Ex Libris C. K. OGDEN V 9 VE S AL I U S , X,/, "Inuif He p wa one of the cfcvaBMt num. that ever f world Mbrr lie attauu-d riu- agbof twmtv rifiht ." THE ANATOMIST'S VADE-MECUM. CONTAINING THE Anatomy, Phyifiology , Morlid Appearances, &q euoiifiv t>dj ^nnsqaiq to bodtem sdl ; eaoil XdJLs^^.ni.iOiyftuT^ibri} JicUrixu ,oJ ,TJ; lliw 3'^buiwo..id Jnilytq two es IB! as 3JB3l b^lB^ib bn^ bn ; zu .3Dirab! Ifirii ai btAu anrraJ l&q ti Ji n^wlw i(Ili,b'/-.- vfkisnag sd Uiw s aoqu naWnw iiow d^oi on ei n^clt JsnJ . ano) oJ 7odJU odl b-j^ubni JsdJ -^bora Uqbnthq 5dT i.Tialov J93lx>q Ifenft 300 olai -iqxs ^blratd gnivfiri aid sw t noibi/borq . (t aidw Jofiflffic (IB rijjul "Jo Jnsw -^dl b. * d '*:":,; " ' - i-if I N T TRODUCTION. 1.T is the intention of the writer, in the following Compendium, to prefent to the ftudent a ufeful anato- mical confpeclus, or pocket manual of anatomy and phyfiology ; giving a fhort but accurate defcription of the different parts of the human body, and their func- tions ; the method of preparing the various parts of the body, in order to exhibit their flru&ure, in a healthy and difeafed ftate, a's far as our prefent knowledge will enable us ; and a glofiary, of explanation of the princi- pal terms ufed in that fcience. The utility of fuch a performance, it is prefumed, will be generally acknowledged, [efpecially when it is confidered that there is no fuch work written upon a fimilar plan. The principal motive that induced the author to form and colleft together, into one fmall pocket volume, this elementary production, was his having himfclf expe- rienced the want of fuch an afiiftant when applying b a lo ( viii ) to that branch of philofophy. He, therefore, folicits permifiion to recommend it to ftudents, not as a work wherein any thing new is to be met with, but merely as their occafional companion in the profecution of their ftudies. January 1X02. ii ri -* . irfT .vmoirn^lo fiolrfuT' ?rit no y: 3)^3-rib f.fiw noltn-jJJK lqonnq slloriw ,) tybdte>m\ ,fc&VA ,83lB'j; -, ' : U) 5TBV/ rii noift^'trxj of ^ lisn ji jt-moil> iirn ->Al "^0 jnointrno 'j^J ,fir,m ^n^ sidJ 'io 5 all .baiunbs ybnaiofflwl 3d jonn Wifoa ' riairiv/ yboef nsmuri 5riJ oi ifiiUwq aJir.n j/i vbod 3dT noifift>'fUb teyfts '(d b3uifij-i'joi 3d ylno -aoo 'to ; 8)itiql-boB 3biuR <&bi!ol ^o ilflnoa oj nuornud fnsJfwnwfo 3rfT .aJisq i)3(iifiJno^ ^**)f TO "nlorto {frigslrfq J>oolcl : abnui luol oJfii ^fid ,.,. N n *' Jpn .a-tnabijft ai Ji- Jbipmmos^i oj ,no- :o3 COMPENDIOUS Vm HISTORY OF AN ATOMY/ 4 *- *' r ! ^ IMG Jt 1 ROM the works of HIPPOCRATES, THE FATHER OF MEDICINE, who flourifhed about four hundred years before the birth of Chri/l, is to be colleftcd all the in- formation of- antiquity on the fubjecl of anatomy. This great phyfician, whofe principal attention was direded to the fymptoms and cure of difeafes, was, neverthdefs, well aware of the importance of anatomical knowledge to perfection in the ^healing art : hence*, we find, that his works abound with anatomical facts' and obfcrva- tions, interfperfed with the prevailing doctrines of the day. When it is coniidered, how many obftacles were thrown in the way of this fcience, from climate, preju-' dice, and fuperftition, the perfeverance and acquire- ments of this great man, the ornament of the medical profeflion, cannot be fufficiently admired. He defcribes fome parts peculiar to the human body which could only be afcertained by actual difle&ion. The body he made to confift of foJids, fluids, and fpirits ; of con- tnining And contained parts. The elementary humours he divided into four kinds : blood, phlegm, choler or b 3 bile, ( * ) tile, and melancholy or occult bile. This was agree- able to the philofophy of the age in which he lived ; as likewife the notions of all bodies being compofed- of earth, air, fire, and water. He never diftinguifhed be- tween nerves, arteries, veins, or tendons ; but calls the heart and its pericardium a powerful mufcle ; he knew the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary arteries and veins, and entertained obfcure notions of the ufes of the valves ; but confidered the auricles as a fan. He mentions the diftributions of the arteries and veins by trunks and ramifications from the heart ; and aflerts, that all the arteries originate from the heart. The liver was thought to be the root of the veins, the fountain of the Wood; and he fuppofed it to feparate bile. He thought the arteries carried the fpirits ; but was entirely ignorant of the circulation of the blood, and of the ufe of the diaphragm ; and his feating the foul in the left ven- tricle of the heart is a memorable example of human vanity, and of that inherent inclination in man, boldly to account for what is inexplicable. The heart and lungs, he imagined, received part of our drink. Of the pt ftppojt unities of -diir^Ling human bodies ; and thr ovements which anatomy received weu' TJu-y not only corr.aed many former a I bferved a variety of ftru&ure in- nerves (applying difltr- ent parts, and hence diftinguifhed them iirto thofe which were necefiary to fenfe, and thofe which were fubfe*- vient to motion. . ir-i^n \w* Between ,the times of Herophilus- and Erifiilratus to Oalen, a period of five hundred years, ASCLEPIADES, RUFUS EPHESIUS, and the fenfible and elegant writer CULSUS, flourished. The two latter have given the ap- pellations and fituatiens of all the parts of the human tody, in compendia, in which many difcoverics appear to have been made from the time of Hippocrates. Nei- ther one nor the other dwelt much on the ufes of the parts. Rufus writes Greek in the concife Attic ftyle, and Celfus is the moll claffical writer that ever appeared in the art of medicine. CLAUDIUS GALENUS, or GALEN, was phyfician to four emperors, and was, without exception, the mofl difiinguiihed practitioner of the age in which he lived. He has arranged all the prior anatomical fcience that Herophilus and Erifiitratus had obtained from the actual difiedtion of human fubjects, and incorporated it into his voluminous treatifes on all the branches of medicine. The medical principles of this great man, .formed on the Peripatetic philofophy of Ariftotle, are not to the pre-. ient purpofe j except that they reigned triumphantly in tiie Schools and univerfities, difdaining and crufhicg all innovators or improvers, for a period of nearly, fiftef> hundred years. The celebrated Galen, however ,> wa* a man of uncpmrnon, erudition, and he brought .uifcovone- point of view, -.with jnuch labour, learning, and induf- trjr, try, all the rrtedfcaf and philosophical fcieilce of his pre- decefibrs. The anatomical part was indubitably ex- rrafted from the great Herophilus and Erififtratus, and, confequently, in general contains what thofe firjl dlji'dors" of human bodies had obferved or written. In the works of this eminent phyfician, anatomy appears very con- fpiciious and methodical. He gives the fituation and tif?s of all the parts of the human body, whether ani- mal, vital, or natural. What difcoveries he made, can- not be afcertained ; but Galen was the firft author who feems to have digefted, in regular' order, the human functions, the brain and its membranes, the fenfes, the contents of the thorax and abdomen, ofteolggy, a com- plete myology and neurology, in which are the origin and infertion of the mufcles, their a<5tion, c. ; and the diftribution of the whole nervous fyftem. The lacteal vefiels, likewiie, were well known ; though the extent of their effects, their patting through the thoracic duel: and fubclavian vein, to the blood, were not comprehended. The exhalent arteries and inhalents weTe mentioned, both by Hippocrates and Galen; but the principles of aftion were unknown. The circulation of the blood, the real ufes of the liver, glands, heart, diaphragm, pan- creas, kidney, ureters, bladder, universal cellular ftruc- ture, the power of the nervous fyftem over the arteries and veins, the rymphatic abforbent fyftem, were to him From the time of Galen to the 'fifteenth century, ana- tomy was rather on the decline, aiiatomifts being confi- d<;rcd learned or ignorant- in"- proportion' to their know- eT 14 ledge fcdje of his works. The deftmclior. of Alexandria in- troduced learning among the- dralrans ; but they -made bHt.little progrefs in the knowledge Of the human body. ABBOLLALIPH, however, towards the clofe of the twelfth century, expofed many of Galen's errors in ofteology, by frequenting burial-grounds. Among the early cultivators of the fcience of anatomy in the ftxieentb century, the GREAT VESALIUS fiou- rifhed, who may with propriety be ftyled the RESTOP.I R XDF AVATOMY; being the firft who -dared expofe- the er- rors of Gakn, in medicine and anatomy, by referring, to the human body. This wonderful man, whofe per- feverar.ce and genius cannot be -fuffieiently 'admired,-tva.8, born at BrurTels, in *5i4. After having ^ont through the ufual fludies of the age, he went to MontptiHtr, t Tumulus nii ,ftrl mirf fctfJfiflim *** ^^" SwxiuiSMS, si $S* obiit Ufa* OSobri^ ^ Jawv . Ann * M.D.ixir. q .^ fll 9gf , . jEtatis vero fux L. IwbnaJJsti Cum Hierofolymu rediifliU aaru-- . rfirrrmq wsft^op^i < - Velalius had fcarcely attained his Jtwenty-fifth year when he publifhed his work, De StruSuraCorporisHumani on the Strudture of the Human Body. This extraor- dinary production would appear incredible in fo young a man, were it not attefted by the beft authority. " Vefalius, in my opinion," fays Monf; Portal, < is one " of the greatefl men that ever exifted. Let aftrono- w mers boait of Cppenucus j natural philofophers, of . C ' Galileo, TorricelE,$cc.; mathematicians, of Patffiai ; " and the geographers, of Cfirfftopher CdliimoaSy' I " fhall always rank Vefalius abW them air.'" The houfe of Vefalius was lately'tnt ooriveht'of Capuchin's, at BrufTels. Thefe pious men co'nftdered it an honottr-to date their letters Ex ^Mi:j VffaKvvu. It appears, that ; '|ii r lhe year 1546, Vtfaliin v/as at Bafle, to coired the ^refs for a new coition of his works. He occupied his Itiiure hoars, \vhilft he 'ix-fidcd there, in preparing a human Skeleton, which lie prefented to the body of phyficians in that city. It v;as received \vith the greatelt pleafure ; and, as a proof of their gratitude, the fol- hnving infcriptioii was put under it, which re;nraris ( l(J this day : li.'.p? ; : ; o ., t; . Andreas VcfaLEruxell. ^dq ,:it . ,^ ^ r !i r ' Au 't' J"#** ' ^ Lauda^. An^mktru* A&nimjlr. Comm. .,.'.,,) In kac.Urbe Re S ia ^ PMicoturus , 0!!J{ Ftrile ouod ccrnis ScffftW* .i:ui'.;:lisq;j\ ~ ; Art U IWn*Ju* *t&&* lo-a'n-- AnnaUrijliui* ,,. ..Y^/. ExM&ert&y*. -nfJ^f> -vhf,i. l V,eof Vefalius, the value of human dif- feotioii was t'ully appreciated, though oppofed b/ the the vulgar. The beginning o; the frven- tttnt'j I i&yi&Rto&'$ <"*ovn 7 r i-SRCyi.AT.ION ^rfoiffffff)^^ BY THK IMMORTAL- KAKVKY, m f ^h,.&ejj*vaj, much affiftcd by the previous difcrjvfcries of FABRIC1U5 on the valves in the veins, iiitl by StRVETUs, COLUMBUS, and CA-?ALPI,SUS, xvha nearly, fifty years before demonftrated the circula- tion of the blood, through -the lungs. This has been the Kioft important difcovery ever made in anatomy, aad upon it depends the whole of our prtfent phyfiology. Soon afterwards, ASKLIUS, an Italian,. difcovered the la&eals, which PECOJL'ET, in 1651, traced to the thoracic duct, and thence to the left fubclavian vein. In 1653, RUDBKCK and EAR.THOLIN difcovered the lymphatics: it does not appear that there was any communication between them ; both, therefore, are entitled to equal praife. The latter has, however, additional credit from his having entertained, very accurate ideas of the phy- fiology of the lymphatic fyftem, which was afterwards more fully explained by GLISSON. The two laft centuries have nearly perfected our knowledge of the human body. Every nation in Europe has produced ariatomifts of the greateft reputation. The names of ALBINUS, COOPER, DIEMERBROCK, HIGHMORE, CHESELDEN, LEWENHOECK, MALPIGHI, MAYOW, RUYSCH, WILLIS, and WIN SLOW, form but a finall number of thofe who have enlightened the fci- ence of anatomy in the feventeenth century. In the eighteenth^ the following are particularly diftin- guifhed,: HALLER, MORGACNI, ZINN, WALTER, ' SCARP* -RYJ-A- adi ~io saiarugsd sdT .'Uiyfij/ 'jrii \-^ SCARPA, .SoEMMERINQji the MONROS, the HUNTERS, CRUICKSHANK, and BAILEY. Fortunately for mankind, anatomy is now become an indifpenfable branch of medical fcience ; and throughout Europe we have everywhere diftinguifhed teachers, who are daily adding to the ftock of ufeful information. : ANATOMY. JV *d T O A.NATOMY is a fcience which explains the ftru,ture and ufc of every part of the human body, both folids and fluids. The examination, of. .brute animals, fifties, reptiles,* polypi, &c. in order to iltuftrate more clearly, or to^dernonftrate by analogy, the ftmfture and functions of man, is called Zwtotnj, or Comparative Anatomy. / THE PRINCIPLES OF THE HUMAN BODY. The human body con fifts of folids and fluids. The folids are divided into hanl and feft : the former comprehending bones and cartilages ; the latter, mufclcs, nerves, the vifcera, and all the other foft parts of the body. The SoliJi of the Human Rody. it .V Analyfis of the folid parts demonilrates their conftituent principles to be tartly particles connected together by an inter- mediate gluten. When thefe principles arc joined one to another in a regular "feties, they form z.Jimple or elementary j!brc. If a number of fibres be joined together, by their breadth they confli'tute a layer or lamina. The union of many of thefe laminae without any order forms cellular Jbufitire, more commonly termed cellular membrane. A membrane is nothing more than a compaft or contlenfed cellular flrudlure. Thick, flrotig, and elaflic membranes are termed Ugamentt. When cellular Arufture is diftended with a coagulated elaftic jr'.ly, .it forms a cartitagt. Phofphate of lime depofited in the cellular ftru&ure confti- tutes either bony fires, or famine, which form bone. A neive is a foft bundle of fibres of a pulpy fubftance, fui generis, called nervous and cellular ftrufture. The train is compofed of this nervous fubftance. Mufeln confift of fibres formed of a peculiar fubftance, nerves, and veflels. Tendons are the beginnings or ends of mufclcs, of a filver gliftening colour. Bhod-vtffeli arid abforlentt are hollow canals formed of mem- branes, nervous and mufcular fibres, and cellular ftrufture. Glandt are compofed limply of veflels, nerves, and cellular ftru&ure ; or a peculiar fubftance. A vifcus, that is, an organ or organical part, is a term given to any part which performs a determinate office, as the lungs, the liver, inteftines, the fldn, glands, &c. &c. The vifctra are compofed of veflels, nerves, and cellular texture. The Fluids of the Human Body. Thefe confift of the chyle, blood, and various humours fe- paiated from the blood. See Hygrology. The fcience of Anatomy comprehends, and is divided into, Ofteology, 1 Bones. Syndefmology, ^ Ligaments. Myology, | Mufcles. Burfalogy, 2 Burfae Mucofse, Angiology, .S " Veffels. Neurology, 1 Nerves. Adenology, 5 Glands. Splanchnology, Vifccra. Hygrology, . Fluid*. OSTECX (3 ) OSTEOLOGY; OR, DOCTRINE OF THE BQNES. BONES are hard, compa&, inflexible, and infenfvble fub- ftances compofed of animal earth and gluten, which fupport and form the ftature of the body, defend its vifcera, and give adhefion to its mufcles. The Jitbjlance of bones is of three kinds : Comfa3, as in the bodies of the long bones ; fpongy, as in the extremities of the long bones ; and reticular, called alfo the cancelli of bones, as in the cavities of bones which have marrow. COLOUR. Whitifh. FIGURE. Various. Long and irregular fhaped bones are divided into a body and extremities ; and flat bones into body and margins. Bones are v?.rioufly NAMED ; fome from their iltuation, as the frontal, parietal, occipital, nafal, malar, &c. ; others from their figure, as the ethmoid bone, clavicle, os cuboides, navi- culare, tibia, &c. ; and fome from their ufe, as the fphaenoid bone, the maxillary bone, the femur, &c. The procejjes and cavities of bones are named after their figure, as the acetabulum of the os innominatum, the odontoid procefs of the fecond cer- vical vertebra, the coracoid procefs of the fcapula, &c.' ; or from their ufe, as the trochanters of the thigh bone ; or from their Inuation, as the nafal, palatine, orbitar proccflcs, &c. &c. There is a kind of eminence peculiar to bones, called an epipliyjis, which mould be diftinguifhed from an apophyjis. The latter is nothing more than a procefa ; but an epiphyfis is a part of a bone connected to that bone by an intervening car- tilage ; thus the condyles of the thigh bone of a child ate feparable from the femur. Epiphyfes at length become apx>- phyfes in the adult. MY a When ( 4 ) When the tones jure deprived of their foft parts, and hung together, in their natural fituation, by means of wire, the whole is termed an artificial Jkelctcn : but when they are kept together by means of their ligaments, it is called a natural A TMt of the Bones. A>. ' '_ __. f [Os frontis . i i 1^1, . OflTa parictalia . f %, a ' t ' The bones of the eranium, t Os occipitis i 3m - Wjku/I Offa temporalia i ' - .*- Os ethmoides i , t ."J ^ fpha-noides Offa maxtllaria fup. jugalia nafalia The bones of the^r - lachrymalia palatina fponiof<>. infer. Os vomer I B . maxillare infer. i 8 ,- * ^ /-Incifores 8 J5 I Denfti, or rrrt* ^ | Cufpidatt 4 Bicufpides 1 Molar.es 8 "| ^Sapientiae 4 Bone of the tongue, or Os hyoides i 2 Bones of the internal car, f Mall ^ us fituatcd within the tem-^ g" cus poral bone tos orbiculare '"IS '"^ g '-' ^j ("Cervical 7 | Y Vertebra ^ Dorfal 12 (fl The ff hie <. t Lumbar < 5 I' (.oTcoSygis ~ r I T . , ( Sternum I "^ Ribs -4 cfr-vis J a innomma a babnaJio aifi nirfa 5n rfl:>3> ariJ fcn v faj;.'Jl>ioi:5dJ no I . -bjW 10* :& Bones & p- rOavieuIa ' a TR-EMITfT The ar* _ "~~ III. Scapula "^oriwjfft'', Os humcri , J% r Ulna s. ^ Radius z X Os navicularc U ' . lunare * cuneiforme M ' Carpus, or V>r'i/l otbiculare trapezium .S trapezoides c The &j/ * magnum uncifoime c Metacarpus I K Phalanges 2 ' fThe /ii ' __ Os femoris 1| 1 'Patella t Fibula Os calcis The fat flat calcis I aftragalus ^. cuboides naviculare -v S cuneiformia I Melatarful \-rlaiinkn s ~ -.40 Sefamoid bones of the thumb and great toe, occafionally ~\ _ found / ; Total zq.8 The fkeleton is divided into head, trunk, and extremities:. T.'i'J OF THE HEAD. . There is a great variety in the fhape of the heads of incli i- duals. That of females is more, delicate ; the infertions of the . various mufcles of the face are not fo ftrongly marked. The, heads of the different nations alfo vary ; that of the African is' flattened on the forehead, and the teeth and chin are extended t 3 fomar* forward. The fhape of the head of the Afiatic and American negro alfo varies from the European. The head is divided into the cranium, or fkull, and face. - OF THE ADULT CRANIUM, OR SKULL. SHAPE. Various, according to the cuftoms of different nations, the bones of the child being fo tender as to be moulded into almoft any form. COMPOSED of eight bones viz. one ifrontis, which forms the forehead ; two ojfo j>arietaiia, fituated at the upper part and fides of the head ; two offa temporum^ placed below the parietal bones ; one occipital, forming the back part of the head ; one fpJuenoidal, placed in the middTfe' of the baiis of the cianium ; and one ethmoid bone, fituated behind the root of the nofe. Upon viewing the fuperior part of a fkull externally, feveral xigxag lines are obfervable : that which extends from one temple acrofs over the head to the other temple is termed the coronal future ; it unites the frontal bone to the two parietal : that which proceeds from behind one ear upwards acrofs to 4he other is the occipital or lambdoldal future ; it unites the occipital bone to the two parietal : and the future which ex- tends upon the crown of the head, from the lambdoidal to the coronal, uniting the two parietal bones, is called the fagittal. They are fometimes termed the true futures, to dif- tinguifh them from twofpuriout oifquamoui, which are found, one on each fide of the cranium, extending from the temple backwards, in the form of an arch, and uniting part of the temporal bone to the parietal. Befides thefe futures two other portions are to be noticed ; the one belonging to the lambdoidal, the other to the fquamous future, being, in fa&, continuations of them : they are called additamentum future fquamofte, and tdJitamentum futures lamldoidalu. There are, fometimes, one or ( 7 ) more triangular-fbaped bones obferved in the courfe of fome of the futures ; thefe are calle'd oJTcuIa trirjuetri, trianguljru t or IVormiana. Befides thefe futures, there are fcveral prominences upon the upper part of the cranium ; two in the frontal bone, one immediately over each eye between it and the future ; one in the middle of each parietal bone ; and one in the middle of the occipital : thefe point out the centre of offjf cation of thufe- bones. Upon the internal furface of the upper part of the cranium there are a number of grooves, in an arbwrefcent form ; thefe are made by the fpinous artery of the dura mater. The fu- tures are here feen in the form of a line, not dove -tailed, and the whole furface appears more polifhed than the external. The bones forming the upper part of the fkull, or, as it \9 fometimes called, the cafoaria, are compofed of an external and an internal table, which are of a compact ftrufture, and of afpongy intervening fubftzmce, called the meditulfium, or diplo'e. The internal furface of the bails of the cranium i? divided naturally into eight confiderable deprejions, adapted to the lobes of the brain and cerebellum. The two anterior are im- mediately over the orbits, and are feparated from each other by an obvious eminence, above the root of the nofe, called cr'ifta galll. Immediately before this eminence is a fmall hole, called the foramen caecum ; and on each fide of it are a number of perforations, which tranfmit the olfaftory nerves into the nofe ; they are called the foramina crilrofa. Faffing backwards, there are two round holes, near each other, one going to the bottom of each orbit ; thefe are for the paflage of the optic nerves, and are called for am'ma op/ira: beyond thefe holes there is a fmall cavity, which wi'll admit the end of one's little finger, furrounded by four proccfles, two of which are anterior, and two pojlc nor ; thefe are termed cfinoid precfffes, and the cavirv .4 ( J tn their middle, which contains the pituitary gland, the fiL'u turcica. Under each anterior clinoid proccfs is a confiderable tif- lure, the foramen lactrum orbitale fupcrius, which communicates with the orbit, and tranfmits the third, fourth, the nift branch of the fifth, and the fixth pair of nerves, and the ophthalmic artery. Beyond this filTure, proceeding backwards, there is- a round and then an oval hole ; the firft is the foramen rotuauu":, through which the fecond branch of the fifth pair of nerve? paffes ; the other, the foramen male, for the paflage of the third branch of the fifth pair .of nerves. Contiguous to the foramen ovale is a fmall hole, the foramen fpinofum, through which the fpinous artery of the dura mater enters. Between the foramen ovale and the pofterior clinoid procefs, on each fide of the fella, turcica, there is a considerable ragged aperture, the carotid sanal y which is partly filled up with cartilage in the frefh fubjeft, and is for the entrance of the carotid artery and the exit of the great intercoftal nerve. A projecting por- tien of bone next prefents itfelf, called tbc fttrvus fertivt of the temporal bone ; it has upon its pofterior furface an oval open-, ing, the meatut auditorius internus, through which the nerve for the organ of hearing, and the facial nerve, entej. Immediately below this is an irregular oval opening, formed by the junction of the occipital with the temporal bone ; this is the foramen lacerum in bafi cranil : through the anterior part of this opening paffes the eighth pair of nerves, and the pofterior part tranfmits the blood from the lateral fmus of the dura mater, whofe couife is marked by a deep groovt leading to the foramen lacerum, into the jugular vein. The portion of bone which proceeds backwards from the pofterior clinoid proceflis, between the petrous portions of the temporal bone, is the cuneiform or la- f>i>i>y procefs of the occipital bone; it is fomcwhat hollo-wed for the reception of this medulla oblongata, which lies upon it. Av t 9 ) At the bottom of this proccfs of bone is a confiderable opening t'ulled the foramen magnum occipit.ile ; it tranfmits the fpinal marrow, the vertebral arteries, and the acceflbry nerves of Willis ; and a procefs of the fecond vertebra of the neck He in its anterior part. Between this opening and the foramen lacerum in bafi cranii is the foramen condyloideum anferius, which gives paflage to the ninth or lingual pair of nerves. Beyond the great occipital foramen is a crucial eminence, to which procefles of the dura mater arc attached; the hori- zontal eminence feparates the ivio fupcrior ccipital cavities from the two inferior. The fkull is divided into calvari.i and lafis. The calvaria comprehends all that portion fuuated anteriorly, about an inch above the nofe, and half an inch above the orbits; laterally above the femicircular' ridge of the parietal bones ; and pofteriorly about an inch above the occipital tubercle. The calvaria is the part which is fawcd off to examine the brain after death. The ope- ration of trepanning may be performed on any part of , the calvaria. The calvaria is more fubjeft to venereal caries than any other of the bones ; and one kind is peculiar to it, viz. the honeycomb caries : it confifts in the total deftruftion, here and there, of one or both tables, fo as to convey, though very imperfcftly, the refemblance of the cells of a honeycomb. It is alfo fubjel to the fpongy venereal cxoflofes. Monfters are occafionally born without any calvaria ; and when this happens, the greater part or the whole of the brain is wanting. The calvaria is fometimes remarkably thick. It is not clear, whether this be the effeft of difeafe or not. It is, however, very probable, that in fome inftances it is the confcquence of rheumatic inflammation. The iliafta/is, or feparation, and often the abforption, of the bones of the calvaria are frequently the confe- jnence of an accumulation of water within the fkull. OF ( > ) OFTHEFrcTALCRANmM. The bones of the fkull of a foetus at birth are far more nume- rous than thofe of an adult ; for many of the proceffcs of the latter are epiphyfes in the former ; thus the occipital bone confifts of four portions ; the fphaenoidal of three, &c. There are no futures in the cranium of the fretus. The parietal bones and the frontal bones do not coalefce until the third year, fo that before that period there is an obvious interftice, commonly called mould, and fcientifically, the fontanel, or fans pulfatUif. There is alfo a leffer fpace, occafionally, between the occipital and parietal bones, termed the fojlenor fontanel. Thefe fpaces between the bones are filled up by the dura mater and the external integuments, fo that, during birth, the fize of the head may be letfened ; for at that time the bones of the head, upon the fuperior part, are not only prefl'ed nearer to each other, but they frequently lap one over another, in order to diminifh the Cze during the paffage of the head through the pelvis* OS FRONTIS. The frontal bone is fituated in the anterior part of the fkull, forming the forehead and upper part of the orbits, and is fhapcd fomewhat like a cockle-fhell. It fometimes confifts of two portions, in confequence of the fagittal future being con- tinued down through its middle to the nofe. This is more frequent in females than males. PhocEssES. T '\\ofrontal emintncet, which marfc the centres of ofllfication ; two frontal tubero/Ities, which are fituated over the frontal finufes ; t\vojiiperci!iary ridges or arches, which give origin to the frontal mufdes, and whofe extremities are called the angular or orbitar proceffcs ; an external frontal fplne, upon which, the offa nafi reft; an internal frontal fflne, to which tin ( II ) the dura mater adheres ; and two orbitar plates, -which feparata the orbits from the cavity of the cranium. CAVITIES. The cere bral cavity, which contains the anterior portions of the hemifpheres of the brain ; a large notch between the orbitar plates for the fituation of the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone ; two frontal or pituitary fnufes within the bone, above the root of the nofe ; two orbital cavities, in which are two depreffions for the fituation of the lachrymal gland ; a notch in each fuperciliary ridge for the trochlea of the fuperior oblique mufcle ; 3ifuperciliary foramen, through which paffes the frontal artery and nerve ; the foramen caecum, fituated below the be- ' ginning of the internal frontal fpine. CONNEXION. The frontal bone is connected with the two" parietal by means of the coronal future ; with the two oflk nafi, the two fuperior maxillary bones, and the two lachrymal bones, by means of what is called the tranfvcrfe future ; with the fphaenoid bone by means of harmony, called liarmonia " fphtcnoidalii ; with the ethmoid bone by hjrmonia ethmoidalis ; and with the os jugale by means of future. The USE of the frontal bone is to conftitute the forehead, pituitary finufes, part of the orbit, and to contain and defend the anterior lobes of the brain. The frontal bone at birth confifts always of two portions. The fuperciliary arches and orbitar plates are diftindtly formed, and fometimes the frontal finufes. When performing the operation of trepanning, the fitua- tion of the frontal fmufe&, and the longitudinal fmus of the dura mater, fhould be remembered. Cffa vcrticis. OJfaJincipitii. OJJa. verticalia. 'Offii Iregmatit. The parietal bones are fituated one on each fide of the fupe- rior part of the cranium, and are confiderably convex and' fomewrwt fbmewrmt quadrangular. Each bone is diftinguiftied into an external and an internal furface , and four anglet, viz. the frontal, fphxnoidal, called alfo the fpinous froeefs, the occipital and jwu/- /arieta/t t which is near the fagittal future, and tranfmits an artery and a vein of the dura mater. Upon its internal furface are the grooves of the fpinous artery ; and when the two bones are united, there is a deep cavity extending along the fagittal future, for the longitudinal finus of the dura mater. Each parietal bone is CONNECTED with its fellow by means of the fagittal future > with .the frontal bone by the coronal future ; with the occipital by the lambdoidal future ; and with the temporal by the fquamous future. The USE of thefe bones is, to form the fuperior part of the cranium. The parietal bone, at birth, confifts of one portion, and .'" : ' partakes of the fhape of the adult bone. It fhows, very beautifully, the radiated bony fibres, and the centre of offification. A confiderable fofia is fomctimes found in the internal furface of thefe bones, near the longitudinal finus ; it is in confequence of the preffure of a protruding portion of the finus,' or of the Pacchionian glands, by which abforption of the bone takes place. OS OCCIPltlS. **" -.I-'; 0* b a/Hart . Os memorise, Qs nervojrrm, The occipital bone is fituated in the pofterior part of the head, is -very convex, and fomewhat of a quadrate oblong fhape. Puoc ESSES. Upon the txterx.il furface. The occif-ital iukerclt, in the middle of the bone to which the Jigamentum nucha adhercsj (tj ) adheres; * Iranfierft fplnt, proceeding from each fide of the tubercle, to which the trapezius and complexus mufcles are Attached ; a Itjfer tranfverfe /fine, below the former, for the infertion of the reU mufcles ; a prominent ridge running down- wards from the occipital tubercle, and forming, with the above-mentioned ridges, a crucial /fine ; the cuneiform or lafilary proceft, fituated before the -great foramen ; two condyloid f>ro- cejfes or ronJylts, which are united to the firft vertebra of the neck. Upon the internal furface. An tnfe mal crucial fpitte : the fuperior branch gives adhefion to the longitudinal finus of the dura mater, the two lateral to the lateral finufes,, and the in- ferior to the feptum cerebelli. CAVITIES. The foramen magnum occipitale, through which the fpinal marrow proceeds into the fpme, and the vertebral arteries and acceflbry fpinal nerves into the cranium ; two anterior condyleid foramina, for the paflage of the lingual pair of nerves ; two pojjerior con dyloid foramina (which are fometimes wanting), for the paflage of the occipital vein into the lateral finus ; two notches, which, with iwojcorrefponding notches of the temporal bones, form the foramina laetra in lafi cranii, for the paflage of the blood from the lateral jinufes into the jugular vein, and the exit of the par vagum ; a considerable groove leading to the above notches, in which the lateral flnufes are fituateci. The internal furface has alfo four confiderable Jipreffiom formed by the crucial fpine ; the two fuperior contain the pofterior lobes of the brain, and tlie two inferior, the two lobes of the cerebellum. CONNEXION. The occipital bone Is connected by the cunei- form procefs to the fphsenoid bone, in the adult by fynoftofis ; hence Profefibr Sammering describes them as one bone, w . cccipito-fpkfnoidale ; but in youth by fynchondrofis ; with the ;tyo parietal and two temporal bones by the lambdoidal future ; with ( 14 ) with the firft vertebra of the neck by ginglymus, and with the fecond by fyndefmofis. The USE of the occipital bone is to constitute the pofterior and inferior part of the cranium ; to contain the pofterior lobes of the brain, the cerebellum and medulla oblongata, and to ferve for the articulation of the head with the fpine. The occipital bone, at birth, is formed of four portions joined together by cartilages : one large portion which forms the hinder part of the head ; no trace of tubercle nor crucial fpine is feen : the cuneiform procefs ; and two portions between thefe forming the fides of the foramen magnum and the attachment with the atlas. OS SPH.T.NOIUEUM. Qs jpluenoidale. Os multiformt. Ot cuneiforme. Os pterygoideum, Os vefptrtiliforme. The fphsenoidal bone is fituated in the middle of the bafis of the cranium, extending underneath, from one temple acrofs to the other. Its figure is very irregular ; and is compared, by Ibmc, to a bat with its wings extended. PROCESSES. Two alee majores, whofe anterior part forms a portion of the orbit ; the inner furface has lying upon it a portion of the middle lobe of the brain, and the whole external furface is covered by the temporal mufcle. Upon the external furface. Two fpinous froceffes, a narrow point projecting behind each foramen fpinofum. The fpJitemiJal fpine, or axygous procrfs, upon which the bafis of the vomer lies ; two pterygoid, procrfft's, each of which is diftinguimed into a root and two extended " plates, or wings ; one external, which gives origin on its external furface to the pterygoideus externus mufcle, and on its internal furface to the pterygoideus internus mufcle; and the other internal ; two hamular or Jntl-Hkt froceffes t one on the end < >5 ) end of thelnternal wing of each pterygoid procefs, over which the tendon of the circumflexus or tenfor palati mufcle turns ~Uf>on the internal furface. Two aloe minares y which form the upper part of the fuperior orbital fiffures ; four clinoid procc(fes t two anterior and two pofterior. CAVITIES. The fpJuenoidal pituitary JSnus, which is in the middle of the bone, has a communication with the noftrils, and is divided by an intermediate feptum ; two pterygoid depref- Jiom, one between each greater and lefler wing, for the recep- tion of a part of the palate bone ; two foramina, each leading to a canal, called the pterygoid or Viduan canal, in the root of the pterygoid procefs, through which the recurrent or Viduan branch of the fifth pair of nerves paffes into the cranium. Internally. The fella turcica, or ephippium, which is furrounded by the four clinoid procefies, and contains the pituitary gland ; two foramina optica, one before each anterior clinoid procefs, which tranfmit the optic nerves; two grooves, one on each fide of the fella turcica, between the anterior and pofterior clinoid proceffes, formed by the pulfation of the carotid arte- ries; two foramina lacera orlitalia fuperiora, between each greater and leffer wing, through which the third, fourth, firft branch of the fifth, and the fixth pair of nerves, and the ophthalmic artery pafs out of the cranium ; two foramina ro- tunda, for the paffage of the fecond branch of the fifth pair of nerves ; two foramina avalia, for the third branch of the fifth pair ; two foramina fpinofa, through which the fpinous artery of the dura mater enters the cranium. The fphasnoid bone is CONNECTED with all the bones of the cranium ; with the frontal, the ethmoid, the two parietal, and the two temporal by harmony, and with the occipital by fynoftofis : it is alfo united to the two cheek bones, the two fuperior maxillary tones, and the two palate bones by harmony, and to the vomei C i* ) vomcr by gomphofis. Its USE is to form the bafis of the cra- nium, to concur in forming the orbits, the pituitary finufes of the nofe, the temples, &c. and to contain the middle lobes of the brain. The fphaenoid bone, at birth, confifts of five portion? (one in the middle furrounding the pituitary gland, thr two al divided into a fyuamous fvrt'wn, which is flat, and forms the iquamous future ; and a petrous portion, which is very irregular, and is fituated in the balis of the (kull. PROCESSES. The xygomntic procefs, which, with a proccf of the os jugale, forms th zygoma, yoke, or arch of the tem- ples, underneath which the temporal mufcle moves, and from whofe lower edge feveral mufcles of the face arifc, particularly the maffetcr and zygomatic. The mafh'id or mammary proccfi, which projects from under the ear, and has inferted into its anterior part the fterno-cleido-maftoideus mufcle, and into its pofterior part the complexus, the obliquus, and trachelo- maftoideus. "Thejtylcid procefs, which is long and pointed, and fives origin to a ligament of the os hyoides, alfo to the ftylo- hyoideus, flylo-pharyngeus, and ftylo-gloflus muscles. The vaginal procefs, which furrounds the root of the ftyloid. The auditory procefs, or outer bony circle of the auditory paflage, tr> Which the membrana tympani and cartilage of the car are fixe<1- 2 CAVITIES. ( 17 > CAVITIES. The meafus auJitorius extemm, which le&cta to the cavity of the organ of hearing. The meatus auJitorius IM- ternus, which begins on the internal and pofterior furface of the petrous portion, and tranfmits the feventh pair of nerves ; it has immediately within it the internal opening of the aque- duft of Fallopius. E^ch temporal bone is CONNECTED with the parietal by the fquamous future ; with the occipital by the lambdoidal future j with the fphaenoid and jugal bones by harmony, and with the lower jaw by arthrodia. SUBSTANCE. The fquamous portion confifts of two tables and a diploe ; the mammary procefs of cells which 'commu- nicate with the cavity of the organ of hearing ; and the petrous portion is very hard and compact. USE. To contain the middle lobes of the brain, and ths organ of hearing ; and to concur in forming the temples and the baiis of the cranium. The temporal bone, at birth, confifts of three portions: the fquamous, the petrous, and a ring-like bone, which furrounds the opening of the tympanum. The laft bon$ is f'een completely offified at the fourth month after im- pregnation : it is not a ring, though termed annulut ojfeus, for its ends do not meet. After birth this por- tion is gradually elongated to form the meatus auditorius externus. It is within the petrous portion that the organ of hearing is fituated, which ib perfectly formed at birth. See Cavity of He.wing . 'I he whole of this bone has been d.~ftroyed by venereal caries. The bony parietes of the tympanum are oicen carious 'from common abfcefl'es. / ti An operation is fometimes performed on the maftoid pro- cefs of this bone, to remedy deafnefs: it confifts in removing a portion of the bone by an inftrument of the trephine kind, and forming a communication of the c ''"external ( 18 ) external air through the maftord cells with the cavity of the tympanum. A much more fimple, and perhaps more certain, operation for this purpofe, is perforating OS 1THMOTDEUM. 'Oittfimvidale. Os crlbrifornte. Os er'ibrofum. The thmoid bone is a four-fide bone fituated in the ante- rior part of the bafis of the fkull, behind the root of the nofc, and between the orbits. PROCESSES. A cerebral or cribriform flafe, which lies hori- zontally above the root of the nafe, within the cavity of the cranium : it is every where perforated by a number of fmall foramina, through which the olfactory nerves pafs into the cavity of the noftrils. The crifta galli, a procefs fomcwhat lik& a cock's comb, which procet-ds upwards from the middle of the cribriform plate, and has attached to it the falciform procefs of the dura mater. Two orbitar plaits, called alfo offa flana, and plana pafyracea, which are very fmooth externally, and form the inner fide of the orbits. The feptum etJifnoiJalt, nafal plate, azygous procefs, or perpendicular lamina, a confider- able procefs, descending direftly under the crifta galli into the cavity of the nofe, and forming with the vomer the feptum narium. Two cavernous fubftances, which are curled, like a piece of parchment, one on each fide of the feptum, called improperly the fuperior turbinated or fpongy bones. CAVITTES. A number of cribriform foraminula, fituated on each fide of the crifta galli. Two foramina orbitalia naf, one fituated in the line of union between the frontal bone and orbitar plate of the ethmoid, for the pr.ffage of the nafal branch of the orbital nerve. A number of cells, which compofe the internal part of the bone, and form the pituitary finufes of the , . , , ethmoid bone. Th ( '9 ) The ethmoid bone is CONNECTED with the os frontis, the two nafal bones, the two fuperior maxillary, the two palatine, the fphsenoid bone, and the vomer by harmony. Us E. To form an extenfive furface for the organ of fmoil, and to conftitute part of the nofe, orbits, and cranium. The ethmoid bone, at birth, is moftly cartilaginous ; part of the feptum ethmoidale, however, confifts of bony matter, and the fuperior turbinated bones are occa- fionally found offified.- Caries and a complete deftruttion of this bone have arifen from tumours of the dura mater and nafal polypi. OF THE FACE. The bones of the face are fourteen in number, and confift of thofe of the upper and under jaw. The upper jaw is formed of thirteen bones, viz. two fuperior maxillary, two nafal, two palatine, two jugal, or malar, two inferior fpongy, two lachry- mal, and the vomer, which are united to the cranium, and with one another, by harmony. The under jaw confifts of one bone. There is an obvious line, beginning at the external angle of the orbit, where the frontal bone is united to the cheek bone, which leads to the inferior opening in the orbit, proceeds up- wards to the nofe, whofe root it croffes, and then traverfes the other orbit to the external angle : this is called the tranfverfe future. The other harmonies of the face are named after the bones which they unite, as the yygomattc } nafal y palatine har- monies i &c. The fuperior maxillary bones are two hollow bones fituated in the anterior and middle part of the face, and affift in forming the nofe, orbit, and palate ; fo that their fhape is very irregular. c a PKO- PROCESSES. The nafal proccfs, which forms the fide of the nofe. The arbiter proccfs, or plate, which forms part of the orbit. The malar procefs, by which it is united to the cheek bone. The alveolar procefs, in which the teeth are fituated. The palate procefs, which forms the palate. Affine, formed by the union of each palate portion, upon which the vom.er refts. The orbital margin. CAVITIES. The antrum maxillare , called alfo antrum lligh- tnori, and finus m.pi::.ixis in the adult. The alveoli are fewer .in I-UII.IKT. , _ ^^ Thefe bones are fubjeft to caries from diicafe in trie ai.- trum of Highmore 5 abfcefs and polypus. Nearly the whole bone has come away from the venereal difeafe and alfo from a long-continued falivatioa. OSSK MAT.ARUM. Qffajagtlla. O/a xjgmtatica. The cheek bones arc fituated at the fides of the face ; and are nearly of a quadrangular fh:ipe. PROCISSES. The upper orbitay froccfs, which forms part of the orbit and the fharp edge of the temple. The inferior trb'ttay precefs, oppofite to the former, and conftituting in part the bottom of the orbit and the edge of the cheek. The 'mtrrn.il orbifay procefs, which alfo forms a part of the orbit. The riaxil- lary procefs, by which it is joined to the fupcrior maxillary bone. The xygonattc proceft, which is joined to the temporal bone, to form the zygoma. CONN EX i ON. The os jugale is united to the frontal, fuperior maxillary, fphsenoid, and temporal bone, by future. The USE of thefe bones is to affift in forming the face and orbits. Every part of the jugal bone is formed at birth, but the fhape is rather more triangular. . OSSA NASI. O/a nafalia* The bones of the nofe are of an oblong and quadrangular mape, are formed of a very compact fubftance, and are placed clofe to each other in the fuperior and middle part of the nofe, in fuch a way as to form a ftrong arch, called the bridge of the nofe. In each bone may be noticed an external and an internal fur- fice, and four margins. There is always a fmall forafnen in. each bone for the. paffagc of blood-veifels and nerves. c 3 USK. USE. To form the bridge and external part of the nofe. Each bone is CONNECTED with its fellow, and the fuperior -maxillary bone by harmony, and with the frontal and ethmoid by the tranfverfe future. The oj/a nafl are perfectly formed at birth. OSSA LACHRYMALIA. Of a unguls. The lachrymal are two flat quadrangular bone?, refembling fomewhat the nail of the finger, fituated one in each orhit at the internal angle, and feparating the orbit from the noftrils> The furnace towards the eye is concave, and has a foja, or .groove, in which the lachrymal fac is fituated. The internal furface is convex, and covers fome of the ethmoid cells, and part of the noftril. CONNEXION. Each bone is connected with the frontal, ethmoid, fuperior maxillary, and inferior fpongy bone, by harmony. The USE of thefe bones is to affift in covering the labyrinth of the nofc, in forming the orbit, and to afford a fituation .to the lachrymal fac. They are completely formed at birth. Thefe bones are fubjeft to caries from JiflnJa lachrymal'is. The lachrymal bone is perforated obliquely downwards in the operation for fiftola lachrymalis, in order that the tears may be conveyed into the noftrils. OSSA SPONGIOSA INFERIOR.*. Offa turbinala inferiora. Conthae infenores. The inferior fpongy bones are fituated in the fide and lower part of the noftrils, and are of a fpiral and convoluted figure. USE. ( *3 ) USE. To augment the furface of the organ of fmellirig. CONNEXION. Each bone is united with the fuperior maxil- lary, the palate, lachrymal, and ethmoid bone, by harmony. They are fubjeft to caries and total deftru&ion, from the venereal difeafe, and nafal polypi. OSSA PAI.ATIKA. OJJlipalaii. The palatine bones are extremely irregular in their fhape, and are fituated in the pofterior part of the nofe, from which they afcend laterally to the orbits. This irregularity of their figure and their fituation being fo varied, gives rife to their divifion into palatine, pterygoid, nafal, and orbital portions. PROCESSES. The palatal plate, which forms the pofterior part of the roof of the mouth. The pterygoid procefs, which is fituated behind the laft grinder. The nafil procefs, which arifes perpendicularly from the palate, and covers a part of the an- trum of Highmore. The crltii.iry procefs, which is fituated in the orbit. CAVITIES. The palatine cells, which communicate with, and form part of the fphsenoid cells. USE. To form the po^erior part of the palate, and part o the nofe and orbit. Each bone is CONNKCTKI> with its fellow, with the fuperior maxillary bone, the fph;moid, ethmoid, inferior fpongy bone, .and vomcr, : by harmony. The offa palatina are very perfe&ly formed at birth, but cannot, without great difficulty, be i'epautted from the iurrounding membranes. The palatine portions of thefe bones are extremely fubjel to caries from- the venereal dilcale. C 4 VOMER. ( H- ) VOMER. The vomcr is a bone fituated perpendicularly between th >oof of the mouth and the .feptum ethmoidale, in the cavity of the noftrils, which it divides into two parts. It bears fom* refemblance to the ploughfhare ufed in former rhncs. USE. To fuftain and divide the cavity of the noftrils. CONNEXION. Superiorly it is united with the fphsenoid bone by gomphofis, and wkh the ethmoid by harmony ; infe- riorty with the fuperior maxillary and palatine bones by har- mony ; anteriorly it is united to the cartilaginous feptum of the nofe. The vomer, at birth, confifts of two diftinct !