn and others seem to have known pretty well what little students wanted they prefer to teach solely by imita- tion, or memory-practice, and with the aid of grammars, conversation, and phrase-books ; hence it comes that tourist guides, conversa- tion books, and other more or less useless compilations, are mostly of French origin, and that Frenchmen have only achieved success in the production of grammars which 42 Plow to Teach and Learn are mere imitations and adaptations of books devised for use in their native schools. It is very easy to account for the more practical value of books produced by German authors. As poor and despotic Germany did not hold out the same attractions to French- men as ' la perfide, mais riche Albion} the Germans were compelled to rely upon them- selves ; and how did they meet the difficulty ? The German governments, town councils, and other patrons of schools, ever anxious to provide their schools with efficient teachers, sent students possessing an aptitude for learning languages to France and England for the completion of their studies, who only, after having given satisfactory proof of having employed their time well, were intrusted with the task of giving instruction in schools. As it is too well known how this system has worked, there is no necessity to say much more about its advantages. No doubt, had the English not trusted so much to their French visitors, they would have succeeded as well as the Germans. An objection might be raised against the employment of Englishmen on account of Modern Languages. 43 their accent. Of coarse they will be found more or less wanting on this point ; however, any deficiency in this respect will be more than counterbalanced by other and far more valuable qualifications. But] how is it with the Frenchman's accent and knowledge of his own language ? In considering this point, we must not forget that France is a very large country, in which, as in England and Germany, a variety of dialects are spoken. So we must, after all, believe that monsieur comes from Paris, and pronounces and knows his language well. Thirdly. Another reason for the employ- ment of English teachers is that they possess more aptness for imparting their knowledge than Frenchmen. The latter, who have ex- perienced no difficulty whatever in acquiring their mother tongue, and who have not ob- served in children of their own country the awkwardness which their English pupils exhibit, are rather given to underrate the capacity of English children, and to consider them excessively stupid. As they do not understand the difficulties which their pupils quite naturally experience, 44 How to Teach and Learn they cannot be expected to know the best way of overcoming them. They come very soon to the conclusion that their task is a hopeless one, and consequently make no attempt to help their pupils on in patience. In most cases they have not that command of the English tongue which is required for the execution of their duty. The result of all this is that their instruction is given in a mechanical, half-hearted, heart-discouraging sort of a way, which alone suffices to make it a very unprofitable proceeding. Without taking into account the gain in discipline, I believe that English teachers would do infinitely better, especially at the age when pupils require instructors who can make everything as clear as daylight to them. The English teacher who has learnt French in the same manner as his pupils, who has experienced and conquered all the difficulties which the subject offers, will be more able to adapt himself to their wants and to help them to overcome their difficulties. There are many Germans intrusted with instruction in, French ; why not then employ well qualified English teachers ? Modern Languages. 45 In concluding this chapter, I feel bound to point out the fallacy of the theory which, I fear, is but too generally acted upon, viz., ' that, with regard to young pupils, the qiiali- fications of teachers arc a matter of extreme indifference! Just at the beginning, when the firm foundation which is wanted for future studies is to be laid down, everything depends on the judicious choice of an instructor for the child. It occurs far more frequently than is generally supposed, that, through carelessness, irregularity, and indifferent tuition at that stage, many blooming hopes are withered, and many promising intellects ruined. GENERAL REMARKS ON PRONUNCIATION. A GOOD pronunciation is one of the most essential points to which the student of French has to direct his attention. For without it, conversation, if not wholly impos- sible, is at least much impeded ; besides, as a 46 How to Teach and Learn bad accent always exposes its owner to ridi- cule, it is often a cause of discouragement and an obstacle in the way to further im- provement. Whatever may be the result of a bad pronunciation, it always gives the impression of carelessness in the teacher and indifference on the part of the pupil ; and I dare say it would not be wrong to lay it down, as a general rule, that the one who pronounces badly has generally an inferior knowledge of French. However, there are individuals whose ears are so dull, and who have so little command over their organs of speech, that it is really impossible for them to pronounce properly. Such cases are, how- ever, quite exceptional, and, with the majority of students, the acquirement of a good pro- nunciation is only a matter of earnest appli- cation. The importance of a correct and distinct pronunciation ought to induce pupils to strive more earnestly to acquire it than is generally the case. There cannot be the slightest doubt that the carelessness and negligence displayed with regard to pronunciation is one of the chief causes of the miserable results Modern Languages. 47 which the study of modern languages has yielded. As it is of the highest importance that a teacher should know what are the principal difficulties his pupils experience, and in what points the English pronunciation differs from the French, an intimate acquaintance with our tongue is one of the chief qualifications of a good teacher. Those who have given a little attention to the subject will know that there exists but little or no difference in the pronunciation of the consonants in the two languages, the l r and /' being the only exception. But as regards the vowels, a wide difference exists, and in this direction lie the difficulties with which English pupils have to contend. The difference is not very marked in the a and i ; it is a little more perceptible in c, 2, ais, aic, aye, and strongly represented in or eu, as in un, urn, eun. 4. On e, as in in, im, ein, eim, ain, aim, yn, ym. Modern Languages. 51 5. There remains yet a fifth, ien.yen, which is, however, only the nasal on e, preceded by an i ; the latter is so rapidly pronounced that it partakes more of the nature of a consonant than a vowel. LIQUIDS. The liquids constitute another peculiarity of the French language. Though their pronunciation does not offer insurmount- able difficulties to English tongues, it is im- possible to give an exact description for guidance in their pronunciation. They can, therefore, only be learnt by hearing the teacher pronounce them. They have, like the nasals, a vowel for their basis. To facilitate their reading and pronunciation to the pupils, it is useful to classify them in the same manner as the nasals. CLASSIFICATION OF THE LIQUIDS : 1. On a, as in ail, aill, 2. On e, as in eil, eill. 3. On ou, as in ouil, ouill. r euil, euill. 4. On eu, as in < ueil, ueill. \ oeily oeill. 5. On i, as in il, ill. 6. The gn is also classed among the liquids. 42 Unlike the others, it does not depend on a vowel. The n, though following the g, belongs to the preceding syllable, and the g, and perhaps also the e, as in campagne, mon- tagne represent the ending of all other liquids. Of great difficulty is also the proper articu- lation of the vowel z, forming one syllable with two or more letters, as in ieu, ieur, ions, iez, ier, iere, ten, yen. To facilitate their pro- nunciation, it is advisable to pronounce them first without the consonants preceding these endings, as in d-ieu, p-ieux. Though we have something similar in due, pupil, the aid of a good and painstaking teacher is indis- pensable to get hold of their proper pronun- ciation. The same applies in some measure to the vowel o followed by an z". CONSONANTS. The r and h are the only consonants which call for remark. The r has a harsher sound in French, and is produced by the vibration of the root, or, rather, the part of the palate overlapping that part of the tongue. The h aspire'e must be mentioned here ; but not on account of the difficulty of its pro- nunciation. Its name might lead us to sup- Modern Languages. 53 pose that such a thing as an aspirated h really exists. As a Frenchman is unable to pro- nounce an h, the difference between h muette and h aspirde is purely grammatical. The inability of the French to aspirate the h like the English or Germans, was well known and made most of during the invasion of France. The French having sometimes managed to learn the watchwords of the invaders, and contrived, by this means, to surprise outlying parties, the latter chose words beginning with an h to guard them- selves against surprise. The Israelites had recourse to a similar means in forcing every man about to cross the fords of Jordan to pronounce the word ' Shibboleth.' ADDITIONAL REMARKS. A characteristic feature of French pronunciation is the dis- tinct articulation or separation of syllables, which even in the swiftest utterance is dis- tinctly adhered to. To a foreigner unac- quainted with French, the speech of persons of inferior education, with coarse, harsh voices, sounds, therefore, very much like the beating of a drum, or the noise of a cart moving over a gravelled or uneven road. 54 How to Teach and Learn This precision and exactness in separating the syllables, though not particularly pleasing in coarse and gruff voices, gives elegance to utterance when softened by the graceful modulation of the voices of educated people. As this practice is altogether opposed to the rules on which the pronunciation of the English idiom is based, it is necessary to direct the attention of pupils to it. As far as I am aware, the value of the separation of syllables has only been recognised in Havet's French Course, and there perhaps solely with the view of facilitating the reading of the lessons given at the beginning of the book. Other books, such as Delille's, for instance, only mention the subject to illustrate the difference existing between French and English syllabic division. Its importance as one of the most essential principles and means of teaching pronuncia- tion has, I think, been but very little appre ciated and acted upon. Modern Languages. 55 THE TEACHING OF PRONUN- CIATION. THERE are two things which should principally be kept in view in teaching pronunciation, viz., primary pronunciation, comprising the correct articulation of vowels and consonants, and fluency '-practice, which is intended to give to the tongue and the other organs of speech the necessary flexibility and readiness for pronouncing whole sentences with ease, as required for conversation and reading. In the first course, the principal task of the teacher is to initiate the pupils into the diffi- culties of primary pronunciation; fluency, though acquired to a certain extent, is per- fected in the succeeding stages ; but of course, as reading and conversation are pre- pared, and practised in some measure a corresponding proficiency in fluency is at- tained. The teacher cannot pay too much attention to primary pronunciation. He must strictly 56 How to Teach and Learn deal with the difficulties one by one, and never leave one for another until it is thoroughly mastered ; the belief, that the pupils will be able to overcome them by-and- by, must not lull him into false security. His action must resemble that of a good general ; for, if he cannot dispose of the difficulties in detail, he will never succeed in overcoming them when their number has become legion. With care and patience, a correct pronunciation may be always secured. But the master's task is an exceedingly trying one. At the beginning, he must toil on day by day, lesson by lesson. Like a good gar- dener who carefully plucks up the weeds that would hinder the growth of his plants, so the teacher must be continually on the watch to guard his pupils against carelessness which would endanger the work of previous lessons. Even when his patience is most severely tried, he must not allow himself to be conquered by weariness or despair, and not come to the conclusion that his task is a hopeless one. He must not expect too much of his pupils at once. Of course, if he has studied French himself, he will know that unremitting atten- Modern Languages. 57 tion on his part, and the utmost perseverance on the part of his pupils, are requisite to ensure success. The prolonged awkwardness of pupils to pronounce correctly, so often met with, are but too frequently the result of the master's inefficiency and want of patience. Let him but try patient toiling along, and I have no doubt that he will not find his pupils so very stupid ; on the contrary, he will have the pleasure of seeing his efforts crowned with success in short, obtain results which must be a source of satisfaction and just pride both to himself and to his pupils. Many masters, following the example set them by pronouncing dictionaries, French self-instructors, and other similar compilations, are fond of facilitating pronunciation by ex- amples taken from our own language. Laud- able as their intentions may be, I do not think it advisable to follow such a course, as the examples taken from their mother tongue might induce pupils to fancy they are learning things which they know already, and conse- quently tempt them to take less care and trouble in acquiring them. And after all, the 58 How to Teach and Learn pupils would have to find out afterwards that these examples were but the mere shadows of what they were intended to represent. Instead of facilitating the task to young pupils, they often render it more difficult and perplexing to them. I remember a schoolmaster in the north of England who used to illustrate the difference between the masculine and feminine of the adjective ^00^ bon