U-J 
 
COFFEE: 
 
 ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 

COFFEE: 
 
 ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT 
 
 BY 
 
 EDWIN LESTER ARNOLD. 
 
 AUTHOR OF "ON THE INDIAN HILLS; OR, COFFEE PLANTING IN SOUTHERN INDIA, 
 " A SUMMER HOLIDAY IN SCANDINAVIA," &C. 
 
 UBRA^. 
 
 f THt r ^\ 
 
 ITY J 
 
 y 
 
 LONDON : 
 W. B. WHITTINGHAM & CO., 91, GRACECHURCH STREET. 
 
 1886. 
 [A II Rights' Reserved.} 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 TT was with considerable diffidence I undertook the task 
 of preparing a new handbook on Coffee cultivation. 
 Already many names of weight and authority were down 
 on the roll of those who had gained experience in the 
 wide field of practice, and had recorded in admirable 
 handbooks the results of many years' planting wisdom. 
 
 Sabonadiere has enshrined his name with the best 
 
 \ ^ -N 
 period of Ceylon Coffee culture ; Laborie's works are 
 
 classical, and still useful ; R. H. Elliot's " Experiences 
 of a Planter in the Jungles of Mysore " has thrown a 
 glamour over the industry in the eyes of many an out- 
 ward-bound " griffin ;" Ellis, Hull, Keen, Lewis, Shortt, 
 and Simmond have all contributed treatises of good 
 sense and point on the same subject, thus thrashed 
 over and over again, until a casual observer would 
 deem there was but small chance of any stray grains 
 of fact remaining untouched. 
 
 But the truth is, the world moves, and with it its 
 most mundane affairs, not excepting those of Coffee. 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 What was the view of experts twenty years ago is 
 now as often as not looked upon as antiquated, and 
 fresh demands are continually being made upon science 
 and research for investigation and the fruits of novel 
 discoveries. Then also new districts have been opened 
 up, many deserving that the attention of those interested 
 in this branch of commerce should be drawn to them 
 as supplying fresh fields for enterprise and capital, and 
 changing by their prosperity the face of regions which, 
 though once clothed in dense jungle, are now patched 
 with the luxuriant green gardens characteristic of the 
 industry, and dotted with the white bungalows of European 
 superintendents. To gaze over a tract thus changing 
 hands from Nature's to men's is an experience not 
 easily forgotten ; the fair and fruitful plantations already 
 won from primeval barbarism lying along the hollows 
 of, it may be, a wild upland valley, surrounded on every 
 side by the swelling masses of forest only awaiting their 
 turn to come under the woodman's axe ; a mountain 
 stream winding down the glen, a thread of silver in the 
 dry weather, and a turgid torrent in the monsoon, sup- 
 plying water for the wants of man and beast, besides 
 motive power for pulping, saw-driving, and all the other 
 hundred wants of a plantation ; the long ghaut road 
 trailing away into the distance, with its slow-moving 
 trains of bullock carts or labourers, the populous native 
 huts, and all the many signs of busy active life. 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 To look down upon such a region, as I have done 
 very many times, bursting into usefulness in the face of 
 great odds, inevitably impresses on the observer a con- 
 sciousness of the vast amount of wealth and energy 
 constantly devoted to this productive and widespread 
 industry, hinting at the great possibilities that are open- 
 ing up for its furtherance in new lands, while at the 
 same time explaining the constant demand for works 
 on the subject by both those who supply the motive 
 power in the form of home capital for all such under- 
 takings, and those who go abroad to accept the practical 
 portion of the task. 
 
 My enterprising Publishers think there is an oppor- 
 tunity for rendering assistance to both parties by the 
 preparation of a handbook which shall be at once 
 concise and yet full of practical information, equally 
 useful at home or in the hands of the young assistant 
 making his first voyage to the tropics ; up to the day 
 in its data, containing the latest figures on production 
 and profits, and hints on every matter, in fact, that can 
 be required by either of the two great divisions of 
 investors in Coffee already mentioned those who embark 
 capital in it, and those who dedicate their lives and 
 energies to the profession. 
 
 The outcome of my task undertaken with due doubts 
 in my abilities, and carried through with a genuine 
 
VI 11 .PREFACE. 
 
 pleasure born of pleasant reminiscences and a congenial 
 subject is now before the reader ; and that it may 
 prove useful and convey a lucid impression of the 
 " facts and figures " of Coffee cultivation is the chief 
 wish of 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP/TER PAGE 
 
 N/ I. THE PLANT ....'. i 
 
 "J II. SOIL AND CLIMATE ........ 19 
 
 III. LABOUR AND LABOURERS ........ 35 
 
 IV. PURCHASE 49 
 
 V. THE NURSERY 58 
 
 VI. FOREST CLEARINGS . -. . . ' '. . 69 
 
 VII. PITS AND PEGS . . . . . . . . . 78 
 
 VIII. " SHADE " 87 
 
 IX. PLANTING 96 
 
 X. WEEDS 104 
 
 XI. PRUNING . 109 
 
 XII. ENEMIES . 117 
 
 XIII. BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS '. 135 
 
 XIV. ROADING AND DRAINING 153 
 
 & XV. THE CROP., . .. V 158 
 
 XVI. PULPING AND PREPARING . ... . . . 167 
 
 XVII. CATTLE AND FODDER . 185 
 
 XVIII. MANURES AND MANURING 194 
 
 ^ XIX. COST AND PROFIT ... 215 
 
 \ 
 
 3 XX. COFFEE COUNTRIES ........ 229 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 BACK AND FRONT VIEW OF BUNGALOW ...... 143 
 
 TRANSVERSE SECTION OF COFFEE MILL 170-71 
 
 " Disc " PULPER ........ . , . . . . 173 
 
 THE COMBINED CRUSHER AND PULPER 174 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF COFFEE MILL 176-7 
 
COFFEE: 
 ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 THE PLANT. 
 
 THERE are certain historic facts relating to the 
 cultivation of Coffee, and the introduction of the 
 drink into this country, which are interesting, if 
 not of much practical value, and must receive a 
 brief notice here. 
 
 The plant, whose natural climatic range lies 
 between the isothermal lines of 25 North and 30 
 South of the Equator, is said to have been first 
 observed in Caffa (whence its name), a district of 
 Southern Abyssinia. From thence it was intro- 
 duced along the old caravan routes to Yemen, in 
 Arabia, about the beginning of the I4th century. 
 There can be little doubt, however, that it has 
 always grown spontaneously in various quarters of 
 the tropics, Persia, Peru, and the West Coast of 
 Africa (whence an important species takes its 
 name) being rivals for the honour of its parentage. 
 
2 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 The Medina Sheik Abd-el-Kader is the oldest 
 historical authority on the use of " blood red 
 Keweh," as the Tunisian Ibu Waki named the 
 beverage. It may be assumed that the Coffee 
 Plantations of Yemen increased until the yield 
 served for export as well as for home consump- 
 tion. In the 1 6th century mention is made of 
 the consumption of Coffee by the Turks, and 
 Lord Bacon among other writers alludes to it. 
 The Coffee came by ships from Mocha to Suez, 
 and overland by caravans to Damascus and Aleppo, 
 the total export from Mocha in the middle of the 
 1 7th century being estimated by Dufour at about 
 16,000 bales, weighing about 300 Ibs. each, i.e., 
 about 2,150 tons. Rauwolfius brought some young 
 plants to Western Europe in 1573, and Alpinus 
 stood sponsor to them, scientifically describing and 
 naming the botanical curiosities in 1591. This 
 seems to have drawn some attention to the new 
 shrub, for Bishop Compton successfully reared a 
 few plants in the uncongenial English soil during 
 1696 and subsequently. Then the Dutch, with 
 their native talent for making secondhand dis- 
 coveries, fabricated a legend of trees which had 
 not only flowered, but borne fruit, in the fogs of 
 the Lowlands adding a rider to this statement 
 by asserting the seed from this source to have 
 been that whence most of the gardens of the 
 East Indies were initiated. It is at least certain 
 that the plant was known to the savants of the 
 
THE PLANT. 3 
 
 West long before its commercial product was 
 familiar to the public. 
 
 Probably Coffee as an invigorator is of much 
 older origin than our scanty records on the sub- 
 ject tell us. The Egyptians in the time of the 
 Pharoahs may well have used it, since half their 
 trade lay inland up the valley of the Nile to 
 the great Negro cities of its reputed birthplace. 
 The Galla, for instance a wandering nation of 
 Africa in their incursions into Abyssinia, being 
 obliged to traverse immense deserts and to travel 
 swiftly, have been accustomed for ages to carry 
 nothing with them to eat but Coffee roasted till 
 it could be pulverised, and then mixed into balls 
 with butter, and put into a leather bag. One of 
 these, the size of a billiard-ball, is said to keep 
 them in strength and spirits during a whole day's 
 fatigue better than either bread or meat. 
 
 To Persia its classic home as a strength-giving 
 draught- we are told to look for the first rise of 
 the art by which the pretty, but hitherto useless, 
 berries were "pulped," roasted, ground and in- 
 fused, to make that decoction now so dear to 
 Eastern palates. Who endowed The Land of the 
 Lion and Sun with this boon is a moot point, but 
 a Mufti of Aden obtained the secret when on a 
 pilgrimage, and introduced it amongst his followers. 
 
 Thence it spread to Turkey,* where, owing 
 
 * Sir Francis Bacon says : " They have in Turkey a drink called 
 Coffee, made of a berry of the same name, as black as soot, and of 
 
4 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 probably to the Koranic injunction against its 
 rivals the spirituous liquors, it soon became a 
 popular favourite, and over-rode all opposition 
 from interested pashas and conservative fakirs.* 
 
 In our own country, it was at first regarded 
 with great suspicion as a beverage, from the use 
 of which all sorts of terrible evils might be ex- 
 pected to follow. Mr. Edwards, a merchant of 
 Turkey, was perhaps the first to bring the fragrant 
 preparation under British notice. In the year 
 1650, he imported a Greek youth, named Pasqua 
 Rosee, who was proficient in the art of preparing 
 Coffee; and so greatly did the new drink "take," 
 after the first opposition was over, that in little 
 
 a strong scent." He was thus probably the initiator of the popular 
 fallacy that Coffee is made from " berries." Latham's edition of 
 " Tod's Johnson's Dictionary " says, that " Coffee is an infusion of 
 the berries." It is no more an infusion of berries than it is of leaves 
 the " beans " used are of course seeds'. 
 
 * " Coffee comes to us laden with the fragrance of Oriental bazaars 
 and the romance of the 'Arabian Nights.' Its early history as an 
 economic product is involved in considerable obscurity, the absence 
 of historical fact being compensated for by an unusual profusion of 
 conjectural statements, and by purely mythical stories. Throwing 
 legend aside, the use of Coffee seems to have been introduced from 
 Ethiopia into Persia about the year 875 A.D., and into Arabia from 
 the latter country at the beginning of the fourteenth century. Not- 
 withstanding that its use as a beverage was prohibited by the 
 Koran, it spread rapidly through the Mohammedan nation, and it 
 was publicly sold in Constantinople in 1554. It easily found its 
 way from the Levant to Venice, where Coffee-houses were established 
 as early as 1615. A Jew named Jacob opened the first Coffee-house 
 in England, selling it as a common beverage at Baliol College, 
 Oxford, in the year when the Long Parliament met." American 
 Paper. 
 
THE PLANT. 5 
 
 more than a year, it is said, there were as many 
 Coffee-houses in London as in Constantinople. 
 However this may be, the public seem to have 
 approved of Rosee's speciality. An old advertise- 
 ment on the subject says the Coffee drink " much 
 quickens the spirits and makes the heart lightsome. 
 It suppresseth fumes exceedingly, and therefore is 
 good against the headache, and will very much 
 stop any defluxion of rheums that distil from the 
 head upon the stomac, and so prevent consump- 
 tions and the cough of the lungs. It is excellent 
 to prevent and cure the gout, dropsy, and scurvy. 
 It is known to be better than any other drink 
 for people in years. It is most excellent remedy 
 against the spleen, hypochondriac winds, and the 
 like. It will prevent drowsiness, and make one 
 fit for business if one have occasion to watch ; 
 and therefore you are not to drink it after supper 
 unless you intend to be wakeful. It is observed in 
 Turkey, where it is very generally drunk, that they 
 are not troubled with many maladies, or scurvy, 
 and their skins are exceeding clear and white." 
 If at the present time we are hardly able fully to 
 endorse every word of the enthusiastic Greek in 
 praise of his favourite beverage, we can yet feel 
 there can be no doubt he would be gratified could 
 he see the proportions the " trade " has assumed, 
 or know the millions of pounds of British capital 
 invested in the preparation of the article of which 
 he was practically the earliest English champion. 
 
6 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 The first Coffee grown in America was, no doubt, 
 introduced into Surinam by the Dutch in 1718. 
 The Governor of Cayenne De la Motte-Aigron 
 having been at Surinam, obtained some plants in 
 secret and multiplied them in 1725. 
 
 The Coffee plant was introduced into Martinique 
 by De Clieu, a naval officer, in 1720. Thence it 
 was introduced into the other French islands into 
 Guadaloupe, for instance. In 1730 Sir Nicholas 
 Lawes first grew it in Jamaica. Du Fougerais 
 Grenier introduced Mocha Coffee into Bourbon in 
 1717. It is known how the cultivation of this shrub 
 has been extended to Java, Ceylon, the West Indies, 
 and Brazil. Nothing prevents it from spreading in 
 all tropical countries, especially as the Coffee plant 
 thrives on sloping ground, and in poor soils where 
 other crops cannot flourish. It corresponds in 
 tropical agriculture with the vine in Europe, and 
 tea in the far East. 
 
 Passing on from the commercial to the natural 
 history of the Coffee plant, we will take a brief look 
 at its distribution, species, and habits. The three 
 chief varieties of the plant are easily recognizable 
 to those who have had much to do with Coffee. 
 The Mocha^bush, growing on the hot, sandy terraces 
 of the Red Sea littoral, is sparse of leaves and 
 somewhat gaunt and stunted in appearance, as 
 beseems a thing of the desert. Looking at the 
 signs of its condensed vitality, it appears easy to 
 understand the aromatic pungency of its dwarfed 
 
THE PLANT. 
 
 berries, which have never been equalled by any 
 achievement of scientific cultivation. Ljberian 
 Coffee, on the other hand, is freer of growth, as is 
 natural to a plant whose habitat is among the 
 alluvial flats of low altitudes ; the leaves are broad 
 and abundant, the berries big and somewhat coarse: 
 they pay the planter who sells by gross weight 
 better than the finer product, but make a poor 
 beverage. The third, or so-called Arabian Coffee, 
 is the plant most generally cultivated, and holds 
 an intermediate place between the former, both 
 in point of growth and intrinsic value of its 
 yield. 
 
 A new Coffee, that may be of importance in the 
 future, called " Maagpgirje," has lately been dis- 
 covered in Brazil, and a Commission was formed to 
 investigate the qualities of the Coffee and also of 
 the plant, and they decided entirely in its favour. 
 Not only does it produce a greater crop, but the 
 Coffee berry is much larger, and possesses a very 
 silky - looking smooth surface, with high quality 
 flavour. It stands well on the high lands, and the 
 first planters who have adopted it in Brazil are so 
 delighted with the results that they are cutting 
 down their splendid Coffee trees of the older kind 
 of Coffee and planting this new " Maragogipe " 
 variety. A gentleman who has just returned from 
 visiting many of the higher estates in Brazil found 
 the planters speaking in the highest terms of this 
 new species of Coffee. Von Glehn, of London, 
 
8 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 writes : "The Maragogipe Coffee tree which I have 
 seen growing in Brazil, on the plantations of Mr. 
 Francisco Clemente Pinto, has a much larger leaf 
 than the ordinary Arabian tree. It grows with extra- 
 ordinary vigour, and trees three to four years old 
 were already eight to ten feet high, and full of fruit. 
 The tree seems to come into full bearing much 
 sooner than the ordinary sort, and the bean is 
 very much larger. Altogether the weight of Coffee 
 per acre must be very much more when the land 
 is planted with Maragogipe than with the ordinary 
 Coffee tree." 
 
 Lately the Minister of Agriculture dispatched 
 the following official note to the President of the 
 Province, in relation to the propagation of the new 
 species of plant there discovered : " The species 
 of Coffee called ' Maragogipe,' which, according to 
 information in this Department of State, was dis- 
 covered in your Province by Crisogno Jose Fer- 
 nandes, has found great favour among the planters 
 of Rio de Janeiro, and the merchants who have 
 examined it in this market, and in various countries 
 of Europe, all agreeing that in size of berry, aroma, 
 and taste it is one of the species most recommend- 
 able. With a purpose, therefore, of propagating its 
 cultivation, your Excellency is hereby authorized 
 to acquire, on account of this Department, and to 
 remit 500 kilogrammes of this fruit, in a condition 
 suitable for the plantation. Also, I recommend that 
 your Excellency order the extension of the culti- 
 
THE PLANT. Q 
 
 vation existing there to be verified, and the results 
 which it has produced, as well as under what con- 
 ditions can be obtained the greatest quantity of 
 seeds, having in consideration the vigour of the plant, 
 the time of harvest, the price, and the guarantees 
 of origin and quality." 
 
 To^botar^iSj^Q^fm^j^abic^ is a species coming 
 under the class Pentandria Monogynia of Linnaeus, 
 and the family Rubiacece, though by some it is 
 placed among the Cinchonacece, with a good show 
 of reason ; but this botanical quibble matters little. 
 It is, in cultivation, a shrub of close and systematic 
 growth. Where allowed to follow its own natural 
 instincts, in uncleared jungle or old and forsaken 
 plantations, it grows to a height of fourteen to 
 eighteen feet, and is then a tall, slight bush, with 
 a straight stem free of branches for the greater 
 part of its height ; and an abundance of fine, 
 fibrous roots underground, with a deep-penetrating 
 and all-important " tap root," whose welfare is 
 bound up with that of the plant. Dwarfed by the 
 pruning-knife of the cultivator, it rarely exceeds 
 an elevation of^six feet in light sandy soils, and 
 nine feet in the very richest. The latter is an 
 unusual height, and as a matter of experience, I 
 have noticed, when riding through the best-managed 
 estates of Lower India, that the topmost twigs of 
 the plants have rarely been higher than my knees 
 when bestriding a hill pony, which would be some- 
 thing less than five feet from the ground. If 
 
IO COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 allowed to grow higher than this, the difficulties 
 of efficient cultivation and picking are enhanced. 
 
 The branches of the plant are placed in pairs 
 on opposite sides of the stem, each pair having 
 its longitudinal axis at right angles to the next. 
 In shape the leaves are similar to those of the 
 Portuguese laurel, smooth and polished on the upper 
 surface, pale red-green when just unfolded, and 
 dark olive when older. This contrast of colour 
 is pleasing and striking when the plants are making 
 new growths. In Sumatra and elsewhere, we read, 
 these tender young leaves are used as a common 
 beverage amongst the natives, who attribute to 
 them many advantages. They " possess slightly 
 tonic and stimulating qualities/' without the ex- 
 citing effects of the decoction from the roasted 
 bean. Though naturally far cheaper as a drink 
 than the preparation of berries, and less marked 
 in its effects on the nervous system, it probably 
 requires an educated taste to be appreciated ; and 
 neither the efforts of Dr. Gardner, who patented 
 and exhibited a process in the Great Exhibition 
 of 1851 for the preparation of Coffee-tea, nor several 
 other efforts in the same direction, have, as yet, 
 served to bring the drink into popular use. Occa- 
 sionally, young and soft shoots and leaves are 
 used by the Singhalese to flavour their curries, 
 but these two uses sum up the purposes to which 
 this portion of the plant can be applied. 
 
 From the axil of each pair of_leaves ; when Jhe 
 
THE PLANT. II 
 
 plants are in full vigour, spring clusteS-^-twelve 
 to sixte^n_joVxwer=b^ds, these opening at the blossom- 
 ing season witrT great rapidity. The planter goes 
 over his young estate one morning, probably, in 
 March, and sees the long arrays of healthy shrubs, 
 watched and tended with so much care, heavy with 
 green clustering buds full of promise for a bumper 
 crop, and he rises a morning or two afterwards 
 to behold the whole extent of hill and valley under 
 cultivation a wide-spreading expanse of snow-white 
 blossom, almost hiding the dark green carpet of 
 foliage, and reminding him of hoar frosts in his 
 own far away country, or of its hawthorn hedges 
 in May. The scent from this mass of bloom is 
 very powerful. My own coolies have frequently 
 asked for extra remuneration when carrying letters, 
 or otherwise passing through estates in the full flush 
 of blossoming, declaring such duty frequently gave 
 them attacks of fever. However this may be, the 
 Coffee flower, in colour, odour, and form, is pleasant 
 enough to English senses a great favourite with 
 the natives for decking their images of Buddha, &c. 
 Botanically it is said to be " axillary, sessile, calyx 
 monopetalous, funnel-shaped, and cut at the limb 
 into fine, reflexed, lanceolate segments." 
 
 There are generally two sometimes three 
 relays of blossom before all the buds have arrived 
 at maturity (which is, no doubt, owing to the 
 number of buds in each cluster preventing their 
 all coming out together), but the principal one is 
 
12 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 generally the first which comes out in March. 
 After a day or two, the flowers gradually turn 
 brown, and fade away ; the slower and more 
 gradual this process is, the better. Rainfall, while 
 the blossoms are out, is much to be deprecated ; 
 but once the latter has set, a good shower will 
 be beneficial rather than otherwise. This will 
 wash off the withered petals, leaving exposed 
 to view the numerous pistils, or fruit germs, 
 upon which all depends. These should have fresh, 
 whitish tips, to indicate a healthy appearance ; and 
 when this is the case, the blossoms are said to 
 have " set well," and a crop may be looked for 
 proportionate to the abundance of the blossom. 
 Sometimes, however, an ominous little black speck 
 is discernible in the centre of the pistil ; and where 
 this is the case, fructification will not follow. This 
 is most commonly the result of inopportune rain 
 while the flowers are out ; or it may follow a pro- 
 longed season of drought, and be due to a weakly 
 condition of the plant. 
 
 Beautiful while they last, and delighting the 
 planter's eye with their likeness to the flowers of 
 the English hedgerows in spring time, or filling him 
 with pleasant thoughts of future profits, accordingly 
 as sentiment or practicability dominate in his mind, 
 their life is yet short, and in three or four days 
 the beauty of the plantation is gone, and the petals 
 lie yellow and withered on the ground. 
 
 From the short stalks whence they have fallen 
 
THE PLANT. 13 
 
 rise groups of berries, at first _yj3llow and harcLjff 
 the touch, lying in the hollows of the leaves. As 
 they ripen under the influence of a meridian sun, 
 their colour deepens not regularly, but by crimson 
 and scarlet shades and tints which spread over 
 the skin until about October its surface is covered, 
 and the " cherry" (for so it is now called by a happy 
 comparison with the familiar fruit) has mellowed to 
 a deep glossy purple-black, with a smooth and 
 bloomless cuticle. 
 
 Laborie, whose works are of undiminished 
 value though amongst the oldest on the planter's 
 shelves, waxes eloquent over the charms of the 
 Coffee bush in its various stages of growth. 
 "In both states, of flower and fruit, nature is 
 nowhere more profuse and beautiful in the variety 
 of its colours and forms," he writes, and we feel 
 much sympathy with his enthusiasm. At this period 
 the cherry is picked, some little experience being 
 required to know just the right time, which is when 
 the fruit feels quite soft to the touch, and a few 
 of the ripest are already falling to the ground. 
 Different sides of a bush will be ready on different 
 days, and different aspects may be as much as a 
 week apart in ripening. This is a boon to the 
 planter, who has his hands very full at this busiest 
 of all seasons. 
 
 The cherry has many and voracious enemies. 
 A few birds wax fat on the sweet pulp at the planter's 
 expense ; Sambur deer are not above an occasional 
 
 ffUNIV] Y )} 
 
14 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 raid into the gardens, while jackals and monkies 
 are fond of the ripe fruit. 
 
 "Monkey or Jackal Coffee," once highly valued 
 as the choicest form of berry procurable for drink- 
 ing purposes, is simply the undigested Coffee seeds 
 which have passed unaltered through the intestinal 
 canal of the animal that has stolen them, and have 
 been left about in the jungles. Elliot does not 
 believe in " Jackal Coffee," regarding the name 
 as applicable " to the seeds that have been knocked 
 off the trees, or spilt by the pickers, of green berries 
 that will not ripen, and of stray berries that have 
 dried on the trees." With all due deference to 
 that accomplished writer, we can only point to 
 the well-known facts with which every planter is 
 familiar. Dr. Shortt, in his " Handbook of Planting 
 for Southern India," devotes some space to the 
 consideration of the reasons why such berries make 
 a better beverage than others. We take a central 
 position between these authorities, holding with 
 one that the appreciation of such stercoraceously 
 deposited beans by natives is an undoubted fact, 
 and with the other that they are of little or no 
 superior value to those plucked in an ordinary 
 way from the trees. 
 
 To return to the subject of the berries just 
 ripened upon their bushes. We have seen they 
 have many admirers besides the legitimate owner, 
 and this is wholly on account of the sweet pulp 
 Several experiments have been made to utilize 
 
THE PLANT. 15 
 
 this succulent covering, but without much success. 
 The cHemislry of waste products has yet an in- 
 exhaustible field before it, and our cherry covering 
 is an instance. 
 
 As manure, we shall mention it again. It is 
 in this form of moderate value, like any other 
 vegetable refuse, but contains too large a portion 
 of water in the crude state to recommend it highly 
 to the economical planter. Spirit is occasionally 
 distilled from it, but not in India ; and abroad, 
 dried and pounded, it has been tried as a substitute 
 for Coffee with but very poor results. 
 
 It is, however, with ^he__s^ed^ot_covers we have 
 most interest. This, in its barest form, cannot 
 fail to be familiar to everyone who has looked into 
 the shops of towns or cities and observed large 
 stores of " Ceylon Plantation," " Mocha," " Native 
 Ceylon," or " Rio " Coffee piled up in heaps and 
 ready for sale. In that condition it is chocolate- 
 colour roasted ; and unroasted, of a greenish-grey 
 tint, varying slightly with the nature and growth 
 of the species. These pale green "beans!! for 
 that is their technical name (derived from the 
 Arabic word bunn, an authority tells us, and thus 
 from the same root as the humble cake) are con- 
 vex on one surface _and_ flat uEon_Jbhe__gther. In 
 the centre of the rij^Jruj^ 
 
 together (smooth surface to smooth surface), each 
 covered first by a very fine jmd._delicate garment, 
 termed " the silvery skin ;" nextly, each has a some- \ 
 
 & 
 
i6 
 
 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 what rougher cartilaginous membrane of smooth, 
 shiny consistency, for this reason called the parch- 
 ment. Above the latter comes the pulp, " muci- 
 laginous, saccharine, and somewhat glutinous," as 
 an exact author terms it ; and, outside again, there 
 is the external skin. 
 
 Coffee varies in colour from brown to bluish 
 green. Not only do Coffee seeds vary in colour, 
 but also in size. The following table will give an 
 idea of the size of the berries, and also of the com- 
 parative value of Coffee from different localities : 
 
 
 No. of Seeds in 
 
 
 A 
 
 a Unit Measure 
 
 
 II 
 
 holding 50 Grams 
 
 Per Cut. 
 
 \l 
 
 of Water (about 
 
 
 iJt^ 
 
 2j OZS.) 
 
 
 ( / Fine brown Java 
 
 187 
 
 s. 
 8 o 
 
 P Fine Mysore 
 
 I 9 8 
 
 6 10 
 
 Fine Neilgherry 
 
 203 
 
 4 13 
 
 Costa Rica 
 
 203 
 
 3 10 
 
 Good ordinary Guatemala .. 
 
 20 7 
 
 2 16 
 
 Good La Guayra 
 
 210 
 
 3 10 
 
 Good average Santos 
 
 213 
 
 2 I 4 
 
 *Fine long berry Mocha 
 
 217 
 
 6 10 
 
 *Good ordinary Java 
 
 223 
 
 3 
 
 Fine Ceylon Plantation ... 
 
 225 
 
 4 13 
 
 *Good average Rio 
 
 236 
 
 2 12 
 
 Medium Plantation (Ceylon) 
 
 233 
 
 3 18 
 
 ^Manilla 
 
 248 
 
 2 12 
 
 *Ordinary Mocha 
 
 270 
 
 5 o 
 
 *West African 
 
 313 
 
 2 
 
 Those sorts which are marked with an asterisk 
 are irregular in size and colour, and have the 
 
THE PLANT. 17 
 
 appearance of being carelessly prepared ; and the 
 reason why Rio, Manilla, and West African fetch 
 the least money seems obvious enough. 
 
 The high prices of the Mochas lead one to 
 think that there is something in a name, but the 
 light colour of the seeds indicates probably not 
 only a very complete ripeness when gathered, but 
 considerable age as well ; and be it remembered 
 that Coffee improves with age, and will continue to 
 improve for fifteen or twenty years. The brown 
 Java, priced at i6os., has not only very fine seeds, 
 but it has been six or seven years in the island. 
 If Coffee bg_kept in a dry place jt : matures and 
 It loses water, gets lighter, and when 
 
 roasted^_developes^ more aroma The fact that 
 Coffee can je stored in bulk for household-Jig^, 
 and continues to improve with 
 
 meoid^it_to_the^careful .housewife. "C'est Page qui 
 fait le bon Cafe," says the writer of the mono- 
 graph, " Le Bresil a 1'Exposition Internationale 
 d' Amsterdam." 
 
 In preparing Coffee after it is plucked from 
 the trees, the pulp is removed by water and fer- 
 mentation, and the parchment subsequently shred 
 from the beans by passing them between carefully- 
 adjusted rollers and winnowing. It is then ready 
 for sale and transport, and this is all the work 
 of preparation that falls to the planter's hands. 
 
 ' " To dream of drinking Coffee," says De Can- 
 dolle, " is a favourable omen, betokening riches 
 
 c 
 
i8 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 and honours." To dream of planting it, and to 
 follow up the vision practically, may lead to a 
 like result if skill and caution guide affairs and 
 characterise the planter's operations. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 SOIL AND CLIMATE. 
 
 As a general rule, it is said, the best zone of 
 latitude for Coffee is 150 on each side of the 
 equator, of altitude from 3,000 to 4,500 feet. 
 The deeper, freer, and richer the soil is the 
 better. It should be specially tested for phos- 
 phoric acid ami" potash. The latter will be in 
 abundance when a large forest has been felled, 
 but burned grass land must be very good to grow 
 Coffee. 
 
 Soil and climate are subjects of primitive 
 importance if '~6uF~garden is to succeed and our 
 crops to be bumper ones. 
 
 Looking at soil from an annalist's point of 
 view, says Pogson, we find it consists of an 
 organic part, which placed in the fire will burn 
 away, and an inorganic or mineral part, which 
 will not. The constitution of the first is well 
 known. It is formed by remains of animals, 
 insects, minute visible and invisible organisms 
 of various kinds, from the dung of animals, 
 birds, caterpillars, and worms, and from the 
 roots, stems, and leaves of decayed vegetables. 
 The inorganic part consists of sand, clay, lime, 
 
2O COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 magnesia, oxides of iron, oxides of maganese, 
 potash, soda, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, 
 carbonic acid. The preponderance of one or 
 more of the natural divisions makes the soil pro- 
 ductive or unproductive, while certain plants make 
 special calls upon one or more substances, and 
 consequently such must be present and available 
 in a soil that is to suit them. 
 
 Officially, five kinds of soil are recognized in 
 India, but in truth there are a greater variety 
 than in any other country in the world except 
 China. 
 
 A rich soil gene^^_j:pjitairia^fiv^ier -cent., 
 
 or one twentieth, of its weight of organic matter 
 in combination with other fertilizing substances. 
 As for the best ground for Conjee in particular, 
 it may be~TToT:e37jhat our chief authorities differ 
 in their viewsj^but as a broad principle the best 
 soil is the j^ches^^no matter what its colour, or 
 whether it be the volcanic mould of Java, the 
 rich red earth of Brazil, the deep valley silt of 
 Arabia, or the Ceylon jungle mould. 
 
 Sabonadiere's description of a good soil's 
 exterior character is as good as any we have read. 
 "We come to the conclusion," he says, "that 
 a dark chocolate-coloured soil mixed with small 
 stones, under ledges of rock, and bestrewn with 
 boulders, is most suitable for the trees." In this 
 he will be found to have given a very accurate 
 description of much of the best ground in Ceylon 
 
SOIL AND CLIMATE. 21 
 
 and Southern India. It is plain, however, that 
 he has only given the superficial and casual 
 characteristics of a suitable earth, since many 
 causes may produce the dark colour he admires, 
 and the fact that land is bestrewn with small 
 fragments of rocks and scattered boulders can 
 have only a remote influence on the yield of 
 fruit. 
 
 In general, a fair idea of the nature, of any soil 
 can be obtained by a study of the jungle that 
 grows upon it. Scattered " sholas," or clumps of 
 trees interspersed with expanses of waving lemon 
 grass and such like picturesque as it may be 
 will never do for the shrub, since they show a 
 shallow soil on layers of rock. Rather we must 
 seek to find thick, heavy jungle, close grown, with 
 soft-wooded trees, such as the sacred fig, creepers, 
 tree-ferns, and giant lichens. Where these abound 
 and grow luxuriantly, the earth below them is 
 certain to be richly loaded with decayed vegetation, 
 and thus fulfils one requirement of the planter. 
 Parasitic plants and especially orchids, I have 
 noticed (though their connection with the soil is 
 but secondhand) seem to indicate and thrive best 
 on the richest ground. The presence of trees of 
 large and free growth, running up straight to the 
 sky and, as it were, racing for precedence, points 
 to a good depth of mould under their roots. 
 
 Plants in general, and Coffee in particular, 
 require a soil free from stagnant water, sufficiently 
 
22 COFFEE ! ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 friable to be open to the passage of air for admitting 
 of " respiration," and possessing a sufficiency of 
 those constituents which are essential to the growth 
 and nourishment of the vegetable. 
 ^ Coffee, as previously jnoted, is tap-rooted, and 
 it is essenHaTjo~lts~proper well-being that this 
 root may -penetrate down into the body of the 
 earth, where should lie those reservoirs of moisture 
 and manure that must be looked to for nourishment 
 and support during trying times of drought and 
 sunshine. This points to the necessity of a deep, 
 and penetrable soil. Where mould, no matter 
 how good, is shallow, and rests on hard clay or 
 " slab " rock at small depth, planting is useless ; 
 an admixture of gravel, however or, more properly 
 speaking, the hill shale so common in Coffee dis- 
 tricts is not a bar to success if the surrounding 
 circumstances are favourable. Ground broken up 
 for the first time under the shade of primeval 
 forest, it will commonly happen, however, possesses 
 such a depth of mould that practically the subsoil 
 is non-existent. In my own region of Southern 
 India much of our Coffee was on four and six feet 
 of rich black earth that crumbled to the touch, 
 being both "warm" and "free" in texture. This, 
 of course, in the more favoured hollows of the 
 valleys, and such a depth is not to be looked for 
 everywhere. 
 
 It will be as well for the young planter to 
 remember that an estate may have everything to 
 
SOIL AND CLIMATE. 23 
 
 commend it to the external view, and fulfil to a 
 nicety all the conditions he has been taught to 
 seek, and yet disappoint when the crucial test of 
 crop times comes. On some land the plants thrive 
 amazingly for a time, vigorous in growth and glossy 
 in foliage. Such promise is deceptive, and the 
 bushes never achieve anything beyond a plentiful 
 harvest of leaves. Other districts, again, seeming 
 to invite cultivation, rear Coffee entertaining a 
 curious liability to suffer attacks from various foes 
 and diseases. 
 
 The secret of these variations no one quite 
 understands. They form a still vexed question, 
 upon which there are probably as many opinions 
 as planters. Every country and not only every 
 country, but every district has its peculiarities 
 and traditions. These can hardly be understood 
 except by personal inspection. Planters, as a rule, 
 scorn laboratory tests, preferring to judge by rule 
 of thumb in their selection of garden sites. They 
 are usually right, and the beginner is lucky who 
 can get an old hand in the district to ride over 
 and give him a friendly opinion on the capabilities 
 of his proposed location ! 
 
 After all is said, the Coffee plant is a hardy 
 shrub ; and though the best soils jfor__it can be 
 only recognized by experience^ __the_Jact that it 
 is sprea^r^Dye^alf^arts of the world, and is 
 
 fruitful gn_ the sandy_-terraces. of the Arabian 
 
 littoral or the moist, alluvial flats of Gambia, 
 
24 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 tends towards showing it has a wide range of 
 tastes. 
 
 "The following opinions of writers on the question 
 of soil will be read .with interest, and are instructive 
 in marking the uniformity of judgment amongst 
 them. 
 
 Sabonadiere says, in " The Coffee Planter of 
 Ceylon:" 
 
 "The most suitable soil for the Coffee bush is that 
 which grows soft timber. The hard ' doon ' wood (useful, 
 however, for shingles and beams) is usually found on high 
 quartzy ridges, which both the nature of the soil and 
 exposure to winds render unsuitable. The best land for 
 Coffee is a dark chocolate-coloured soil, mixed with small 
 stones and overspread here and there with boulders of 
 
 granite Those estates where slab rock, gravel, 
 
 or clay prevail are worked at a questionably remunerative 
 return, and must ere long be abandoned as not paying for 
 their cultivation." 
 
 In Mr. Hull's opinion (" Coffee Planting in 
 Southern India") : 
 
 "When the soil is dark in colour, loose, and full of 
 roots, it is rich in organic matter, and therefore good for 
 Coffee, which is a hardy plant not on the whole difficult to 
 
 please in this matter The best criterion as to 
 
 the quality of the soil is the luxuriousness or otherwise of 
 the vegetation it produces in its original state. For instance, 
 in forests which, in addition to a large growth of timber, have 
 a dense close underwood and abound in mosses and ferns, 
 if may safely be concluded the soil is good." 
 
 An experienced writer in Balfour's excellent 
 " Cyclopaedia of India " says : 
 
 " In Ceylon the best soil is a deep chocolate colour, 
 friable and abounding with blocks and small pieces of stone. 
 
SOIL AND CLIMATE. 25 
 
 Such patches of land are generally found at the bottom of 
 the escarpments of the hills or in elevated valleys, and 
 rarely on the slopes. Quartoze land must be carefully 
 avoided, and clay is equally bad. A good surface soil 
 should have at least two feet of depth, as the Coffee tree 
 has a long tap root." 
 
 Mr. P. L. Simmonds remarks in his " Tropical 
 Agriculture : " 
 
 " Coffee trees flourish in hilly districts where the subsoil 
 is gravelly, for the roots will strike down and obtain nourish- 
 ment so as to keep the plant alive and fruitful for thirty years. 
 Trees planted in a light soil, and in a dry and elevated spot, 
 produce smaller berries, which have a better flavour than 
 those grown in rich, flat, and moist soils. The weight of 
 produce yielded by the latter is, however, double that obtained 
 from the former ; and, as the difference in price between the 
 two is by no means adequate to cover this deficiency of 
 weight, the interest of the planter naturally leads him to 
 the production of the largest but least excellent kind." 
 
 A writer on American Coffee tells us : 
 
 " The best crops that I have seen have been on a rich 
 black loam, too rocky to be worked with the plough, and on 
 the slopes of ravines. It is said that the plant dies out in 
 a few years on clay soil. But the Liberian plant is said 
 to flourish on such soil. I attribute the better condition 
 of the plants on sloping ground to the fact of their being 
 more shaded. It is generally held that the Coffee will not 
 flourish on wet ground, though the best plants I ever saw 
 [as far as leaves went ?] were within a few feet of an unfailing 
 stream." 
 
 And "An Old Planter" thinks we should look 
 to the subsoil : 
 
 "A rich chocolate is my favourite, and I have generally 
 seen the best estates where that was the body of the soil. 
 
26 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 But a deep black is also good sometimes, indeed, very fine. 
 And there are other kinds not to be despised. A free, friable 
 kind of soil is generally a very desirable first condition, 
 whatever be the colour. But it should not be sandy, clayey 
 or ferruginous. If well studded with large boulders so much 
 the better. These keep the soil together, as well as improve 
 it by the process of their decay. Avoid land where there 
 is much slab-rock cropping out on the surface, however. 
 The soil is seldom deep upon such rock, and it gradually 
 slides away : while even before it slips, the roots of the Coffee 
 trees coming in contact with the hidden rock cause the tree 
 to wither and die when in its very prime." 
 
 The matter of climate is at least as important 
 as the previous one, and can be approached with 
 more confidence of accuracy. That also of aspect 
 is worth consideration. Coffee of one sort or 
 another will grow and thrive more or less from 
 the sea level to 6,000 feet of ele^attenT"" 
 
 TrTCeylonrthe result of much experience and 
 innumerable failures from too much humidity, or an 
 excess of dryness in the atmosphere, has led to 
 the conclusion that a height of 3,000 feet, with a 
 divergence of 500 feet higher or lower, is the best 
 elevation that can be chosen. 
 
 The highest estate of Travancore is in Velaven- 
 godu district, at an elevation of 3,900 feet ; but 
 there are only two estates there, which comprise 
 unitedly 395 acres, and the outturn of which has 
 been 412 Ibs. per acre of mature plants. The lowest 
 estate is in Neduvengaud, altitude above the sea 
 about 400 feet; and on this 154 Ibs. per acre were 
 gathered. The average produce for all plantations 
 
SOIL AND CLIMATE. 2J 
 
 was about 276 Ibs. per acre of full-grown plants. 
 Where the cost of cultivation is greatest the out- 
 turn also is greatest. In the two highest estates 
 mentioned the cost of cultivation was said to be 
 Rs. in per acre. 
 
 It must be borne in mind, while considering 
 this subject, that Coffee requires (i) a suitable soil, 
 (2) a temperate climate within the tropics, (3) a 
 range of heat between 60 and 80 Fahrenheit, 
 and (4) a rainfall of not less than 80 inches, falling 
 chiefly in the monsoon or planting season, but never 
 withheld for many weeks at a spell. 
 
 Ceylon is, as a rule, more humid than India. It 
 is encircled on every side by the sea, and hence 
 the collection of clouds and consequent rainfall is 
 in excess of that of India, where the rain comes 
 in certain consecutive wet months, followed by half- 
 a-year of cloudless skies and parching winds. As a 
 consequence, it may be roundly stated that 3,000 
 feet in that island of palms and spices will be 
 equivalent to 4,000 feet in India, since the heat and 
 dryness of the latter must be met by ascending to 
 greater and cooler elevations. 
 
 This general principle suffers modification from 
 such causes as aspect, local peculiarities of climate, 
 abundance of forest shade, and special cultivation. 
 For instance, many native gardens around Colombo 
 growing Coffee Arabica are at the sea level, but 
 then they are overshadowed by thickets of foliage, 
 abundantly manured, and carefully watered in the 
 
28 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 hot weather. Some European estates on the Neil- 
 gherries, in Madras, on the other hand, are 6,000 
 feet above the plain, and in that delightful region 
 there seems no limit to the available area, stopping 
 short only at the line of frosts. 
 
 In Ceylon an eastern aspect is considered de- 
 sirable. In Southern India Elliot argues strongly 
 in favour of a northern slope, since it loses less of 
 its moisture, stored during the monsoon, than the 
 opposite slope, exposed to the vertical rays of a sun, 
 and preserves a more equal temperature. Eastern 
 and western slopes are more equal in respect to the 
 influence exerted upon them by the sun, and thus 
 advantageous or the contrary according to their 
 exposure to rainfall and wind. 
 
 It must be remembered that while the influence 
 
 of too much heat upon unshaded Coffee is palpable 
 
 in the gaunt, famished bushes, and their sickly 
 
 array of yellow leaves, the opposite extreme of an 
 
 excess of cold and moisture, though equally fatal 
 
 in its effect upon the actual crop of cherries, is 
 
 more delusive, and for a long time the bushes grow- 
 
 \mg under such circumstances delight the inexpe- 
 
 ,Henced eye by their wealth of verdure. 
 
 A garden so placed, high up on a mountain side, 
 where all the water-laden clouds from the sea first 
 strike and go to pieces upon the barrier, discharging 
 their freights of rain and mist, is a disappointing 
 investment. The Coffee is planted and flourishes 
 amazingly. Soon the soil of the garden can hardly 
 
SOIL AND CLIMATE. 
 
 be seen anywhere for the rich green carpet of glossy 
 foliage that covers it ; but this is all. The crop 
 never comes, or comes very thinly, and will not 
 ripen. This is only natural when we remember 
 that we are here growing a tropical plant under 
 the atmospheric conditions of northern countries. 
 
 The golden rule applies to India as well as all 
 other countries, that a happy mean must be hit 
 temperature about 60 or 80 Fahrenheit, and rain- 
 fall 80 inches per year. 
 
 Annexed is four years' rainfall of a central 
 district of Ceylon : 
 
 Month. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 January ... 
 
 3.48 
 
 5.89 
 
 H-39 
 
 14.26 
 
 February... 
 
 7.09 
 
 8.25 
 
 2.10 
 
 8.86 
 
 March 
 
 5.64 
 
 13-95 
 
 2.02 
 
 6.1 7 
 
 April 
 
 9,OO 
 
 7-38 
 
 6.48 
 
 3-77 
 
 May 
 
 5-92 
 
 0-55 
 
 4.28 
 
 4-97 
 
 June 
 
 0-59 
 
 1-38 
 
 3.36 
 
 1.67 
 
 July 
 
 6.70 
 
 3-i8 
 
 4.03 
 
 2.83 
 
 August 
 
 3.86 
 
 3-75 
 
 3.29 
 
 5-79 
 
 September 
 
 7-32 
 
 2.48 
 
 6.02 
 
 1.36 
 
 October ... 
 
 4.16 
 
 15-50 
 
 19.18 
 
 11.13 
 
 November 
 
 11.49 
 
 19.85 
 
 8.79 
 
 18.30 
 
 December 
 
 9-50 
 
 12.25 
 
 19.84 
 
 15.36 
 
 TOTALS 
 
 74-75 
 
 94.42 
 
 91.41 
 
 94-47 
 
 Trinidad in the West Indies has only 65 inches 
 in the year; Upper Rajawalla in Dumbara (Ceylon) 
 shows a yearly average of 55.78 inches ; Kurune- 
 
30 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT, 
 
 gala, 84.09. Upon Delgolla, another Ceylon estate, 
 nearly 100 inches fall per year. In the Indian 
 jungles, with which I am most familiar, we some- 
 times had as much as 120 inches in the twelve 
 months. 
 
 The total average rainfall in each district of 
 Madras ranges thus : 
 
 District. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 District. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 South Canara 
 
 143.60 
 
 Nellore 
 
 36.47 
 
 Malabar 
 
 114-95 
 
 Salem 
 
 35-30 
 
 Madras 
 
 57-96 
 
 Trichinopoly... 
 
 34-94 
 
 Chingleput ... 
 
 48.22 
 
 Kistna 
 
 32-58 
 
 South Arcot ... 
 
 44-77 
 
 Cuddapah 
 
 30-97 
 
 Ganjam 
 
 44-03 
 
 Kurnool 
 
 30.01 
 
 Tanjore 
 
 43-49 
 
 Coimbatore ... 
 
 24.81 
 
 Vizagapatam 
 
 40.65 
 
 Bellary 
 
 25-77 
 
 North Arcot ... 
 
 40.34 
 
 Madura 
 
 23-73 
 
 Godavari 
 
 39.28 
 
 Tinnevelly ... 
 
 22.85 
 
 It is to be noted that the rainfall given above is 
 merely the average for a district, and that it not 
 unfrequently happens that the rainfall in one part 
 of a district varies as widely from that in another 
 part of the same district as it does from that in 
 stations in other districts, if not more so. 
 
 If, in spite of any feasible elevation that can 
 be reached, the tropical sun will have its way, and 
 pours down on the baked soil, threatening destruc- 
 tion to all but the deepest rooted vegetation, then 
 we must have recourse to shade-trees, and grow 
 
SOIL AND CLIMATE. 3! 
 
 our Coffee in an imitation of its native jungles. 
 In fact, trees are of the first importance to regulate 
 the climate of a country. 
 
 Lieut.-Col. Beddome, in his Report to the 
 Famine Commissioners, gives a striking instance of 
 the damage indiscriminate felling of forests works to 
 a district, and we can fully corroborate his remarks, 
 knowing the Mettapolliem gorge well : 
 
 " The clearing away of forests protecting a spring or 
 head of a stream almost always dries it up, and the 
 denudation of the forests protecting the slopes of ravines 
 down which it runs seriously affects it, causing a great 
 rush of water after heavy rain and corresponding diminution 
 at other times. These facts are too patent to require proof, 
 but can be established by most forest officers. To illustrate 
 the ill effects of deforesting steep mountain ravines I could 
 mention nothing more appropriate than the Coonoor ghat 
 ravine, the approach to the Nilgiri from Mettapolliem. I 
 have been up and down this many times nearly every year 
 since 1857, and watched the gradual destruction of the 
 forest, trying hard to stop it, but with what result is very 
 evident, although Government have passed several orders 
 forbidding the clearance of the forests. When I first knew 
 it the ravine was all forest-clad, both sides, and in the 
 heaviest rain there was no very apparent wash of the soil, 
 no land slips or rolling boulders, and the rivulets feeding 
 the river down the centre of the ravine all running 
 tolerably clear. Now the north-east slopes or the slopes 
 above the road have been almost entirely deforested, and 
 it is quite dangerous to go up the ghat during very heavy 
 rain, which often occurs in October, November, and the 
 beginning of December, and sometimes in May. Boulders 
 of rock of various sizes, from several cwts. to 100 tons, 
 come rolling down, rendering the old and new ghats 
 impassable and destroying the bridges, and the soil in 
 
32 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 many places pours over the road like lava, and the water 
 in the streams is of the consistency of cream. Most of 
 this deforested land has been planted with" Coffee, and 
 many people would argue with advantage to the State ; 
 but the forest officer says steep mountain slopes like this 
 must be protected from denudation for Coffee, as it is 
 utterly impossible that the soil can last very long. The 
 forest has now been replaced by Coffee, and in the future 
 Coffee will be replaced by a rocky barren mountain slope 
 with no trees or cultivation of any sort, and the State will 
 then say how improvident our ancestors were. Tree-planting 
 will then be too expensive." 
 
 This, however, is a subject that will be glanced 
 at subsequently. 
 
 Insect life is a danger to Coffee that is con- 
 siderably influenced by climate. An excess of wet 
 encourages the " black bug," a deadly form of 
 blight, and a great range of temperature from high 
 to low produces a million foes to the planter in the 
 form of insect life or an overflow of rank weeds. 
 
 There is one other thing that must not be over- 
 looked in forming a plantation, and that is the force 
 and nature of the winds beating upon the ground. 
 It is almost impossible to say anything upon this 
 subject except that the young planter will do well 
 to get his plants as much sheltered as possible_by 
 forests, by ranges of hills, or by belts of woodland 
 1 lefF standing when the jungle is felled, and more 
 \ especially when the wind is one of much the same 
 character either a very hot blast or a very wet one. 
 The former singes vegetation, and often at the time 
 when plants are fruiting and in need of all available 
 
SOIL AND CLIMATE. 33 
 
 strength, the latter beats the bushes to ribbons, 
 snaps their -tender rootlets as they are formed, and 
 does unlimited damage to an exposed site by hurt- 
 ling the seasonal rains against it, thus washing into 
 the ravines with each muddy torrent all its best 
 soil. The aspect of the jungle trees will often 
 indicate the nature of the winds that beat upon 
 them. A tempest - swept soil usually presents a 
 hardened and washed-out appearance which a little 
 experience will enable one to detect. 
 
 The planter must see to the sheltering of 
 his Coffee as best he can in this respect, and 
 should remember that the rules which suit his 
 next door neighbour will by no means of a necessity 
 apply to him. 
 
 We may quote Elliot on this subject. Speak- 
 ing of the Indian monsoons, he says : 
 
 " These south-west winds are, however, only fatally inju- 
 rious on the first barrier of hills they strike. Further inland 
 their force is greatly modified, and to such an extent that 
 little injury results from them. For instance, along the whole 
 of the westerly frontier range of the Mysore tableland Coffee 
 can hardly be grown at all in face of the south-west 
 monsoon, and eastern aspects are therefore the best ; while 
 five miles further inland an eastern aspect, from the 
 climate being so much drier and hotter, is most to be 
 avoided, and a western aspect may be considered rather 
 favourable than otherwise." 
 
 To sum up : a perusal of the foregoing sugges- 
 tions should give the beginner, no matter what part 
 of the world he may be in, some idea of those 
 
34 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 adverse circumstances to avoid in forming his garden, 
 modified only perhaps by the species of Coffee he 
 cultivates ; but as Coffee Arabica is almost invariably 
 the plant grown by English, this latter clause is not 
 of much importance. 
 
 He must not locate himself in a shadeless torrid 
 zone, swept by parching winds, or the first hot spell 
 after the trees have come to maturity will wither 
 their leaves and his hopes at the same time. If 
 he goes high up the mountains amongst the drifting 
 clouds, he will get into a climate wetter and even 
 colder than the English, and will possess in the 
 fulness of time a garden admirably suited for pro- 
 ducing the ingredients of Coffee-leaf tea, but little 
 else. He may be fond of a sea view, but must 
 remember that sea winds are laden with over much 
 moisture, while those from the land are usually 
 deficient in that very respect. To strike the happy 
 mean between extreme adverse points, and to 
 modify nature where he cannot control her, is half 
 the planter's art. 
 
35 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 LABOUR AND LABOURERS. 
 
 IT is a stern fact, unfortunately impossible to ignore, 
 that to grow Coffee we must employ labour, and 
 to a large extent. 
 
 Natives of most warm countries and certainly 
 of Lower India are physically inferior to the work- 
 ing classes of the invigorating north. Doctors tell 
 us the blood of dark races is thinner there are 
 fewer red corpuscules in a given quantity than with 
 European. For this, as for other reasons, native 
 vital energy is lower and their powers less than in 
 our own and other white races. 
 
 Mr. Monier Williams' recent volume, " Modern 
 India," should be in the hands of every Coffee 
 planter. He tells us, in a single paragraph, the 
 history and characteristics of the chief races of 
 labourers with whom the Indian planter comes in 
 contact : 
 
 " Southern India, not including Aryan Orissa, is peopled 
 first by the great Dravidian races (so called from Dravida, 
 the name given by the Sanskrit speakers to the southern part 
 of the Peninsula), whose immigrations into India in successive 
 waves from some part of Central Asia immediately preceded 
 those of the Aryans. These Dravidians are of course quite 
 distinct from the Aryans ; their skin is generally much darker, 
 and the languages they speak belong to what is called the South 
 
36 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 Turanian family. They may be separated into four distinct 
 peoples, according to their four principal languages Telugu, 
 Canarese, Tamil, and Malayalam. Secondly, by the wild 
 aboriginal races, some of them Negroid, and as dark in com- 
 plexion as Africans, and others of a type similar to the savages 
 of Australia. They are now usually called Kolarians. Their 
 irruptions preceded the advent of the Dravidians, and they are 
 still found in the hills and other outlying localities. Of the 
 Dravidians the Telugu and Tamil speakers are by far the 
 majority, each numbering fifteen or sixteen millions. The 
 Tamil race, who occupy the extreme south from Madras to 
 Cape Comorin, are active, hard-working, industrious, and 
 independent. Their difficult and highly accentuated language 
 reflects their character, and possesses quite a distinct literature 
 of its own. The Telugu people, inhabiting the Northern 
 Circars and the Nizam's territory, are also remarkable for their 
 industry, and their soft language, abounding in vowels, is the 
 Italian of the East. The Canarese of Mysore resemble the 
 Telugu race in language and character, just as the Malayalams 
 of the Malabar coast resemble the Tamils. I noticed that the 
 seafaring Tamils of the southern coast near Ramnad, Rames- 
 varam, and Tuticorin are much more able-bodied and athletic 
 than ordinary Hindoos. Numbers of them migrate to Ceylon, 
 and at least half-a-million form a permanent part of the popu- 
 lation of that island. They are to be found in all the Coffee 
 plantations, and work much harder than the Singhalese. 
 Indeed, all the races of South India seem to me to show readi- 
 ness and aptitude for any work they are required to do, and 
 great patience, endurance, and perseverance in the discharge 
 of the most irksome duties. The lower classes may be seen 
 everywhere earning their bread by the veritable sweat of their 
 brow, and submitting without a murmur to a life of drudgery 
 and privation. But they are not, as a rule, physically strong, 
 and their moral character, like their bodily constitution, 
 exhibits little stamina." 
 
 Whatever the descent of the coolies employed 
 (and districts often vary greatly in this respect), the 
 
LABOUR AND LABOURERS. 37 
 
 estate work is usually done by labourers who reside 
 upon it, and take weekly wages from the owners 
 or their representatives. This is especially the 
 case in new districts surrounded by wild country. 
 In older neighbourhoods there may be populous 
 villages hard by whence labour can be drawn day 
 by day ; and occasionally the work, or portions of 
 it, are put out to contractors. 
 
 In the first case, the procedure is somewhat 
 as follows : The planter goes to the lowlands and 
 puts himself in communication with half-a-dozen 
 " Maistries," " Kanganies," or head men, to 
 whom he communicates his needs in the way of 
 labour. They assure him they can obtain a 
 good and sufficient supply, and are forthwith 
 provided with advances (a signed and witnessed 
 agreement having been made with them) i.e., Rs. 5, 
 or so for each man they agree to find. This 
 money is supposed to pass into the coolie's hands, 
 and act as an inducement for him to leave home, 
 or as something to support the family while he is 
 away. 
 
 At the stipulated time the Maistries appear 
 in the jungle, each at the head of his gang of 
 coolies, all heavily loaded with earthen " chatties " 
 or cooking pans, native shawls, supplies of dried 
 fish, curry stuffs, &c. ; and "salaaming" to the 
 European, they settle down, building themselves 
 "lines" or huts, if there are none ready, and 
 working off those advances entered (on the first 
 
38 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 occasion when they are all mustered) against their 
 names in the estate books. 
 
 This is the simplest way in which labour is 
 imported. When it comes from remote districts, 
 or even across the sea (Malay labour has been 
 tried in Northern India), the expense, as will readily 
 be understood, is greatly increased. 
 
 Lieut. -Col. Edward Money says on this subject, 
 in his admirable " Cultivation and Manufacture 
 of Tea:"* 
 
 " Each coolie imported costs Rs. 30 and upwards (it used 
 to be much more) ere he arrives on the garden and does any 
 work. After arrival he has to be housed ; to be cared for and 
 physicked when sick ; to be paid when ill as when working ; 
 to have work found for him, or paid to sit idle when there is 
 no work ; and, in addition to all this, every death, every 
 desertion, is a loss to the garden of the whole sum expended in 
 bringing the man or woman. Contrast this with the advantages 
 of local labour. In many cases no expense for buildings is 
 necessary, as the labourers come daily to work from adjacent 
 villages, and in such cases no expense is entailed by sick men, 
 for these simply remain at home. There is no loss by death 
 or desertions. When no work is required on the garden, 
 labour is simply not employed. All this makes local labour, 
 even where the rate of wages is high, very much cheaper than 
 imported." 
 
 Contract labour again, where it is possible, has 
 many and obvious advantages. The manager of 
 the estate is freed from the petty and harassing 
 worries resulting from personal care of workmen. 
 Yet, if this arrangement of giving jungle-felling, 
 
 * Published by Messrs. W. B. Whittingham and Co., 91, Grace- 
 church Street, E.G. 
 
LABOUR AND LABOURERS. 39 
 
 building, road-opening, or what not, into a con- 
 tractor's hands has advantages and looks feasible, 
 it has its drawbacks. 
 
 The troubles which the planter escapes of un- 
 certain labour supply, unpropitious weather, and 
 all similar difficulties, weigh equally upon the 
 responsible native to whom he transfers them. 
 That person may commence his task, proceed a 
 certain way with it, and then become a fraudulent 
 absentee, or his funds may really give out, or he 
 may not finish the allotted task within the prescribed 
 time any of which is very painful. Planters 
 and especially those whose practical experience is 
 limited advise the taking of sureties and bonds 
 when a contract is formed for estate work. The 
 chief objection to this is that few natives are in 
 a position to give any adequate forfeit money ; and 
 those who might, usually will not ! 
 
 My experience leads me to believe, work the 
 men really understand, and earn their usual living 
 from, will generally be done well and honourably 
 by them. I have, for instance, employed gangs of 
 Tamils as sawyers, and others as fellers of forest. 
 They brought their own tools ; built their own huts, 
 according to fancy ; had abundance of the food 
 they were accustomed to, and received far the 
 largest portion of their money on finishing and 
 leaving. A mutually satisfactory result to both 
 sides was the usual result. But, on the other hand, 
 when a Hindoo, more distinguished for his push 
 
4O COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 than business integrity, brought up a band of 
 bazaar loafers and station hangers-on for my early 
 building operations, the result was eminently un- 
 pleasant all round. 
 
 The coolies of certain districts or special 
 villages, it may be will be adepts at peculiar 
 operations ; and in such they may generally be 
 employed for contract work, under the most credit- 
 able and best-known master who offers his services. 
 Of course sureties may be taken, by all means, 
 when they can be had ; but in India, at least, the 
 necessary legal formalities are tedious and elaborate. 
 One thing is certain, that with the natives of all 
 lands but with none more so than the simple, 
 yet keen, natives of the Empire a straightforward 
 bearing, and an honest interest in their welfare, 
 is one of the readiest roads to success and satis- 
 faction. The coolie gauges his master's mind and 
 weaknesses with a woman's shrewdness. It is a 
 peculiarity of his race to be what the ungracious 
 would term a sycophant; yet he appreciates kind- 
 ness, and will repay encouragement and consideration 
 with fidelity and zeal. 
 
 When the young planter has got his men together 
 twenty, perhaps, with their allowance of women 
 and children, for the first two hundred acres he 
 opens, and more in proportion then comes the 
 careful and skilful working of them, his aims being : 
 (i) To get as much work out of them as he 
 reasonably can without (2) being unduly harsh, for 
 
LABOUR AND LABOURERS. 4! 
 
 in that case they would bolt, his estate would get 
 a bad name, and he would be left entirely without 
 labour. 
 
 When the first morning for work comes and 
 the mornings in the jungle are decidedly raw and 
 cold, with usually a thin, drizzling mist or damp 
 fog hanging about until the sun is up the planter 
 turns out about 5 a.m., and, after sounding the 
 muster-call on his great bell or gong, makes a hasty 
 toilet and partakes of the invigorating hot Coffee 
 and toast which his " cook boy" has prepared. 
 Then, as soon as the coolies, all swaddled up to 
 their chins in blankets, have sauntered up to the 
 open ground by his hut, he takes his memorandum- 
 book and goes down to divide them according to 
 the work to be done. Twenty men, perhaps, under 
 one maistry, are sent with axes and crowbars to 
 cut and move the logs from the line of a new road ; 
 ten or twelve more to weed the " nursery ;" so 
 many women and children, under two or three 
 overseers (they always want a lot of looking after) , 
 take baskets and hoes and depart to weed the 
 Coffee land already planted ; some are sent to fetch 
 grass, some to building, and so on. As each party 
 goes down to the store to get the necessary tools, 
 the assistant has to see that each one takes the 
 right thing and only the right thing, and the building 
 is full of coolies pushing, fighting, and quarrelling, 
 some taking the wrong implements, and some none 
 at all, in spite of vigorous endeavours to get affairs 
 
42 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 straight. Even when all the natives present at 
 muster have been told off and started with their 
 tools, the day's troubles are only beginning ; for 
 no sooner are they clear of the settlement, and 
 winding along the narrow jungle paths, than they 
 make all sorts of attempts to escape and get back 
 to their huts, hoping, by being present at the morn- 
 ing muster and again at evening roll-call, that their 
 absence during the day will not have been noticed, 
 and so they may get pay for doing no work. 
 
 Then, when the constant supervision of the day's 
 work is over, comes the evening roll-call, and at 
 the end of the week roll-call and pay-muster in 
 one. Perhaps I may be permitted to quote here 
 a suggestive sketch of a Saturday evening muster, 
 showing how coolies are paid off at the end of the 
 week on Indian and Ceylon estates : 
 
 " The first pay-day in the jungle is always a difficult one 
 for the new arrival, especially when he has to be his own 
 paymaster to the forces, his cashier and clerk all rolled in one. 
 The coinage is strange to him, and he is sure to get more or 
 less mixed up in his pice, annas, and rupees, unless he has 
 a head better fitted for a mercantile desk at home than the 
 backwoods. Most of those who try Coffee planting have souls 
 above mathematics, and to them their first experience of 
 paying a horde of coolies (who, like all natives, dote on litiga- 
 tion) will be long remembered as a dies ivce. Still it is a thing 
 which has to be done, however unpleasant ; but I feel for 
 King James of blessed memory, who naively remarked when 
 receiving a petition to pay his Scotch bills, Of all petitions 
 this is the one which his Majesty liketh least.' 
 
 " Unfortunately for me, the next day after R 's flight 
 
 to the lowlands was Saturday, and all day long I was 
 
LABOUR AND LABOURERS. 43 
 
 practising rapid reduction of rupees to the smallest coin of the 
 Empire, while striving to draw some consolation from the 
 fact that the estate would have nothing to do with cowery 
 shells, 5,120 of which go to the rupee. The thought of giving 
 or receiving such small change of that sort would be dis- 
 traction four pice, or cash, to the anna being quite as much 
 as I could stand with equanimity. 
 
 "The day, like its predecessors, was miserably cold and 
 dull, and, fearful of being overtaken by darkness before getting 
 through the paying, the estate bell was rung an hour earlier 
 than usual to recall the coolies to the mustering ground. 
 They came trooping in from all parts in strong force, and 
 apparently with considerable interest, to see what was going 
 to take place. When they were all mustered the crowd was 
 thicker and denser than I had ever seen it before, everybody 
 having turned out, even to the lame and sick who were too ill 
 to go to work. 
 
 " When I entered the great circle of nearly two hundred 
 men, women, and children, looking as solemn as might be, 
 with the fateful day-book in one hand and a huge bag of 
 copper and silver coins in the other, having the half-caste 
 clerk at my elbow to interpret, I was conscious that all eyes 
 were upon me, and my smallest motion was being watched in 
 deep silence by the assembled coolies. Determined to get 
 into practice as soon as possible, instead of letting the half- 
 caste call over the names, I determined to do it myself, and, 
 shooting out the bag of money into a glittering heap on the 
 rough wooden table in front of me, plunged at once into the 
 long columns of outlandish names, which filled ten or twelve 
 folio pages of the day-book. Opposite to each name, in our 
 system of book-keeping, there were six rows of columns, one 
 for each day of the week, and in each of these columns there 
 was a whole mark, a half, or a blank, according as the coolie 
 had worked a whole day, a half-day, or none at all. Beyond 
 these columns was one to record the total number of days 
 worked out of the last six, and then another division to record 
 the pay given out. At the end of the month the columns of 
 each page were added up, both across and up and down, and, 
 
44 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 if exactly correct, the final reading in the bottom right-hand 
 corner was the same for both. Thus it was impossible to 
 make a mistake of even a pie without being able to discover 
 it ; but at the same time, among so many densely packed 
 columns, it w r as difficult to avoid small errors, which would 
 show up large in the final result, and cause a vast amount 
 of trouble to correct. Thus I had to call each coolie's name 
 first of all, and, if he had been working all day, put him down 
 in the Saturday column with a mark ; then add up his total 
 work for the week say five and a-half days put this down in 
 the space devoted to it, calculate five and a-half days at five 
 annas a-day (the rate at which we pay our men), put down 
 Rs. i na. 2p. in the pay space, count .it out of the heap of 
 coinage at my elbow, give it to the man, and dismiss him. 
 
 "This may sound simple enough, but there were many 
 little difficulties to be surmounted. When I began calling the 
 fearful and wonderful Tamil and Canarese names there was a 
 general titter round the circle, and three or four men answered 
 at once, my pronunciation being so shaky that they could not 
 distinguish whose name it was. However, I suppressed the 
 giggling, and having obtained ' silence in the court,' forged 
 slowly ahead, every now and then making some mistake which 
 set the natives smiling, but getting slowly into the way of the 
 pronunciation, and running up the sums and counting out the 
 change like a booking clerk. Often a coolie would conclude 
 he had not got the right amount, and open a discussion, which 
 I had to cut very short ; and fifty per cent, of them thought 
 their rupees were bad, so that from all sides rose the sound of 
 money being chinked upon the rock to test its ring. Each 
 native, as he came up, salaamed and held out both his hands, 
 to receive the overflowing bounty of the sahib. 
 
 " Poor people ! The strongest man amongst them, who 
 had worked in the sun and rain all the week, only took six 
 times five annas about equal to three shillings and fourpence ; 
 and on this, of course, many had to support a wife and 
 children too weak or too feeble to work themselves. Then, 
 again, the women many of them mothers, with small, brown 
 fragments of humanity slung upon their backs got three 
 
LABOUR AND LABOURERS. 45 
 
 annas a day, and the most they could earn was little more 
 than two shillings a-week. Even the little children came up, 
 ducked their small shaven heads in comical homage to the 
 great white sahib, and held out very small brown hands for the 
 price those hands were supposed to have earned at the rate 
 of a penny a-day. Last of all, the maistries received pay at 
 the rate of six or eight annas per diem ; and then the horse- 
 boys, cook, sweepers and hangers-on of all sorts. When these 
 were satisfied, there was still a small crowd of non-contents 
 who came up and complained that their money was bad ; 
 would I change it ? which I always did when possible, as, if a 
 poor fellow earned one rupee and chanced to get paid with a 
 bad, unchangeable coin, there was nothing but starvation for 
 him during the next week. Others thought there was a mis- 
 take somewhere always to their disadvantage and their 
 names had to be hunted for, and the amount of money given 
 compared with that entered in the book. It was hopeless to 
 please them all ; but on going over the accounts during the 
 course of the next evening, I was well satisfied to find there 
 was only an error of a few annas happily too much given 
 out, not too little. 
 
 " Muster and paying over, and the stores and outhouses 
 locked up, the estate pony seen to, and his feed of grain 
 measured out, there were still the sick and ill clustered round 
 the bungalow verandah to be attended to before being released 
 
 for the day. With these I was much helped by R 's son, 
 
 who, having spent all his life in the south of India, knows the 
 language and habits of the natives. Between us we bandaged 
 up half-a-dozen ulcerated legs, sewed up a chopped finger, 
 administered castor oil and epsom salts a horrid brew of 
 Charlie's invention to two babies, gave a dose of quinine to 
 a young coolie girl who thought she had fever, and some 
 sulphur ointment to two in-patients suffering from the itch. 
 One old woman who had recently had smallpox came up for 
 her daily allowance of cod liver oil. All these and many 
 others had to be attended to before we could dine." 
 
 We have said the blood of the native is thinner 
 
 
46 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 than that of the European. This shows itself in 
 many ways. He will get an attack of fever or 
 dysentery, it may be, and, lying down, inform his 
 friends he is going to die ; and he too often keeps 
 this melancholy resolve, apparently lacking the 
 resolution to hold his vital spark in. Again, he 
 is for the most part hopelessly unambitious, except 
 when famine spurs him, whence come much of 
 the planter's " labour difficulties." He knows he 
 can subsist for a week away in his own fertile 
 plains on the amount of " raggee," " paddy," 
 " cumboo," or other grain purchasable by four 
 annas (equal to fivepence) ; and that being a day's 
 pay on most estates, he saves a few rupees, and 
 then returns to his hut to lie in the sun and take 
 his daily measure of pulse amongst children and 
 friends an existence which fulfils all ^his ideas 
 of life. 
 
 The jungle has no attraction for him unless 
 he is kept in it by the magnetism of an English- 
 man's presence. It is a region of mist and terror, 
 not only held by the fever mists, and ravaged 
 (in his excited lowland imagination) by wild beasts, 
 but also peopled by fearsome tribes of ghouls and 
 goblins ; no wonder he dreads the dark wooded 
 mountains, ascends them reluctantly and quits 
 them hurriedly (too often with his " advances " 
 unrepaid) for hospitable and familiar plains! Times 
 of famine tell greatly against the prosperity of an 
 estate, for labour is then scarce, precarious, and 
 
LABOUR AND LABOURERS. 
 
 47 
 
 indifferent when obtained. What " famine prices'* 
 mean to these poor people will readily be under- 
 stood from the following table taken from " The 
 Hindoo Patriot: " 
 
 Denomination of Articles. 
 
 Amount obtainable 
 per Rupee. 
 
 _ i 
 
 1870. 
 
 1878. 
 
 
 S. C. 
 
 17 o 
 14 o 
 i5 8 
 26 o 
 
 12 8 
 22 
 20 
 12 O 
 
 4 *4 
 
 8 12 
 
 i 5* 
 9 o 
 3 4 
 Rs. 6 
 
 s. c. 
 
 12 O 
 
 7 4 
 12 5 
 16 o 
 16 o 
 13 o 
 10 8 
 16 o 
 4 8 
 8 o 
 
 i 4 
 8 o 
 
 2 IO 
 
 Rs. 6 
 
 Best Rice 
 
 Wheat (Jowali) 
 
 Barley 
 
 Gram ... . . . . . 
 
 Lentils Khesari 
 
 Musoor ... 
 
 Kuily (Mash) 
 Sugar 
 
 Salt 
 
 Ghee 
 
 Milk 
 
 Oil (Mustard) 
 
 Wages of unskilled Labourers per month 
 
 It will be seen that common rice, which sold 
 in 1 86 1 at 21 seers and in 1870 at 17 seers, sells at 
 about 12 seers to the rupee during scarcity. This 
 rice is of a quality chiefly consumed by the poorer 
 classes at the rate of one seer daily on an average 
 per head. The rice alone thus costs him every day 
 about i anna and 4 pie. Add to this amount the 
 price of firewood, vegetables, fish, oil, &c., and 
 his two meals cost him 2 annas daily, or Rs. 3-12 
 a-month at the least. It will be perceived at the 
 
 
48 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 foot of the table that the monthly wages of " un- 
 skilled labourers" remain unchanged, that is to 
 say, Rs. 6 per month. Such people must live on 
 stinted rations, as many of them now-a-days un- 
 happily do, or neglect those depending upon them. 
 
 The coolie's interest is the planter's. He should 
 be lodged well, fed sufficiently whatever the price 
 of grain is, and kindly treated. An estate managed 
 on these principles will have good labour at com- 
 mand when other estates round about are being 
 ruined for want of hands. Let the planter remember 
 (whether he works in the east or west) that he and 
 his prospects, his manners and his ways, are the 
 subject of keen enquiry and gossip not only in the 
 "lines" that lie below his bungalow, but all over 
 his district, and further still perhaps ; therefore let 
 him cultivate a good repute, and when he has 
 got his gangs together, guard them carefully. 
 
49 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PURCHASE. 
 
 HAVING attained some idea of the kind of land 
 required to grow Coffee, and the usual methods 
 by which labour for its cultivation is obtained, there 
 come the questions as to purchase of land, taxes, 
 surveying, accessibility (i.e., roads, communications, 
 outlets), house sites, &c., &c. 
 
 Of acquiring land there are, of course, many 
 ways. The simplest is the permission of a native 
 Raja, or Chief, and the subsequent selecting of such 
 a slice of woodland as may suit means and ideas. 
 The next simplest is when a local government gives 
 the same permission with the proviso that the land 
 selected shall be surveyed and the cost thereof 
 borne by the planter ; a few conditions being, per- 
 haps, added as to roads to be opened, and rent to be 
 paid at a future date. Either of these is, no doubt, 
 the pleasantest way of becoming a landed proprietor 
 known. Unfortunately, both are practically things 
 of the past, at least as far as India is concerned. 
 Now-a-days land must almost everywhere be rented 
 or bought, and native sovereigns are becoming 
 very wideawake to the value of freeholds in good 
 districts. 
 
50 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 Soil in private hands may be (i) bought in the 
 rough, when particular attention should be paid 
 to sellers' proper proofs of ownership, as many an 
 estate is burdened during its early years with here- 
 ditary legal feuds between the ostensible owner and 
 small proprietors it may even be junglemen, along 
 the borders, who persist in asserting that the English- 
 man's concession has overlapped their marches, and 
 devote whole lives cheerfully to endless litigation 
 for a worthless acre of rock or land. (2) It may 
 be purchased ready planted, a few months estab- 
 lished, in bearing, or practically abandoned as worn 
 out or barren. The first two conditions will save 
 him, of course, a lot of trouble, and he will have 
 to pay proportionally ; and as to the latter 
 well ! a really clever planter may often pick a 
 seemingly valueless estate out of the fire, buy it 
 at a nominal rate, and by scientific pruning and 
 manuring make his garden into a nice little invest- 
 ment. But by the time the " griffin " is able to 
 do this safely he will be past the guidance of any 
 books. 
 
 The following rules used to hold for the acquiring 
 of land in various districts, and they do so still, 
 except where they have been modified by Orders 
 in Council, or any of those numerous local memo- 
 randa which the authorities emit from time to time, 
 to the satisfaction of local attornies and the mysti- 
 fication of the public. 
 
PURCHASE. 51 
 
 IN CEYLON, 
 
 Those desiring Government land send their appli- 
 cation to the Court of the Agent or chief Revenue 
 official of the province where it lies. The speci- 
 fied block will then be surveyed by an official, 
 and an advertisement inserted in the Government 
 "Gazette," naming a day for the public sale of 
 the tract at the Cutcherry, or Civil Court of the 
 district, and the highest bidder above the reserve 
 or upset price of i per acre becomes its freehold 
 proprietor, without taxes or restrictions of any kind. 
 In many cases, of course, at this nominally public 
 " roup " there is no competition, and the applicant 
 gets his land at a moderate price ; on other occasions 
 the rivalry is keen and speculative. 
 
 THE WYNAAD, 
 
 Possessing even now a bad name for fever and 
 indifferent communication, has complicated land 
 laws. The applicant for waste Crown land has 
 to supply the nearest Collector with details of the 
 hill-side he desires, its boundaries and neighbours 
 in the way of cultivated land or pasture. Into 
 this the Revenue Department will inquire, and if 
 the title of the land is free and good, it is advertised 
 and sold by auction the upset price being the 
 cost of survey. There is also an annual tax of 
 two rupees an acre, compoundable by twenty-five 
 
 
52 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 years' tax. Land purchased here privately, from 
 wealthy natives, or the priests' of even wealthier 
 temples, is free of this tax until it has been brought 
 under cultivation, when the Rs. 2 per annum 
 commences. 
 
 Through a recent copy of The Madras Mail, 
 we see a new land question is engaging the 
 attention of planters and other landowners in the 
 much troubled Wynaad. The Government is orga- 
 nizing a resettlement of revenue, and at a meeting 
 held at Vythery, Mr. Castlestuart Stuart, Special 
 Assistant Collector, Nilgiris and Malabar, attended 
 to explain the intentions of the authorities. He 
 pointed out that the settlement would be for thirty 
 years, and all lands capable of cultivation, though 
 yielding no revenue to the occupants, will have 
 to pay tax. The rates of assessment are not yet 
 fixed, but probably will be settled within the next 
 six weeks. Partial abandonment of estates after 
 the resettlement will not be permitted ; the whole 
 of the land will be subjected to assessment, whether 
 any portion be abandoned or not. The meeting 
 thanked Mr. Stuart for his information, and passed 
 resolutions thereon representing to the Govern- 
 ment that " the existing rates of taxation are as 
 heavy as can possibly be borne in the present 
 state of extreme depression," and deprecating any 
 action that would tend to increase their burdens 
 until the views of the planters and landholders 
 can be laid before Government. 
 
PURCHASE. 53 
 
 COORG 
 
 Once distributed its Coffee-land free, subject only 
 to a proviso that so much should be cultivated 
 annually that golden period for the small capi- 
 talist is now over, and he must register his land 
 and bid for it publicly, paying down ten per cent, 
 of the price on the day of sale and the rest 
 within thirty days, the reserve being two rupees 
 per acre, including all surveying expenses. 
 
 TRAVANCORE. 
 
 Most of the land in the district has been taken 
 up from the Travancore Government. The land 
 is first put up to auction and sold to the highest 
 bidder, the original applicant very often being 
 kept out of the purchase by competition. At the 
 last sale of lands, as much as Rs. 70 an acre was 
 paid. This arrangement is hard on those who 
 have at great expense and trouble selected a piece 
 of forest, and some consideration and preference 
 should in fairness be given to prospectors. For 
 five years no tax is levied ; after that grace, which 
 is supposed to allow the planters to get a portion 
 into cultivation, twelve annas an acre is charged per 
 annum on both cultivated land and forest. A duty 
 of a rupee a cwt. is further charged, and taking the 
 average crops of the district at three cwt. an acre, 
 the planter does not get off under (with interest on 
 original purchase) four to five rupees an acre a 
 
54 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 very high rate when what planters pay in other 
 districts is considered. The Peermaad planters, 
 however, have some quid pro quo for the highest 
 rate they pay by having good roads all over the 
 district, and there is scarcely an estate that could 
 not be reached by cart. I believe the last sale of 
 land was long ago ; since then no grant has been 
 given, and it is the present intention of the Travan- 
 core Government to dispose of no more forest land. 
 Perhaps it is a wise decision, as in one of the most 
 flourishing districts in the Province estates have in 
 some cases been abandoned, and the Government 
 is loser to the extent of the land tax, while the land 
 probably never returns to forest again. There is an 
 assessment also of one rupee per acre after four 
 years, and two rupees, after nine. 
 
 The estate surveyor, who has been mentioned 
 once or twice above, is a useful personage. Often 
 a Government official, and perhaps a half-caste, he 
 comes up with his theodolites, note-books, and half- 
 dozen bill-men, establishing himself in your newly- 
 erected and very modest " prospecting*' hut in the 
 jungles. The next day he takes you half-a-mile, a 
 mile, or even two miles it may be, up the stream, 
 destined to work future pulping mills. That is your 
 boundary on the west, perhaps. Thence his bill- 
 men clear him a path and " blaze " the trees, 
 measuring as they go to the foot of some solitary 
 peak, henceforth the corner-post of your estate in 
 that direction. In a few days, more or less accord- 
 
PURCHASE. 55 
 
 ing to the difficulties met with, he works along 
 the ridge for a third side of your kingdom, turning 
 homewards at the big jack tree on the spur ; and 
 then, his work done, spends a last night with you 
 drinking prosperity to the little realm of which he 
 has thus set the frontiers. 
 
 The price of land will vary greatly, not only 
 according to soil, but also in regard to communi- 
 cations. No one likes the farthermost lots, where 
 civilization has not penetrated and roads are un- 
 known, whether it be in India or elsewhere, and as 
 a consequence such blocks are usually the cheapest. 
 If they are promising in other ways they are not 
 to be despised, however, for Government very rarely 
 leaves an estate upon which work is actually being 
 done long without means of communication, and 
 the arrival of the road largely increases the value 
 of the pioneer estate. There is almost as much 
 difference between the price of a garden amongst 
 others and bounded by good roads, and a tract of 
 as yet unopened " impenetrable " forest, as there 
 is between a villa on the Thames and a " villa " on 
 the west coast of Ireland! In Ceylon, the best 
 Coffee soil has been costing 8 to 10 per acre, and 
 20 to ^30 per acre is estimated for bringing 
 the land into bearing, providing proper buildings, 
 roads, drains, &c. In other countries it is far less. 
 In Queensland, as an instance, we see by a recent 
 Blue-book: "Any applicant for selection of land 
 within ten miles from the coast or a navigable river 
 
56 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 not included in the leased half of a pastoral run, 
 who states in his application that he intends to 
 use the soil for the cultivation of sugar or coffee, 
 shall be allowed to select a block of agricultural 
 land not less than 320 acres, nor more than 1,280 
 acres ; and on proof of his having cultivated one- 
 tenth of the land in either sugar or coffee within 
 three years, he shall be relieved from the obliga- 
 tion of residence," which means the land is free 
 to settlers. In some other places land is to be had 
 on equally easy conditions, and in others it goes 
 up to fancy prices. 
 
 The labour question always has a great deal to 
 do with this. Scarcity of labourers ruined Natal 
 Coffee ; in the South American estates they are 
 working plantations to death before "dark" labour 
 finally sets up for itself; and in Fiji the owners are 
 grumbling and will entirely desert those charm- 
 ing islands unless the ridiculous coolie laws are 
 amended. 
 
 The intending settler would do well to look about 
 him and gather the best information before investing 
 his money. Better still, he should seek employment 
 under some able manager for, say, a couple of 
 years, when he will have learned the language, and 
 fairly mastered the details of his business. This 
 arrangement need not prevent his acquiring land 
 meanwhile, or purchasing an estate if a favourable 
 opportunity offers itself. In the latter case the 
 work had better be entrusted to a manager, while 
 
PURCHASE. 57 
 
 the purchaser is gaining his experience on another 
 estate. 
 
 " Stretch your legs according to your blanket," 
 observes a sagacious Canarese proverb, and a little 
 good land is a much better investment for a young 
 man than a cheap and poor lot. There is one 
 guide to the value of a district, an old hand hints, 
 which may firmly be relied upon. If an estate fre- 
 quently changes hands it is certainly a bad or 
 indifferent one ; if seldom, you may be pretty sure 
 Coffee pays well, and further than that a man need 
 give himself no concern, for hardly any landed 
 investment pays so well in India, supposing we 
 have little or no blight or disease, as good sound 
 Coffee property, and people are therefore seldom 
 inclined to part with it. 
 
58 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE NURSERY. 
 
 ACTUAL operations upon the estate begin with the 
 formation of a " nursery," or secluded corner, where 
 those young plants are to be reared for subsequently 
 filling up their appointed places in the permanent 
 fields. It is one of the prettiest and most satis- 
 factory works the planter has to perform, as one 
 of the earliest. 
 
 Having established himself in some sort of a 
 hut (if he lives upon the estate as he probably 
 will do and certainly ought), placing the hut as 
 much above the general level of the country as 
 can conveniently be managed his jungle paths 
 roughly cut, and coolies got into some sort of 
 working order, the next thing is to start his future 
 plants. 
 
 The first requisite is a good piece of ground, 
 level perhaps or, better still, with a moderate 
 slope in one direction, in order to facilitate natural 
 drainage a reasonable depth of soil, and, above 
 all, a ready, abundant, and never-failing water 
 supply. Let him be careful that the stream he 
 selects is perennial, or it may fail him just when 
 most needed. It is astonishing how completely 
 
THE NURSERY. 59 
 
 a spell of hot weather saps the existence of a 
 woodland torrent in the tropics. In our moisture- 
 laden isles we know nothing like it, but under the 
 equator, or a few degrees on either side of it, a 
 stream that in the monsoon is strong enough to 
 sweep away a herd of cattle, in the hot season 
 hardly serves to find drink for a stray troop of 
 monkeys or a thirsty sambour ! Let him choose 
 a stream, then, that holds its own against the 
 seasons. Probably his land will be above it, on 
 the inclining banks. In that case a convenient 
 ghaut or slope and a dipping place will have to 
 be made. But we need not say that if by the 
 exercise of a little engineering skill even though 
 of amateur kind and the erection of an embank- 
 ment or two, he can get such a head of water as 
 will suffice to bring a supply of the fluid by any 
 rough tubing to his nursery, the labour is well 
 spent and will repay itself many times ; or he 
 may rig up a regular water-wheel. 
 
 Mr. Robertson, of Madras, has the following 
 observations regarding working and the construc- 
 tion of an admirable new " mhote," or water-lift. 
 He says : 
 
 " The water is raised by two leather buckets, similar to 
 those in ordinary use in some parts of this Presidency ; 
 to each of these buckets is attached a rope which is fastened 
 to a drum : one of these is coiled and the other uncoiled, as 
 one bucket ascends the other descends ; the drum is fixed 
 on a rotating spindle, to which is fixed at right angles the 
 draught bar to which the bullock is attached ; the diameter 
 
6O COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 and thickness of the drum varies, with the depth of the 
 well; as a general rule, for all ordinary lifts, the diameter 
 of the drum may be equal to about one-fifth the number of 
 feet that the water must be raised ; the drum is placed 
 about six feet above the ground, in order to allow the rope 
 to pass over the head of the draught bullock ; the spindle 
 upon which the drum is placed is kept in its upright position 
 by means of two beams, into which it is fixed, which cross 
 each other at the middle, and are supported at the ends 
 or posts placed opposite each other on the outer side of the 
 bullock patch. The bullock walks under the draught bar 
 attached to a curved yoke, which turns on a swivel. In 
 raising water the bullock travels round the upright spindle, 
 thus turning the drum and winding one rope and unwinding 
 the other. If the diameter of the drum is as suggested, 
 i circuits around the path will raise each bucket to the 
 requisite height ; the bullock is turned round, facing the 
 opposite direction, while each bucket is being discharged ; 
 no longer time is required to do this than is needed for the 
 bucket to discharge its contents." " The following may 
 be accepted as a fair estimate of the capabilities of the 
 machine as now ascertained : 
 
 COST PER DAY. 
 
 Rs. A. P. 
 
 Hire for one bullock and driver for one day ... o 8 o 
 
 Interest and wear and tear at 10 per cent, per 
 annum on the capital invested, say Rs; 100, 
 charged over 300 working days ...... o o 6 
 
 Cost of replacing buckets and ropes three times 
 a year, say Rs. 90, charged over 300 working 
 days .................. 049 
 
 Oil, &c. ........... .. ...... oio 
 
 "The cost per day is therefore annas 14, pies 3. When 
 working at the ordinary speed, 90 buckets are raised per 
 hour; each bucket contains 30 gallons when brought to the 
 delivery spout ; the height to which the water is raised 
 
THE NURSERY. 6l 
 
 varies from 20 to 24 feet ; thus, 2,700 gallons of water are 
 brought to the surface and discharged in one hour, or 24,300 
 gallons during an ordinary working day of nine hours, 
 rather more over an acre of land than a rainfall of one inch. 
 Taking 22 feet as the average height of the lift, it would 
 appear that the machine raises about 27,000 gallons to this 
 height for i rupee." 
 
 After securing an efficient water supply, the 
 question of soil arises. This should be of the same 
 nature as that of the rest of the estate, and no 
 richer in quality. It must be of the same nature 
 in order that the young plants when moved may 
 take kindly to it, as though the new situation were 
 a portion of their old seed-bed, and no better, in 
 order that they may not receive a check by going 
 into inferior ground at an important period of their 
 growth. A slight knowledge of geology and every 
 planter would benefit by such, especially in regions 
 where there is a chance of gold appearing will teach 
 him how greatly soils on the outcrop of different 
 formations can differ ; so he must keep his eyes 
 open for a good piece of land of same origin as the 
 rest of his estate. 
 
 The nursery should be central if possible, or at 
 all events at a point accessible to the main roads 
 of the garden when they are made, as while it is 
 in use much traffic will be going to and fro, and 
 accessibility, or the otherwise, makes a great deal 
 of difference in the account books when the cost 
 of planting an enclosure is reckoned up. 
 
 If the planter is precise and methodical he may, 
 
62 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 before falling to work upon the clearing of his 
 nursery plot, calculate out to a fraction how much 
 seed he will have to plant to cover so many acres of 
 open land. But since there will be many failures, 
 both in the germinating of the seed and by dying 
 off of young plants when set out, some thousands 
 over should be allowed for this. If of a rough-and- 
 ready turn of mind, he may well rely upon intuitive 
 perception in the matter. 
 
 Then commence active operations. The under- 
 wood all over the land to be cleared is carefully 
 grubbed up and put back into the jungle, where, 
 with a little assistance from stakes, it forms a rough 
 fence useful for keeping wild beasts out, as they 
 often do considerable damage, deer especially tread- 
 ing down the young plants. Then some of the 
 trees must fall, if they be at all thickly set, to let in 
 light and air to the ground beneath, and the logs 
 cut up if possible and rolled off the ground. The 
 fall of a tree can generally be regulated by cutting a 
 deep notch half through it on one side, and another 
 higher up on the opposite side. It descends on the 
 side of the lower cut. A hundred yards by fifty yards 
 is a good size for a first nursery. Logs, roots, big 
 stones, and branches of all kinds moved away, and 
 the ground cleared nicely, the beds are then marked 
 out in preparation for digging. The only thing to 
 be said here is that the deeper the soil is stirred 
 the better. A broad 6-feet central path should run 
 down the centre. On either side of this the beds 
 
THE NURSERY. 63 
 
 strike off at right angles of any length that may 
 be most convenient, but not more than 2 feet, or at 
 the most 3 feet wide. " A bed 3J feet wide by 28 in 
 length, with plants at 4 inches apart, would contain 
 about 1,200, or sufficient to cover an acre planted 
 at 6 feet by 6 feet," says Hall. Their limited 
 breadth is in order that in planting and a good deal 
 of subsequent necessary handling the coolies may 
 have easy and ready access to the plants without 
 disturbing the surface. 
 
 The ground having lain fallow a day or two, the 
 seed is put into it. For this purpose cords attached 
 to pegs are used, the cord being stretched up and 
 down the bed, and a furrow made with a stick by 
 the side of it. This should be done by one of the 
 more intelligent natives. It is astonishing what a 
 distortion of straight lines a coolie will get into even 
 a limited area. In this trench the Coffee bean is 
 placed. 
 
 A regular trade is made in seed now, and there 
 is none of the difficulty experienced in obtaining 
 a suitable supply which was once the case. Very 
 often a neighbouring planter is in a position to 
 supply the necessary amount ; or, if not, there 
 will probably be natives at hand who can obtain 
 as much as is required. 
 
 The time of planting is usually about October, 
 and a few bushels can then always be had from the 
 new crop just ripening. A bushel is said to con- 
 tain 40,000 berries of cherry Coffee, and as most 
 
COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 berries contain two beans, each of which germinates 
 separately and throws up an individual plant, the 
 number of seeds in one bushel will be not far from 
 80,000, from which 10 per cent, must be deducted 
 in view of shrivelled and pea berries, leaving an 
 effective of 70,000.* It is inevitable that some 
 lots of seed should be less fertile than others, and 
 it is far preferable to thin out overcrowded beds 
 than to run short of young " stock" in a favourable 
 planting season. 
 
 The following table may serve as a guide : 
 
 Of Bushes permanently 
 planted at 
 
 6 feet X 6 feet 
 
 There will be, Plants 
 in one Acre, 
 
 1,210 
 
 And Square Feet of Soil 
 to each Plant, 
 
 36 
 
 6 X 4 
 
 1*675 
 
 26 
 
 5 ,. X 4 
 
 2,178 
 
 20 
 
 5 X 3 
 
 2,904 
 
 15 
 
 4 i X 3 
 
 3630 
 
 12 
 
 3i X 3i 
 
 3,555 
 
 I2i 
 
 When the planter has made up his mind as 
 to the distances apart he intends to plant out his 
 bushes, and knowing the number of beans in a 
 measure of seed, he may very nicely allot his 
 nursery space. 
 
 Though desirable, it is not often possible to 
 make much choice of where one's berry comes from. 
 It should, however, be from trees as healthy as 
 
 * Sabonadiere calculates only 30,000 plants from a bushel of 
 seed Coffee! 
 
THE NURSERY. 65 
 
 possible, gathered when fully ripe, pulped lightly, 
 and then planted in its silver skin or parchment. 
 Down the length of each bed, from end to end, 
 furrows are made with the help of the cord and 
 line. These furrows are, perhaps, two inches deep, 
 and six inches of space intervene between each. In 
 them the berries are dropped one at a time, and 
 about three inches apart if the planter feels con- 
 fident of their fertility a little closer if he doubts it 
 and then the rows are carefully covered over and 
 patted down by the women and children. Some 
 planters recommend a layer of dried leaves to be 
 scattered over the beds and left there until the 
 plants are five or six inches high. There can be no 
 doubt such a natural coverlet keeps the soil moist 
 and cool, but the leaves harbour many harmful 
 insects and grubs, besides a large assortment of 
 snakes, of which the natives have an indiscriminate 
 dread, confounding them all under one category. 
 
 If showery weather follows, the young plants will 
 soon show above the surface and very pretty they 
 look as the glossy green leaves are unfolded, and 
 thousands of slender green spikes carpet the ground 
 under the chequered shadows of the tall trees that 
 have been left standing for shade. When the rains 
 that have brought them above the soil cease, it is 
 time to commence watering. This is often over- 
 done, we fancy, some planters flooding the beds as 
 though they were so much rice land. A reasonable 
 and moderate wetting is all that is required, espe- 
 
66 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 cially if leaves are spread (as just mentioned) an 
 inch or two thick on the soil ; they will preserve it 
 of an equal temperature and moist in a manner 
 which any English gardener will readily understand. 
 Much or little, the waterings must take place in 
 the cool of the day, morning or evening ; were it 
 done under a midday sun the plants would be in 
 danger of steaming to death, as a person would who 
 enjoyed the luxury of the vapour- room of a Turkish 
 bath for three or four hours ! A couple of trust- 
 worthy men ought to be able to cope with this 
 operation day by day if water is handy and the 
 nursery not too large. 
 
 Another device for protecting young plants at 
 this season of growth is the " pandall," or artificial 
 cover, accepted by nearly every planter as necessary 
 in some form or other. It is made thus : At each 
 corner of the beds forked sticks are put in, the forks 
 about three feet above the ground, and from post 
 to post are lain cross branches. Upon these in 
 turn small boughs with the leaves still on are put, 
 fairly thickly, and thus a shade is made for the 
 tender plants below which can be regulated in its 
 density at will. If branches should be scarce, then 
 dried grass may be substituted ; but it must be 
 always remembered that " pandalls " are very liable 
 to take fire, either accidentally or through the instru- 
 mentality of spiteful natives, and it is as well to 
 have them as non-inflammable as possible. This 
 artificial shading is only resorted to on the approach 
 
THE NURSERY. 67 
 
 of the hot weather, being gradually put on as the 
 sun dries up the moisture of the soil, keeping its 
 place " while the sky is brass and the earth iron," 
 and giving the tender green saplings a cool region 
 to thrive in. When a new monsoon breaks it is 
 gradually removed piecemeal, as now our future 
 Coffee bushes require all the sun and sunshine that 
 can be had through the clouds and rain to harden 
 them off, and fit them for taking their proper place 
 in the clearings. 
 
 In South Australia, where Coffee planting has 
 been tried with some success, it is found that young 
 plants thrive best under shade. " Those seeds 
 planted in the open," says a correspondent of the 
 South Australian Register, " proved utter failures, 
 scarcely a seed being able to stand the exposure. 
 Others planted under a very light shade coming up 
 thinly, whilst those under very thick shade, four feet in 
 width by two in height, succeeded admirably, as did 
 also that sown in long sheds with vertical roofs about 
 five feet high, open at both ends to admit a current of 
 air. These latter sheds the manager has decided to 
 use in future, as the grass which composes the roof is 
 easy of removal as the plants increase in hardihood." 
 
 A danger of the monsoon that must not be over- 
 looked is the likelihood of floods. The nursery 
 being on a slope, it is especially liable to these 
 catastrophes, and a strong and deep ditch should 
 be cut sloping across the top of the cleared spaces 
 to catch and run off any unusual downpour, while 
 
68 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PRO:I:\ 
 
 the borders of the beds should not be so deep as 
 to keep a head of water standing about. 
 
 There is not much more to be added on this 
 subject. The trespassing of animals must be guarded 
 against, as well as may be, by putting strings with 
 feathers attached from bush to bush along the out- 
 skirts, and by any other means that may suggest 
 themselves ; for it is astonishing what an amount 
 of damage an elephant or sambour will do in a night, 
 and most of it apparently wilful damage, if he 
 chances to get into the nursery during his rambles. 
 There is also a sharp look-out to be kept for rotten 
 branches, or, worse still, whole trees coming down 
 with a run and destroying several beds at a time. 
 This, however, is a matter that should always be care- 
 fully borne in mind when commencing operations. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to say weeding must be 
 always going on in the nursery if there is anything 
 to pull up. Women and children, under a respon- 
 sible maistry, do this work sufficiently well, and 
 leave the men free for harder jobs ; they are lighter 
 and neater fingered, but want much watching and 
 " driving." As time goes on, if the same ground is 
 still used, as it may well be, for rearing young plants, 
 it will require manuring with leaf mould from the 
 adjacent jungle, and perhaps some litter from the 
 cattle-sheds, but in any case not much of the latter. 
 
 The cost of a first nursery clearing, bedding, 
 draining, and planting should not be more than 
 Rs. 150, to which must be added the cost of seed. 
 
6g 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 FOREST CLEARINGS. 
 
 His nursery well under weigh, the planter whose 
 life is a busy one for the three first years of his 
 estate's existence turns his attention to the felling 
 and clearing of forest land intended to receive Coffee 
 plants. It will be understood that the land is every- 
 where uneven in Coffee districts, and overshadowed 
 for the most part by luxuriant forests in which 
 giant trees shoot up to the sky, and interlock their 
 branches in impenetrable canopies, while every 
 glade and watercourse is filled with waving reeds, 
 wild arrowroot, or ginger; and vast tangles of 
 creepers many of them beautifully flowered after 
 the rainy season twine serpent-like over the bare 
 rocks forming almost hopeless tangles. 
 
 The first business is to decide upon the size of 
 the intended clearings, and the next to mark them 
 out roughly, in order that the fellers may get to 
 work. With regard to the best size for clearings, 
 there are many different opinions fifty acres is a 
 fair plot. One set of planters hold that larger fields 
 are much superior for many reasons. They main- 
 tain that if you have nothing less than a hundred 
 acres in extent you enjoy freedom from the hosts 
 
JO COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 of weeds which grow in the jungle, you are less 
 troubled by harmful insects which love the shade 
 and shelter of trees and undergrowth, and they 
 think such clearings are more convenient and 
 better managed. But the other side say that by 
 making small plantations and leaving plenty of 
 timber you gain great shelter from high winds a 
 thing of considerable importance to Coffee, espe- 
 cially in its young state you have great stores of 
 leaf mould within easy distance for using as manure, 
 and they argue that, notwithstanding insects and 
 weeds, the Coffee thrives better than in the open. 
 Probably the best size of clearing will vary with 
 the conditions and aspect of the estate. On windy 
 ridges, where the young plants are liable to feel 
 the full force of either monsoon, protection of some 
 sort seems imperative, and none is so convenient 
 and lasting as leaving " belts " or strips of jungle 
 unfelled when the clearings are first made. These 
 wind-shields should not be less than two chains 
 through, or they will not answer their purpose ; 
 nor more, unless under exceptional circumstances, 
 or they will take up too much valuable ground. 
 Unless they are of fair breadth, the trees are apt 
 to die out after a time ; an eye should be kept on 
 them, therefore, and if they show signs of getting 
 thin, young saplings must be planted to take the 
 place of the natural-sown trees. 
 
 Then comes the marking out. This is done 
 with a compass and theodolite. A base line is taken 
 
FOREST CLEARINGS. Jl 
 
 wherever most convenient (along the bank of a 
 stream, &c.), and starting from one corner of this, 
 so many chains are measured off at right angles as 
 may be required for the first side due north per- 
 haps, according to the lay of the land, and bearing 
 in mind that it is always preferable to have the 
 clearings full face to the wind rather than turned 
 partially from it, so as to prevent the monsoons 
 enfilading them. When a sufficient distance has 
 been done for one side the line is continued at right 
 angles so many chains for a further boundary, and 
 then once again to the original base. For this 
 operation, which requires only slight proficiency 
 in the surveyor's craft, the planter needs two coolies 
 (intelligent ones should be selected) to handle the 
 measuring chain, another for the compass, and 
 half-a-dozen, perhaps, of strong men with billhooks 
 well sharpened who go on ahead and lop down the 
 underwood, making a rough path for the English- 
 man, and " blazing" the trees i.e., cutting outstrips 
 of bark when he has been along with his instru- 
 ments and authenticated the direction. Many a 
 long day has the writer spent in this manner, and 
 enjoyed the broaching of quiet valleys that no foot 
 but the silent sambour's had ever trodden before, 
 and the pioneering of shady hollows that had kept 
 their repose unbroken since the beginning. Such 
 a wealth of tree fern and pendant creeper swings 
 overhead, and the silent birds of the forest we 
 have noticed most forms of animal life are silent 
 
72 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 in the deep woods surround him on every hand ; 
 but, alas ! his errand is one of destruction, he 
 comes not to admire and withdraw, but to wage 
 war with fire and steel. 
 
 A belt having been drawn around the doomed 
 jungle, the trees are felled either wholly or partially. 
 In the first case, the operation is simply one of 
 universal destruction. It is usual to employ contract 
 coolies for the work of demolishing. They bring up 
 with them such cooking pots and pans and tools as 
 they require, camping out in lean-to huts run up 
 alongside the clearings, and remaining by their work 
 until it is finished. Their axes are small and light 
 by comparison to English or American weapons, 
 but very effective in native hands. The first trees 
 cut are along the line of the lowest ground, and 
 then another tier above them is deeply notched, 
 but none of these are cut through completely. 
 Thus, perhaps, half a clearing will be treated if the 
 day is still and windless, and then the headman 
 goes to the highest rank of forest giants and, with 
 a few vigorous blows, topples over a medium-sized 
 sapling. In its fall it brings two others with it. 
 These are matted together by rattens with more 
 which give way, and so tier after tier rocks and 
 swings, the strain spreading, when suddenly, with a 
 mighty roar, the hill-side is unlaced, and a thousand 
 years of timber go to perdition with one huge far- 
 sounding crash. There can be no special advantage 
 in this scene ; probably it is chiefly liked as repre- 
 
FOREST CLEARINGS. 73 
 
 senting the highest art of woodmanship by the 
 natives, who enjoy their work. 
 
 Necessary as this clearing is, it can be carried 
 too far, even from the planter's point of view. 
 Magnificent evergreen forests protecting ghat 
 slopes have thus been ruthlessly destroyed, tre- 
 mendous floods and corresponding droughts being 
 the outcome. 
 
 The forests on the Nilgiri, Wynad, and Coorg 
 have been rapidly disappearing during the last ten 
 or twenty years. If this destruction is allowed to 
 go on the Cauvery river, for instance, must in time 
 be seriously affected. There are still vast tracts 
 of forest, and many splendid forest-clad ravines 
 protecting numerous streams, but what if they all 
 go ? And if there is no legislation on the subject, 
 and no official reservation to be guarded by a 
 responsible department, what is to prevent it ? At 
 the present rate of destruction there would be 
 probably nothing left in another century or less. 
 
 If the felling is begun in October, then about 
 the middle of March the forest will be ready to 
 burn. It should not be delayed later, for about 
 that time showers begin to fall. For months of 
 the hottest 'season, the forest lies prone and 
 withered under the fierce rays of an Indian sun. 
 At the end of the time it is, or should be, as 
 dry as timber can get, and not a green blade or 
 leaf anywhere visible. The planter then selects 
 a day with a gentle and steady breeze blowing, 
 
74 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 and going round to the windward and lowermost 
 corner, he puts a match to a handful of dried 
 leaves. The result is instantaneous ; the fire 
 springs up in forked tongues that enfold everything 
 within their reach, driving back the originator of 
 the conflagration, and then seething out into the 
 open in a sea of crimson flame, that burns as 
 though it would never have done for several days 
 (if the jungle was heavy) a column of smoke by 
 day, and more than a pillar of fire by night ; the 
 destroying element curling up any tall, mastlike 
 stems that may not have fallen, making them into 
 huge torches, and finally bringing each to the 
 ground. 
 
 If the "burn" is all that the planter could 
 desire, it consumes everything but the very heaviest 
 logs, and renders the clearing accessible again. 
 He has previously taken the precaution of throwing 
 back the light rubbish from under the "belts" 
 of trees left as walls to the clearing, and thus pre- 
 vented the fire from lapping against and destroying 
 them. For overlooking this slight but essential safe- 
 guard we have seen many a man punished by the 
 loss of shelter and the land spoilt for the time. 
 
 The hot white ash of the noble sal and cedar 
 trees, worth princely sums as timber a few weeks 
 ago, could they have been got down to the coast, 
 now cumbers the soil, and the thick shade of the 
 woods is turned to an open plain of desolation. 
 If the flames have not done their work to the last 
 
FOREST CLEARINGS. 75 
 
 twig, the clearing will need a little hand burning 
 i.e., parties of men go and lop up with axes and 
 billhook all the small wood that remain, destroying 
 it piecemeal on bonfires, though this is sometimes 
 included in the felling contract. When this has 
 been done the land is practically ready for planting, 
 a few heavy showers washing the ground into a 
 more natural tint and condition. 
 
 No one can witness this reckless stripping of 
 mountain regions without regret and some fears 
 for the ultimate consequences. Lieut. Colonel 
 Beddowe, in an admirable Report of the Famine 
 Commissioners, published in their Blue-book (1884), 
 says : 
 
 " The denudation of forests for actual cultivation paying 
 .assessment has been very great during the last twenty years. 
 In Wynad it is said to be 22,526 acres, and it has been 
 very extensive on the Nilgiri. In the face of railways and 
 an ever-increasing population, it must of course go on ex- 
 tending, and there is still ample room for much extension, 
 though of course there must be a limit. Revenue officers 
 will be too anxious to open out the hill tracts of their 
 district and realize a revenue from the land, and can scarcely 
 be trusted as to what tracts are to be reserved. These 
 should in future be under the Forest Department, who 
 should be responsible to Government that the water supply 
 of the country is not affected. Coffee and Tea bushes will 
 never protect the soil and water supply in the way that forest 
 does ; the soil being constantly broken up is washed away, 
 and there is no accumulation of humus. Mr. Ferguson, the 
 forest officer of Nilambur, explains the process of forest 
 .gradually turning into the poorest, most worthless scrub. He 
 states that 4,000 to 5,000 acres are thus destroyed annually in 
 Malabar." 
 
76 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 Probably even the professional planter, absorbed 
 as he is with his own immediate gains, must feel 
 some sympathy with these sensible regrets. 
 
 The more complete the burn the easier and 
 pleasanter is the subsequent operation of planting. 
 A good burn is obtained by obtaining a compact 
 mass of timber and branches, and firing on a 
 suitable day before the first showers have sodden 
 the dead leaves and damped the heavier growths. 
 There can be no doubt it is a trying ordeal to 
 the land at best, but in woodland districts hand 
 clearing, as it will be readily understood, on such 
 a scale is out of the question. By " pitting" the 
 clearings before the burn we pocket the good soil, 
 and save at least a large proportion of it. 
 
 Planting under shade i.e., suffering a majority 
 of the best trees to remain standing, and not firing 
 a clearing at all, almost always practised now in 
 hot, dry climates, such as that of Southern India 
 is incomparably the most natural and rational pro- 
 cess, though it has its drawbacks ; and one of the 
 chief is that Coffee under such circumstances does 
 not bear so heavily as in the open. Grassland, 
 though rarely used for our purpose, and "chena jr 
 scrub, so called in Ceylon, or land once cleared 
 and reverting to a primitive state, of course gives 
 less trouble in preparation. 
 
 Cingalese contractors used to undertake work 
 at the rate of from Rs. 20 to 25 per acre, and had 
 to be provided with tools. The rates have been 
 
FOREST CLEARINGS. 77 
 
 reduced, and for heavy forest in the higher districts 
 from Rs. 18 to 20 is now given, and in the low 
 country from Rs. 12 to 15, while at the same time 
 the men provide their own axes. Those figures 
 will be a fair average for other Coffee countries, 
 and include felling, lopping, burning and clearing-up, 
 so as to leave the land ready for planting. Some- 
 times the planter's own men undertake the latter 
 tasks, and then of course the estimate is reduced. 
 
 The Englishman should be careful to have a 
 clear agreement on all contract work, and not to 
 over-advance the men. 
 
78 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PITS AND PEGS. 
 
 BEFORE the actual destruction of the forest the 
 ground has to be " pegged " and " pitted " i.e., 
 the future position of each plant marked, and a 
 hole dug at the spot, into which the fertile top 
 soil is put and covered over, to save it from the 
 scorching that follows. To delay these opera- 
 tions until the forest is brought down would be to 
 render the first practically impossible, owing to the 
 cumbered state of the ground, and the second 
 purposeless. The first operation here is to provide 
 an ample supply of pegs for marking the sites of 
 the future pits. A man will find pretty constant 
 employment cutting down young saplings of three 
 or four years' growth. These are lopped into two- 
 foot lengths and split lengthways into four or more 
 pegs. A good workman is able to prepare 300 or 
 400 such sticks every day, piling them out of harms- 
 way in the jungle. He will probably know the 
 best woods to choose, but we may recommend 
 keena, malaboddy, doong, or any other tree having 
 long straight fibres. 
 
 /'Pegging" is an extremely tedious operation, 
 and one which the new hand will find very difficult 
 
PITS AND PEGS. 79 
 
 in thick jungle. It consists in marking out the 
 exact spots where every Coffee bush is to stand on 
 a plot of woodland which has been only slightly 
 cleared, and has been traced out by the trees, on 
 what will eventually be the margin, having been 
 slightly notched, or the leaves and rubbish scraped 
 away. Supposing the space thus enclosed is fifty 
 acres in extent and the bushes are going to stand 
 four and a-half by five feet apart, then there will be 
 1,936 per acre, and some 96,800 in the clearing! 
 The labour of marking each peg off separately can 
 be understood. 
 
 The first thing to be done is to strike a base 
 line right across the ground. To do this, a theo- 
 dolite as previously mentioned, and two men with 
 tall staffs painted red and white, are needed, 
 besides trustworthy coolies, who have hold of the 
 opposite ends of a long fifty-foot rope, divided into 
 six-foot lengths .by tags of tape or coloured rag, as 
 well as numerous attendants with armfuls of pegs 
 to mark the site of the holes to be dug. The 
 Englishman then, starting from the edge of the 
 future belt, directs the two line coolies to hold the 
 rope taut in the direction which the instrument 
 tells him is straight for the opposite side of the 
 marked-out space, and as soon as this is satis- 
 factorily accomplished the coolies stick in pegs 
 directly under each six-foot mark. Then the line 
 is taken forward again to the last peg, and another 
 set measured off. This is all very well when the 
 
8O COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 ground is clear and there are nothing but big trees 
 to obstruct the view usually a sign that the soil 
 is good for Coffee but occasionally there are clumps 
 of tree fern, thickets of thorny bushes, or, worst 
 of all, dense bamboos ; and these offer immense 
 obstacles, not so much to the base line as to those 
 following. It may perhaps be suggested that it 
 were useless to peg out such places as they could 
 never be planted ; but the truth is every bit of a 
 clearing must be measured off in order that the 
 proportion between the succeeding lines shall be 
 ascertained. 
 
 Another sort of obstruction which makes ''lining" 
 difficult in unfelled jungle are the deep and rocky 
 watercourses or nullahs. It does not do to stretch 
 the measuring line straight from bank to bank, as 
 that would distort the position of subsequent lines, 
 but it has to accurately follow the fall of the ground, 
 which would be an easy matter with trained English 
 labourers, but with thick-headed natives proves a 
 matter of great difficulty, and takes up much time. 
 For my part, I never could see the necessity of 
 having the lines of Coffee plants so exactly even 
 that from any point in the clearing one can look 
 up four neat roads, only terminated by the belts of 
 forest ; but it is the custom, and rigorously insisted 
 upon in most estates. As this work however is 
 difficult until it is properly understood, and a 
 source of constant mortification to the exact 
 when it has been mismanaged, I think I shall be 
 
PITS AND PEGS. 8 1 
 
 justified in quoting here a very careful description 
 of the work by Mr. A. L. Cross, the writer of an 
 excellent little essay on " Ceylon Coffee." 
 
 "When a few thousand pegs have been cut in advance," he 
 says, " the work of lining can then be commenced. The rope 
 used in lining is generally a good stout one of three-quarters of 
 an inch in thickness, and it should be well tarred to resist wet. 
 Pieces of white cord, or strips of red cloth, should be inserted 
 at the lining distance, every few feet along the rope, to mark 
 where the peg is to be put in the ground. This is usually at 
 intervals of five feet for the length, between each tree, and 
 six feet for the breadth ; in short, five by six, though other 
 distances may be preferred and used with advantage. In 
 very high and wind-blown districts five by five is a good 
 distance. The rope having been thus prepared should be 
 attached to a stout straight stick at each end of the line, 
 generally a stick six feet in length, or whatever the breadth of 
 the Coffee line is to be. A good working kangani and two 
 men, one for each end of the rope, to hold it taut, and ten or 
 twelve boys should then be selected, and each boy furnished 
 with a stick corresponding to the breadth it is intended to 
 leave between the Coffee lines. The first process is to run a 
 base line across the clearing, generally starting from the lowest 
 part, and as near the middle of the clearing as possible, and 
 when that is finished and pegged out, another at right angles to 
 it. For example, if the clearing is nearly square, thus : 
 
 the dotted lines indicate the base lines laid down, each dot 
 representing a peg. Of course when the lining is by unequal 
 distances, say five by six, the pieces of cord or cloth, commonly 
 called by the coolies the * pu ' (flower), will require to be 
 
 G 
 
82 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 shifted to the required distance before running the second base 
 line at right angles to the first. After the base lines have been 
 laid down, the coolie at one of the ends of the rope should 
 place his staff immediately alongside the first base line peg, 
 either to right or left of the centre peg, the man at the other end 
 of the line measuring with his staff, and the boys with theirs 
 likewise, the same distance, to right or left of the base line 
 as the case may be. When the measuring sticks are then in 
 line, from top to bottom, the boys insert a peg into the ground 
 below each ' pu ' on the rope. This process is repeated till 
 the whole of the clearing is finished. By the above method of 
 laying down the base lines, four parties of liners can be 
 employed at the same time, and the work done quickly. The 
 usual mode of inserting the peg is for the boys to drop the 
 peg from the ' pu,' marking the spot where the point touched 
 the ground, and then insert it ; but the best plan is to place the 
 stick the boys use for measuring perpendicularly from the * pu ' 
 to the ground, and insert the peg at its base. The line will be 
 straighter. To insure this work being well done and nothing 
 is so pleasing to the planter's eye as to see straight lines of 
 Coffee it should be well looked after. 
 
 " Some planters now employ a lining instrument and staff, 
 and these, if properly worked, ought to give very straight base 
 lines. A row of long straight white sticks, or rather poles, 
 placed one behind the other, and run the whole length of the 
 clearing, will probably answer the purpose quite as well for all 
 practical purposes. If one is acquainted with surveying, the 
 best base lines will of course be run with the aid of the 
 theodolite tracer. The system of using double ropes of equal 
 length, so as to get the Coffee into squares, is quite unnecessary, 
 and can seldom be properly carried out on very rough and 
 broken land. The ropes used in lining should be about 160 
 feet in length. If the ropes are of greater length the lines are 
 apt to get crooked. On sheltered flats lining might be done 
 with advantage at such distances as seven by eight feet, thereby 
 leaving plenty of room for manuring and digging round the 
 trees, and in such situations they might be allowed to grow to 
 the height of five feet, but so little land in the high districts is 
 
PITS AND PEGS. 83 
 
 of this description that it is scarcely worth while making a 
 difference in the lining in so small a space." 
 
 The next task calls for less personal exertion, 
 but demands a good deal of supervision. The 
 planter starts out each morning at daybreak, with 
 perhaps two hundred men following in Indian file 
 at his heels, and proceeds to the jungles already 
 pegged and marked out. Each coolie takes with 
 him a mammoty, an axe for cutting roots, and a 
 long iron bar pointed at one end and flattened out 
 into a spud at the other, chiefly used for removing 
 heavy stones and loosening the soil. All then go 
 to work in a long straight line if possible, but to get 
 the hands into any sort of order in heavy jungle 
 is much more easy to talk of than to effect, as it is 
 not possible to see ten men at a time, and each 
 man wants to work where the ground is softest and 
 there are fewest roots. The daily task of each is 
 forty or fifty pits of regulation size, and the super- 
 intendent has to see this properly done. Perhaps 
 he places a mark where each man begins, at the 
 last pit of yesterday's work, and then goes to 
 the other end of the line, half-a-mile away. When 
 he returns, he is surprised and pleased to find the 
 first men have already finished half their tasks, 
 but on investigating he sees the " mild Hindoos" 
 have moved his pegs back so as to include ten or 
 twelve of yesterday's pits, and this naturally makes 
 him wrathful. Besides the coolies who thus scamp 
 their allotted task, or are too sick and weak to 
 
84 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 perform it, there are many others who give a vast 
 amount of trouble by making pits out of the straight 
 line, or just too small to pass muster the regulation 
 size being two feet deep by eighteen inches square, 
 measured across from the level of the surface of the 
 ground. The holes should have right-angled corners, 
 as if a tree be set in a circular hole, the roots follow 
 the limits of the soil which has been disturbed, and 
 become as much " pot-bound " as though they grew 
 in stone jars ; but when the pit is square the roots 
 grow into the angles, and, finding themselves faced 
 by walls of earth, are obliged to penetrate them 
 and spread into the surrounding soil. By the time 
 the pits begin to be numbered by thousands, the 
 ground also presents a curious aspect something 
 as if the jungle had been overrun by monstrous 
 land-crabs, which had dug out their underground 
 houses in every direction ; but the walking is better 
 than usual, owing to the pits being in straight lines 
 and the timber still standing. 
 
 After all this careful labour, the novice will look 
 with something akin to consternation on the suc- 
 ceeding operation necessary in " pitting before the 
 burn." Extravagant as it may appear, the next 
 thing to be done, after having carefully dug these 
 twenty- two thousand pits, is to fill them up again ! 
 The truth is, the forest under which we have so 
 industriously scratched these holes has now to be 
 felled and burnt, and the sufficient reason for re- 
 filling the pits is that the valuable top soil, which 
 
PITS AND PEGS. 85 
 
 contains the best nourishment, might be saved from 
 the flames, which would bake it to a brick a result 
 to be avoided, if possible, yet which would assuredly 
 happen if the " pitting" were delayed until after 
 burning. So we fill up the holes far and wide, our 
 chief care being to see that the top soil really goes 
 to the bottom of the pit, as the coolies are apt to 
 scrape soil in just as it lies. After the burn, we 
 should be able to tell the position of each pit by 
 the earth being a little higher over it than else- 
 where. The bigger the pits, as a rule, the better, 
 since the plants have a larger amount of readily 
 "available capital" to draw upon when first 
 established. 
 
 Occasionally, when pressed for time, we have 
 known the soil in the spots to be planted just 
 levered up and loosened by crowbars, but this is a 
 slovenly and unsuccessful arrangement. Again, 
 another planter has been known to declare against 
 pits of any size, maintaining that it inevitably makes 
 the plants " pot bound," and discourages them from 
 seeking food and moisture naturally. But ninety- 
 nine out of a hundred planters make pits as large 
 as their money and patience will allow. 
 
 Regarding the finances of these undertakings, 
 pegs are cut at the rate of, say, five hundred pegs 
 a-day by a workman whose wages are probably 
 5 annas. The cost per acre will depend upon 
 the distances apart you grow your Coffee, but with 
 the help of the table given under " Planting," you 
 
86 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 will be readily able to reckon the number of your 
 pegs and their outlay, not forgetting to have a few 
 hundred over for breakages, &c. Lining usually 
 comes to a little over Rs. 2 per acre, but every- 
 thing depends on the sort of jungle. In holeing, 
 reckoning 1,500 holes to the acre, fifty holes per 
 coolie per day, say 3,750 coolies at 6 annas, will 
 make the expense per acre close upon Rs. 16. 
 "Filling in" if one man does 125 holes per day 
 (and he cannot do more properly), then this will 
 give an expenditure of Rs. 6 per acre. 
 
 The figures are rough, but approximate. 
 
8 7 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 IF it is decided to grow Coffee under natural shade, 
 such as it is accustomed to in a wild state, then the 
 preparation of the land is a somewhat simpler work 
 than that described in Chapter VI. There being no 
 fire to dread, it is unnecessary to hide away a supply 
 of fertilizing top soil. The borders of the clearing 
 are therefore marked out as in the previous case, 
 and a majority of trees felled, with all the under- 
 wood and tangle, which is grubbed up. Timber 
 and rubbish has then to be cut into negociable sizes 
 and moved by hand into the surrounding jungle, 
 or rolled (a slovenly plan) into one of the water- 
 courses which are sure to lie temptingly near. 
 
 When this has been well done, the result is a 
 pretty bit of woodland dotted over with nice straight 
 timber trees free from dead branches, the soil moist 
 and cool in its natural deep chocolate hue, and the 
 sunlight, maybe, patching it with a pavement of 
 light and shadow as the rays come down from 
 above all together a prettier picture than that 
 presented where the previously-described method 
 is practised. 
 
 Of course, on these estates, the clearings being 
 
88 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 never burnt, as the fire would have destroyed the 
 shade trees, but the lighter material carried away to 
 the borders to the last twig by hand labour, the 
 valuable top soil of vegetable debris is left uninjured. 
 That that same debris harbours a world of insects 
 hurtful to the Coffee plants, which a good " burn " 
 would kill, and also promotes the dreaded leaf 
 disease so fatal in Ceylon, are two of the strongest 
 arguments arrayed against the plan. Personally we 
 have a decided leaning towards shade, " natural" or 
 " artificial." In many countries shade is made a 
 source of profit, and valuable fruit trees are planted 
 between the rows of Coffee ; in India neglecting to 
 provide a shelter against the sun's rays, and some 
 protection for the soil against the denuding effect of 
 tropical rains, led to widespread deterioration of 
 Coffee districts. An authority says : 
 
 " When a planter takes up virgin forest he finds a splendid 
 soil, covered with humus ; he fells his forest and puts down his 
 Coffee. One has only to read the numerous letters that 
 appear in the public prints, especially those of Ceylon, which 
 are almost entirely kept up by planter subscribers, to see how 
 a planter's mind is exercised to keep his soil from being 
 washed away. Look at the abandoned estates between 
 Virajpett and Wotakuli in Coorg. Years ago the hills carried 
 high timber forests on a rich though shallow soil on rock. 
 But the forests attracted rain, regulated its distribution, and 
 prevented scouring. The planter's axe levelled the trees with 
 the ground, and now almost every planter who can get away 
 from the place is glad to go. I do not think the rainfall is 
 less, but the soil has gone from the hill sides. A tangled mass 
 of weeds and jungle is springing up, and years must pass 
 before the soil can be renewed. In Mysore I could point to 
 
SHADE. 89 
 
 an instance where the felling of 300 acres or so of a forest for 
 Coffee resulted in the same way." 
 
 Therefore we say, shade your Coffee well with 
 natural shade if it is ready made to your hand, if 
 not, grow some for yourself as quickly as possible. 
 
 Needless to say, much will depend on position, 
 elevation, and aspect. Coffee grows well in Ceylon 
 in the open on account of the natural humidity of 
 the climate. In the hotter seasons of India um- 
 brageous protection of some kind is a matter of 
 necessity, notwithstanding the drawback of shorter 
 crops. The amount of shade to be left where 
 wholesale burning is not to be practised must of 
 course be regulated according to the exposure. It 
 need hardly be said that a great deal will be required 
 on southern slopes, very little on northern ones, 
 and that eastern and western slopes will require 
 a moderate degree. 
 
 In the early years of planting in Southern India 
 most of the managers came from an island where 
 the climate was damp and comparatively mild, and 
 " shade " trees consequently not essential to the 
 culture of Coffee, as we have said. They broke up 
 Indian forests, and, acting on their previous expe- 
 rience, planted their gardens all in the open, with 
 the result that the first succession of extra dry 
 seasons worked sad havoc amongst them. This is 
 the explanation of those gaunt, sun-scorched gardens 
 too common in Travancore and Mysore. Now they 
 are wiser, and even if they do not preserve their 
 
go COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT, 
 
 natural protection against the sun, they make all 
 reasonable haste to supply its place by the artificial- 
 grown foliage of quick-growing Australian or other 
 trees. 
 
 " I find it impossible to quit this subject of 
 shade," remarks Elliot, in his " Experiences of a 
 Coffee Planter in the Jungles of Mysore, " " without 
 saying a word for the numerous advantages planta- 
 tions of Coffee have that can be grown under shelter 
 of the original forest. In the first place, from the 
 greater part of the land being only cleared at first of 
 the underwood, and from the fact of that being 
 burned in separate heaps, a large proportion of the 
 soil is entirely uninjured by fire, and the valuable 
 surface mould entirely preserved. In the next place, 
 from the preservation of such a portion of this 
 vegetable matter, and from the land being annually 
 recruited by the fallen leaves, the rain water, instead 
 of running off, washing the land, and so depriving it 
 of a great deal of its most valuable constituents, 
 soaks gradually into and lodges in the soil without 
 the loss of a single drop. Thirdly, the forest trees 
 afford shelter to innumerable birds, which are not 
 only pleasant to see, and many of them to hear, but 
 which are of incalculable service as insect-eaters. 
 Then the planter with his shade, if he does not 
 altogether laugh at dry seasons, in a great measure 
 neutralizes their influence by preventing the sun and 
 wind from drying up the soil and parching the plant. 
 And, finally, both the planter and his people can 
 
SHADE. QI 
 
 work all day and seldom feel the fierce rays of the 
 tropical sun ; and this consideration alone is of 
 immense money value to an estate. And yet, in 
 spite of all these considerations, we have seen shade 
 and shelter ruthlessly cut down all over the country, 
 and often in parts so hot and arid that it would be 
 difficult to conceive circumstances that could be 
 more fatal to the existence of Coffee." 
 
 In what planters term the charcoal-tree a poor, 
 watery, large-leafed, light-barked shrub, so called 
 from its rising out of charcoal-littered ground we 
 are told we have Nature's natural shelter for more 
 valuable timber whilst young, and all those seedlings 
 wherewith barren spots are recovered in time. But 
 the charcoal-tree is not quite up to the modern 
 planter's needs. Sometimes it is suffered to grow 
 in clumps amongst Coffee, making a better shelter 
 perhaps than the tall grass Dutch planters leave 
 between their rows. Usually it shares the fate of 
 other lesser weeds in clearings, only growing on the 
 margin of "belts" and untouched forest a vivid 
 green band of leaves between the soil of the plan- 
 tation and the superincumbent masses of tree 
 foliage. The older this bush gets the poorer its 
 shade is ; and though it may be of temporary ser- 
 vice, there are other and better trees which should 
 be growing whilst the Coffee is young. Several 
 species answer this purpose. The most popular of 
 them, and that with which I protected my own 
 garden, is the Jack-tree (Artocarpus integrifolius), 
 
Q2 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 called by Tamils " Kattu Pilavoo," and in Telugu 
 " Panasa Rurra." This tree has many good points 
 to recommend it. First of all, Jack stands in the 
 first class as a timber tree. The wood is a bright, 
 clear yellow, polishing well. My first set of furniture 
 as a "chick doree " in the jungle was after this 
 kind, and light and handsome it looked i It stands 
 changes of climate remarkably. 
 
 I noticed when watching native building opera- 
 tions that Jack- wood was used invariably for doors 
 and their framings, and for window casings every- 
 where, in fact, where it was important to have a 
 wood which would not expand or contract with the 
 varying seasons. Both for rough work or for fine 
 "cabinet" uses this tree is of value, and if we can 
 grow a tree of value in itself as well as suitable to the 
 purpose of its planting, we may as well have it. In 
 growth Jack equals the largest English elms, in thick 
 jungle often running up a beautifully straight stem to 
 the first branches. As a deep subsoil feeder, again, 
 it acts like a powerful " pump " (if the last words of 
 the savants are to be accepted), raising stores of 
 moisture from deep natural reservoirs far below 
 ground, and holding them suspended amongst its 
 leaves for its own benefit and that of all low-growing 
 shrubs. Demanding little or no nourishment from 
 surface soil a point of much importance, we need 
 not say, as we must not import a rival in this matter 
 to our Coffee the numberless leaves of this tree, 
 on the contrary, supply a perpetual top-dressing of 
 
SHADE. Q3 
 
 manure ; its foliage is sufficiently thick to keep out 
 much of the sunlight, but not dense enough to pre- 
 vent a pleasant circulation of air ; its presence is . 
 wholesome ; and, lastly but not leastly, the Jack fruit 
 is a substantial pumpkin-shaped mass, weighing 
 from twenty-five to thirty-five pounds, and full of 
 nutritious seeds, which, roasted or boiled, are a 
 favourite dish with the frugal natives. Thus the 
 Jack is a good tree to grow for all these reasons. 
 One drawback there is : it is said not to stand 
 transplanting well. Our own method of propagation 
 was to grow young bushes in prepared beds, remove 
 them when twelve inches high into baskets, and 
 plant out along sides of roads, or here and there 
 amongst lines of Coffee in the same manner and at 
 the same time as those plants. If the seedlings 
 are put at distances of twenty-five or thirty feet 
 or so, a few " failures " will not matter. Of slow 
 growth, some planters supplement them for the first 
 few years by castor-oil plants or bananas, both of 
 which spring up in a few months, the former pro- 
 ducing the first year a crop of some value, while the 
 broad leaves of the latter are greatly valued by 
 coolies, who prepare from them platters, dishes for 
 rice and curry, and even drinking cups. 
 
 Dr. Shortt remarks in a lengthy report on the 
 castor-oil tree : 
 
 "Of several varieties the two first known as the small 
 and large seeded are in general cultivation all over the warm 
 countries of the world, in South of Europe and the East and 
 
94 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 West Indies. In Southern India the castor oil is generally 
 cultivated as an annual, with dry crops either of grain or pulse, 
 and rarely alone, in almost every district, requiring no particular 
 attention as a field crop. It thrives in the plains as well as on 
 the hills to about 5,000 feet above sea level. It grows rapidly 
 into a tall lanky plant from 8 to 15 feet in height, generally 
 forming a large terminal spike about a foot in length, springing 
 from the terminating branches at the summit, and sometimes 
 two or more small side branches form, carrying smaller spikes 
 of about 6 to 8 inches in length; each spike carries from 
 100 to 150 capsules which are armed with long flexible prickles 
 and are trilocular or 3-celled, and about the size of a large 
 marble when matured ; the capsule bursts elastically expelling 
 'its seed, usually 3 in number, to a little distance from the plant. 
 " The small-seeded variety grows into a large umbrageous 
 tree 33 to 40 feet in height, with a sturdy looking stout stem. 
 Trees on my estate now measure 4 feet in girth, one foot above 
 the soil, and 3 feet, 5 feet above the soil. It is a handsome 
 tree, and seeds freely yielding 15 Ib. of seeds per tree per 
 annum." 
 
 The loquat tree has a fruit somewhat resembling 
 a yellow plum. Its wood is of no value as timber, 
 but it is a favourite as shade for Coffee in the 
 Wynaad. I once planted a couple of hundred acres 
 with Pepul (Ficus religiosa). A tree of that species 
 was felled, and six foot length cut from the lesser 
 branches. These, four inches in diameter, were 
 planted firmly into the ground amongst the Coffee, 
 and soon formed roots and burst into abundant 
 heads of foliage. Then there is the dark green- 
 leaved "cub-bussaree " tree, and the "goni" tree. 
 Elliot warns us against the " taree," the " cheppul," 
 and the " muttee." All good, suitable trees, of 
 the many species which planters have tried, must 
 
SHADE. 95 
 
 be grown strictly in regard to the climate and needs 
 of the soil. They may be invaluable assistants to 
 the securing of healthy plants on the dry side of 
 a range, and yet blight-encouraging encumbrances 
 on the opposite or wet side, where the rain-laden 
 clouds land and discharge their freights of moisture 
 and mist. 
 
96 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 PLANTING. 
 
 PLANTING Coffee seed directly into the clearings was 
 at one time practised, and in such circumstances 
 as those of small native gardens under shade, and 
 irrigated, did well enough, but is not suited for 
 general European usage. Then there was the im- 
 portation of " stumps," and the collection of natural 
 sown seedlings from the jungle, native gardens, or 
 deserted plantations. All these have given way to 
 the more regular and workmanly plan of cultivating 
 one's own plants, as previously shown, in prepared 
 nurseries. 
 
 When land under shade has been cleared, it is 
 "pegged" and planted at once, damp, showery 
 weather of course being chosen. There are several 
 modes of performing the important operation of 
 removing young plants from nursery to clearings.- 
 One is to scoop each seedling up with a complicated 
 form of trowel which removes the seedling and the 
 earth round its roots, the plants being retained in 
 this contrivance until they are bedded out and the 
 soil filled in round them. Another way, which 
 seems the most certain, though also the most ex- 
 pensive, is to use light wicker baskets, made at 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 97 
 
 Palghat, and of the size and shape of a flower-pot. 
 These are made of split rattan cane, and though 
 they 'should be tough and elastic, it is essential 
 they should not be so closely woven as to prevent 
 roots of plants piercing them and penetrating the 
 surrounding soil. It is better to have them too 
 loosely than too well made. Into each of these a 
 couple of handfuls of the best jungle leaf mould 
 is placed, and then the young Coffee plants are 
 carefully taken up with a trowel, a small piece is 
 cut off the tap root to prevent the possibility of its 
 being bent, and one is placed in every basket, 
 where they may be safely left until it is convenient 
 to plant them in the clearings. They are not moved 
 again, but basket and all slipped into the pit, and 
 the basket allowed to decay as it likes. This, it 
 will be understood, is an expensive method with 
 this advantage, of very few subsequent " failures " 
 occurring in the open. 
 
 If neither trowels nor baskets are used, then the 
 plants must be taken up carefully, with as much 
 earth on their roots as possible, transferred to their 
 new location in shallow weeding baskets, and planted 
 out with as little delay as is practicable. Though 
 we have said the young plants in their bamboo 
 transplanting baskets may be safely left about, that 
 only applies to the wet season, when rain or overcast 
 skies are certain ; at any other time it stands to 
 reason they would be scorched up in an hour or so 
 if exposed to the full sunshine. Some planters 
 
COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 adopt the plan of building rough sheds to harbour 
 the plants when first moved into the baskets. 
 
 The number of trees that the nursery must 
 supply depends on the distances to be between each 
 bush. The following table will make this clear : 
 
 DISTANCES, &c., OF PLANTS. 
 
 Feet apart. 
 
 Square Feet 
 each. 
 
 Number 
 per Acre. 
 
 Feet apart. 
 
 Square Feet 
 each. 
 
 Number 
 per Acre. I 
 
 I X I 
 
 I 
 
 43>56o 
 
 5iX 6 
 
 33 
 
 1,320 
 
 2 X I 
 
 2 
 
 21,780 
 
 6X6 
 
 36 
 
 1,210 
 
 2X2 
 
 4 
 
 10,890 
 
 6x7 
 
 42 
 
 1,037 
 
 2X3 
 
 6 
 
 7,260 
 
 7X7 
 
 49 
 
 889 
 
 3X3 
 
 9 
 
 4,840 
 
 7X8 
 
 56 
 
 77 8 
 
 3X4 
 
 12 
 
 3,630 
 
 8X8 
 
 64 
 
 681 
 
 4X4 
 
 16 
 
 2,722 
 
 9X9 
 
 81 
 
 538 
 
 4 X 5 
 
 20 
 
 2,178 
 
 10 Xio 
 
 IOO 
 
 435 
 
 4iX 4i 
 
 20 
 
 2,151 
 
 12 XI2 
 
 144 
 
 302 
 
 4iX 5 
 
 22i 
 
 I.936 
 
 15 xis 
 
 225 
 
 193 
 
 5 X 5 
 
 25 
 
 1,742 
 
 17 Xiy 
 
 289 
 
 151 
 
 5 X si 
 
 2 7 i 
 
 I.584 
 
 20 X20 
 
 400 
 
 109 
 
 5 X 6 
 
 30 
 
 M52 
 
 25 X25 
 
 625 
 
 69 
 
 5*X Si- 
 
 3oi 
 
 1,440 
 
 
 
 
 Thus if we plant 41 by 4^ we shall want 2,151 
 seedlings per acre, and say a couple of hundred 
 over for failures; if 5 by 5, then 1,742 will do; if 
 7 by 8, only 778, and so on. 5 by 5 may be taken 
 as a good average distance, varying as suggested in 
 a previous chapter. 
 
 "Stumps" are those plants that have thrown 
 out their first " primary" branches. When taken 
 
PLANTING. 99 
 
 out of the nursery beds their side roots are lightly 
 trimmed and their tap roots cut off about ten inches 
 below the green bark with a sharp knife. They 
 grow somewhat slowly after their transplanting for 
 twelve months, but then put on a spurt and generally 
 outdistance seedlings that have come earlier into 
 the clearings. Hot weather and drought affects 
 them less than the smaller plants. Probably most 
 managers would prefer to plant with stumps, only 
 it will be understood they represent on high estates 
 an extra season's growth, and it is not everyone 
 whose nurseries are started sufficiently early to 
 render this waiting possible. 
 
 " It should be borne in mind," Mr. A. L. Cross 
 observes, " by planters in high districts, that 
 nurseries sown with seed, though put in in March, 
 would be of little use for a clearing till they were 
 eighteen months or two years old, so that a nursery 
 of seed put in, say, in March, 1886, would be unfit 
 for use till August, 1887, and by that time the 
 planting season, for plants, in districts getting the 
 south-west monsoon would be nearly over. For 
 the second year, if the nursery has been thinned 
 out, the plants will be in excellent condition. I 
 have found it best to make two nurseries the first 
 year, one of seed, and the other of seedlings, brought 
 from some other estate." 
 
 " Planting baskets" should be used whenever 
 possible. Their initial expenses are often covered 
 by the absence of " failures." The plants may be 
 
IOO COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 put out in the field when they have three pairs of 
 leaves, but of course at the proper season, during 
 the first rains of the monsoon. The advantages of 
 the baskets are that they present little obstruction 
 to the spread of the roots, and will be rotten 
 thoroughly in a few months ; the plants never feel 
 that they have been removed, or have their growth 
 stopped for a day, saving thereby a greater or 
 less percentage of loss, according to the circum- 
 stances of the season. 
 
 Regarding the actual planting, when the plants 
 have been gently lifted from the seed beds they 
 are, as we have said, transported to the field in 
 baskets, forty or fifty at a time. The work of 
 removal and inserting in the ready holes should go 
 on on the same day, so that the seedlings may be 
 as short a period as possible out of the ground. 
 Arrived at the rows, the planting coolies fill a corner 
 of their cumblies with the young Coffee, which they 
 then proceed to establish in its new home. In doing 
 this the great things to be remembered are, that 
 the tap root must not be bent or bruised in any 
 way, though a few inches may be cut off if it is too 
 long ; and, secondly, side roots should be spread out 
 as they have been growing, and not squeezed in 
 round the stem. Sometimes this planting is done 
 with an alavanga, a light crowbar, a blunt stick, the 
 two halves of a split bamboo, the hands, or small 
 mamotie. Probably the latter is the best and most 
 expeditious way, but watchful supervision must be 
 
PLANTING. IOI 
 
 exercised in any case, for planting is one of the 
 most important operations we have to perform. 
 
 When plants are well set in they should feel 
 firm to a gentle upward pull, should be buried to 
 about the same height they were in their seed beds, 
 and should not be in the centre of hollow depressions 
 likely to hold water in monsoons, and so drown the 
 shrubs. 
 
 " Dibbling " is an indifferent method of planting 
 wherein the soil is only loosened by the pointed 
 end of an alavanga being worked round and round. 
 
 As soon after clearings are planted as possible, 
 and particularly in the case of those deficient in 
 shelter, it will be time to fix supports to the young 
 transplanted Coffee trees of two years old, quickly 
 growing into considerable bushes with thick heads of 
 glossy dark green leaves. In spite of belts of jungle 
 left between the clearings, the plant feels the wind 
 more or less, and when the ground is wet it swings it 
 round and round, so that the stem works an open- 
 ing in the soil just where it comes above ground. 
 Then, if there should be any breeze on the next hot 
 day, when the ground is baked hard by the sun, the 
 plant chafes against this rim, cuts through its tender 
 young bark, and very speedily dies. So we have to 
 provide a support by driving in a three-foot stick, 
 sloping towards the plant from the direction of the 
 south-west monsoon, and firmly but gently tying 
 them together with a thin rattan fibre or any stringey 
 bark which grows wild in the jungles, the fibre being 
 
IO2 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 crossed between stake and plant to make a manner 
 of cushion. " Supplying" or filling up of failures 
 should be more carefully attended to, from time to 
 time, than it is on many estates. Opening new land 
 while the ground already brought "under cultiva- 
 tion" does not carry anything like the number of 
 plants it might and was intended to is, we need not 
 say, foolish in the extreme. Managers occasionally 
 push forward and take up fresh forest when as much 
 as twenty per cent, of the Coffee behind them is 
 dead or useless. This is profitable to no one, and 
 least of ail to those over-eager shareholders at home 
 who are usually at the bottom of the unwarranted 
 "extension." Failures may be divided into two 
 classes the inevitable and the accidental. The 
 first occur because the young seedling has been put 
 out over slab rock through which its roots cannot 
 penetrate. There is nothing to do but submit in 
 such cases. The next class is open to remedy, the 
 young plants having died because their tap roots 
 have been doubled up, because rats, or grub, or 
 grasshoppers have been at their tender shoots, or 
 from rough handling by the transplanting coolies. 
 Perhaps there is a boulder as big as a plate at the 
 bottom of their "pit." A little enquiry is nearly 
 sure to explain the reason of gaps in rows of Coffee ; 
 and unless it is rock underneath, or something of 
 the kind, a new plant nicely installed will well repay 
 the trouble of investigation and repair. Nothing has 
 been said about roads, as they will be noticed pre- 
 
PLANTING. IO3 
 
 sently; but a good path properly kept along the 
 edge of jungle is an invaluable barrier against weeds, 
 an important aid to locomotion, and hence tends to 
 keep down expenses. 
 
 These expenses may be indicated thus : If on a 
 hundred acres we have 187,500 plants, and these 
 are planted at the rate of 250 per coolie per diem, 
 then 750 coolies at 5 annas will be Rs. 234, 6 annas. 
 Then, carriage from the nursery and on the field, 
 pruning roots, &c., at the rate of one coolie to every 
 10 planting, say 70 coolies at 5 annas=Rs. 21, 14 a. 
 
 Suppose out of the above number we have to 
 " supply" 20,000 plants, 80 coolies per acre at 
 5 annas per day=Rs. 25, will get in the new stock. 
 If plants or " stumps" are bought from neighbour- 
 ing estates, they may generally be obtained at about 
 Rs. 4 to 5 per 1,000 fit for putting out. 
 
 Bamboo baskets, 9 inches deep and 6 inches wide 
 at the top, can generally be made for Rs. 10 per 
 1,000 in lowlands, but up-country planters have to 
 pay as much as Rs. 15 per 1,000 for these planting 
 baskets. 
 
 The distance from nursery to clearing, the nature 
 of soil, whether men or women are employed as 
 carriers, the method of planting, the size of the 
 bushes, and condition of the ground in regard to 
 roads, will all affect such estimates. 
 
1O4 COFFEE *. ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 WEEDS. 
 
 WEEDS are almost universally recognised as amongst 
 the worst of planters' foes. We have no ambition 
 to join the standard of revolt against this orthodox 
 opinion which one gentleman at least of Ceylon 
 experience has raised, yet we have never felt quite 
 satisfied with the bare sun-scorched surface of 
 earth the energetic weeder leaves behind him. We 
 have often been tempted to ask, is there any single 
 instance in Nature (and we have a great respect for 
 Nature!) where bush or tree in a tropical climate 
 springs from a bare and naked soil ? Even if a few 
 such instances could be pointed out, it cannot be 
 denied that a natural manner of growth is first a 
 carpet of low grass or herbage, through which these 
 better and bigger bushes and trees force a way. 
 Even in dense, dark woods and jungles, where there 
 are practically no weeds, a thick blanket of twig 
 and fallen leaf supplies the place and answers the 
 same purpose. Scrape a little of this aside and we 
 shall notice fine fibrous roots of big plants, close 
 under the skin of matter, lying in every direction ; 
 place the hand upon this newly exposed surface 
 and it will strike cool, and more or less damp, in 
 
WEEDS. IO5 
 
 the hottest weather. If we turn up a mat of weeds, 
 even though their surface is fully exposed to the 
 sun, yet the soil beneath them will be wonderfully 
 fresh and pleasant. 
 
 Coffee has proved itself to be an exhausting 
 growth ; all trees or plants which are kept without 
 undergrowth and weeds must be so, as whatever 
 they yield in fruit or leaves is removed. Jungle 
 fertilizes itself by the leaves and rotten debris of 
 ages. " Keep the jungle quite clean below, and you 
 would soon see how even scrub would, in ten or 
 twenty years, grow feebly where Nature sows her 
 seeds and reaps her fruits for consumption on the 
 premises nothing is lost. No doubt heavy manur- 
 ing will give you crops of anything for a time, perhaps 
 occasionally for ever, but people will not make fortunes 
 out of land that requires it" Still! we weeded our 
 own estates according to the prevalent fashion, and 
 can only advise that if we must destroy the natural 
 protection of the soil we should encourage good 
 and substantial shade for it, with careful draining 
 across the slopes. When land has been burnt, 
 for the first two or three months there are 
 practically no weeds to contend with ; but after 
 the first rains they appear, straggling out from 
 the surrounding jungles, creeping up from water- 
 courses, and stealing along under shelter of the 
 great fallen logs. Then is the time to keep the 
 upper hand of them. Once let skirmishers of 
 the advancing army enter into undisputed posses- 
 
IO6 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 sion of the ground and practically they will make 
 it all their own. 
 
 At such times hand-weeding is generally suffi- 
 cient ; and if the head man or maistry can be relied 
 upon, women and boys will do the work very well, 
 while more cheaply than men, whom they excel also 
 in the necessary art of pulling up the weeds root 
 and branch, so that there shall be nothing left to 
 germinate. If, however, labour has been scarce, as 
 it will be at times, and the surface of the 'estate 
 begins to show visibly green with uninvited vegeta- 
 tion, then resource must be had to " mamoties," 
 implements something between a Dutch hoe and a 
 light spade, with the blade set at right angles to the 
 short and straight handle. Men are required to 
 wield these, of course, and the day chosen should 
 be one of sunshine, so all weeds may wither directly 
 they are hoed up. Not more soil than necessary 
 should be drawn away from the stems of the bushes, 
 nor indeed should the land be deeply disturbed at 
 any time under this system of " no weeds," for rains 
 then carry away the fine fertile tilth much more 
 readily. Fear of loosening and so losing the mould 
 should always make us weed by hand when it can 
 possibly be managed. 
 
 Whatever our mode of weeding is, the workers 
 keep between their own rows of Coffee, and thus 
 maistries, who walk to and fro upon the land passed 
 over, can see how work has been done, and promptly 
 discover and send back any delinquent found guilty 
 
WEEDS. IO7 
 
 of leaving growing anything but Coffee behind 
 him. 
 
 The plants that steal out from the jungle and 
 spring into life amongst the trim rows of Coffee, with 
 the wonderful spontaneousness of tropical vegetation, 
 are many and various. " White weed," "Spanish 
 needle," and common bracken fern are amongst 
 those most troublesome and widespread, though 
 every district usually has its own special kinds. 
 Should any of these be rampant (and I have seen 
 them matted into an almost impenetrable breast- 
 high cover ! ) then it will be difficult to remove 
 them off the ground. They must be buried in 
 long trenches between the rows of plants a long, 
 troublesome, and costly work or burnt in heaps 
 on the roadways. The bracken is one of the 
 worst of weeds, and is identical with the English 
 form. The new hand is surprised to find him- 
 self, though under the tropics, knee-deep in fern, 
 and surrounded by mountains and torrents, all 
 exact counterparts of far-away Scottish or Welsh 
 scenery. 
 
 For disposing of small weeds, it is a good plan to 
 have square holes of say 5 ft. by 5 ft. at distances of 
 250 yards along the lower sides of the roads. Into 
 these all weeds are tumbled from the gathering. sacks 
 and trodden down. Finally, the whole art of weed- 
 ing may be said to lie in the simple formula to 
 begin early and keep on at it. 
 
 In general this operation has to be done twice 
 
IO8 COFFEE *. ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 a-month less often in the hot weather and more 
 frequently in the monsoon. The cost will vary 
 exactly in regard to the amount of work, but if an 
 estate is in good order in this respect, two monthly 
 weedings, costing from fourteen annas to one rupee 
 per acre, should keep it free and nicely clean. 
 
iog 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 PRUNING. 
 
 THIS operation, entirely an artificial one, has for its 
 purpose, firstly, the keeping of Coffee trees at such a 
 height that the crop may be readily gathered ; 
 secondly, cutting them down for protection against 
 wind on exposed slopes ; thirdly, to let light and air 
 into the bushes ; and, fourthly, to select such wood 
 as is best fitted to produce crop, and for the dis- 
 carding of most of that which would run to leaf only, 
 or is past bearing. 
 
 " Handling" is an intermediary form of pruning 
 pruning, in fact (for the most part), without a 
 knife when fingers and nails are used for the 
 selection of young buds likely to make well-placed 
 and fruitful stems and the removal of surplus 
 shoots. 
 
 There are none of those essential works that have 
 not given rise to contentions amongst planters, with 
 whom all sorts of theories are rife upon the subject. 
 Under the first section comes the question of what 
 height we are to allow bushes to grow, in order that 
 they may cover our ground nicely with spreading 
 branches, and we yet be able to gather their ripe 
 crop cheaply and expeditiously. The largest-bearing 
 
no COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 extent of plant is also required which can be safely 
 carried in view of the prevailing winds. 
 
 In American States, as a rule, Coffee bushes are 
 allowed to grow far taller than in India or Ceylon. 
 They overtop the stature of a man at maturity, and 
 thus their crop has to be gathered from stageings, 
 a plan that does not recommend itself to English 
 planters. Grown, as they generally are, in sheltered 
 hollows, they may be allowed to reach any height 
 with safety as far as wind is concerned, but in our 
 own possessions plantations usually occupy slopes of 
 wind-swept hills; hence " toping" at a moderate 
 distance from the ground is essential. Perhaps, 
 where wind is likely to be strong and soil is not very 
 rich, 2 ft. to 3 ft. may be regarded as a judicious 
 height to arrest further upward growth by removal 
 of the topmost bud of the main shoot. " In a 
 sheltered situation, where the soil is good and the 
 climate moderately warm and humid," says Hall ; 
 " in other words, under conditions the most favour- 
 able to the growth of the Coffee tree, a maximum 
 height of 5 ft. may be adopted. It must be remem- 
 bered, however, that very rarely is such a combination 
 of favourable circumstances to be met with, and that, 
 consequently, this will not be found a suitable 
 height." The opposite extreme is when planters 
 cut their bushes on monsoon-swept ridges down to 
 1 8 inches, with very satisfactory results, it is said ; 
 though for our own part we should hardly care to 
 plant such land, or, if it were planted, should try at 
 
PRUNING. Ill 
 
 once to cultivate some sort of shelter-belts around 
 the unfortunate garden. 
 
 From 2 ft. to 5 ft., then, is the range of Arabian 
 Coffee on the hills of Ceylon and Southern India ; 
 it being borne in mind that by topping we induce a 
 tree to throw out lateral branches for crop bearing, 
 and keep it within a reasonable "get-at-able" size. 
 Regarding Liberian Coffee, one manager in the low 
 country of Ceylon says he holds topping these trees 
 at all to be a very objectionable operation. The 
 common Coffee plant can be forced into an artificial 
 form without sacrifice of any crop, because there is a 
 period, longer or shorter, between crop and blossom, 
 in which old wood can be eliminated ; but he does 
 not very clearly see how artificial form is to be 
 advantageously imposed upon a tree that carries its 
 full crop all the year round, and on which pruning 
 can only be carried out at a sacrifice of crop. One 
 object of forcing Arabian Coffee into artificial shape 
 is to get the whole growth under hand, whereby 
 facilitating and cheapening the gathering of crop ; 
 but the average Liberian tree puts out its first 
 branches at a height of stem little short of that at 
 which the Arabian plant is usually topped, so that 
 this end cannot be answered by topping at 6 or 7 ft. 
 High trees planted close together are apt to be thin 
 and unproductive about their lower branches. These 
 often are little more than long twigs, tagged with a 
 leaf or two, thus making the "umbrella trees" of 
 
 deserted nurseries and abandoned plantations. They 
 
 ^ 
 
ii2 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 have to be reduced within reasonable stature, and 
 very carefully handled subsequently. Bushes, on the 
 other hand, unduly dwarfed, may, if necessary, be 
 allowed to fulfil their natural propensity to rise, one, 
 the strongest of the many green, rapid-growing 
 suckers always thrown out, being selected as a new 
 ascending axis and the others rigorously suppressed. 
 " Plants should be topped as soon as they have 
 reached the desired height. At this stage of their 
 growth this can easily be done by a pinch between 
 the finger and thumb nails. As, however, some 
 plants will be found more forward than others, a 
 knife will be required for use in cases where the 
 wood is more matured. Each coolie should be pro- 
 vided with a measuring stick cut to the proper 
 length, and holding this against the stem of the 
 plant, be instructed to snip off the pair of young 
 primary branches next above the stick at about an 
 inch from the stem, the latter being then also cut off 
 above them. By this means the joint or point of 
 union of the amputated branches will form a sort of 
 band, and prevent the stem from being subsequently 
 split by weight of the next branches pendant on 
 either side when laden with crop." Checking the 
 upward growth is only a first business ; the next is 
 that of " handling," or, in other words, removing 
 while still young and tender all those shoots growing 
 crossways in the tree or growing too near the main 
 stem. The Coffee bush, as nature meant it to be, 
 is a beautiful sample of order and regularity. From 
 
PRUNING. 113 
 
 the straight central trunk shoot out at regular dis- 
 tances pairs of branches which grow from opposite 
 faces of the stem, each pair making a cross with the 
 one above it ; thus, if the first two point respectively 
 east and west, then those above them will be north 
 and south, the next east and west again. These 
 are the primaries, and botanically their arrangement 
 is described as alternate and opposite a method 
 of growth ensuring each leaf as much light, air, and 
 room as possible. 
 
 Three or four inches from their juncture with 
 the trunk they in turn give rise to opposite pairs 
 of secondaries ; but these lie all in the same plane 
 with the surface of their leaves to the sky, and 
 their under part to the, ground. This may tend 
 to make some of our sentences better understood. 
 
 In handling an operation which should be done 
 at regular intervals, and may well precede monthly 
 weedings in the clearing we remove first of all 
 all suckers arising from the ground or stem, all 
 branches tending to grow out of their true direction, 
 and lastly, all those buds on the primaries within 
 six inches of the main stem about to produce 
 secondaries if left alone. By this means is secured 
 a clear space of a foot in diameter down the middle 
 of the tree, light and air let into it, and our pros- 
 pects of a good, abundant, and healthy series of 
 crops greatly increased. 
 
 So far the work of the pruner is simple enough : 
 it is on the question of general pruning, before or 
 
H4 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 after crop, and the lightness or heaviness of the 
 operation, that opinions vary. 
 
 Mr. W. D. Bosanquet, a well-known Ceylon 
 planter, has recently made some sensible remarks 
 on the subject, which we think deserve quotation : 
 
 " In high districts Coffee wood takes from nine months 
 to a year, sometimes even more, to arrive at maturity. In 
 the days before leaf disease, the difference of opinion was 
 one between pruning before or after the blossoming season, 
 with the object of assisting the wood either to increase its 
 blossom, or else to bring its crop on after the blossom had set. 
 Now our main endeavour is to help the trees to set their 
 blossom, and if this is attained we can help the trees by the 
 aid of manure. The effect of pruning is to cause the tree to 
 throw out a fresh flush of wood, and from this wood is selected 
 in the ordinary course that which is to bear the following crop. 
 
 " Now if your pruning is done early i.e., before the i5th 
 say of April and your wood is accustomed to mature in nine 
 months, you are really just at the right time, whereas by 
 pruning after the blossoms are over the wood subsequently 
 formed would still be green in the beginning of the following 
 year. If a late pruning is adopted systematically then it must 
 be necessary at the time of pruning to leave on the trees such 
 wood as has formed before the blossoming season commenced, 
 as in an ordinary blossoming season the formation of new 
 wood should be checked, and the old wood be hardening : 
 your late pruning is therefore adopted with the view of giving 
 your wood at least twelve months in which to mature. In the 
 majority of cases I should give my verdict for early pruning, 
 and for this reason, that where Coffee is intended by nature to 
 grow there it will in ordinary seasons mature its wood in nine 
 months at the most ; still if I had to deal with an estate where 
 the longer period was required I should then prune late, but, 
 guided by the balance of probability, I should at the same 
 time hasten to substitute for the Coffee some cultivation better 
 suited to the climate. 
 
PRUNING. 115 
 
 " Whether the pruning should be heavy or light is a very 
 important question, and I feel here that I am treading on 
 delicate ground. It is certainly necessary that the pruning 
 should be adjusted according to the power of the tree to make 
 root, for it is to this power of the tree to make root below 
 ground that it will owe its ability to form wood above, and 
 in these days of leaf disease and wet seasons the root 
 development is only too much checked already. The amount 
 of leaf on the tree mainly determines the development of root, 
 for the evaporation or transpiration from the leaves is the 
 cause of the suction exercised by the roots on the soil. If 
 therefore you unduly reduce your foliage you reduce the power 
 of the tree to nourish itself from the fertilizing matters of the 
 soil. In a strong soil this is not so much the case and may 
 be an advantage, as the upward flow is not immediately 
 checked by the reduction of the foliage, and consequently 
 there may be a concentration of food material in the roots 
 which, when fresh foliage has formed itself, will afford extra 
 nourishment to the tree if carefully regulated by the subse- 
 quent handling. Prune therefore according to the strength of 
 your soil as evidenced by the vigour of the tree, and pay the 
 utmost attention to the after handling. 
 
 " Handling I look upon as the most important work upon 
 the estate as being the real regulator of the crop. Too often 
 I notice the inferior labour of the estate turned on to do this 
 work. By the handling you direct the strength of the tree 
 into right wood. The handling after the pruning is the time 
 when you select the wood which is to bear the following crop, 
 and no more wood should be left on the tree than it has the 
 power to bring the crop of to maturity. At this time, therefore, 
 you cannot give too much attention to the work, and all your 
 subsequent handlings should be directed towards the same 
 object viz., turning the strength of the tree into the wood you 
 have reserved for crop. In conclusion, what we require is 
 the training of our faculties of observation: a few simple 
 observations such as marking the branches at the time of 
 blossoming, or the watching of the wood from the time of its 
 formation to the time when it has borne its crop, and the 
 
n6 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 noting down the result will lead on to making further 
 observations, and the comparison of notes among ourselves 
 will add to the mass of general information. But above all 
 things have in you a reason for what you do founded upon 
 accurate experiment." 
 
 This work, in fact, requires care and a knowledge 
 of the estate, and what may be looked for from it 
 in the way of nourishment for the trees. Pruning 
 in gardens where the handling has been constant 
 and careful will be a much lighter and pleasanter 
 work than where it has been neglected. 
 
 Should the planter come into charge of bushes 
 never under the knife, and are almost hopeless 
 tangles of twig and branch, he should then pro- 
 ceed cautiously, clearing out the centre of the tree 
 one year, and removing all suckers from above or 
 below, while the next year he may select his crop- 
 bearing wood and take out all cross-growing and 
 superfluous material. 
 
 In all pruning operations it should be re- 
 membered that roots and leaves are intimately 
 related, and anything the one experiences will be 
 inevitably felt by the other. 
 
 " Toping" can be done for Rs. 2 per acre, 
 and the work should be carried out just as the 
 green bark is turning brown. Pruning and handling 
 will probably come to between Rs. 10 and Rs. 14 
 per acre. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ENEMIES. 
 
 THE profits derived from healthy Coffee are so 
 large, that were it not for many enemies which 
 hamper the planter's struggles and stultify his best 
 efforts, his occupaion would be one of the most 
 profitable in the world. As it is he has to con- 
 tend with numerous foes, and the more lowly and 
 minute forms have proved themselves the most 
 difficult to combat in those long struggles which 
 have been waged since Coffee cultivation rose to 
 its present importance in the various territories of 
 the Crown. 
 
 From the mammalian kingdom he has not 
 much to fear, or is generally able to devise efficient 
 remedies against their ravages. Amongst 
 
 ANIMALS, 
 
 Elephants and hill buffaloes, as well as domestic 
 cattle of natives, sometimes do considerable damage. 
 Deer of all kinds, and particularly sambour, com- 
 mon to every part of India and Ceylon, roam in 
 wooded districts, often coming out of an evening 
 into the planter's coffee or guinea grass clearings 
 to browze upon what they can find. This is 
 
n8 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 chiefly in remote and newly opened forests, where 
 their visits afford the Englishman a chance of a 
 little sport at his doors after the day's work is 
 done a successful shot stocking his larder with 
 very good venison, and its echoes effectually scaring 
 off, for a long time, the remainder of the herd. 
 Jackals and monkeys take a few of the sweet, ripe 
 Coffee fruit, but so small a quantity as to be insig- 
 nificant. Not so the coffee rat (Golunda Ellioti). 
 This quaint little animal is sometimes an enemy of 
 importance. Its usual habitat is in the jungle, but 
 when pressed by hunger it comes forth and fares, 
 no doubt luxuriously, on the buds, blossoms, and 
 bark of the planter's bushes. If twigs are too 
 slender to bear its weight, it nibbles them through 
 and enjoys the feast upon the ground. The young 
 green bark is eaten, the leaves dragged into the 
 underwood and used for nests. These nests, placed 
 in a thick bush, are about 6 or 9 inches in diameter. 
 " Round and round the bush," Sir Walter Elliot 
 says, " are sometimes observed small beaten path- 
 ways, along which the little animal seems habitually 
 to pass. Its motion is slow, and it does not seem 
 to have the power of leaping and springing by 
 which the rats in general avoid danger. Its habits 
 are solitary and diurnal, feeding in the mornings 
 and evenings." 
 
 Dr. Jerdon, of Nellore, remarks: " Yanadees 
 of Nellore catch this rat, surrounding the nest bush 
 and seizing it as it issues forth, which its com- 
 
ENEMIES. IIQ 
 
 paratively slow action enables them to do easily." 
 According to Sir Emerson Tennent, " The Malabar 
 coolies are so fond of their flesh that they evince 
 a preference for those districts in which the Coffee 
 plantations are most subject to their incursions. 
 They fry the rats in cocoanut-oil, and convert them 
 into curry." Kellaart says that on one estate alone, 
 and on one day, a thousand have been killed. 
 Their migrations in search of food are like those 
 of the Scandinavian lemming. Poison and traps 
 thin their numbers, and trench-pitfalls, broader 
 at the bottom than at the top, eighteen inches 
 deep, destroy many at times. They seldom eat 
 the ripe Coffee berries. Probably there is no way 
 of clearing an infested plantation so good as once 
 a-month forming a long line of coolies, each coolie 
 armed with a stout two-foot stick, and regularly 
 beating through Coffee and belts. The natives 
 will thoroughly enjoy this, and it is not expensive. 
 
 Flying foxes are sometimes troublesome. To 
 guard against their depredations one planter sug- 
 gests taking a light wattle stick or bamboo " Fix 
 a little paint-brush to the end in a transverse 
 direction; then have a pot of coal-tar prepared. 
 Dip a little of it, and touch the leaves here and 
 there about the trees where the animals are likely 
 to settle. The tar will not hurt the trees. If some 
 pyroligneous acid be added to the tar it will be 
 all the more effective, on account of the stronger 
 smell. The tar and acid must be heated con- 
 
I2O COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 siderably in order to make them combine." The 
 same may be said of a species of the delightful 
 little palm squirrel (Gilehri, in Hindi ; Beral, Lakki, 
 in Bengali ; Alalu, in Canarese; Vodata, in Telegu), 
 which comes up after the monsoon and takes a 
 small per-centage of Coffee cherries, leaving the 
 undigestable seeds in its track along logs and 
 branches. Few birds are accused of doing damage 
 to Coffee. On the contrary, most species should 
 be encouraged by every possible means (a view, we 
 are glad to see, that has just been accepted by the 
 Ceylon Planters' Association), for they are un- 
 doubted destroyers of much undesirable insect life. 
 Amongst the 
 
 INSECTS 
 
 Are some of the worst foes the planter has to reckon 
 with. One of these, " the grub," is the fat yellow 
 larva of a species of cockchafer, a creature doing 
 much harm even in England. One Superintendent 
 writes as follows : 
 
 " The instinct and voracity of these creatures are mar- 
 vellous, for they will destroy and greedily devour almost any 
 vegetable or animal substance they fall in with, and they 
 have a wonderful faculty for selecting first, as food, that which 
 is most palatable to them. Coffee rootlets seem to be their 
 special weakness ; but even the bitter rootlet of cinchona, in 
 the absence of the former, is not despised by them, nor is that 
 of grass and almost every description of weed. I am told that 
 they will not attack the roots of tea bushes, but of this I 
 am very sceptical, and, were I planting it where I knew they 
 existed, I should adopt ever}" possible means of reducing their 
 
ENEMIES. 121 
 
 numbers. In dealing with this pest, we should be content 
 with a patient and persistent course of ameliorating measures. 
 The well-known applications of lime and salt as insect 
 destroyers might be tried with hope of success." 
 
 To destroy them utterly he says : 
 
 " This can be accomplished by applications of fertilizers 
 obnoxious to the insect, dug broadcast into the soil. In 
 spreading the manure over a larger area we not only induce a 
 larger root surface, but we reduce the chances of every rootlet 
 being reached, and make grub life harder. 
 
 "From constant communication with the Entomologist 
 for the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and through 
 experiments carefully conducted here, I have come to the 
 conclusion that rape cake, in which mustard seed forms a 
 considerable proportion, is a remedy as well as a valuable 
 manure, for I have found it is the only substance of the kind 
 that they cannot exist on. Castor and cocoanut cake they 
 seem thoroughly to enjoy." 
 
 Recent issues of the Ceylon Government Gazette 
 contain a correspondence on this " grub " which 
 ravages the Coffee plantations of the island. The 
 principal, and in fact only important, document is 
 a lengthy report by Mr. R. McLachlan on the 
 subject. Some forty species of beetles were sub- 
 mitted to him, but special interest centred in twenty 
 of these, all or nearly all of which were allied to 
 the Melolontha vulgaris, or common European cock- 
 chafer. Mr. McLachlan assumes that no under- 
 growth of grass or other herbaceous plants is 
 allowed in the plantations, for the grubs of the 
 European cockchafer and its allies feed on the 
 
122 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 roots of such plants, and not as a rule on those of 
 trees and shrubs. But the larvae would make their 
 way from the roots of the weeds to those of the 
 Coffee plant. Whether hardening the surface of 
 the ground around the plant, so as to render it 
 difficult for the female to deposit her eggs, would 
 be of any efficacy is a point for the planters to 
 decide for themselves in view of the welfare of the 
 plant at the time. Mr. McLachlan professes him- 
 self unable to suggest any chemical poison for the 
 grub, although he thinks that dilute kerosene oil 
 might be tried. He advises, " above all things, " 
 to encourage insectivorous birds to the fullest 
 possible extent, and adds that a flock of crows 
 probably destroy more grubs in an hour than would 
 be possible by any artificial means in a week ; the 
 systematic catching of the perfect insect or larva is 
 also suggested as beneficial, and hand - picking 
 should be resorted to where labour is cheap. 
 
 G. F. Halliky, the " Champion of Weeds," 
 says : 
 
 " Weeds are a perfect cure for grub. A few years ago, 
 the upper part of Maria Estate (Lindula) was very bad with 
 grub ; the proprietor allowed it to get rank, so that the grub 
 should have something to feed on, and not eat the roots of 
 the Coffee, and the cure was perfect. If we are not allowed 
 to cultivate the green crop for Coffee that Nature provides, 
 then Indian corn is the next best we can grow, provided 
 the stalks are 'buried before the pods form, but ' white weed ' 
 kept in bounds is undoubtedly the best. In former years, 
 if one looked at the back of a healthy Coffee leaf, he could 
 
ENEMIES. 123 
 
 see with the naked eye the tiny mouths along the midrib, 
 wide open, sucking in the humus arising from the weeds. 
 Look at a leaf now, and all that can be seen are a few knots. 
 The humus was kept up in dry weather by the fall of dew 
 at night." 
 
 Then there is the white or mealy bug, and 
 the brown or scaley bug. The first (Pseudococcus 
 Adonidum) is of a light, dirty brownish colour and 
 slightly downy. Both larva and pupa are active, 
 i.e., move about. Propagation goes on amongst 
 them all the year round. They affect hot dry 
 localities, and are found not only on the branches 
 of the trees, but also on the roots to a depth of one 
 foot. The white bug of the Ceylon Coffee trees 
 seems to be identical with the species which is 
 neutralized in the conservatories of Europe. 
 
 The brown, black or scaley bug (Lecanium Coffece), 
 is a minute, dark-coloured insect, attaching itself 
 to the tenderest shoots of plants; " the females 
 have the appearance of small scallop shells adhering 
 to a leaf or twig in the same manner as a scallop 
 to a rock. In a short time the whole of the green 
 wood of the tree will become covered with these, 
 and coated over with a black, soot-like powder, 
 which is an excretion of the insect." These bugs 
 are usually most troublesome at elevations of 
 3,000 feet in cold, damp localities. They have a 
 host of enemies and parasites of their own amongst 
 the Hymenoptera, yet contrive to thrive amazingly 
 
124 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 when once they get a footing in a plantation. 1843 
 is said to have been the date of their first appear- 
 ance in Ceylon. All that the planter can do to 
 check their ravages is to dust each tree, on the 
 first appearance of the blight, with a mixture of 
 pounded saltpetre and quicklime in equal parts ; 
 or he may set intelligent coolies to brush over them 
 with a mixture of equal parts soft-soap, tar, tobacco, 
 and spirits of turpentine. This may do some good. 
 Then we have the borer (Xylotrechus quadrupes), 
 a pretty and interesting beetle to the entomologist, 
 but a thing of dread to Coffee owners. It is a 
 longicorn beetle of the family of Clytidce represented 
 in England by the active wasp-beetles often seen 
 on sandy banks and warm palings. In colour the 
 Indian specimens are black or very dark brown, 
 with light yellow or white bands running trans- 
 versely across their elytra, making when the wings 
 are closed V-shaped marks. The four posterior 
 femora are of a pink colour. This beetle, which 
 destroyed hundreds of acres of Coffee in Coorg 
 during 1865 and 1866, and has been ever since more 
 or less destructive, lays its eggs on the stem of 
 Coffee shrubs usually in weedy and neglected 
 plantations a few inches above the ground. When 
 these have been hatched the young " caterpillar " 
 works its way into the stem of the plant and 
 drives a burrow up through the pith, thereby 
 effectually killing the plant. C. P. Hull's statement 
 that the beetle eats a way into the plant and 
 
ENEMIES. 125 
 
 deposits Us larva there is entomologically inaccurate. 
 If the trees attacked are pulled down sideways 
 they snap off at the point where the grub inside 
 commenced its upward progress, and the only thing 
 to do is to burn them and their intruder, replanting 
 the vacancy or suffering the stump to throw up a 
 sucker, which it will often do. Dr. Bidie thinks 
 " shade " is amongst the best remedies we have 
 for this pest, not so troublesome now, however, as 
 it was some time ago. 
 
 Certain weevils members of a very world-wide 
 and everywhere destructive order occasionally do 
 damage on the estates, especially one small brilliant 
 green species which covers acres of plants and eats 
 up every leaf. P. L. Simmonds' statement, again, 
 that it is " two and a-half inches long by one 
 broad," we take it, is a slip of a generally cautious 
 pen. 
 
 Besides these beetles there is the white ant, 
 which plasters our bushes up to their crowns with 
 hard mortar, effectually smothering them. In some 
 districts it is unknown, in others it is a dreaded foe. 
 Although white ants, says the Friend of India, are 
 a pest as much to certain crops as to anything 
 else, they are said to perform a service to agri- 
 culture on unoccupied ground similar to that per- 
 formed by the earthworm in England. They are 
 specially destructive to sugar-cane, and have actually 
 been the cause of stopping the cultivation of the 
 cane in several pergunnahs of the Cawnpore and 
 
126 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 other districts. Mr. Ridley, of the Lucknow Horti- 
 cultural Gardens, however, has found a remedy for 
 the depredations of the white ant in the field which 
 he has proved invaluable. Kerosine oil will not of 
 itself mix with water, but if first shaken up with 
 milk it will amalgamate with that, and can be then 
 diluted with water to any desired extent. A little 
 of this mixture, we are told, goes a long way, and 
 proves a very effective insecticide. A mixture of 
 two parts of oil to one of sour milk, " churned " 
 together, mixed completely, and this mixture diluted 
 to the extent of one wineglassful to four gallons 
 of water, will not injuriously affect either plants 
 or grass, but will effectually keep off white ants. 
 Carbolic acid and also coal tar have been tried at 
 different times with very partial results. Coal tar 
 poured hot into their holes, and mixed with the 
 material of the ant hill, is more effectual and lasting 
 than carbolic acid, and is less costly. But to destroy 
 them some method of poisoning must be resorted 
 to. M. C. Road, of Hudson, Ohio, says ants may 
 be destroyed by the following application : Mix 
 thoroughly one part of Paris green in four parts of 
 flour, and stir the whole into such a quantity of 
 molasses as will run into the small holes in the 
 ground in the ant hills. Most of them will be 
 poisoned by the first application, and one or two 
 more in a few days will finish the work. 
 
 It may serve the experimenting planter to know 
 in this connection that the three most important 
 
ENEMIES. 127 
 
 and valuable materials now in common use as 
 insecticides in the United States are 
 
 (1) Arsenical Compounds ; 
 
 (2) Emulsions of Petroleum ; 
 
 (3) Pyrethrum. 
 
 
 1. Arsenical Compounds. Paris green and London 
 
 purple may be used in suspension in water in the 
 proportion of from half-a-pound to one pound of 
 the powder to forty gallons of water. When mixed 
 with flour or other diluent the proportion should 
 be one part of the poison to twenty-five or more 
 of the diluent. 
 
 2. Petroleum Emulsions. A satisfactory emulsion 
 may be made in the following proportions : Kerosine, 
 i quart ; condensed milk, 12 fluid oz. ;4.diluted with 
 water, 36 oz. This is emulsified by violent churning, 
 and before use it may be diluted with water from 
 twelve to twenty times. Equal parts of kerosine 
 and condensed milk may also be thoroughly mixed 
 or churned together, and then diluted ad libitum 
 with water. 
 
 3. Pyrethrum. Pyrethrum can be applied (i) as 
 dry powder ; (2) as a fume ; (3) as an alcoholic 
 extract, diluted ; (4) by simply stirring the powder 
 in water ; (5) as a tea or decoction. As a powder 
 it may be mixed with from ten to twenty times its 
 bulk of wood-ashes or flour, but before use should 
 
128 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 remain for twenty-four hours with the diluent in 
 an air-tight vessel. 
 
 Again, the ant-tormented Englishman who can 
 procure " Little's Chemical Fluid" might be told 
 that when a portion of one of the yards at the 
 sheep quarantine, Indooroopilly, was attacked and 
 partially eaten away by the white ant, the quaran-. 
 tine keeper poured a bucketful of liquid from the 
 sheep dip on one of the posts, and, noticing that 
 the ants drop dead immediately on coming in 
 contact with the liquid, he applied it to all the 
 posts and rails that had been attacked. After 
 a considerable number of weeks had elapsed, 
 the fencing was thoroughly examined and found 
 perfectly free from the ants. The liquid used in 
 the dip was Little's Chemical Fluid, mixed in 
 water in the proportion of one of the fluid to 100 
 parts of water. The price of the fluid, wholesale, 
 is only 8s. 6d. per gallon, so that if it is found 
 to be effective, there can scarcely be found a 
 cheaper remedy. 
 
 Grasshoppers amuse themselves by shearing off 
 the young shoots and buds ; while the coffee mite 
 (A cants Coffece), closely allied to the " red spider" 
 of Europe, though hardly perceptible to the naked 
 eye, yet withers the foliage of whole hill sides at a 
 time. " It feeds on the upper side of the leaves, 
 where, amogst the live insects, empty skins and 
 minute red globules are found in plenty. These 
 globules are fixed by a style to the leaf, and are 
 
ENEMIES. I2Q 
 
 the young in the first stage of existence ; the style 
 is the mouth, but the rest of the body is a perfect 
 globule without any appendages whatever. These 
 latter, however, gradually break forth, and when 
 the animalcule is furnished with all it requires, it 
 lets go its hold." 
 
 Larva of many lepidopterous insects also do 
 much harm, especially in some South American 
 and West Indian districts. 
 
 FUNGI. 
 
 All these drags on the planter's prosperity, how- 
 ever, sink into insignificance by the side of a minute 
 and consequently intangible fungus. The leaf 
 disease (the Hemileia vastatrix) made its appear- 
 ance in Ceylon in 1870. The effect was felt when 
 the very next crop came to be gathered. But for 
 some time to come the disease only appeared every 
 other year, and there were alternate seasons of good 
 years and bad. At first every effort was made to 
 fight it. Quacks and professors were alike con- 
 sulted ; but the experts from Kew Gardens were 
 able to do as little as Mr. Eugene Schrottky from 
 Bombay. In 1856, when the Coffee plants in Ceylon 
 may be said to have been in their pristine vigour, 
 the average crop of berries per acre was 5 cwts. ; 
 latterly, owing to the ravages of the disease, it is only 
 2i cwts. ; that is, the profitable margin of the crop 
 has disappeared. There is now, of course, much 
 more land under Coffee than there was in 1856. If 
 
130 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 the same rate of productiveness had been continued, 
 Ceylon should now have yielded something over a 
 million cwts. of plantation Coffee. The present 
 yield is not half that amount. A recent island crop 
 of Coffee was only 436,991 cwts., being less than 
 that of any previous year since the disastrous year 
 1854, which is talked of in Ceylon very much as 
 the year after the Bombay Share mania is talked 
 of here. The export of beans in 1881 was 219,674 
 cwts. less than 1880, and 361,344 cwts. less than the 
 average export of the previous ten years. At the 
 customs' rate of Rs. 50 per cwt. this would be an 
 annual falling-off of Rs. 1,80,67,200. 
 
 There are other reasons, unfortunately, in addi- 
 tion to the leaf disease to prevent the Ceylon 
 planters taking a cheerful view of their position. 
 The estates best suited to Coffee have been worked 
 out. There is now no such soil left as when the 
 districts of Pussellawa, Nilambe, Dumbara, Rangala, 
 Hunasgiriya, and Kotmale were in their prime. For 
 many years the planters kept up the quality of the 
 soil by returning to it, in the form of artificial 
 manures, some of the essential elements. They are 
 too poor now to make any attempts of this kind. 
 In 1877 the value of imported manures is given in 
 the Custom-house returns at Rs. 26,14,019. In the 
 returns of 1881 the value is only Rs. 3,75,883. Then, 
 again, the area over which Coffee is now grown has 
 been greatly extended. The Brazils alone produce 
 more than half the total amount of Coffee consumed 
 
ENEMIES. 131 
 
 in the world, while Ceylon scarcely ranks for one- 
 eighteenth of that quantity ; and in the Brazils, as 
 yet, the dreaded leaf-disease has not made its 
 appearance much felt. New fields are being opened 
 out every day. Java and Sumatra already produce 
 more than twice the outturn of Ceylon. India is 
 running it very close. Coffee planting is one of the 
 attractions in the new English venture in Borneo ; 
 and the Commissioner of British Burmah is doing 
 all he can to make Tavoy into a Coffee district. 
 
 Altogether the planters have had a very hard 
 time of late years. The brightest spot on their 
 horizon is the hopes which Tea holds out to them 
 of retrieving their fortunes. A correspondent of 
 an Indian paper from which we have already 
 quoted some facts says, speaking of the Ceylon 
 planters : 
 
 " The success of their Tea enterprise is very remarkable : 
 one estate between Colombo and Kandy is said to have given 
 in one year 1,000 Ibs. of dry leaf to the acre. It may help your 
 readers to appreciate this if I mention that it is found worth 
 while to cultivate estates in the Nilgiris with so low a yield 
 as 150 Ibs., and that 400 Ibs. is considered an excellent result 
 in the north of India. What makes this outturn the more 
 remarkable is, that the Mariawatti Estate, as it is called, 
 is planted on land formerly occupied by Coffee, but which had 
 been abandoned and allowed to grow into jungle. We could, 
 unhappily, find plenty of that kind of land (hitherto supposed 
 to be utterly valueless) in Wynaad, and as this district has 
 been pronounced most suitable for Tea, which has done very 
 well in one or two small plantations already existing, there 
 are only two obstacles in our way the want of a steady 
 supply of labour, and the remarkable tightness of the local 
 
132 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT, 
 
 money market. The first difficulty has never been really 
 grappled with, for on a Coffee estate it is usual to do but little 
 work from March to the end of May, and the coolies are paid 
 up and encouraged to go home during those months ; but the 
 second is a floorer. It is at once our admiration and despair 
 to see how the Ceylon planters with their Coffee gone, and 
 their cinchona bark selling for twopence a-pound go gaily 
 on, filling new land, buying expensive machinery, and behaving 
 generally as if they were in the most affluent circumstances." 
 
 To return to Hemileia vastatrix, the Coffee-leaf 
 disease, it must be owned at once that no practical 
 remedy has yet been found to modify its ravages. 
 It is a minute fungus which first attacks the 
 under sides of the leaves, causing spots or blotches, 
 at first yellow, but subsequently turning black. 
 These blotches are, on examination, found to be 
 covered with a pale orange-coloured dust or powder 
 which easily rubs off. The blotches gradually in- 
 crease in size until at last they have spread over 
 the leaves, which then drop off, leaving the tree 
 in a short time perfectly bare, in which state they 
 are unable to produce crop or bring to perfection 
 the fruit they may have on them. 
 
 Carbolic acid and fumigation with sulphur and 
 other substances have been tried, and an infinite 
 variety of theories started to account for the origin 
 of the spores. One correspondent writes from 
 Batavia : 
 
 " Regarding Coffee planting, a great deal more is talked 
 about the leaf disease than is sanctioned by facts ; the truth is 
 that the disease was known long ago, for so far back as 1840 
 
ENEMIES. 133 
 
 I was told that it was nothing new, and that it was caused 
 by planting dadap between the Coffee plants for shade ; and 
 my experience since has convinced me that this is the case, for 
 wherever Coffee is planted in forest land, or where no dadap 
 trees are used for shade, there is no sign of leaf disease " 
 
 and many other kindred " fads." High cultivation 
 and abundance of suitable manure are all that can 
 be recommended, with plentiful shade in the hotter 
 localities. Very possibly a succession of wet seasons 
 greatly tends to encourage the disease, for it should 
 be remembered that long-continued rain washes the 
 fertilizing matter of the soil into the subsoil and 
 therefore away from the reach of feeding rootlets; 
 while if a soil becomes water - logged, as it did 
 recently on many estates, the effect is to destroy 
 the nitrates present and evolve nitrogen as gas, 
 thus causing a very considerable loss of plant food. 
 
 The rot shows itself most commonly in damp, 
 cold, upland plantations by the young leaves and 
 shoots of the trees turning black as though covered 
 with soot. Hull recommends draining the ground 
 and laying down mana grass two or three inches 
 thick over the surface. 
 
 In Dominica the planters have suffered very 
 heavily from the larva of a small moth, Cemiostoma 
 co/eellum, upon which it is almost impossible to 
 wage effective war. 
 
 In Fiji they have, especially on flats and Coffee 
 close to the jungle, a disease called " black leaf," 
 which is unknown in Ceylon unless " black rot" 
 
134 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 is the same. It generally comes on after several 
 days of continuous rain, and lasts as long as the 
 weather is at all rainy or moist, and does a 
 great deal of damage to the foliage and crop 
 while it lasts. The disease goes up the stem of 
 the Coffee and along every branch in the form of 
 a thin cobwebby string, which as soon as it reaches 
 the leaves covers all the under surface with stuff 
 resembling tissue paper, or say a cobweb with 
 the meshes so close as to look like extremely 
 fine muslin. This layer chokes the leaves and 
 kills them effectually. The disease when in a 
 bad form, after killing the oldest leaves, goes right 
 into the top pair of the youngest leaves, and 
 even kills them, leaving the bough entirely denuded 
 of all foliage. Should it come across the berries 
 it surrounds them with the cobweb, and dries 
 them up, making those beans light and worthless. 
 Should the bean happen to be ripe there is a 
 difficulty in pulping it, and the pulper generally 
 takes off pulp and parchment together. After the 
 fine weather sets in the disease apparently dis- 
 appears and sets in again the next rains. Fortu- 
 nately Coffee planted on slopes does not suffer so 
 much as that on flats and close to jungle ; Coffee 
 also at lower elevations than 1,000 feet escapes 
 to a great extent. 
 
135 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS. 
 
 THE beginner who breaks land for himself is 
 theoretically supposed to sleep out in the open 
 under an umbrella for the first half-year or so, 
 until his estate is commencing to take form and 
 shape. Really, however, there is no need for such 
 Spartan devotion, and we cannot too strongly advise 
 that decent and weather-proof habitations for him- 
 self and his men should be one of the planter's 
 earliest cares. He will understand before he has 
 been under its influence long that the Indian climate 
 is not a thing to be played with, more particularly 
 in districts best suited to Coffee culture. On 
 the mountain sides, where the plants thrive, the 
 Englishman feels alternately tropical heat and 
 very penetrating, damp cold. Often when he turns 
 out at five o'clock in the morning, and sips his 
 hot Coffee, while the coolies are mustering for 
 the day's work on the drying ground below, the 
 forests are still dark and chill, the dew lying 
 heavily on the low herbage; the Englishman then 
 feeling as much affection for his log fire as he 
 might on a November morning at home. Between 
 eight and nine the estate and woods are pleasant 
 
136 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 enough; at ten they are often "roasting" hot, and 
 so they continue until the sun goes down once 
 more, and Nature refreshes itself in the cool of 
 the evening. 
 
 When a wet monsoon is raging in Ceylon or 
 India, the rain descends in blinding torrents, none 
 but the stoutest and best-made roofs withstanding 
 it. The estate bungalow should be just under 
 the crest of a commanding hillock, as near the 
 centre of the estate as possible. The main road 
 should run close by if possible, while the coolie 
 lines should lie within sight, but not too close, 
 and the stores and pulping houses also handy. 
 If the bungalow hill is two hundred feet or so 
 above the surrounding country, it will probably 
 get whatever breezes there are blowing in the hot 
 weather, and will be healthier. The view also 
 should be good no mean consideration after a 
 hard day's work to a lonely man. 
 
 To right and left, perhaps, the high mountains 
 shut off the quarter of each monsoon, and looking 
 southward down the winding valley, the eye ranges 
 over long expanses of unclaimed jungle stretching 
 right away to the grey distance a wilderness, the 
 home of the bison and elephant, all " impenetrable 
 jungle." To the north we look along the course 
 of the road, which leads over half-a-dozen estates, 
 buried in deep frames of jungle, each with its little 
 white bungalow and dusky coolie " lines ;" and 
 amid most one catches here and there the flashing 
 
BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS. 137 
 
 of a pool or streamlet, the all-important water 
 for turning the pulping machinery and supplying the 
 coolies. Farther away the ghaut road begins, and, 
 the hills sloping down, nothing more is seen of the 
 forest until the lowlands unrol themselves, stretching 
 far away like a wonderful fabric of green and grey 
 cloth. At this distance towns and villages cannot 
 be made out, but just where the great fertile plain 
 melts away into indistinguishable distance, again 
 towering mountains rise up, ascending tier above tier 
 into the sky. Such a view, we cannot but think, may 
 do much to keep a man healthful and contented. 
 
 This house, however, is not put up directly. The 
 planter, when he has purchased land and has to 
 open it, generally manages to get a " shake down " 
 for the first month or so at the bungalow of some 
 neighbour, paying him, of course, for board and 
 lodging, and walking to and fro between the new 
 and old estate every day ; the coolies doing the 
 same and billeting themselves as they best may, 
 unless there are villages at hand, upon the natives 
 of the established estate. After a little while of 
 this, an Englishman will probably be glad enough 
 to set up housekeeping for himself. The first rough 
 bungalow should be built close by the site of the 
 future substantial erection, so that advantages of 
 pure air, water, &c., may be obtained at once, a 
 vegetable garden formed on the hill top, and so on. 
 The first hut often comes in afterwards as a kitchen. 
 Its construction is primitive, and not above the 
 
138 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 capacities of intelligent carpenter coolies, of whom 
 there are generally some at hand ready to turn to 
 this work for wages a trifle higher than those of the 
 ordinary labourer. Four posts at the corners of a 
 space, say, 14 feet by 20 feet are sunk firmly into 
 the ground and connected along the tops by long, 
 light poles. Strong pillars at either end serve to 
 take the sapling which forms the ridge of the roof. 
 Stakes are driven in all round the sides and lashed 
 along the roof framework until the half-finished hut 
 bears a close resemblance to a gigantic birdcage. 
 " Palghaut mats," made of closely woven split rattan 
 cane, are then laced along the outside and inside 
 as walls, and a thick thatch of palm leaves or jungle 
 grass makes a good roof. 
 
 Every planter remembers his first hut in the 
 jungle, even cherishing an affection for it long after 
 wind and rain have reduced it to its original ele- 
 ments. In my own primitive hut the roof, extra 
 thick, with the eaves brought to within four feet of 
 the ground to protect the sides, was made of the 
 long sweet-scented lemon-grass, and there were 
 three little glass windows, a door with a rough 
 porch, and a wall of matting across the interior to 
 divide the sleeping compartment from the day- room. 
 Altogether it was a strange little place, pretty to 
 look at while the materials were fresh and clean, 
 but not good for hard use the daylight streaming 
 through the two thicknesses of matting in many 
 places, and the wind coming in at every corner ; 
 
BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS. 139 
 
 while after a shower every part got damp, and, being 
 entirely built of vegetable produce, there was a very 
 strong odour of decaying matter something between 
 wet hay and bilge-water on a steamer. When dry, 
 the lemon-grass had it all its own way, and the scent 
 then was very pleasant. 
 
 A little " roughing it " must be expected and put 
 up with at this time, the most important matters 
 being to secure a healthy spot with command of 
 good water, protection from the night dews and 
 chills to keep out the damp of an Indian monsoon 
 is more than any house built by human hands can 
 be expected to achieve. 
 
 A boarded floor, however, a foot clear above 
 the ground, is an important sanitary feature which 
 should never be overlooked. If the doors and 
 windows of the permanent bungalow are got up 
 from the agents about this time they will do duty 
 for a period in the humbler structure. 
 
 The natives house themselves temporarily in 
 "lines" i.e., long, low sheds with matting sides, 
 thatch roofs, and beaten mud floors. There must 
 be running water near, but not close enough to 
 receive the refuse of the huts which heavy rains 
 will wash down. With proper guidance, and when 
 they feel the authority of a strong hand, the coolies 
 may be trained to any point of order and discipline. 
 Left to themselves, the lower classes, who are swept 
 together by the maistries in the lowlands and 
 brought up on the advance system, are unquestion- 
 
I4O COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 ably careless and objectionable in domestic arrange- 
 ments. Their huts and the surrounding paths and 
 Coffee will get into a hopelessly filthy condition 
 unless sanitary measures are introduced early. It is 
 a good plan to employ a couple of low-caste coolies 
 on special wages to go round daily with mammoties 
 and attend to these matters. 
 
 When the Coffee is planted, and before the 
 trees come into bearing, it is time to prepare and 
 consider the plans of permanent and substantial 
 buildings. These may be either of 
 
 (1) Stone and mortar, 
 
 (2) Bricks and mortar, 
 
 (3) Bricks or stone with mud, 
 
 (4) Wattle and daub, 
 
 (5) Laterite and mortar, 
 
 (6) Wooden boards or logs. 
 
 Iron-roofed houses might, perhaps, be included, 
 but they have many and manifold objections, and 
 cannot be recommended except for stores and 
 pulping sheds. One planter declares in favour of 
 sun-dried bricks with good mortar. " They give 
 sufficient strength, are easily transported and used, 
 and above all are cheap, being made almost any- 
 where. A common mason will lay from 400 to 500 
 large-sized (say 7 Ib.) bricks per day ; eight of these 
 will just make up an ordinary coolie load, and their 
 dimensions will probably be about loj by 5J by 3^ 
 
BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS. 14! 
 
 inches. The earth best suited for the manufacture 
 of bricks should contain a mixture of about five 
 parts of pure clay to one of sand. Almost any kind 
 of earth will do more or less well, provided it is 
 free from pebbles and not too sandy." 
 
 To make good bricks, however, is a science in 
 itself which cannot be taught in a paragraph. The 
 top strata of vegetable earth is removed from the 
 ground intended to be used as material, and the 
 subsoil is then flooded with water and worked up 
 by the feet of cattle or elephants into the con- 
 sistency of dough. It is next pressed into damped 
 wooden moulds, and slipped out of them to dry on 
 a previously levelled space, where the bricks must 
 be protected from sun and wind. They are built 
 up with abundance of firewood to be fired into 
 clumps six or seven feet high, a week being devoted 
 to burning, and another allowed during which they 
 are cooling. 
 
 A brick-built house is comfortable and sub- 
 stantial, but it is not a practical possibility in every 
 district, owing to the care and skilled labour re- 
 quired. Bungalows built of weather-boarding are 
 the commonest for a variety of reasons. Not the 
 least important of these lies in the fact that every 
 native village has a professional carpenter and his 
 " hands," who are quite capable of satisfying the 
 planter's first needs in this direction ; and a word 
 from the estate's local native agent in the plains 
 will send them trooping up to the jungle, on pay 
 
142 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 or on contract, with all their curious but effective 
 tools, and ready to undertake any amount of simple 
 house-building operations they may be set to. 
 Then, again, there often seems but little inducement 
 to manufacture bricks or prepare wattle and daub 
 when abundance of noble timber lies seasoning in 
 the clearings suggesting planks enough to build 
 an Armada ! 
 
 If the risk of fire the chief objection to be urged 
 against wood is accepted, the first thing to be done 
 is to send for a gang of professional sawyers. These 
 men live by this work ; they are honest and trust- 
 worthy, since it will readily be understood that 
 double-dealings regarding pay, &c., would lead to 
 the gang obtaining a bad name, and consequent 
 loss of patronage. 
 
 Hall says the professional sawyers of Southern 
 India have caste objections to any work other than 
 actual sawing. He found they would not even move 
 logs into place for their own use, requiring this to 
 be done by the estate coolies. Those who worked 
 for me never raised any objections of this kind. 
 They heard the manner and quantity of timber 
 required so much planking, so many posts, rafters, 
 &c. and then, selecting a suitable trunk in one of 
 the clearings, built an open platform of strong 
 uprights and reliable baulks on the lower side, 
 afterwards rolling the log lengthways on to it. 
 
 While this work is going on and the piles of 
 red cedar planks, or orange-yellow jack " framings " 
 
BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS. 
 
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144 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 and door posts are growing, plans of the future 
 house, as also the spot for it, have to be prepared. 
 The accompanying ground plan of an Assistant 
 Superintendent's bungalow, or one quite sufficient 
 for the needs of a private estate until it has 
 grown prosperous and extensive, will give an idea 
 of the kind of lodge usually built. 
 
 The two main rooms are used as a sleeping 
 room and as a living room. Out of the former 
 is a bath room, with its big wooden tub occupying 
 the centre, while adjoining the latter is an " office " 
 where estate books are kept, and the medicine 
 chest is situated. A good verandah front and 
 back adds greatly to comfort and appearance of 
 the house a verandahless bungalow in the long 
 and stormy rainy season is a misery. A guest 
 room can be added on to the above little domicile 
 with little extra expense. The " boys' ' house 
 and kitchen will be behind, and a covered path 
 should lead into the back verandah from them. 
 Halfway down the hill are stables, and beyond 
 the coolie lines, and on the side of the bungalow 
 facing these, hangs the gong or bell wherewith 
 the " chick doree " rouses the coolies at five in 
 the morning, and calls them back from work at 
 six p.m. 
 
 Wattle and daub are favourite materials, almost 
 as good as brick and mortar. The corner pieces, 
 doorposts, and main uprights forming sides of a 
 house of this kind should be of squared timber, and 
 
BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS. 145 
 
 of some species such as " kino " or black wood, teak 
 or Pterocarpus marsupium, not liable to shrink, warp, 
 or be destroyed by the ever-present white ants. As 
 far as the latter go, however, no wood is absolutely 
 safe against their persistent efforts. Something may 
 be done by charring ends of beams, steeping them 
 in creosote, tar, or kerosene, the latter strongly 
 recommended ; but after all these precautions, ants 
 will still find their way into the wood, and increase 
 and multiply. It does not follow that, when they 
 have entered, a house is henceforth unsafe or unin- 
 habitable by human tenants. Neither termites nor 
 rats will willingly endanger the place of their resi- 
 dence. Though rats have swarmed on board ships 
 probably since commerce began, no case is known 
 in which they have sunk a vessel by deliberately 
 letting the sea through her sides. In the same way 
 white ants, though they fill beams with passages, 
 instinctively leave enough wood to ensure the sup- 
 port doing its duty. The kneaded clay of a " wattle 
 and daub" house is in itself very strong after the 
 sun-scorching of a hot season. In constructing it, 
 the squared corner pieces, having been gone over 
 with preservative liquid, are sunk a couple of feet or 
 more in the ground. Other posts, similar to these, 
 embedded equally deep, should come at four or five 
 feet apart, and between each pair, again, a couple of 
 other uprights, that need not, perhaps, be sawn or 
 buried deeply in the soil. There will thus be spaces 
 of about a foot between the supports. Across these, 
 
146 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 laths or split bamboo are nailed horizontally, and 
 into the hollow wall thus built up, worked clay, the 
 same as that used for preparing bricks, is firmly 
 trodden in, stones being occasionally added and 
 rammed down to send the " daub " into all cracks 
 and corners. 
 
 When our walls are dry, they may have another 
 coating of clay inside and out, covering all the wood- 
 work, and bringing their thickness up to ten inches 
 or a foot ; and finally an inside service of " chunam," 
 i.e., plaster, and a harling of whitewash will make 
 them neat and inhabitable. Buildings of this sort 
 will last for forty or fifty years that is to say, as 
 long as the Coffee itself. 
 
 " Cabook " or "laterite " is a kind of decomposed 
 rock which has the convenient faculty of becoming 
 hard by exposure to the atmosphere. It is cut out 
 some six to ten feet below the surface in blocks or 
 bricks about 15 in. in length by 9 in. by 6 in., with 
 an axe or spade ; these bricks becoming hard in a 
 few days make neat as well as substantial walls. 
 
 Perhaps wattle and mud is as good as anything 
 for coolie lines. It is much the same as they have 
 always been accustomed to ; it is fireproof, and 
 not expensive. Both inside and outside should be 
 kept perfectly smooth with plaster, and gone over 
 occasionally with chunam to keep down insects. 
 
 Eight or ten rooms side by side and under one 
 roof is as many as it is advisable to put together. 
 Each family owns a room, and the castes are less 
 
BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS. 147 
 
 likely to interfere with one another's comfort when 
 the dwelling spaces are in limited blocks. 
 
 As many sets of lines must be built as there are 
 coolies to be housed. The position of these huts 
 must be selected with forethought (taking care to 
 remember fever mists collect in hollows, where very 
 likely natives would prefer to lodge themselves); 
 but, on the other hand, they cannot appreciate or 
 stand the bracing air of the elevated hillside which 
 Englishmen naturally select. 
 
 Their "lines" should abut on some waste grass 
 land, if possible, in order that live stock may be kept 
 without danger to the Coffee, and gardens started 
 by the coolies so inclined. 
 
 Water should be abundant and pure. This is a 
 consideration of the first importance. Good fresh 
 air and plenty of it is desirable. Never put " lines" 
 close up to a bank or rock ; let there be space for 
 air and cleaning all round. And, lastly, there is 
 the item of dryness of the houses themselves to be 
 secured by making the walls substantial the eaves 
 coming down rather low, thus forming a good broad 
 verandah along the front, and by raising the floor 
 one or two feet above the ground level. There 
 are neither windows nor chimneys in these rooms, 
 but each should have a substantial well-hinged door 
 (2 feet 6 inches will be wide enough) of its own. 
 Fires are lit in one corner, and smoke finds its 
 own way out through roof or doorway as it likes. 
 Strong wooden benches should run half round the 
 
148 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 room for the inmates to sleep on never let them 
 lie on the ground. In some Coffee districts the 
 housing of the labourers is a matter for Government 
 inspection ; and it is always good, sound policy to 
 make the workers contented and comfortable. 
 
 Pulping and drying sheds are alluded to in the 
 succeeding chapters, here it is not necessary to go 
 very fully into their construction, since they are 
 amongst the last requirements of the estate. Before 
 they have to be put up, the planter will probably 
 have been round his district and learnt by personal 
 inspection the peculiar designs of the country, the 
 forms best suited to its needs, and last, but not 
 least, to what style the length of his purse justifies 
 him in going. 
 
 Cattle sheds, tool sheds, stables, and storehouses 
 will have to be erected from time to time. Their 
 cost and build will vary considerably according to 
 the material selected for their construction, and 
 whether the locality is advanced in civilization or 
 only partially opened jungle. 
 
 Perhaps the most important item in all buildings 
 is the roof, and special care should be given to 
 it. Iron roofing is only suitable to pulping sheds 
 and stores. The sheets are not nailed down, as 
 they might be in England, but buckled together 
 with iron Z 's. Palm leaf roofs are picturesque and 
 well enough, but dangerous and not permanent ; 
 lemon - grass thatching always leaks like a sieve 
 under its first "drencher," but improves as it felts 
 
BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS. 149 
 
 down to a compact mass. Shingles, or " slates " 
 split from a straight-fibred tree, are very widely 
 used. But "not one-half the persons who lay 
 shingles have a correct idea of making a roof that 
 will be absolutely rain-tight during a driving storm," 
 says the Canadian Mechanic. The correct rule for 
 laying shingles of any length, in order to form a roof 
 leak-tight, is to lay the courses less than one-third 
 the length of the shortest shingles. For example, 
 when shingles are 18 inches long, many of them 
 will not be more than 17 inches in length ; there- 
 fore 5 inches is all that the course will bear to be 
 laid to the weather with surety of forming a good 
 roof. The shingles must be three thicknesses over 
 the entire roof. If they are not three thicknesses 
 if now and then a shingle lacks a quarter or half 
 an inch of being long enough to make three thick- 
 nesses there will in all probability be a leaky place 
 in the roof at such a point. Moreover, when the 
 lower courses lack half-an-inch of extending up far 
 enough to receive the rain from the outermost 
 course, in case the middle course were removed, 
 it would be just as well to lay them 7 inches 
 or 8 inches to the weather as to lay them only 
 5 inches or 5J inches. Many shingles are only 
 1 6 inches long, and many that are sold for 16 inches 
 long will hardly measure 15 inches. In this case 
 if the roof be rather flat, say about one quarter 
 pitch 4J inches is as far as they should be laid to 
 the weather. In case a roof were quite steep, it 
 
150 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 might answer to lay the courses 4! inches to the 
 weather. When buildings are erected by the job, 
 proprietors should give their personal attention to 
 this subject, and see that jobbers do not lay the 
 courses a half-inch too far to the weather. 
 
 Shingles boiled for half-an-hour in a solution 
 of lime and salt, which penetrates every particle 
 of the wood, are rendered, in a large measure, 
 fireproof and their durability greatly increased. 
 Tiles are admirable but expensive. 
 
 Estate buildings give infinite scope to the 
 vanity or the carelessness of responsible authorities. 
 While a reckless outlay is ruinous to a young estate, 
 we strongly hold the opinion that every foot of 
 covered space (when once the temporary shelters 
 are put aside) should be substantial and serviceable. 
 Between 1,500 and 2,000 is usually considered 
 to be the amount for which an estate of 200 acres 
 can be thoroughly established in every necessary 
 permanent building. For from Rs. 700 to 1,000, 
 according to locality, &c., a small bungalow of 
 wattle and daub, or weather boarded, with shingle 
 roof and galvanized iron spouting, can be put 
 up, consisting of dining room, two bedrooms, office, 
 bath-house," &c., and the whole raised on stone 
 pillars a few feet above the ground. 
 
 A first-class bungalow for a married Englishman 
 and family would cost something like Rs. 5,000. 
 Elliot, who wrote at a time when everything was 
 cheaper than it is now, thinks something might 
 
BUILDINGS AND BUNGALOWS. 15! 
 
 be done in the way of a temporary habitation 
 for Rs. 350, and suggests it is better to spend 
 that sum only until the success of the estate is 
 assured than to sink as many pounds at the 
 beginning. On a new estate, where timber was 
 plentiful, we could build for Rs. 3,500 a very 
 superior house, with two living rooms, five bed- 
 rooms, office and bath-rooms, kitchen and servants' 
 rooms, stables for two horses, &c., &c., all on a 
 raised stone foundation. 
 
 Furniture and furnishing are items that must not 
 be overlooked. 
 
 Lines. Twenty rooms, roof and walls of cadjans 
 or talipots, can be erected at a cost of Rs. 10 a 
 room (site included), which will be watertight and 
 comfortable, and last for all the time they are 
 wanted ; they can be run up in a few days a great 
 consideration and there is no risk of the coolies 
 catching illness from wet mud walls and damp 
 floors. A line of this sort should accommodate 100 
 labourers. A shallow drain should be cut all round 
 the line to keep the floors dry. A permanent set of 
 rooms can be built at leisure. For a 2OO-acre 
 estate we might thus say temporary lines would 
 cost Rs. 200, and permanent lines Rs. 300. More 
 lines would be needed afterwards perhaps. 
 
 Under the head of bungalows and lines, Mr. 
 Sabonadiere argues strongly for permanent buildings 
 of stone with shingled roofs. 
 
 Store. Stone pillars, roof of galvanised More- 
 
152 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 wood's tiles, sawn timber, coir-matting floors in 
 three storeys, 485. 
 
 Pulping House. Solid masonry, pillars, and 
 cisterns ; a double floor for curing purposes, cor- 
 rugated iron roof, but not including cost of ma- 
 chinery, 483. 
 
 Bungalow. Outside walls of stone, inner walls, 
 sawn timber, mudded between sawn reapers, planked 
 floors, and shingle roof, and including jo as cost of 
 godowns, ^356. 
 
 These are his estimates, and they represent the 
 very best class of buildings. For ^200 (Rs. 2,000) 
 it would be possible to build a very decent pulping 
 shed and store-house, 20 ft. by 10 ft. and 40 ft. by 
 20 ft., of sawn timber and iron roofed, with cherry 
 lofts sufficient for all the requirements of a first and 
 second crop. 
 
 All these erections are so expensive and im- 
 portant that the young planter should not be in a 
 hurry to build, but should rather make a study of 
 those successfully working in his district, and care- 
 fully watch the wants and peculiarities of his own 
 estate before beginning. 
 
153 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 ROADING AND DRAINING. 
 
 THE presiding government is bound to make and 
 keep in repair the main thoroughfares of every 
 territory, usually levying a tax for the purpose ; but 
 the planter has to make his own local roadways. 
 The cheapest is what we call a dug-out road ; that is 
 to say, the hillside being very steep, soil is shovelled 
 away from the upper part and placed on the lower 
 side till the road comes level. Thus there is a 
 perpendicular wall on one hand and a steep scarp 
 on the other, and being smoothed, the fresh black 
 earth looks neat and nice, but requires some time 
 to settle down. At first, owing to half the breadth 
 being cut out of the solid, and half composed of 
 loose soil, it is apt to sink on the outer side, and 
 has to be repaired. Cutting through fallen logs and 
 rolling them away is a source of chief expense. On 
 the hillside the great stems will usually lie as they 
 have fallen, up and down the slope, sometimes two 
 or three deep ; and as the road runs along parallel 
 with the valley, it meets them all at right angles. 
 Since they are far beyond the planter's power to 
 move, even after the best of burns as they lie, he has 
 to cut through them at all costs. Charred stumps 
 
154 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 are almost worse than the fallen stems. Elsewhere 
 I have mentioned amongst my earliest road-making 
 experiences how now and again it was the stump of 
 one of these forest giants, that had been cut off five 
 feet above the ground, which we had to draw, like a 
 mighty tooth. One or two of these stumps took 
 us perhaps four or five days' toil. The first day's 
 would go in scratching away soil and undermining 
 roots, and when those were laid bare we had the 
 task of cutting through them, many being under- 
 ground branches as thick as the stem of a small 
 tree. When at last they were severed, all available 
 hands mustered, and, with crowbars and long levers, 
 the stump was slowly hoisted out amongst frantic 
 cries of maistries and shouts of perspiring coolies, to 
 be rolled down the hillside, there to stay for twenty 
 or thirty years, until sun and rain have resolved it 
 into dust. The greater proportion of the trees were 
 cut through in two places, and the intermediate 
 portion was rolled away easily enough ; but some- 
 times, in spite of my utmost engineering skill, the 
 upper portion of the trunk would come rolling down 
 the hill-slope, sending everyone flying for life, and 
 blocking up the track again. 
 
 Gradients should be as slight as possible, and 
 all roads well planned and thought of beforehand. 
 They should centre at the superintendent's bungalow 
 or at the stores. It is better to have them on ridges 
 than in valleys, but halfway between crest and 
 bottom is the proper line for them to take. 
 
ROADING AND DRAINING. 155 
 
 Though " dug-outs" are, as we have said, the 
 cheapest, yet it is better and more " pucka " to dig 
 a road from the solid, going, say, one foot deep on 
 the level. On both sides there should then be good 
 1 8 in. by 18 in. drains, with occasional culverts 
 across the road covered in by logs or stones. 
 
 Metalling is rarely attempted on these private 
 thoroughfares, and the same may be said of bridges. 
 If a bridge must be made it is usually constructed 
 of logs placed side by side, resting on broad stone 
 buttresses. We have traced a good many miles of 
 road with a surveyor's level and compass, but with 
 a little training the eye becomes sufficiently accu- 
 rate, and stumps can be "dodged," and fords much 
 more conveniently approached by the latter means 
 than when instruments are used. " He who traces, 
 clears, and partially cuts his roads at the earliest 
 possible time will save five per cent, on all the 
 work he has to do in the field." A mile of road 
 to every twenty or thirty acres is little too much. 
 These roads may be made narrow at first, and 
 afterwards (when the estate needs cart traffic) 
 widened out to ten or twelve feet. But if they are 
 left untraced and not begun until after planting is 
 over, there will be a reluctance to destroy flourish- 
 ing bushes, and roads will hardly be so wide or so 
 numerous as they should; i in 15, i in 20, i in 25 
 are fair gradients for an estate not very full of 
 rocks and nullahs. Care should he taken that the 
 road is not liable to be flooded by a sudden rise 
 
156 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 in a stream or torrent i.e., when the track has 
 crossed a ravine do not let it slope uniformly down- 
 wards, thus tempting the next spate to take a new 
 course along your dug-out, but let there be a gentle 
 rise of five or six feet, and then you can go on with 
 your descending gradient again. 
 
 Two men will cut one average chain of road per 
 day, one foot into the solid sloping inwards to the 
 drain, and clear everything off excepting heavier 
 stuff. In light, standing jungle the path will move 
 forward with wonderful rapidity : in clearings as 
 pointed out it is a very different matter. Rs. 150 
 per mile may, however, be taken as an average cost, 
 mounting to Rs. 250 and 300 in heavy prostrate 
 timber or rocky land. Dynamite and gunpowder 
 sometimes expedite the removal of troublesome 
 stumps, &c. 
 
 Draining is a kindred occupation, which should 
 be done if possible before the first wet season, 
 and at the same time with the roads. Drains 
 are usually half a chain apart, and falling to the 
 nearest nullah by a gradient of i in 18 or i in 15. 
 According to the steepness of the land so must 
 the size and frequency of channels be (taking 
 a drain of 2 feet wide, and 18 inches deep, 
 as an average), and the further the water has 
 to run to an outflow the broader the drain should 
 be made. The purpose of this work is that 
 when a deluge of tropical rain descends it ' shall 
 be intercepted, and led off the land before a head 
 
ROADING AND DRAINING. 157 
 
 is gathered, and a muddy yellow sheet of water 
 scours down the hillside, taking tons of soil with 
 it. " Water holes" and terracing have been tried, 
 but " no one has ever made holes big enough, or 
 embankments strong enough, to meet the require- 
 ments of the case. All precautions may be taken, 
 with satisfactory results for a long time ; yet the 
 day comes when all is of no avail : embankments 
 give way, holes overflow, the water gathers body 
 and force, and rushes down the hill sweeping away 
 every obstacle, leaving a deep trench behind it 
 down to the subsoil, and often far into it, all 
 which may be the work of a few minutes, and thus 
 the labour and watching of years is neutralized 
 in an hour." 
 
 Good drains of average size and half a chain 
 apart are cut at the rate of about Rs. 10 per acre. 
 The upkeep of roads and drains that is to say, 
 the regular clearing of them out and repairing 
 amounts to between Rs. 2 and 3, according to 
 the care and skill with which they were originally 
 constructed. 
 
158 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 THE CROP. 
 
 IT is not until the. thir^ 
 
 compense comes for the long and tedious labour 
 bestowed upon the preparation of the estate, but at 
 the end of that time a reward is at hand. About 
 the beginning jrf the new year, early_in_Xanuary, 
 the plante^jwilLjiotice _ his__hushes ^covered with 
 clusters of small, hard, green buds, springing, seven 
 or eight together, from the junction of the leaves 
 and branches. These are the future flowers which 
 have to repay all the trouble and expense incurred. 
 As time goes on they ripen and swell rapidly, 
 turning from opaque green to cream and yellow- 
 white, until one morning in March, or perhaps 
 April if the situation is wet and cold, the first 
 " flush" is out. Far and near, as we described in 
 a first chapter, the undulations of garden are bathed 
 in a fascinating sea of white blossoms ; near at hand 
 the starlike flowers glisten amongst glossy masses 
 of leafage, clear in every detail, while further away 
 the long rows of bushes are crested with a con- 
 fused streak of white like many rows of breakers 
 on a shallow shore. Every individual blossom some- 
 what resembles that of an orange, and from great 
 
THE CROP. 159 
 
 masses of them grown together a very powerful 
 odour is given forth, which, if not quite so pleasant 
 as that of the golden fruit, is powerful and sweet. 
 This scent is said to bring on feverish symptoms, 
 but we should rather be inclined to believe that 
 the blossoming season always a feverish time 
 more than the flowers themselves, was to blame. 
 A hot morning after rain brings out bloom upon 
 the bushes, and (though it must be said with 
 regret) brings out that miasma from the decayed 
 vegetation so much dreaded by the planter. 
 Rain at this time is hurtful to the prospects of a 
 large crop. When it falls_jupon the flowers the 
 pistils in the centre subsequently show a black 
 
 speck; anothe cherry that should follow never 
 comes" to ajiythrngT^ 
 
 T^br the purpose of illustrating the system of 
 rainfall of Southern India, the year may be con- 
 veniently divided into two equal periods viz., from 
 the ist October to the 3ist March, and from the 
 ist April to the 3Oth September the bulk of 
 the rainfall in these periods being due to the 
 south-west and north-east monsoon respectively. 
 The south-west monsoon commences to blow in 
 the end of May or beginning of June, and a great 
 portion of the vapour brought with it from the 
 Indian Ocean is intercepted and condensed by 
 the Western Ghats, and precipitated in torrents of 
 rain on the strip of land between these mountains 
 and the sea, which forms the district of Malabar 
 
l6o COFFEE ! ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 and Canara, and the kingdoms of Travancore and 
 Cochin. A portion, however, passes over the range, 
 or through the gaps which here and there occur, and 
 finds its way in more or less abundance to every 
 district in the Presidency. The minor showers 
 of April are not due to the influence of either 
 monsoon, yet it is just the light " sprinklings " 
 which make all the difference, to Travancore Coffee 
 at any rate. Coming before their time they do 
 immense mischief, but in season when fruit has 
 " set," i.e., fructification been accomplished, they 
 knock off the withered brown petals and afford 
 the plants much service by watering them at a 
 period when all possible encouragement is needed. 
 Coffee for this reason is a very precarious invest- 
 ment in Travancore. The crop is entirely depen- 
 dent upon rain after the blossoming season, a 
 few showers just at the right time making a 
 difference of thousands of rupees to the planter. 
 As soon as the flowers are off, the little green 
 nobs at the bottom begin to swell, filling out 
 rapidly all the hot weather, changing colour early 
 in the autumn from green to yellow, and about 
 October assuming the red tinge which marks 
 approaching ripeness. 
 
 According to the season this will be earlier or 
 later, while different corners of the estate will 
 ripen at various times according as the land has 
 a warm or cold aspect even opposite sides of a 
 bush often vary considerably in this respect. A 
 
THE CROP. l6l 
 
 good watch must be kept for the first berries 
 ready, and it is as well to turn pickers a few at 
 first into the clearings directly there is anything 
 worth their picking, since, if the crop is a good 
 one, and allowed to ripen throughout on the bushes, 
 very few estates are so well supplied with labour as 
 to be ready to properly strip the bushes before 
 much cherry has followed its natural destination 
 and fallen overripe to the ground, or vanished 
 tinder attacks of birds and animals. So we begin 
 at once, in order to keep pace__with the ripening 
 berries, and usually three, or at the most four, 
 gleanings the middle pick being always the most 
 considerable lasting from November to January, 
 will be sufficient to store all there is to be had 
 that season. 
 
 Men, women, and children are employed at 
 the picking season, and it is a sight lively enough 
 to see them marshalled along the head of a clear- 
 ing in the early morning waiting for the signal 
 to begin, while white-clad maistries run hither 
 and thither brandishing their sticks and seeing 
 each row of Coffee has its picker, so that every 
 tree may be fairly searched. As we noticed under 
 "Weeding," the active and delicate fingers of 
 women or children rival at this task those of the 
 men. All being paid pro rata, it is a good time 
 for the coolies, who, on an estate which they like, 
 are unusually industrious and jovial at "cherry 
 ripe " season. 
 
 M 
 
l62 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 Each worker carries a bag slung from his or her 
 shoulder, into which they stuff the coloured berries 
 with both hands as fast as picked. When the 
 wallet is full it is taken to the nearest roadway, 
 where stand the coolies' rows of receiving sacks, 
 each capable of holding a bushel or two bushels 
 of fruit. By the number of these journies the 
 workers estimate the quantity they have picked, 
 and mentally feel the pay in rupees growing heavy 
 in their cummerbunds. If there is plenty of crop, 
 each picker should collect three or perhaps three- 
 and-a-half bushels a-day, for which the pay is the 
 equivalent of fourpence per bushel. 
 
 As the big sacks are filled, they are taken off to 
 the pulping sheds, and should be, if it can possibly 
 be managed, operated upon within a few hours, or 
 certainly the same day, as any delay may cause the 
 heaps of soft ripe fruit to ferment, discolouring the 
 inside parchment and depreciating the value of the 
 sample in Mincing Lane. It is, however, not in- 
 variably the rule to pulp at once. In Brazil, much 
 of the Coffee is purposely allowed to stand in sheds 
 for forty-eight hours, thereby- attaining a peculiar 
 odour that recommends it to South American 
 connoisseurs. Again, native and Dutch Coffee 
 is not pulped but hulled; instead of the soft 
 outside covering of flesh being removed by pulping 
 machinery, it is suffered to dry upon the beans, 
 and is subsequently operated upon by special 
 machinery which cracks off this dried husk. 
 
THE CROP. 163 
 
 The riper the fruit is upon the trees before it is 
 gathered, the better will be the resulting sample of 
 prepared Coffee. The observant Arabs spread 
 mats under their world-famous Mocha bushes, and 
 collect only those cherries falling into them when 
 the tree is shaken. But the European planter can 
 hardly follow this process, because, as we have said, 
 his command of labour is hardly sufficient even to 
 gather in the heavy crops his system of planting 
 brings about in the quickest and most expeditious 
 \of ways. 
 
 Anything tending to economise labour at this 
 season is of high value. There is a method by 
 which "cherries" are sent down from the most 
 remote clearings by means of water power. This 
 is done by iron piping, about the same diameter 
 and strength as the familiar cast-iron conducts 
 "adorning" the outside of English houses. Six 
 or eight foot lengths of this tubing are put 
 together after starting from some convenient and 
 central spot on the estate where a fair flow of 
 water can always be obtained, though it need 
 not be more than a rivulet, and length after length 
 it is wound down the estate to the pulping house. 
 Some care and skill is required in erecting them. 
 Where streams and ravines are crossed the pipes 
 must be supported on trestles, and where they He 
 along the ground, firmly pegged down. At the 
 receiving stations are coolies who receive the cherry 
 and flood it down the tube with sufficient water, 
 
164 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 so much at a time, and thus it goes by steady 
 gradient and regular curves into the cisterns of the 
 curing room. Large as the prime cost of this 
 spouting undoubtedly is (^300 should furnish a 
 2OO-acre plantation), on extensive estates it cannot 
 fail to pay. " The coolies are able to gather a 
 larger quantity, and they are saved bodily wear 
 and tear. With a force of 200 coolies in the 
 field, an increase of at least 100 bushels, or 
 10 cwts. a-day, may be safely reckoned upon, 
 amouting say to 300 cwts. for the five heavy weeks 
 of picking, and representing a money value of 
 fully 1,002 in the London market," calculates 
 Mr. Sabonadiere ! 
 
 We have said real returns for labour and capital 
 invested in a Coffee estate only begin in the third 
 
 year. This statement must be modified to the 
 extent of acknowledging thereJsZsometimes ajnajden^ 
 crop,'T~slight^o^2gejierally, though in very good 
 soil and in a dry climate as much as from seven 
 to nine cwt. per acre has been got as first fruits 
 in a second year. This, needless to say, must be 
 picked as it comes ripe ; and if pulping machinery 
 is not yet up on the estate, it may be sold in bulk 
 to some neighbouring, better established planter. 
 I Ib. per. tree is a very paying quantity of 
 Coffee all over an estate ; but as much as 2 Ibs. 
 or even 3 Ibs. are sometimes got, and 5 cwt. 
 per acre is a satisfactory average, though those 
 estates making their happy possessor's fortunes 
 
THE CROP. 165 
 
 give far more. The Rothschild estate of Ceylon, 
 for instance, from 1865 to 1871 returned gj cwt. 
 per acre. One-third of this estate was on Patna 
 soil. 
 
 When coolies do not receive tallies, to be 
 redeemed on the following pay day, or cash 
 kai kasi they call it for the weight of cherry 
 brought in and weighed in the cherry loft of 
 the pulping shed, the planter sets them a daily 
 task one and a-half bushels, one bushel, three- 
 quarters, or even one-third of a bushel, accord- 
 ing to the state of the crop. Hands at this 
 season should never be paid by this ordinary 
 daily wage, which holds out no encouragement to 
 extra exertions. 
 
 Always, when possible, let work begin on the 
 highest ground, or amongst those bushes furthest 
 from the roads ; and thus, as day declines and the 
 men are tired, journeys will be shorter and there 
 will be but few wearisome climbs with an empty 
 cooty sack to finish off a half-dozen bushes perhaps. 
 Fallen berries, of course, are picked up, and, 
 to tell the truth, make by far the best-flavoured 
 Coffee. 
 
 There is some danger in paying coolies in full as 
 they earn their money ; the danger is that they will 
 go away to the nearest bazaar in the middle of this 
 busiest season and waste their substance in riotous 
 living, regardless of their master's pressing needs. 
 It is better to make it a rule to advance only an 
 
l66 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 anna or two each evening sufficient to be cheerful 
 but not uproarious upon. 
 
 The only other thing to be said is, that four or 
 six annas per bushel, according to the scarcity of 
 labour, &c., is the usual price paid ; other expenses 
 come more regularly under the next heading. 
 
i6 7 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 PULPING AND PREPARING. 
 
 THE final curing of the Coffee bean, the freeing 
 from all outside pulp and coverings, in order 
 that it may go to market in the form which an 
 English public is familiar with, is a matter of 
 importance. Briefly summarised, the processes are 
 these : 
 
 The cherry is passed through Jt^ejr2ulrje_r,_and the 
 pulp, or skin, is pulled off, leaving the parchment 
 bean all covered with saccharine matter, so much so 
 that it is impossible to grasp a handful of it and 
 retain it all. It is to remove this that fermenta- 
 tion is allowed. After fermentation, jthe Coffee is 
 washed ; it then presents the appearance of a bean 
 covered with a strong white sjdr^j^husk,_called 
 parchment. This is exposed for several days to a 
 strong sun, and, when dry__enough, is packed off, 
 say to Colombo. Here it is again dried for two to 
 three days, and then husked by being put into a 
 circular trough, over which roll four or two enormous 
 wheels, weighing generally a ton each. These re- 
 move the husk without injuringjthe bean, and now 
 the bean presenTjTlHcKanged appearance; it is 
 closely fitted with a thin skin of silver, called the 
 
1 68 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 silver skin. This is winnowed off, and the Coffee 
 packed for sale. Should the Coffee be allowed 
 to ferment too long, it will give the husk a black 
 appearance instead of the snowy white one it 
 should have ; and, although this does not injure 
 the inner contents, the brokers will depreciate 
 its value. Besides all this, the beans are very 
 carefully graded and sifted into sizes, as a regular 
 sample makes a considerable difference in price 
 obtained. 
 
 Some Coffee is not pulped but " hulled," and 
 chieftyTrTat grown in ^EHe Dutch : Islands ~ancl some 
 States of South America. The hulling process 
 consists of drying the cherries just as they come 
 in from the fields withering them, perhaps, would 
 better express it and afterwards cracking off 
 the husk by submitting it to pressure under 
 two heavy wheels running round in a circular 
 trough. 
 
 If the planter has erected no buildings of his 
 own when his early crops come to hand, this hulling 
 is the only plan for him to follow. He spreads out 
 the stores of red cherries on a previously prepared 
 drying^ground covered with mats, and, keeping 
 them moved with rajces or by the feet of coolies r 
 extracts all moisture. Subsequently the withered 
 fruitTs doneup in strong bags and sent down to 
 the " Agents" on the coast, who " hull " it in 
 their own machinery, or at least know where to 
 get it done. 
 
PULPING AND PREPARING. l6g 
 
 The annexed illustration represents /one of 
 Messrs. Gordon's " Improved Peeling or Hulling 
 Mills," and will give a novice an idea of the sort 
 of machinery used. A " circular" of that firm, 
 
 IMPROVED PEELING OR HULLING MILL. 
 
 (which holds the first place in the manufacture 
 of all mechanical contrivances demanded by the 
 modern Coffee planter) says : 
 
 " From repeated experiments and trials, we are convinced 
 that for effectually and quickly peeling and polishing the 
 Coffee bean without breakage, nothing excels this machine. 
 It will clean Coffee dried either in the cherry or in the parch- 
 ment. The machine is simple both in construction and in 
 working, durable, and not liable to break down. With the 
 same power it will clean a larger quantity than most other 
 machines. J. Gordon and Co. have themselves frequently seen 
 2,400 Ibs. peeled per hour with one of these mills, and with 
 little or no breakage, while a badly constructed mill will break 
 as much as it will clean." 
 
170 
 
 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
PULPING AND PREPARING. 
 
 171 
 
172 
 
 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 It may be as well, perhaps, to add the prices, 
 which are : 
 
 Diameter-centre of 
 Wheel. 
 
 Quantity Cleaned per 
 Hour. 
 
 Price. 
 
 14 feet. 
 
 2,400 Ibs. 
 
 l40 
 
 12 
 
 1, 800 
 
 no 
 
 10 ,. 
 
 1,400 
 
 96 
 
 9 
 
 I,2OO ,, 
 
 88 
 
 7 .. 
 
 8OO ,, 
 
 70 
 
 If, however, the estate is large and forward enough 
 a " company estate," for instance, of a thousand 
 or two of acres to demand its own private build- 
 ings, and mills for pulping, drying, sorting, &c., 
 then elaborate machinery has to be established. 
 It is not possible here to go into technical archi- 
 tectural details of the buildings required, but 
 Messrs. Gordon having kindly supplied us with 
 particulars of the latest and most approved forms 
 of pulping sheds, we give the accompanying out- 
 lines, feeling sure that a diagram will convey a 
 much clearer impression than many pages of print. 
 Here it will be seen, to begin with, that cherry 
 arrives on the head of a coolie entering the loft by 
 a level gangway instead of having to toil up a 
 ladder or steps, who puts down his load where it 
 can conveniently be sent below to the pulper, 
 taking his brass cheque for quantity delivered in 
 return. Towards this end these buildings are 
 
PULPING AND PREPARING. 173 
 
 usually placed against a rock face or dug-away 
 embankment, which brings their roof nearly flush 
 with the upper surface of the ground, and mate- 
 rially lightens the labour of bringing in crop. 
 
 Of course, with a complete service of iron 
 delivery spouting, the top floor entry is not so 
 essential ; but even then it is as well to have it 
 
 "DISC '' PULPER. 
 
 in case anything goes wrong with your alternate 
 method, and you have to fall back upon coolie 
 carriage. From the cherry floor the ripe berries 
 just picked go down into the " pulper," where a 
 man is stationed to regulate the quantity admitted. 
 The pulper is just a gigantic revolving nutmeg 
 grater. The principle of the machine is that the 
 pulp of the Coffee is partly torn and partly pressed 
 
174 
 
 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 from the beans inside by rollers and the jagged 
 punctures of copper sheating on a revolving barrel. 
 In Messrs. Gordon and Co.'s " Single and Double 
 Disc Pulpers " all the parts are strong but light, 
 and may be carried on the backs of mules with 
 ease. They are carefully made and marked, being 
 
 THE COMBINED CRUSHER AND PULPER. 
 
 easily put together, and not liable to break down. 
 Worked by hand, the Single Disc Pulper will pulp 
 30 bushels of ripe Coffee per hour ; the Double 
 Disc Pulper will pulp by hand 60 bushels of ripe 
 Coffee per hour. If worked by steam, water, or 
 cattle power, a much larger result would be 
 
PULPING AND PREPARING. 175 
 
 obtained. The " Double " Pulper of the same 
 firm is more complicated, and being, consequently, 
 liable to breakdowns, can only be recommended 
 where an engineer is at hand in case of a mishap ; 
 but their " Combined Coffee Crusher and Pulper" 
 is of excellent design. The cylinder is stoutly 
 cased with copper, and the machine is provided 
 with water hopper and sieve. By addition of the 
 crushing roll, the pulper is rendered more expe- 
 ditious in operation, and will deliver without 
 damage to the beans from 100 to 120 bushels of 
 cleanly-pulped Coffee per hour. This pulper is 
 adapted for mill work only, and is unsuited for 
 manual labour, being driven by leather belt from 
 shafting connected with water or other power. 
 
 But though with good machinery, such as the 
 above, even a new hand can generally save a 
 crop in marketable guise, yet pulping is not always 
 the simple work it may seem. " Successful pulp- 
 ing," we are told, " depends greatly on the dryness 
 
 of lfhlTseasoir"or otherwise. One seasonj]ae--CQffee 
 
 may all be plump and ripe,_ when jpulpers will 
 easily work through 90 to 100 bushels per hour, 
 having plenty of water to run into the machines 
 with the Coffee ; the next season may be a dry 
 one, and the trees bearing heavily, very few of the 
 berries become fully ripe. Now the difficulty of 
 pulping commences, the pulp adhering to the 
 parchment owing to the absence of saccharine 
 matter. Should the pulper be 'set close/ it will 
 
176 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF COFFEE MILL. 
 
PULPING AND PREPARING. 
 
 I 77 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF COFFEE MILL. 
 
178 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 probably take off the parchment as well as the 
 pulp. The greatest patience will be required, as 
 the same machinery as was used the preceding 
 year will now be unable to pulp more than one- 
 third of the quantity." 
 
 From the pulper the Coffee beans are delivered 
 into soaking cisterns, the pulp itself passing away 
 into the mill race, or into a pit for manure. 
 This removes with^fermentat'ion any remains of 
 pulp still adhering, and also partly^ clears the beans 
 of all matter which hangs about the second skin 
 or parchment. Thence it goes into " washers," 
 where a further cleansing process is thoroughly 
 effected by means of stirrers or agitators, which 
 reject npj _pj^y_thej_jrru^ilage, but any remaining 
 pieces of pulp, and clear away the__light unsound 
 Coffe^~^triouTTamage_tg_the .beans^ The use of 
 the ordinary rake in the cisterns not unfrequently 
 causes breakage of the parchment skin, which is 
 to be avoided before exposing the beans to dry. 
 The Coffee bean, if thus damaged,- becomes, white, 
 and hajsjx^_bei_picked out by hand. When the 
 washing is completed, on raising a small sluice, 
 the seed is discharged on to the draining slope 
 or platform, and is thence passed to the drying 
 ground. It should not dry too quickly, but on a 
 fairly hot day it is spread some two or three 
 inches deep on the hard mat-covered surface of 
 the^ barbecues," or drying plots, and constantly 
 turned b^Baf^fobted coolies, who " scuffle " it 
 
PULPING AND PREPARING. 179 
 
 into rows and trenches. The time occupied in 
 drying will naturally depend much on the weather. 
 The beans should be dried hard and crisp, so that 
 they will crack like a piece of glass between the 
 teeth. 
 
 The process of peeling coming next requires 
 great care, its object being the removal of the 
 fine parchment and silver skin which adheres to 
 the bean, without crushing or damaging the bean 
 itself. Perhaps for effectually and quickly peeling 
 Coffee with least amount of breakage, nothing 
 excels a pair of edge-runners, suitably arranged, 
 and with a pan of proper construction. Sixty 
 bushels (equal to 12 cwt. of market Coffee) may be 
 peeled per hour, with scarcely any breakage, with 
 a good machine, while a badly-constructed mill 
 and pan will cause breakage of as much Coffee 
 as it will pass through uninjured. Here a nice 
 adjustment is of the first importance : the dry, 
 delicate and now brittle parchment being cracked 
 from the bean, a final strong winnowing^removing 
 
 the silver skiir. 
 
 "TTTIsTatter work, however, as well as packing 
 in "jail" bags, or inside charred barrels, is usually 
 done by seaport agents, who have more labour 
 at command than the upland planters ; amongst 
 them the period following crop time is always fully 
 occupied in getting the estate into order, pruning, 
 weeding, &c. 
 
 Lately the question of whether or not it is 
 
l8o COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 advisable to send Coffee to the European markets 
 in the parchment has been much mooted, and 
 arguing theoretically we should say the weight of 
 reason was all in favour of so sending it. 
 
 From a circular of the firm Chabot and Andres 
 at Rotterdam we extract the following : 
 
 According to statistics, the importation of Coffee in the 
 parchment for nine months has been 
 
 For Rotterdam 101,752 bags 
 
 For Amsterdam 86,253 bags 
 
 188,095 bags 
 against about 150,000 bags in the previous year. 
 
 It thus appears that the conviction is gaining ground 
 more and more, that sending in the parchment is in the 
 interest of the proprietors. The results obtained this season 
 leave no more doubt about it, and we are persuaded this 
 manner of supply will increase from year to year. 
 
 Artificial drying houses are another develop- 
 ment of modern scientific planting. They are 
 intended to do away with the dilemma which 
 stares superintendents in the face when they 
 have plucked and pulped their crop, but cannot 
 get a gleam of sunshine (as is often the case 
 in upland regions) for the essential subsequent 
 drying of it. 
 
 Most Indian houses, as they are at present, are 
 of no use for drying Coffee and other tropical pro- 
 ductions, the temperature in them not being suffi- 
 ciently equable. To meet all requisites, a drying 
 
PULPING AND PREPARING. l8l 
 
 house must answer to the following conditions : 
 i. Cheapness and simplicity of arrangement, so that 
 it can be fitted up without difficulty by native work- 
 people. 2. Avoidance of all machinery whatever, 
 which cannot undergo repairs in those mountainous 
 districts, and would require technical supervision. 
 3. The arrangement must be destined and calcu- 
 lated to dry any required quantity of Coffee. 4. The 
 beans must be all of an equal dryness and hard- 
 ness, without injuring the colour or the aroma. 
 5. The use of all kinds of wood and refuse must 
 be practicable for drying purposes, and the least 
 possible quantity of fuel in proportion to the 
 volume to be dried. 6. The escaping air, on leav- 
 ing the apparatus, must have absorbed the greatest 
 possible quantity of water. 7. The operation 
 should not require any great number of workpeople 
 or close supervision, and must be able to be left 
 to any intelligent coolie. 
 
 Mr. Van Maanen is said to have succeeded in 
 compassing all this, and in setting up establish- 
 ments with which everyone is highly gratified. 
 As to the establishments themselves, they consist 
 in a building which is warmed by flues serving 
 also as smoke conduits. The building is square 
 or oblong, according as the local situation or the 
 quantity of Coffee to be dried may require; and 
 the drying is effected by a supply of outer air, 
 heated by contact with the flues, and which escapes 
 after absorbing the moisture of the Coffee, under 
 
l82 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 and through which the heated air passes as it 
 lies spread out on coarse matting resting upon 
 open rafters. 
 
 All this may seem very complicated, or even 
 unintelligible, to those who have not witnessed the 
 work, but a short familiarity with the routine soon 
 renders it intelligible. The gist of the matter is 
 just this : Pick your crop promptly as it ripens, 
 taking the cherries when they are just at their 
 plumpest ; allow as little delay as possible to inter- 
 vene between plucking and pulping (if there must 
 be a delay let the Coffee lie in water tanks) ; do not 
 overdrive your pulper, whether a time-honoured 
 11 rattletrap" or the latest thing out from London; 
 wash clean in the tanks, and dry thoroughly on 
 the barbecues or drying tables. 
 
 Coffee stands two days in the fermenting cistern 
 in high districts, but one is sufficient lower down 
 to loosen and soften the sticky remains of pulp. 
 
 Under the head of Buildings, the cost of store 
 and pulping house erection is indicated, but no 
 two estate managers follow the same style of 
 architecture. Wattle and daub buildings are half 
 the price of stone and timber ones, while those 
 vary again infinitely according to the supply of 
 crude material. Picking, pulping, and drying say 
 400 cwt. of Coffee off 100 acres viz., 4 cwt. at 
 Rs. 3 ought to come under Rs. 1,200. To this 
 must be added rail, water, or cart carriage to the 
 coast, and low country charges, curing, packing, 
 
PULPING AND PREPARING. 183 
 
 freight, brokerage, &c. It has been calculated our 
 crop loses in the process to clean Coffee 61.75 
 per cent, of bulk and 81.8 per cent, of weight 
 that is, 100 Ib. of " cherry Coffee" yields not 
 quite 19 Ib. of marketable beans. The average 
 product of a ton of parchment Coffee as it comes 
 down by railway, is 12 cwt., so that the reduction 
 at this stage is 40 per cent. Considering the 
 amount of moisture in cherry Coffee, at least 40 
 per cent, may be lost in pulping. " It is a curious 
 result," someone says, "the weight of the parchment 
 skin should be 1.8 per cent, more than that of 
 the pulp, the loss by pulping being 40 per cent., 
 and again by clearing away the parchment 41.8." 
 Such loss in weight must be remembered when 
 estimating the value of a crop after a first drying. 
 There is also a slight loss in weight again on 
 shipboard. - * 
 
 We have asked the firm before mentioned 
 what would be the approximate cost of a first- 
 class supply of machinery for an estate of 500 to 
 1,000 acres in full bearing, and annexed is their 
 instructive reply : 
 
 " DASHWOOD HOUSE, 9, NEW BROAD STREET, 
 " LONDON, 1885. 
 
 " DEAR SIR, In answer to your favour to hand, we beg 
 to say that the price for a plant of machinery to treat the 
 Coffee from 500 to 1,000 acres would be as follows, and 
 consisting of 
 
184 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 4 Pulpers, B size, 
 
 i Horizontal Washer, 
 
 i Double Peeling Mill, 9 ft. and io-| ft. diameter, 
 
 i Fan, 
 
 i Combined Separator, 
 
 3 Elevators, and Shafting, Gearing and Belting to connect 
 
 to motive power, 
 i Overshot Water Wheel capable of giving motion to the 
 
 above machinery, say 18 ft. diameter. 
 
 The whole packed and delivered to ship in London, say 
 610. If a steam engine and boiler were substituted for the 
 water wheel the cost would be some 6go. 
 
 " Yours truly, 
 
 " GORDON & Co." 
 
 It need hardly be said good work can be done 
 with a much more moderate outfit. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 CATTLE AND FODDER. 
 
 A HERD of some sort is amongst essential 
 requisites on every estate. Good, strong buffaloes 
 are one of the most valuable forms of " power" 
 at command, and if not quite so cheap and 
 effective as water, are always to hand, which is 
 more than can be said of the other motive power. 
 
 For turning pulping machinery, and all the 
 varied work of the curing sheds, for stamping 
 clay for bricks, for drawing water, for dragging 
 light carts over estate roads, or fetching stores 
 and materials from the head of the ghaut, the 
 common Indian beast of burden is unrivalled. 
 
 But cattle have another almost more important 
 class of duty, and this is manufacturing manure 
 for the clearings cattle shed litter, when properly 
 saved and judiciously applied, being as good a 
 manure under the Equator for all kinds of plant 
 life as it is recognised to be in Europe. It is a 
 pity, then, that these invaluable auxiliaries of the 
 planter are not more carefully bred and looked 
 after than is usually the case. In Travancore 
 at least the cattle on the estates seemed to me of 
 poor breeds. The monsoon is too severe for them 
 
1 86 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 to thrive, and only West coast cattle or cross- 
 breeds stand the heavy rains; indeed, cattle there 
 did not increase, the births not even keeping up 
 with deaths, and only by frequent purchases could 
 herds be kept up to their full strength. Some 
 estates were trying pigs and various live stock. 
 For manure there is little doubt these animals 
 are almost as good as cattle. 
 
 One authority of weight (Mr. Robertson, Com- 
 missioner, Central Division) says on this subject : 
 
 " As regards cattle and horses, nothing whatever has been 
 done to improve the breed of cattle, and but little to improve 
 the breed of horses by two or three Government stallions being 
 kept in each Collectorate. The fact is, the people have no 
 good bulls, no good rams, no good horse or donkey stallions. 
 Whenever an animal is ready for the male it finds a mate 
 anywhere in the fields perhaps the bull or stallion thus 
 used may be a perfectly useless brute ; the result is that 
 both horses and cattle are everywhere very poor indeed. 
 It would be well if in each taluka of a Collectorate three 
 or four good bulls were kept, a very small fee being charged 
 for their services. I hold that there never can be any real 
 and permanent improvement in cattle or horses till we go 
 to the root of the evil, and take steps to stop the keeping 
 of useless bulls and stallions." 
 
 But Mr. Toynbee takes another view in his 
 Report to the Famine Commissioners (1884), 
 remarking : 
 
 " Ordinary cattle of the country are admirably adapted 
 by nature to its wants, and a sufficient " supply of food is all 
 that is required to enable them to do the work required of 
 them and to prevent their deterioration. If larger cattle 
 
CATTLE AND FODDER. 1 87 
 
 were successfully bred they would die of starvation, and 
 would be no more useful, even if they lived, than the cattle 
 of the country." 
 
 In some districts, of course, there are good 
 herds, and sufficient, but I cannot believe that, 
 taking India as a whole, there is not room for 
 improvement in the gaunt, mongrel, and very 
 " lean kine " who drag the ryots' wooden plough, 
 and meander down the dusty white roads alongside 
 the shaft of his bandy. A little " breeding" would 
 seem to be usually as satisfactory in cattle as in 
 higher ranks of animal life. 
 
 For the accommodation of estate herds sheds 
 are requisite. Two great essentials should be 
 observed in the construction of these. Firstly, 
 the securing of the animals' health by cleanliness, 
 warmth, and ventilation ; and, secondly, the saving 
 of the litter and droppings, which are removed 
 not less often than once in twenty-four hours. 
 
 As a rule bullocks in India are housed without 
 litter, although in some villages it is the practice 
 to litter them in the cold weather with grass or 
 refuse straw, which collects liquid as well as all 
 their solid excrements. The native objection to 
 the practice in the rains is that, even where litter 
 is available, it brings in snakes and insects, and is, 
 on account of the fermentation and heat induced 
 by the climate, injurious to the feet as well as to 
 the general health of cattle. But the greatest 
 objection of all is the absence of available straw 
 
1 88 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 or grass, the whole of which is used either as 
 fodder or as fuel. This latter does not apply to 
 many districts. 
 
 The plan of letting straw and cow -dung 
 accumulate under foot for days or weeks, and 
 then liberating vast bodies of gases by its 
 removal, though it may secure reasonably good 
 manure, cannot but be hurtful to the unfortunate 
 cattle, and is not to be recommended in a tropical 
 climate. 
 
 The opinion of Mr. Robertson, of the Sydapet 
 Farm, Madras, whom we have quoted before, 
 differs from ours here ; he says : 
 
 "Our manure is made in cattle-boxes under cover, 
 protected alike from sun and rain. It consists of straw 
 used in bedding, and the excrementitious matters of the 
 cattle, which being allowed to accumulate in the boxes 
 during two or three months, layer by layer, and being con- 
 stantly subjected to the pressure of the animals' feet, 
 becomes a rich homogeneous mass of a dark brown colour, 
 fitted at once for use, without undergoing any preparatory 
 process. 
 
 " We find that in an average year we obtain twenty 
 cartloads of this manure for each working bullock housed 
 in these boxes ; and this is only the manure made at night 
 and during the day when the cattle are not engaged in 
 field labour. Thus, for every pair of working cattle we employ 
 we can calculate on obtaining forty cartloads per annum of farm- 
 yard manure, or, as it should more strictly be called, box 
 manure. 
 
 " We now use this manure direct from the cattle-boxes ; 
 formerly I had it carefully stacked in pits in the different 
 places in which it would be needed, but I was obliged to 
 give this up, as the manure in a dry season suffered so 
 
CATTLE AND FODDER. 1 89 
 
 much, not perhaps by any diminution in its fertilizing 
 ingredients but in its physical properties, for it must be 
 remembered that the beneficial results attending the use 
 of farmyard manure are due to no inconsiderable extent 
 to its physical action on the soil, as well as to its power 
 of yielding to the soil the exact chemical food needed for 
 the production of crops." 
 
 A plan very popular in Ceylon, where the art of 
 keeping and utilizing is better understood than else- 
 where, is as follows : The byres much the same 
 as the cattle sheds of an ordinary English home- 
 stead, but constructed of wattle and daub, or better 
 still, all chunum faced stone, placed on somewhat 
 elevated ground, away from dwelling places of 
 natives and Englishmen, but centrally situated in 
 order to facilitate the distribution of manure, are 
 built in parallelograms, each shed being sufficiently 
 broad to contain a double row of animals against 
 the walls, the floors being slightly sloped towards 
 the centre of the building, where a channel of 
 tiles or iron spouting runs its whole length. At 
 the far end is the muck yard, into which the waste 
 material is raked through folding doors every 
 day, the moisture from the sheds coming to the 
 same place, and pigs being kept within the en- 
 closure, whose sharp feet assist the process of 
 decomposition, and reduce the mass to a close, 
 dark-coloured and friable condition. Occasionally 
 this cattle-shed manure, second to none in value 
 and usefulness, is stored in pits filled in succes- 
 sion, those that have stood longest being the first 
 
i go COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 carted away to the clearings or central depot 
 heap. This is a very good arrangement, and it 
 should not be forgotten that in its more liquid 
 part lies the best fertilizing portions of cattle 
 shed litter. These should be saved from drain- 
 ing away, and the muck generally kept as close 
 and compact as possible. 
 
 Sometimes native cows are shedded at night 
 with the estate herd, the villagers, if there are 
 any in the neighbourhood, being very ready thus 
 to house their animals upon receiving a small pay- 
 ment, and two purposes are accomplished thereby. 
 In the first place, a great addition is made to 
 the nightly outturn of manure ; and in the second, 
 the overseer has the satisfaction of knowing that 
 the coolies' kine are under lock and key, not 
 straying amongst his Coffee or nurseries a thing 
 that is only too likely to happen otherwise. These 
 stallers will want feeding. In the daytime, those 
 that are not employed upon useful work go to 
 open hillsides under charge of a cow-boy, or even 
 cow- woman, there enjoying themselves amongst the 
 lemon grass and short brushwood. But artificially- 
 cultivated fodder has to be provided in every case 
 for stall feeding, and according to the number of 
 head kept. 
 
 Guinea grass is one of the best green food 
 plants. When the grass is established, it needs 
 no more attention, but in a good situation affords a 
 continual cut of hay for cattle, without any trouble 
 
CATTLE AND FODDER. IQI 
 
 expended in return. In forming a field, the only 
 thing necessary is to secure a wet week or ten 
 days for the operation, which is briefly as follows : 
 The roots of the grass from some old-established 
 estate having been brought into the clearing, pre- 
 viously freed from weeds, stones, and branches, so 
 far as may be, are torn into bunches, each of 
 which should have about twelve stems. Coolies, 
 armed with mamoties, then dig or scrape little 
 holes in the ground, as much as possible in lines, 
 and about eighteen inches apart. In these the 
 second line of coolies, usually women or boys, 
 place the roots, but instead of planting them 
 upright, divide each bunch, and, when inserting 
 them in the holes, bend half the stems one way 
 and half the other an arrangement which is sup- 
 posed to make the plant spread more and cover 
 the ground. In this way, when the field is com- 
 pletely covered, all care is over, for if the rain 
 continues for a few days after the planting, the 
 roots will strike, and the young shoots, coming up 
 strong and thick, will cloak the rugged " clearing" 
 with a deep green carpet, which in a wet season 
 will in three or four months be tall enough to 
 hide a man. It is not, however, allowed to reach 
 that height, but is cut with a sickle when about 
 eighteen inches high. 
 
 In a recent report Mr. Robertson said the area 
 of land under this valuable fodder plant has been 
 considerably extended, and the better he became 
 
IQ2 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 acquainted with the grass the more he valued it. 
 He had very fine crops which had never been irri- 
 gated, and some of the best results he obtained in 
 fattening stock were obtained with guinea grass. 
 The fodder can be used for all kinds of beasts; it 
 seems to disturb the digestive organs of some 
 animals, but this is only temporary. I have fed 
 cattle and sheep on it exclusively for months, not only 
 without ill effects, but with the most satisfactory 
 results. I have found our guinea-grass field a capital 
 place in which to graze our working cattle during 
 the hot season, and for the ewes with young lambs 
 I could scarcely desire a better pasture. It pro- 
 duces such an abundant flow of milk in the ewes 
 without (what is common in such cases) disturbing 
 the health of either mother or lamb. 
 
 "Prickly Comfrey" is another wonderfully 
 prolific green crop. The Russian variety, on 
 favourable soil, will give as much as 150 tons 
 per acre, and it is much liked by cattle. It 
 requires, however, a good, deep earth, and a 
 rather damp location. 
 
 With regard to yellow cholum (sorghum vulgare), 
 this valuable fodder crop is yet but little appreciated 
 by those who might benefit most largely by cultivat- 
 ing it. Most of the live stock on the Sydapet farms 
 are fed on cholum fodder throughout a greater part 
 of the year. It is chiefly a lowland cultivation, 
 but as it produces, under favourable circumstances, 
 as much as nineteen tons per acre, it is worth a trial 
 
CATTLE AND FODDER. 1 93 
 
 wherever there is spare land of moderate depth 
 and goodness. 
 
 Chinese sugar-cane, which was introduced from 
 Sydney in the early part of 1870, had established 
 itself as one of the regular cold-weather crops. 
 
 " Cumbo ' is a plant chiefly serviceable for 
 supplying good fodder during the hot months of 
 May, June, and July. Horse grain and " paddy" 
 are also grown for the estate live stock. 
 
 It must not be forgotten that, according to 
 a principle well understood among British farmers, 
 since the value of bullock-dung as a manure 
 depends on the quality of the food given to the 
 cattle, and the latter is in India usually of poor 
 character, consisting as it does merely of chopped 
 straw, it follows that the value of the muck-heap 
 manure is very much less than that of the same 
 weight of farmyard muck in Europe. The chief 
 exception to the rule is in cotton-growing tracts 
 where much cotton seed is utilised as cattle food, 
 and cotton seed is one of the most valuable 
 manure producers which exists. 
 
 All estate herds, then, should be well fed not 
 only with nutritious green crops, but with good 
 oil cake, grain, &c. Fat cattle on an estate speak 
 well for its future crops. 
 
IQ4 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 MANURES AND MANURING. 
 
 FOR new estates neither manure nor manurings 
 ought to be necessary for some time, since the 
 soil should be so deep and rich in virgin fertility 
 that the, plants will grow and thrive without 
 artificial stimulation. It is when estates are being 
 drawn upon heavily, or past their prime, say from 
 ten to twenty years old, according to soil, their 
 resources begin to fail, and have to be made good 
 by imported materials. Besides this exhaustion 
 from simple usage, there is the other one wherein 
 a condition of practical barrenness is produced by 
 removal of fine top soil, following upon "wash" 
 caused by the exterminating of trees and under- 
 growth over hill ranges, as previously mentioned. 
 To prevent "wash" (the most rudimentary 
 process in preserving a garden in a state of 
 productiveness), we have one system of drainage 
 with frequent channels, run slightly downwards 
 across the face of the slopes and into the nearest 
 watercourse. These preserve our top soil, and 
 save any manure we may put on from being 
 swept away. There is another kind of drain 
 sometimes useful in drawing water from hollow 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. IQ5 
 
 and swamps. If land would need draining for 
 any ordinary cereal crop, it must undoubtedly be 
 drained for Coffee. " Wet feet " is an ailment 
 the latter plant is especially sensitive to. All 
 "sour" land must be thoroughly reclaimed, and 
 if that is not possible except at great expense, 
 then the next best thing is to abandon it. 
 
 This, however, is not a matter that need cause 
 much uneasiness, as very little Coffee soil in 
 India or Ceylon suffers from stagnant water. Such 
 spots of course there are upon every garden, but 
 they are usually abandoned to nature, who rears 
 crops of her own sowing upon them. 
 
 Serving the same purpose of conserving soil 
 is the system by which water holes, previously 
 mentioned, are dotted over the clearings. " These," 
 we are told, "were first introduced as holes intended 
 to be filled with manure. The article, however, 
 running short the holes remained open, and it 
 was found after, some time that the tree took a 
 fresh start of growth, partly, perhaps, caused by 
 the temporary exposure of the roots to the sun 
 and air, and partly by the loose earth that 
 gradually dribbled into the hole again, together 
 with whatever accumulations of leaves, timber and 
 other decayed vegetable matter lay about on the 
 surface of the ground near. It has since become 
 a system to make water holes between every four 
 trees, or between every eight or twelve trees. 
 These are generally made about 2 feet square 
 
196 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 by i foot deep, or 20 inches square by 18, 
 according to taste and space. If the object be 
 to collect water and save wash, the more holes 
 the better ; while if it be in a dry district, and 
 intended to catch the accumulated surface debris, 
 fewer will do, and the earth taken from them 
 may with advantage be thrown back on to the 
 exposed stems of the bushes, where it will do 
 good service." 
 
 Having thus noted how the water must be got 
 rid of and soil protected where the land is steep 
 and exposed to wear and tear of wind and rain 
 by trenches, water holes, or such like contrivances, 
 we may turn to the question of manuring proper. 
 This subject has a full and learned literature of its 
 own. Nothing but the popular and generally- 
 received results of much experiment and expenditure 
 can be brought within the limits of a few pages. 
 The action of various manures upon the compli- 
 cated structure of our plants, and their fine chemical 
 properties, cannot be gone into in so practical a 
 manual as this. A mere enumeration of those 
 which have been found the most serviceable is all 
 our limits will allow. Such a list includes 
 
 Cattle manure. 
 Other animal manures. 
 
 Poonac and bones (in proportion of two to one 
 in weight). 
 
 Bones and guano. 
 
MANURES AND MANURING- IQ7 
 
 Coffee pulp. 
 
 Pulp and lime. 
 
 Cattle manure and pulp. ' 
 
 Bones and pulp. 
 
 Bones, pulp, and guano. 
 
 Sombreorum (a concentrated artificial manure). 
 
 Fish. 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 Animal charcoal. 
 
 Phosphoric potash. 
 
 Sal-ammoniac and poonac. 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia. 
 
 Dissolved bones and swamp soil. 
 
 Compost of cattle manure, bones, pulp, Coffee 
 husk, and mana grass. 
 
 Compost of vegetable matter saturated with 
 diluted sulphate of ammonia. 
 
 Compost of poonac (i cwt.), bone dust (J cwt), 
 Bolivian guano (J cwt.) 
 
 Compost of pulp, lime, and mud and manure 
 from drains. 
 
 Compost of poonac (five-eighths), bones (two- 
 eighths), guano (one-eighth). 
 
 These are some, but by no means all, of the 
 manures that have been tried and have found 
 patrons amongst managers, the planters of Ceylon 
 
198 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 being especially energetic in their researches for 
 new fertilizing compounds and composts, a result 
 no doubt due to the demand which their somewhat 
 overworked soil has made, since 1867, upon their 
 ingenuity. 
 
 A report by a Committee of the Ceylon Planters' 
 Association (though the report is by this time far 
 down on the Association's file of memorandum) 
 gives some sensible advice on general application 
 of all such manures, and so tersely it is difficult 
 to put it in better language than the originals. 
 
 " The best mode of application," we read, 
 " seems to be to place the bulky manures in holes 
 from, say, ij feet square, and in depth from 6 inches 
 to 1 8 inches, and 6 to 18 inches from the stem of 
 the tree ; the artificial manures being placed in 
 smaller holes of less depth. On some estates the 
 plan seems to have succeeded of placing a large 
 quantity of pulp (five baskets) in holes cut in a 
 space between every four trees, at a cost of g per 
 acre." The quantities of the several manures used 
 are as follows : 
 
 " Phosphoric potash, |- Ib. to tree ; bonedust and poonac, 
 | Ib. to i Ib. per tree ; cattle dung, i basketful to 3 baskets 
 (30 Ib.); sombreorum, 4 to 7 oz. ; bones, f Ib. to i Ib. 
 
 Composts: Pulp, lime, and ravine soil, i. ^ Ib. lime, 
 
 i bushel pulp. 
 
 Do. i bushel ravine soil. 
 
 Do. Dissolved bones i Ib., and swamp soil i basket. 
 
 Do. Bolivian guano, Ib. ; Peruvian, Ib. ; and 
 
 bones, ^ Ib. 
 Do. Cattle manure, i basket ; guano, 3 oz." 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. IQQ 
 
 Of other manures the cost, as can be gathered 
 from the reports, is as follows : 
 
 " Artificial manures, 6 2s. per acre ; bones and poonac, 
 5 105. to 8 per acre ; sombreorum, 3 to 6 los. per acre ; 
 bonedust and ashes, 10 to 12 per acre; poonac, bonedust, 
 and Bolivian guano, 7 2s. per acre ; poonac, bonedust, and 
 good guano, 6 155. 3^. per acre ; pulp, i i6s. 6d. to 
 2 i os. per acre." 
 
 Of the relative effects of the manures, the fol- 
 lowing seems to be the result deducible from the 
 majority of these enquiries : 
 
 " That cattle manure is par excellence the best and most 
 lasting, the effects remaining over two to three years. Next 
 in order come bones and poonac, which are held to be good 
 from one to two years. Guano alone is considered too stimu- 
 lating and not lasting, but in mixtures (in small quantities) 
 with bones and poonac seems to have a very beneficial effect. 
 Several of the writers speak very favourably of the application 
 of pulp." 
 
 The Sub-Committee make the following sugges- 
 tions with regard to mode and time of application 
 of manure : 
 
 " First, that all lands except such as have little or no slope 
 should, in the first instance, be carefully drained ; that bulky 
 manures should be placed in holes of not less size than 2 feet 
 by i foot, and not exceeding i foot in depth, and at a distance 
 of from 9 to 1 8 inches from the stem of the tree. That artificial 
 manures should be in semicircular holes above the tree, and of 
 smaller size." 
 
 The Committee's advice is excellent, but it 
 may be noted the price of artificial manures has 
 cheapened somewhat of late, as the means of getting 
 
200 
 
 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 them up country have been greatly improved by 
 new lines of railway, new roads, bridges, &c. 
 
 Planters also at the present time make (with 
 good reason) their pits for bulky manures between 
 the Coffee trees larger than formerly, and artificial 
 manures are not put into small holes in their 
 natural strength to scorch all rootlets they come 
 in contact with, but are mixed largely with jungle 
 soil and spread round the stems in shallow "pans " 
 i.e., light depressions in the ground afterwards 
 covered over with a little earth. 
 
 In applying farmyard manure, care should be 
 taken to see it is covered up completely in the holes 
 about the trees. The liquid portion is rather more 
 valuable than the bulky, as the following analysis 
 shows. 
 
 The approximate composition of urine and 
 dung of well-fed cattle is as follows : 
 
 Water 
 
 (a) Organic matter, urea, uric acid, &c. 
 
 (b) Inorganic matter, salts of potash, 
 
 soda, &c 
 
 Total 
 
 (a) Containing nitrogen capable of yield- 
 
 ing ammonia 
 
 (b) Containing phosphoric acid 
 
 Urine. 
 
 920 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 I,OOO 
 
 Q.OO 
 .70 
 
 Dung. 
 
 840 
 135 
 
 25 
 
 1,000 
 
 3.60 
 2.25 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 2OI 
 
 It will be seen, as noted before, which is the 
 most valuable fertilizing agent, and that cattle 
 yard " muck " suffers a serious loss from urine 
 being allowed to run to waste. Much loss there 
 is also caused in India by the solid excrements 
 being used as a fuel for the whole of the organic 
 matter, which constitutes at least 85 per cent, of 
 dry dung, and which contains, amongst other 
 valuable plant food, a large per-centage of nitrogen, 
 the most costly and most difficult to replace of all 
 these foods, is then dissipated into air and lost. 
 Nor is any economy secured by using cow-dung for 
 fuel, since the selling price of a ton of dry dung 
 is, in most instances, in excess of the selling price 
 of firewood, and, at the least, double the price at 
 which firewood could be produced in the neigh- 
 bourhood of towns, and on the holdings of ryots 
 for their household use. 
 
 " In Hindoostan the dung-heap is never under cover, and is 
 exposed to heat, wind, and rain. The consequence is that 
 all gaseous ammonia is expelled by the solar heat, and dis- 
 persed by the wind ; the rain washes out all soluble fertilizing 
 matters from the dung-heap, and that which remains is the 
 solid and least valuable part of the manure, being composed 
 of the undigested fibres of the hay and grass consumed by the 
 animal as food. This shows how necessary it is to make and 
 preserve manure under cover." J. F. Pogson. 
 
 As litter for cattle, perhaps, the common bracken 
 would be better in some cases than hill grasses, or 
 general vegetable refuse. 
 
202 
 
 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 This fern (Pteris Aguilina), generally known as 
 the bracken, is found abundantly in many parts of 
 the higher hill ranges of the Madras Presidency. 
 It is used as a litter for cattle stalls very largely 
 by Coffee planters resident on the Neilgherries, 
 in Wynaad and in Coorg. For this purpose it is 
 well suited when the straw of cereals is costly and 
 difficult to obtain. Used in cattle boxes, the fern 
 
 
 Bracken. 
 
 Wheat Straw. 
 
 Per cent, of ash 
 
 7.01 
 
 4-95 
 
 COMPOSITION OF THE ASH. 
 
 
 
 Potash 
 
 42.8 
 
 tt-5 
 
 Soda 
 
 4-5 
 
 2.9 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 7-7 
 
 2.6 
 
 Lime 
 
 14.0 
 
 6.2 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 9-7 
 
 5-4 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 5-1 
 
 2.9 
 
 Silica 
 
 6.0 
 
 68.3 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 10.2 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 IOO. 
 
 99.8 
 
 rots more readily than in ordinary byres ; it is used 
 chiefly in the large open u crawls" in which buf- 
 faloes and hill cattle are confined at night. These 
 " crawls " are kept liberally bedded with ferns, 
 grass, &c., which, under the treading of the cattle 
 at night, aided by rain, become broken up and 
 worked into a black-coloured mass. This is a 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 2O3 
 
 convenient and expeditious way of converting ferns 
 into a form convenient for manuring. 
 
 The preceding table gives an analysis of the 
 composition of the ash of the bracken, compared 
 with an average analysis of wheat straw. 
 
 It will be observed, in comparing these analyses, 
 that not only does the fern yield a much larger 
 quantity of ash than wheat straw, but that more 
 than one-half of this ash consists of the highly- 
 valuable fertilizing substances phosphoric acid and 
 potash both so essential in a soil on which Coffee 
 trees are growing. 
 
 Cattle manure we look upon as one of 
 the best manures known, even in this day of 
 scientific research. There is no question but that 
 it is bulky, and consequently expensive to use ; on 
 some estates, indeed, it is never collected for this 
 reason. But by placing your cattle-sheds with fore- 
 thought on your roads, centrally, and moderately 
 high up, so that the manure is, if possible, taken 
 down to the Coffee, the fertilizer should be made 
 and spread, we think, at about Rs. 50 per acre, 
 according to facilities of grazing, transport of 
 bedding, carriage, &c., &c. Manuring with cattle- 
 dung, aided by bone-dust or artificial manure, 
 Mr. Sabonadiere believes, could be so managed 
 that, with an average expenditure of 3 (Rs. 30) 
 per acre per annum, " properties of even medium 
 soil might be kept to an average bearing rate of 
 8 to 10 cwts. an acre, which would fully repay the 
 
2O4 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 cost, and leave a large profit besides." Sweepings 
 from stables, roads, bazaars, sheepfolds, chicken- 
 runs, should all find their way to the heap where 
 " line " sweepings and night soil are collected. 
 This poudrette consists of village ashes and the 
 excrementitious matters collected daily from the 
 village latrines. Care was taken to have ashes- 
 thrown over the mounds. After remaining in 
 heaps thus formed for six or eight months, the 
 manure became thoroughly deodorized and fit for 
 use. In this state coolies make no objection what- 
 ever to work with it ; and the character of the 
 manure is so thoroughly changed that few persons 
 could, from its appearance, determine the nature 
 of its original ingredient. It will be more avail- 
 able under some circumstances than others, but 
 should never be neglected. 
 
 Though not a usual source of manure, bat 
 guano is sometimes to be had, and nothing could 
 be better in its way. The great Indian fruit bats, 
 who sally forth at sunset in regiments and bat- 
 talions, spend the hours of daylight in clefts in 
 rocks and hanging to the roofs of caverns. The 
 droppings, accumulated for centuries, below them 
 are sometimes two or three feet thick, and then well 
 worth removing and using as an artificial stimulant. 
 
 Among other substances there is castor oil cake, 
 especially rich in nitrogen ; it is, therefore, a 
 powerful fertilizer. Its action is slow, but when 
 mixed with cattle manure it becomes a great deal 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 2O5 
 
 more active and more fitted to meet the wants of 
 quick growing crops. For Coffee and Tea planta- 
 tions a more useful auxiliary manure can scarcely 
 be obtained. This costs about Rs. 15 J per ton, 
 delivered in Madras or Colombo, and perhaps 
 200 Ibs. per acre would be an average allowance. 
 
 Cotton seed, which had been steeped in urine 
 or water to destroy its vitality, is again undoubtedly 
 one of the best manures we possess, and is suited 
 for any crop that will grow. In cotton seed we 
 have a large quantity of fertilizing matter con- 
 centrated in a very little bulk. It is thus well 
 suited for planters, and where, in order to reduce 
 the cost of transit, it is necessary to get a portable 
 concentrated mamire. 
 
 All the different preparations of bones are 
 valuable, whether as boiled bones, crushed bones, 
 bone dust, bone black, or in the form of super- 
 phosphate, chiefly in yielding phosphate of lime. 
 Though in the raw state bones yield a large per- 
 centage of ammonia, still it is as a means of 
 adding phosphate of lime to the soil they are 
 chiefly employed, as it is phosphoric acid and 
 phosphate of lime that all cultivated crops appro- 
 priate so largely. Bones are costly in India, but 
 there seems little probability of their becoming 
 cheaper, as their use is becoming much more 
 general, especially amongst Tea and Coffee planters 
 on the hills. " Our only hope of obtaining phos- 
 phatic materials at a fair price," observe the 
 
2O6 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 Famine Commissioners, u is in the discovery of 
 phosphatic rocks, or coprolites, in accessible parts 
 of each agricultural district." 
 
 Sawdust is said to have a wonderful effect on 
 garden crops, and experiments might be made on 
 a few bushes with some from the nearest sawpit. 
 Wood ashes are rich in potash and phosphoric 
 acid. The prunings of the bushes with the lighter 
 weeds buried in trenches between the rows tend 
 also to keep up the fertility of the soil, as do 
 the leaves falling from shade trees, and the annual 
 clearings out of drains, water holes, &c. 
 
 Lime, though not strictly speaking a manure, 
 is of the utmost value in many soils. We obtain 
 this in the form of burnt shells, marine and fresh 
 water, such as are used for preparing shell chunam. 
 They yield an almost pure carbonate of lime, con- 
 taining an exceedingly small quantity of impurities. 
 After being slacked it forms a light powder, which 
 can with great facility be used on the land ; or if 
 an estate is deficient in this generally abundant 
 element, it is replaced in the form of gypsum, or 
 native lime stone. 
 
 Professor E. W. Hilgard, in discussing the 
 " Objects and Interpretation of Soil Analyses," 
 rives, among other things, the following advantages 
 resulting from an adequate supply of this mineral 
 in soils : i. A more rapid transformation of vege- 
 table matter into active humus, which manifests 
 itself by a dark or deep black tint of the soil. 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 2O/ 
 
 2. The retention of such humus, against the oxidiz- 
 ing influences of hot climates. 3. Whether through 
 the medium of this humus, or in a more direct 
 manner, it renders adequate for profitable culture 
 per-centages of phosphoric acid and potash so small 
 that in the case of deficiency or absence of lime the 
 soil is practically sterile. 4. It tends to secure the 
 proper maintenance of the conditions of nitrification, 
 whereby the inert nitrogen of the soil is rendered 
 available. 5. It exerts a most important physical 
 action on the flocculation, and therefore on the 
 " freeness " and permeability of soils. Or if put 
 more simply, a free application of lime, at the 
 rate of perhaps i Ib. to a tree, enables plants to 
 draw upon all the resources of a soil which other- 
 wise might be locked up from them. 
 
 Of Coffee pulp as a manure we do not ourselves 
 think much, though we know it has been highly 
 spoken of. No doubt it should not be altogether 
 wasted, but may well go to form the basis of some 
 useful compost. 
 
 There is yet another manure indigenous to 
 estates which must not be overlooked. This is 
 inana grass, a tall species of its family growing 
 luxuriantly upon most hillsides just beyond the 
 forest line. It is cut, brought down, and the ground 
 between the rows thickly thatched at the rate of 
 perhaps a coolie-load to a bush undoubtedly a 
 costly work, but one paying well on heavy, cold, 
 clay lands. It keeps down weeds, is practically a 
 
208 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 cure for the black bug blight, and has a very favour- 
 able effect upon some earths, though, according to 
 Liebig, in analysis this grass shows only in its ash 
 3 per cent, of potash and 2 of chloride of potassa 
 against 8ii of silica. The effect of the grass is 
 important enough to justify us in letting one of its 
 most enthusiastic users speak in its behalf: 
 
 " Mana grass is most useful, both as bedding for cattle and 
 a litter to be applied on the surface of the soil. When used 
 for the former purpose its chief advantages are its abundance, 
 and the facility with which it may be cut and carried. When 
 applied to free soils that abound in vegetable matter it is 
 scarcely of any use except to keep down weeds or to kill 
 running grass ; but on cold, wet soils its effect is almost 
 magical, exceeding that of a heavy dose of cattle manure. I 
 have applied it to a cold, heavy, yellow soil, in which Coffee 
 bushes could scarcely exist, and where their scraggy branches 
 had only a few small yellow leaves on them, and the effect was 
 most surprising. Not only were the trees soon clothed with 
 fine dark green foliage, but even the soil appeared to be 
 changed, and, to the depth of three or four inches, became 
 friable and dry. How this change was accomplished, whether 
 by the acids resulting from the decomposition of the grass, or 
 by the protection afforded to the soil, I do not pretend to say, 
 but I can speak confidently to the fact. 
 
 " Effect. The increase of crop obtained through the agency 
 of this manure, in the instance above alluded to, was at least 
 5 cwt. per acre. 
 
 " Cost. The cost of this method of manuring is much less 
 felt on a weedy estate than on a clean one, because on the 
 former it almost supersedes the necessity for weeding. The 
 principal item of cost is the carriage of the grass. I have, 
 therefore, restricted the use of mana grass to places within one 
 hundred trees of the spot where the grass is grown. Under 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 2OQ 
 
 this system the cost of a heavy littering, in which each tree 
 has a very heavy coolie-load of grass, is 355. per acre. One 
 such heavy littering, and two light ones of about 2os. per acre 
 each, are sufficient for a year, that is, about 755. per acre per 
 annum for weeding and manuring. I am of opinion that, 
 after two or three years of this treatment, the land would be 
 able to bear several successive crops without requiring the 
 assistance of litter." 
 
 A danger of this litter-manuring is that of fire. 
 Burying the stuff in trenching might be a remedy, 
 or leaving every 2Oth to 24th row unlittered would 
 confine a chance fire to a limited area. 
 
 When we come to the subject of artificial 
 manures, intended to replace those substances of 
 which the land shall stand in need, we come indeed 
 to an extensive subject one upon which discussion 
 has raged for twenty years and is still raging. The 
 chief elements required by all crops are phosphoric 
 acid, potash, magnesia, and nitrogen : the latter 
 either in the form of nitric acid, as it exists in 
 nitrates of soda and potash, or ammonia, as in 
 sulphates and muriates of ammonia, or in the form 
 of organic nitrogen, as in bones, blood, and other 
 animal refuse. 
 
 " What," we recently asked of an Ipswich firm 
 which supplies concentrated fertilizers to estates 
 in all parts of the world, " is the form of fertilizer 
 most generally appreciated and demanded by your 
 clients ? " Replying, they say : 
 
 " DEAR SIR, In answer to your enquiries, we invariably 
 advise our friends to purchase superphosphate, and have added 
 to it, at the estate in India or elsewhere, Bengal saltpetre, 
 
2io COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 which should be obtained there on the most advantageous 
 terms. There is no better manure for Coffee than one-third Bengal 
 saltpetre and two-thirds patent superphosphate. As, however, sul- 
 phate of ammonia is at the present moment remarkably cheap,, 
 it might answer to have a mixture made of superphosphate, 
 sulphate of potash, and sulphate of ammonia in equal proportions. 
 This would make a very concentrated manure, and would 
 give satisfactory results. The prices of these ingredients are 
 as follows : 
 
 PER TON. 
 
 Patent superphosphate, containing 45 per cent. 
 
 of phosporic acid at 6s. 6d. per unit... ... ^14 12 6 
 
 Sulphate of potash, 90 per cent. ... = 10 10 o 
 
 Sulphate of ammonia, containing 24 per cent. 
 
 ammonia ... ... ... ... =111$ o 
 
 " All manures for Coffee contain, or should contain, the 
 above suggested ingredients ; and the proportion we recom- 
 mend is based upon the constituents of the plant, and which 
 would probably give the best result upon the land." 
 
 Artificially-prepared manures, it may be gene- 
 rally said, are more stimulating in their action 
 than likely to do permanent good. They require 
 for their economical application considerable study 
 of the character of the soil and knowledge of the 
 history of previous manurings that may have 
 been carried out, " For pulling a crop through,, 
 or putting wood on trees deficient in leaf, such 
 manures as sulphate of ammonia in small quanti- 
 ties may sometimes be used with success," remarks 
 Mr. W. D. Bosanquet ; and Mr. Henry Tolputt, 
 the observant manager and courteous director r 
 holds that " ammonia, phosphoric acid, and potash 
 in some form or other, and in due proportions, 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 211 
 
 are what we have to combine to form a perfect 
 
 manure." 
 
 All patent commercial specialities with high- 
 sounding names are but more or less practical 
 realizations of this. Their great advantage is their 
 compactness, allowing the planter to order exactly 
 what his land wants. When the "artificial" is 
 on the estate it can be mixed with jungle soil 
 and applied according to needs. 
 
 Of the manner of this application we have 
 already said something. It may either be in holes 
 directly under the trees, or in holes equal distance 
 between every four. Ourselves we prefer the former 
 plan, though by the latter the roots are less likely 
 to be disturbed or injured. 
 
 Then there is the question of the best period 
 for putting down manure. Usually it is done 
 before crop time to bring on the fruit, but manure 
 for the blossoming season as well as for crop is 
 really as much required. Flowering is an ex- 
 haustive process, requiring a large amount of 
 nourishment, and the sugar planter is so well 
 aware of this that he cuts his canes before they 
 blossom, lest the process should exhaust the juice 
 and therefore rob him of his labour and profits. 
 Towards the end of the rains is probably as good 
 a time as any for forking or holing in heavy 
 stuff. 
 
 To sum up. The planters of Ceylon have been 
 thus catechised on the subject, and it should be 
 
212 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT, 
 
 pointed out, every answer is the result of separate 
 and individual experience and observation. 
 
 Question ist. What manure gives the best and what the 
 worst results ? 
 
 Answers: 
 
 1. Cattle manure or sombreorum the best, cocoanut 
 poonac the worst. 
 
 2. Best, plain bones or bones and sulphate of 
 ammonia ; worst, cocoanut poonac. 
 
 3. Cattle manure and bone dust or steamed bones the 
 best ; blood and guano the worst. 
 
 4. Bone dust and steamed bones the best ; castor- 
 poonac the worst. 
 
 5. Bones and cattle manure the best. 
 
 6. Cattle manure, bones and poonac and Cross' manure. 
 
 7. Cattle manure, bones and wood ashes the best ; 
 Peruvian guano the worst. 
 
 8. Cattle manure and bones as bulk the best. 
 
 g. Cattle manure and bones the best ; bone meal and 
 cocoanut poonac next best. 
 
 10. Cattle manure best ; lime worst. 
 
 11. Cattle manure the best ; vegetable stuff and lime 
 the worst. 
 
 Question 2nd. What mode of application have you found 
 to answer best ? 
 
 Answers: 
 
 1. For artificial, semi-circular holes above tree; bulk, 
 square holes between every four trees. 
 
 2. Saucer-shaped holes dug with a fork and scraped 
 out with hand. 
 
 3. Soluble manure scratched in on surface ; and regular 
 manuring semicircular hole one foot from tree. 
 
 4. Circular holes for artificial, and square for bulk. 
 
 5. Generally holing, but occasionally digging. 
 
 6. Circular holes. 
 
MANURES AND MANURING. 213 
 
 7. Forking. 
 
 8. Close to the tree, must be varied in its application. 
 
 9. Holing the best. Digging gives the quickest results. 
 10. Cutting large holes between four trees. 
 
 Question $rd. What months have you found to be the 
 best for the application of (a) bulky manure, (b) artificial ? 
 In answering the above questions, kindly give the approximate 
 cost of cultivation, including manure, also the elevation and 
 exposure of the fields in question, as well as the age of the 
 Coffee, with any other information, such as the weather report 
 of the blossom seasons, that you think may be useful. 
 
 Answers : 
 
 1. Cost of manure and application, Rs. 45 per acre. 
 
 2. August and September the best for artificial; cost, 
 Rs. 45 to Rs. 50 per acre. Cattle manure applied August 
 and September, and cost Rs. 90 to Rs. 100. 
 
 3. Bulky manure, January; artificial, April, May. Cost 
 of bulky, Rs. 50 to Rs. 60 ; artificial, Rs. 40 to Rs. 50. 
 
 4. Regular manuring immediately after crop. 
 
 5. Cattle manure, January ; artificial manure, April and 
 May. Cost : cattle manure, Rs. 80 per acre ; artificial, 
 Rs. 45. The oldest Coffee is the best, and fields with 
 eastern exposure give nearly all the crops. 
 
 6. Bulk, January and February, and prunings buried. 
 Artificial, June and July. Cost of cultivation, includ- 
 ing manure but not superintendence, crop expenses, 
 Rs. 47 per acre ; artificial manure, cost Rs. 50 ; bulk, 
 Rs. 55. 
 
 7. Cattle manure, June to August ; cost of application, 
 Rs. 25. 
 
 8. Early in season before end of April ; cost of manure, 
 Rs. 60 to Rs. 70; applied, Rs. 12 to Rs. 15. 
 
 9. Bulky manure as soon as possible after blossoming 
 season ; artificial, April to August. Cattle manure, cost 
 applied, Rs. 70 ; artificial, Rs. 48 to 50. Total expen- 
 diture, Rs. 120 per acre. 
 
214 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 10. Early manuring, January to June ; cost of cultiva- 
 tion with cattle manure, Rs. 150; artificial, Rs. 125 ; and 
 average cost of estate, Rs. no. 
 
 11. Bulky manure, January; artificial, April and May; 
 cost cultivation of fields, Rs. 90 to Rs. 100. 
 
 Cattle manure, costing Rs. 120 per acre, has 
 given 4 cwt. increase for 3 years ; bone dust, 
 costing less, has given 4^ cwt. per acre first 
 year, and 2 cwt. the second year ; bones and 
 poonac, at Rs. 85 per acre, have improved crop 
 to the extent of 4 cwt. for two years ; sombreorum, 
 at Rs. 50, should effect an improvement of 3 to 
 4 cwt. ; and animal refuse, line sweepings, &c., at 
 Rs. 80 per acre, should represent an increase of 
 2 to 4 cwt. But the nature of the original soil 
 will always influence such results. Personally I 
 believe in carefully saved cattle-shed stuff twice in 
 three years, with perhaps a little concentrated 
 artificial manure for emergencies. A yearly ex- 
 penditure of Rs. 30 to Rs. 40 should cover this. 
 
215 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 COST AND PROFIT. 
 
 WERE we to say at once that it is rash to think 
 of embarking in the Coffee-planting enterprise 
 without at least ^5,000 at command, there is no 
 doubt but that we should dispel a good many 
 pleasant fancies, and cause, perhaps, a consider- 
 able fall in the .hopes of the inexperienced. Yet 
 we doubt if a smaller figure than that mentioned 
 above can be taken as safely covering cost of 
 land, initial expenses, and the multitude of con- 
 tingencies arising during the long period of waiting 
 before any crop is realised. 
 
 Under separate chapters we have suggested 
 these various costs arising from different works ; it 
 may be as well to bring these together, in yearly 
 headings, and thus see how much we shall be 
 out of pocket before we receive from our lowland 
 brokers that delightful and ever-memorable "first 
 cheque " for a maiden crop. 
 
 To begin with, however, we must say that the 
 price of land varies so much and so recklessly, 
 according to fancy or fashion, not only in Ceylon, 
 but in other countries where speculation should be 
 less rife, that it is best not to include it in the 
 
216 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 estimates. From 2 to 3 (Rs. 20 to 30, how- 
 ever) may be taken as a reasonable equivalent of 
 good forest land. This price will rise to Rs. 50, 
 100, or even 200, if the plot is very conveniently 
 situated for water, carriage, &c., or if there are 
 rich and prosperous gardens near by. From native 
 states, again, sometimes it can be had at a sum 
 which is merely the recognition of the transfer of 
 rights ; and the public auctions held under British 
 rule will vary greatly in their result according to 
 competition. 
 
 APPROXIMATE ESTIMATES FOR BRINGING INTO BEARING 
 200 ACRES OF FOREST LAND. 
 
 First Year. 
 
 (100 ACRES OPENED.) Total Rg 
 
 The land having been acquired, there will be, 
 to begin with, surveyor's fees, cutting 
 out, and clearing the first hundred acres, 
 @ Rs. 3 per acre 300 
 
 Felling and clearing 100 acres by contract or 
 
 otherwise, @ Rs. 25 per acre ... .. 2,500 
 
 Cutting pegs for lining will depend on number 
 of pegs required according to distance 
 the bushes are to be apart. Say we need 
 187,500, this should be about 14 an. per acre 80 
 
 Lining, very variable work may be taken at 
 Rs. 3. The better the burn, the closer the 
 land is cleared, the lighter this and all 
 subsequent works become ... ... 300 
 
 Carried forward Rs. 3,180 
 
COST AND PROFIT. 2IJ 
 
 Total Rs. 
 
 Brought forward 3,180 
 
 Holing should be done well, and not hurried 
 or scamped, as we have pointed out. In 
 round numbers, with 1,500 holes to the 
 acre, the cost will be at least Rs. 16 per 
 acre 1,600 
 
 " Filling in," &c., at Rs. 16 per acre 600 
 
 Planting and supplying are works second to 
 none in importance of those dealing directly 
 with the bushes. Both require constant 
 supervision and the best labour on the 
 estate. Planting may be taken at Rs. 24 per 
 acre, and supply, if the previous work was 
 done well, Rs. 3; together Rs. 27 per acre 2,700 
 
 Tools must not be overlooked. They should 
 all be the best of their kind and English 
 make. Mamoties, alavangas, axes, bill- 
 hooks, pruning knives, water cans, buckets, 
 spades, &c., &c., are amongst the chief 
 required. A careful record should be 
 kept of all issued from the stores every 
 day, or they will be hidden and lost with 
 inconceivable rapidity. There is constant 
 work for one coolie (Sundries) rehandling 
 axes, mamoties, and perhaps for another 
 sharpening and grinding . . . 300 
 
 A nursery plot of about an acre may cost to 
 level, clear, plant, and drain Rs. 150. To 
 this should be added the cost of 4 bushels 
 of seed Coffee, Rs. 10 per bushel 190 
 
 Lines must be built, and though any sort of 
 miserable shedding is considered good 
 enough for the first year or two, we can 
 
 Carried forward Rs. 8,570 
 
2l8 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 Total Rs. 
 Brought forward 8,570 
 
 see no valid reason why these buildings 
 should not be decent and efficient from 
 the first. Ten-roomed lines stone pillar 
 and shingle each room 12 by 10, and 
 well made, as previously pointed out, can 
 be put up for about Rs. 550 to 700, say... 600 
 
 A bungalow for the Englishman is often not 
 built until the third year, the estate in 
 the meantime being managed through a 
 neighbouring planter, who rides over to 
 superintend. But suppose the owner lives 
 on the land from the first, then a very 
 convenient, if unpretentious, house on 
 stone foundations with shingle roof can 
 be built for Rs. 1,000. Ourselves we 
 should be inclined to add another thousand 
 rupees, and make it very complete, but we 
 accept the lower estimate ... ... ... 1,000 
 
 Roads deserve the earliest consideration we can 
 give them. When made at once, although 
 it may be not to their full width, they 
 will save 5 per cent, on all subsequent 
 operations. They are necessary but ex- 
 pensive luxuries, costing little under Rs. 140 
 per mile, and if miles per hundred acres 
 opened is not too much 210 
 
 Draining has to be seen to, and the sooner 
 the better. Forty acres of the steepest 
 land i.e. t that in most danger of loosing 
 its soil at Rs. 7 per acre, will be 280 
 
 Carried forward Rs. 10,660 
 
COST AND PROFIT. 
 
 219 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 Weeding as we have seen is light for the first 
 year. Ten runs over the clearings in that 
 period will be sufficient, and these at R. i 
 per acre monthly will be 
 
 Finally there will be the salary of superintendent, 
 Rs. 1,000 (at least), to set against the 
 estate . ... 
 
 And contingencies. These are apt to increase 
 unduly. They may be said to include a 
 host of items, such as Government medical 
 assessment, taxes, " writer," if there is 
 one, general transport, loss on rice, sub- 
 scriptions, absenting coolies, &c., &c. \ ... 
 
 Total Rs. 
 10,660 
 
 IOO 
 
 1,000 
 
 500 
 
 Probable expenditure to end of first year Rs. 12,260 
 
 Second Year. 
 
 If we now bring under cultivation the other 
 " hundred acres, felling and clearing, pegs, 
 lining, holing, filling in, planting and sup- 
 plying, &c., as previously, if done in the 
 best style, will be not much under 
 
 More lines for coolies will be required, say 
 60 x 20 
 
 Another i-| miles of roads 
 
 Planting grass for cattle 
 
 Drains again as last year 
 
 Tools to replace those lost and broken 
 
 Weeding : ist clearing for 12 months, 2nd clear- 
 ing for 6 months, at Rs. i per month 
 
 Superintendence 
 
 Contingencies 
 
 Total Rs. 
 
 7,780 
 
 700 
 210 
 3OO 
 280 
 TOO 
 
 1, 8OO 
 
 1,000 
 
 5OO 
 
 Probable expenditure to end of second year Rs. 12,670 
 
22O COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 Third Year. Total Rs. 
 
 Much of the work is the same as previously. 
 
 Weeding 200 acres ... ... ... ... ... 2,400 
 
 Upkeep of roads and drains, at Rs. 2 ... ... 400 
 
 Pruning has now to be attended to. Sucker- 
 ing was probably commenced with the 
 monthly weeding about the middle of the 
 last twelve months, but was not heavy 
 enough to need special mention. Topping 
 took place at the same time, and cost Rs. i 
 = Rs. 200. Pruning and handling, at Rs. 4 
 per acre (including the burying of the 
 rubbish between the rows), with this will 
 be 1,000 
 
 This year a resident manager will be needed on 
 the estate. 200 (Rs. 2,000) is the usual 
 commencing salary ... ,.;. '. ... . 2,000 
 
 Pulping machinery, pulping house and stores, 
 may, as has been shown, cost anything, 
 from Rs. 1,800 for very temporary ar- 
 rangements, to Rs. 10,000, or even more. 
 Rs. 5,000 ought to set small estates up 
 well, avoiding on the one hand useless 
 display in buildings, and on the other 
 " cutcha " arrangements, sure to end in 
 loss and disappointment 5>ooo 
 
 Picking, pulping, and drying, say 400 cwt. off 
 100 acres, viz., 4 cwt. at Rs. 3, will 
 come to ... 1,200 
 
 Carried forward Rs. 12,000 
 
COST AND PROFIT. 221 
 
 Total Rs. 
 
 Brought forward ... ... ... 12,000 
 
 Transport to lowlands very likely 8 annas per 
 bushel on 1,900 bushels of "parchment" 
 
 would equal ... ... ... ... ... 950 
 
 Contingencies ... ... ... ... ... 500 
 
 General transport of stores, material, &c. ... 500 
 
 Third year Rs. 13,950 
 
 Expenditure First year 
 
 ,, Second year 
 
 ,, Third year 
 
 Total expenditure to first crop... ... ... 38,880 
 
 Less value of 400 cwt. at 703. per cwt. ... 14,000 
 
 Estate Dr Rs. 24, 
 
 There are several items that have not been 
 taken into consideration here, but they are all such 
 as can be reserved for consideration of a third and 
 fourth year. Nothing has been said about cattle 
 sheds or manure pits. Sheds may be taken as 
 costing about the same price as substantial coolie 
 lines of the same dimensions if built as they ought 
 to be. Coffee spouting, again, has not been men- 
 tioned, as it is an " improvement" rarely to be found 
 on a garden during the first few years of its exist- 
 ence. Loss by exchange (due to the fact that the 
 English standard is gold, while that of India is 
 fluctuating silver) is a serious matter, a loss in fact 
 
222 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 of some six per cent, or more ; and though the 
 rupee is nominally worth 2S. sterling, it has for a 
 long time only represented is. yd. to is. iod., is. 8d. 
 being about the actual value it can be relied upon 
 as indicating. Nor has anything been allowed 
 for the interest of the money invested, while of 
 course there are the personal expenses to be added 
 of living, clothing, &c. ; and lastly, but not least, 
 we have the initial cost of land. 
 
 It should be noted that in " the jungles " 
 there are rarely concise and definite boundaries, 
 consequently more land is taken up than is ever 
 cultivated, or even cultivatable. Rupees 50 and 
 100 are by no means rare prices for land as we 
 have seen. In the Wynaad, little can be got 
 under Rs. 30 per acre. But if we give as little 
 as Rs. 5, this will be on, perhaps, 400 acres 
 Rs. 2,000. Very cheap land and very incon- 
 venient with poor transport facilities and a scanty 
 labour market, is always dear at any price, unless 
 the soil is so genuinely good that it must be well 
 and quickly patronized, and thus civilization over- 
 take the pioneer in the midst of his struggles. 
 It is wiser for a young man to purchase a small 
 holding, one well covered by the limits of his 
 capital, say allotting ^20 to every acre he is 
 going to open in three years, than to burden 
 himself with wide, barren domains, where his 
 money will be absorbed like water on the desert 
 sands, and with as little result. The same thing 
 
COST AND PROFIT. 223 
 
 applies to companies, who are likely to get a good 
 dividend much sooner and much more regularly 
 by the thorough and skilful cultivation of a 
 moderate extent of well -planted land than by 
 rushing recklessly forward presumably with the 
 idea that profits depend on the " paper " acreage 
 under Coffee in their names. 
 
 " Forty times out of fifty," an old planter 
 says, "the true reason of failure and disappointment 
 in this branch of agriculture is due to more land 
 being taken in hand than the limits of available 
 capital warrant." Borrowing does not do in India 
 or elsewhere, and there it is especially ruinous 
 since money cannot be got under 9 or 10 per 
 cent. We know it has been said land can be 
 brought into bearing for ^8 and 10 an acre. 
 Undoubtedly it can, in a manner, but in a style 
 neither cheap nor profitable, and which means 
 constant patching and mending with means which 
 might be turned to much better account. The 
 Englishman who is misled by such statements, 
 and plunges into Coffee planting "with < Young 
 Ceylon ' in one pocket and ^1,000 in the other" 
 will speedily find he has been over-confident. Still 
 1,000 is a handsome " nest egg," and to the 
 possessor of such we would say, by advertising 
 or through friends get a berth as assistant on a 
 garden in Southern India, Fiji, or anywhere else, 
 and serve three years' apprenticeship. During 
 those three years learn everything you can, im- 
 
 
224 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 portant or trivial, and not forgetting the local 
 language. By the end of that time you will be 
 well qualified to judge of whether it is safe to 
 invest your capital in forest, whether it would not 
 be wiser to take over a half-opened garden from 
 a discontented neighbour, or to throw in your lot 
 with some pleasant and clever " chum," and make 
 your fortunes over a joint estate. 
 
 " The first year a learner has a house on the estate but 
 no pay ; the second year they usually get Rs. 100 a-month pay 
 (profits of course, too, if a partner) ; and after that Rs, 150, 
 with a bonus on crop over a certain quantity. As far as my 
 own experience goes, it is easier to get a berth whilst still in 
 England than when actually on the spot. Advertising, as we 
 know it at home, is unknown abroad, and unless he has 
 plenty of friends, the adventurer who goes out on the chance 
 of something to do to India or Ceylon will find himself hope- 
 lessly stranded. In younger countries he will have a slightly 
 better lookout." 
 
 Profits are a vague but pleasant subject, the 
 outcome and dependent of all we have written. 
 One planter appealed to on this subject shakes 
 his head gloomily and declares there are none. 
 Another, with whom we agree, takes, in the columns 
 of the Field, a more hopeful view : 
 
 " People say Coffee does not pay to cultivate, and upon 
 the face of it there is much in support of this contention ; 
 but it would not be difficult to show that Coffee has been 
 made to pay, and pay well, and that under circumstances as 
 adverse, or even more adverse, than those existing at the 
 present moment. Twenty years ago a planter considered 
 himself a fortunate man if he got thirty rupees per cwt. for 
 
COST AND PROFIT. 225 
 
 his Coffee on the coast ; now he would consider himself very 
 unfortunate in having to accept that price. Yet to-day the cost 
 of labour is not greater, while carriage to and from the coast 
 is less. Coffee paid then, why should it not pay now ? The 
 answer is not far to seek, strange though at first sight that 
 answer may appear to be. I say advisedly, the high prices 
 that were experienced some few years ago, and which led to a 
 large area of land being planted which under no condition 
 was suitable for the cultivation of Coffee. Something also 
 must be put down to reckless expenditure the child of tem- 
 porary prosperity. But what about leaf disease ? I do not 
 believe that to Coffee cultivated under conditions not inimical 
 to its growth it will do any material injury, however fatal it 
 may have been to the class of estates referred to above, and 
 worn out properties, of which there are many such in every 
 district. As is the case in all epidemics, the aged and the 
 infirm are the sufferers. Taking the most adverse view of 
 Coffee, it is no worse than it was twenty years ago, when it 
 was considered a good investment, while its prospects in the 
 future are for many reasons brighter. The low price of 
 Coffee in 1860 tended to restrict production, which, reacting 
 on value, led to the high rate realised in 1873. This stimu- 
 lating production has brought about the present state of the 
 Coffee market. As it has been in the past, will it not be in 
 the future ? Have we not evidence of this already in Ceylon 
 and elsewhere? Old and worthless estates are being aban- 
 doned, while new plantations are. seldom or never heard of, 
 and this leads to a limitation in production, to be followed 
 hereafter by enhanced value of the article." 
 
 Profits depend on two things chiefly the selling 
 price of clean Coffee, and the weight yielded per 
 acre ; quality, we are sorry to say, has not much 
 to do with the matter. 
 
 Suppose expenses of working an established 
 garden, including manager allowances, overseers 
 
 Q 
 
226 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 pay, &c., are put at Rs. 100 per acre per annum ; 
 then with an average yield, Coffee at ^94 per 
 ton, and no untoward circumstances, we should 
 be making something like 15 per cent, on money 
 invested. But suppose Coffee went down to ^64 
 a ton, profits would give way in proportion, and 
 if we had spent 60 per ton, including all charges, 
 in growing the crop it will be seen the margin 
 would be decidedly narrow. The planter, like any 
 other merchant, desires to obtain cheap and sell 
 dear. A combination of evils is arrived at when 
 there is over much clean Coffee in the markets, 
 when prices drop steadily, and added to this 
 " leaf disease ' and other ills curtail private 
 production. 
 
 1. A yield under 3 cwt. per acre, 
 
 2. A selling price under 60 per ton, 
 
 3. And interest to pay at the rate of 10 per 
 
 cent, on a heavy debt, 
 
 are the black clouds of the planter's sky ; on the 
 other side 
 
 1. A yield over the average 5 cwt. per acre, 
 
 2. A selling price nearer -80 than ^60, 
 
 3. And last, but not least, some free working 
 
 capital at the bankers, 
 
 form a bright look-out on the horizon, a ready 
 road to fortune, and thus to that return to the 
 
COST AND PROFIT. 227 
 
 native country which is the goal of even the 
 most contented Anglo-Indian. 
 
 Certain estates in Ceylon for a long time gave 
 an average yield of gj cwt. a year at times 
 when the market was very high. No wonder the 
 prosperity of the island increased as these pro- 
 perties and others like them drew wealth and 
 commerce to her shores. 
 
 Very many estates in the best times of the 
 enterprise returned regularly 30 and 46 per cent, on 
 their opening costs, and fortunes were made rapidly. 
 Then came the leaf disease, and " bug," and now 
 there can be no doubt but that the planters are 
 discouraged. It by no means follows that Coffee in 
 Ceylon or Southern India is played out. Restricted 
 planting means (even in face of other producing 
 countries) a smaller supply which in turn leads to 
 an enhanced price. Not only so, but byour most 
 recent news from the East, the leaf disease is 
 showing signs of decreasing severity passing over 
 estates without doing a fraction of the damage it 
 once did. Everything points to the fact that Coffee 
 will flourish again, and even to-day, if we keep our- 
 selves out of debt, and earn by careful cultivation 
 some twelve or thirteen per cent, on the capital 
 embarked, we shall have little cause to grumble, 
 since there are very few branches of agriculture 
 which yield any greater per centage with regularity. 
 The life, too, if a hard one at first, is by no means 
 without its pleasures the noble scenery of the 
 
228 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 hills, the free existence, and the sense of honourable 
 toil, combined with occasional holidays into the 
 plains, a little sport now and then, and last but not 
 least (let us hope) a prospect of increasing wealth, 
 tend to elevate it into the region of a very pleasant 
 labour. 
 
22Q 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 COFFEE COUNTRIES. 
 
 BETWEEN well-recognised limits north and south of 
 the Equator Coffee is found growing, and bearing 
 highly-profitable crops, in a wide range of countries. 
 To attempt anything like an exhaustive account 
 of these would be manifestly impossible within the 
 range of a single chapter ; but a few facts are 
 given which will at least give a good general idea 
 of the individual districts, and for more detailed 
 information the planter must refer to local sources 
 of information. In 
 
 BRITISH INDIA, 
 
 Coffee is grown along the summits and slopes of 
 the Western Ghauts, from the northern limits of 
 Mysore south to Cape Comorin ; in Coorg, Travan- 
 core, in the Wynaad, on the slopes of the Neil- 
 gherry Hills, and also on the Shevaroy Hills and 
 Pulney Hills. Major Bevan introduced Coffee into 
 the Wynaad about the year 1822 as a curiosity; 
 Mr. Cannon, somewhat later, formed a plantation 
 in Mysore ; Mr. Glasson, in 1840, started a planta- 
 tion in Manautoddy; and in 1842 it was growing 
 well at Belgaum. The extension since has been 
 
23O COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 great. In 1880, in the Cochin, Travancore, Mysore, 
 and Madras districts, and at Lohardugga in Bengal, 
 412,947 acres had been taken up for Coffee, of 
 which 162,847 acres had mature plants. 
 
 JAVA AND SUMATRA 
 
 Claim our attention first. Java Coffee sells at 455, 
 when best Ceylon plantation is fetching 8os., but 
 this only points to the fact that much Coffee from 
 thence is poorly dried, and comes over " country 
 damaged," &c. The soil of the island is good 
 enough to produce as fine a sample as was ever 
 grown. Land does not seem to be difficult to procure. 
 Any foreigner residing in Java, and elsewhere in 
 Netherlands India, may apply for and obtain, under 
 the same rules and regulations applicable to the 
 Dutch themselves, Government waste lands. They 
 can purchase and become possessors of Government 
 contracts running for seventy-five years from their 
 original holders. The size of most of these con- 
 tracts is 500 bouws one bouw=if acre and quit 
 rent varies from 6 dols. to 20 dols. per bouw per 
 annum, payable on the sixth year from time of 
 purchase, the average amount being at 9 dols. per 
 bouw. The purchase sum for such contract varies, 
 but if the site and soil be good, 50 dols. per bouw, 
 roughly speaking ^7 per acre, is not considered out 
 of the way, and this is by far the pleasanter and 
 more practicable way of acquiring land for Coffee or 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 23! 
 
 Cinchona, as delays in the instance of applying to 
 Government for waste land are endless and very 
 vexatious. 
 
 Trees are planted out usually 7 by 8 feet apart, 
 i.e., 780 to the acre. The " dadap " is the favourite 
 shade tree, while the planters have a curious plan of 
 letting the grass grow tall and strong between the 
 rows until their Coffee is established. At two years 
 old bushes flower and bear. 
 
 The " voor pluk " begins in February, the 
 " main pluk" in Mayor June. This is the "full 
 pluk," when the heavy portion of the crop is 
 gathered. The " after pluk" is a general sweep of 
 fallen seed. Plucking must be got through in two 
 months. The yield is an average of from three 
 quarters of a pound to one and a quarter pounds 
 of clean Coffee per bush. Much of the seed is 
 " hulled " i.e., dried as a cherry on the drying 
 grounds, the brittle pulp after fifteen days or a 
 month's exposure being knocked off in a special 
 machine. 
 
 The cost of plucking varies, but may be set 
 down at 2 rupees (is. 3d.) per picul of 136 Ibs. of 
 clean Coffee. Six piculs of red berry equal i picul 
 of clean Coffee. 
 
 The wages for cultivation are very trifling. There 
 is a teeming population of workers in Java, and, 
 as a consequence, wages are almost nominal. The 
 style of payment in vogue in Java is to give a man 
 a bit of rice ground, on which he grows his own 
 
232 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 food, together with about 30 to 50 cents more or less 
 per day. The plantation hands live contentedly on 
 this what would appear to us miserable pittance. 
 Coffee, like every other product which is dependent 
 upon atmospheric phenomena for its success, varies 
 in different seasons. The very best yield ever 
 known in Java was 13 piculs of clean Coffee per 
 bahoe, or i,7681bs. English, equal to about 867! Ibs. 
 per acre. An average yield is from 3 to 9 piculs 
 of clean Coffee per bahoe. But then rises the 
 dread form of the leaf disease, and by the latest 
 accounts this is showing itself strongly. From an 
 authoritative source we hear it was inevitable that 
 the fell fungus should run its destructive course, 
 lava soil to the contrary, and now it seems but a 
 question of time for Coffee to be as great a failure 
 in Java as it has turned out to be in Ceylon. The 
 latest accounts are most serious, thus : Batavia. 
 From the Director of Inland Administration infor- 
 mation has been received that the coffee-leaf disease 
 is becoming more and more noticeable in East 
 Java, chiefly in the provinces of Pasaruan, Probo- 
 linggo, and Bezukie, which hitherto had been 
 exempt from this infliction. The Coffee trees there 
 abound in berries everywhere, but owing to the 
 disease all the leaves have dropped off. In many 
 estates the trees display nothing else but branches 
 full of berries, which are still fresh-looking and 
 green, but have become partially black and have 
 dropped off. As the disease shows itself everywhere, 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 233 
 
 in mid Java also, where it is widespread in the 
 province of Bagelen, it is to be feared that the 
 Coffee yield will fall off in consequence more than 
 ever. 
 
 Sumatra is under the same rule as Java, and 
 shares for the most part its good and bad charac- 
 teristics, though it has never made itself quite 
 such a home of the shrub as the delightful and 
 beautiful sister island. No other Coffee acquires, 
 except by artificial means, the dark yellowish- 
 brown shade that marks the Java and Sumatra 
 bean, which colour governs, in a great measure, 
 its commercial value. Another very good indi- 
 cation of genuineness is the size of the bean, 
 which is considerably larger than that of other 
 kinds of Coffee, excepting Liberian. There is, 
 however, some Coffee produced in the other 
 islands of the Malay Archipelago which does 
 not differ materially in size of bean or general 
 appearance, but which, as a rule, is inferior in 
 flavour. 
 
 The Java and Dutch India crops of 1885 
 are calculated to be 8,000 tons less than those 
 produced in the previous year. 
 
 FIJI 
 
 " Is not a country for the white man," said Sir 
 Arthur Gordon ; but, as usual, the white man is 
 loath to admit it, and the island is being slowly 
 
234 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 opened by enterprise and spirit in the face of 
 many difficulties. 
 
 There can be no question but that Fiji 
 possesses an abundant store almost limitless, in 
 fact of the best volcanic land for Coffee cultiva- 
 tion, which has been successfully established, and 
 largely increased since the British annexation in 
 1874. The labour question is a serious one, as 
 it often is in new colonies. " Fiji was taken over 
 to try and preserve the native races, and Govern- 
 ment think that if they were allowed to do as 
 they liked they would die out. Therefore they 
 are induced to stay at home as much as possible 
 and keep themselves to themselves, to cultivate 
 Government gardens only to enable them to pay 
 taxes," says A. J. S., writing to the Ceylon Observer. 
 The planters in the new colony complain of the 
 " grandmotherly " care exercised by the authorities 
 over natives, and how the latter make planters' lives 
 a burthen to them by continually taking cases to 
 court which in other countries would be considered 
 beneath notice. The above writer declares he was 
 
 summoned for calling a coolie " a b fool," and, 
 
 objectionable as the language may have been, it 
 illustrates the sort of " complaints " which the 
 natives hatch and support by false testimony. 
 
 Nor is the supply of Polynesian labour sufficient 
 or as good as it once was. 
 
 " The Government in 1883 only succeeded in 
 getting one vessel to recruit Polynesians, and the 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 235 
 
 estimated cost was 16 per head. The vessel 
 was unsuccessful, the men have been given out 
 at 3 P er head to those planters who cared 
 about giving such a figure. In 1878 and 1879 
 men used to be g, including depot expenses. 
 The men also are not of so good stamp as they 
 once were mere boys and old men are allowed 
 to come." This drives the planters back upon 
 Indian labourers. 
 
 It seems quite certain that, as yet, Coffee has 
 not been an assured success in Fiji. Hemeleia 
 vastatrix may not be so virulent as it has proved 
 to be in Ceylon, but the wet climate has developed 
 another bad blight in the shape of " black leaf." 
 Such Coffee as is grown, too, is not well cured, 
 although the single curing mill erected is but 
 poorly patronised. Last season in Fiji seems to 
 have been worse for excessive rainfall than even 
 that of 1882 in Ceylon. From a rainfall of no in., 
 the quantity went up to 183 in., an increase of 
 73 in one year ; and it will be observed from the 
 monthly returns that as nearly as possible 100 in. 
 fell in the four months, December to March. 
 No wonder, although the Coffee blossoms were 
 destroyed. Of course, it would not be logical to 
 judge the Coffee enterprise by the results of one 
 year ; but we have now the experience of a good 
 many years before us, and we have a right to 
 say that the prospects of Coffee in Fiji are not 
 all that could be wished. 
 
236 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 From Messrs. Gordon and Gotch's " Australian 
 Handbook for 1885 " we glean the following 
 information : 
 
 Since I5th March, 1877 (the date the "Real Property" 
 Ordinance came into operation), 1,020 deeds have been issued, 
 conveying 312,400 acres of land, consideration given for the 
 same amounting to "25,477. 
 
 CLIMATE. The climate of Fiji as a whole is most agreeable 
 and healthy ; and, considering its proximity to the Equator, is 
 not nearly so hot as might be expected, the fierceness of the 
 sun's heat being lessened by sea breezes. For nine months 
 in the year the climate is delightful and free from diseases, 
 though during the hot season dysentery is prevalent. The 
 mean temperature of the colony is about 80, the greatest 
 extremes being experienced inland. 60 is the lowest and 
 122 the highest hitherto noted. From Christmas to March is 
 called the hurricane season, but there has been no heavy blow 
 since 1879. There is a dry and a wet season; the former is 
 cool and lasts from May to October, the latter is hot and lasts 
 from October to May. The meteorological observations taken 
 during 1880 at Delanasau Bay (S. lat. 16 38', E. long. 
 178 37^ by Mr. Holmes were as follows: Barometer 29.893, 
 thermometer, highest reading 93, lowest 59, mean 78 9'. 
 Rainfall on 168 days, amount 115.61 inches ; greatest daily fall 
 7.79 inches. On the Ra Coast, according to Mr. Leefe, rain 
 fell on 135 days, the total rainfall being 102.63 inches. 
 
 NATIVES. The Fijian aborigines are a handsome, powerful- 
 looking set of people ; a dark copper is their principal colour ; 
 they are said to be a cowardly, unprincipled race, lazy and 
 tricky, but with a little management the white man can make 
 them subserviently useful. They are cleanly in their persons, 
 in fact so fond of the water that they are (both male and 
 female) semi-amphibious. 
 
 LABOUR. The importation of foreign labour from the New 
 Hebrides, Solomon, and other Polynesian islands has of late 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 237 
 
 become a self-sustaining institution of the colony. Eighteen 
 vessels, with an aggregate of about 3,000 tons, are engaged 
 during the season in conveying upwards of 2,000 persons. 
 Still the supply is not equal to the demand. Government 
 supervises the whole matter of labour, from the time the vessel 
 goes for them, during the term three years of engagement in 
 Fiji, until their return home. 
 
 Of the cost per head to the planter of these labourers no 
 statistics have been published, but, approximately, it is 16 
 per annum viz., one-third of indent for three years, ^3 ; wages, 
 /3 ; food, ^4 155 ; return home, ^"4 ; landing at plantation, 
 2s. 6d. ; quarters, los. ; mats, 53. ; blankets, 8s. ; sulus, IDS. ; 
 medicine and proprietor of hospital house, los. 
 
 The cost of Fijian labour is about ^"17, and of coolie ig. 
 Size of house, bedding, clothing, stock of medicines, daily 
 rations, periodical inspections are all laid down by ordinance. 
 On return home these labourers receive presents of axes, 
 tomahawks, beads, &c., but not muskets as formerly. In 
 1883 a new law came into force, which will have the effect 
 of increasing the cost about 15 per cent., as well as, from 
 its stringency, drive small capitalists from their fields of 
 labour. Just as the labourer is becoming most useful to 
 his employer the time expires, and he is not allowed, even 
 if he wishes it, to enter upon a new agreement for more 
 than one year. Last year the allotment fee was 16, depot 
 fee i, sundries about 53. Government impedes the engage- 
 ment of the natives as agricultural labourers for more than 
 one month at a time, even though they desire ; and foreign 
 labour is scarce, which is ever the case upon an influx of 
 capital. It is very probable that before long coolie labour 
 will exclude Polynesian. 
 
 COOLIES. In 1879 the authorities arranged with the Indian 
 Government for the introduction of coolie labour. The second 
 and third attempts made in 1883 and 1884 have proved very 
 successful. By a late ordinance, for every coolie applied 
 for 6 per caput has to be paid in advance to the Government. 
 
 CROWN LANDS. At Suva these are sold by auction at a high 
 upset price per acre, one half down, the other moiety in three 
 
238 
 
 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 months. Improvements to be effected to twice the amount of 
 the price within two years if less than upset price ; if more, 
 within five years. On default, the Government resume posses- 
 sion and return two-thirds of the purchase-money. Crown 
 surveyor values and disputes are settled by arbitration. 
 
 COFFEE was first exported from Fiji in 1877, and although 
 the amount was under 200, yet, as several of the most 
 wealthy and enterprising planters are now engaged in its 
 cultivation, Coffee is rapidly becoming one of the chief exports 
 of the island. Average yield 4 to 5 cwt. per acre. The leaf 
 disease which threatened the Coffee in 1880 and 1881 is said to 
 have decreased, at least for the time. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Total Exports. 
 
 Value. 
 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1881 
 
 104,524 
 
 4,666 5 o 
 
 1882 
 
 62,328 
 
 2,782 10 o 
 
 1883 
 
 210,204 
 
 93 8 3 J 9 7 
 
 The quantity of Coffee exported will no doubt increase 
 in future years. 
 
 A good overseer or sub-manager gets from 
 to ^250 now, managers from ^300 to ^400, or 
 perhaps more ; but billets like these are very 
 scarce. 
 
 BORNEO. 
 
 This island can grow good Coffee. A corres- 
 pondent writes : 
 
 " Sandakan, itfh Feb., 1884. 
 
 " Since the country was first started, some 200,000 acres of 
 forest lands have been selected by Cantonese, European and 
 Australian planters. Of this land, some 40,000 acres have 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 23Q 
 
 now been surveyed in blocks varying in sizes of % acre to 
 12,000 acres. In all about 1,000 acres have been cleared, and 
 about 400 acres planted up. The gardens at Silam are, I 
 hear, looking very encouraging, especially as regards ' new 
 product.' A trial of cacao and Liberian Coffee on a small 
 scale here, and planted in Ceylon style, is looking well, as also 
 the few Liberian trees ' put in ' by the Cantonese, whose 
 estates, owing to having 'gone in for' extravagant cleaning-up 
 (much beyond that which is usually done), will take a long 
 time to pay. The place requires some Ceylon men to make it 
 a success. With our splendid and well-proportioned rainfall, 
 everything grows extremely well, especially cacao and Liberian 
 Coffee, for which our soil and climate seem to be well suited. 
 A great many of the clearings here owned by both Europeans 
 and natives are managed by men who have scarcely ever seen 
 jungle, and hold extraordinary ideas as to * clearing-up ' and 
 weeding, and think as the Malays do: 'Man plants ("sticks in" 
 it is appropriately called), and Providence looks after the 
 seeds.' It is hoped that some of these people will soon see 
 the error of their ways and obtain practical assistance. 
 
 " We are fairly well supplied with labour from Brunei, 
 Labuan, Singapore and Hongkong for thirty dollar cents per 
 day (which we hope to reduce) ; the coolies from the latter 
 place are, however, ' at sea ' in the jungle or on plantations, 
 and consequently not much use, but may perhaps, like their 
 employers, with the aid of practical assistance and advice, 
 become better in time." 
 
 NEW GUINEA 
 
 Must fall into European hands sooner or later, and 
 no hands are so fit for it to fall into as ours. 
 Under English rule it might become the garden of 
 the Pacific ; under a German flag it will be a con- 
 stant thorn in the side of Anglo-Saxon Australasia. 
 The Argus special correspondent, Capt. Armit, 
 
24O COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 in his latest letter, dated Wabadam, July 
 1884, has the following: 
 
 " I inspected the gardens, and was astonished at the luxu- 
 riance of the crops, 1,550 feet above sea level. The people 
 of this country have no conception of the capabilities of the 
 soil. The natives grow more than they want, and this suffices. 
 Were these lands in the hands of European planters we should 
 soon be astonished at their productiveness. Coffee, cinchona, 
 cocoa, ginger, vanilla, rice (mountain), and a host of fruit 
 trees could be admirably grown here. Ceylon has been 
 almost ruined by the Coffee leaf-disease (Hemilia vastatrix), 
 and many planters have been inquiring in Queensland for land 
 suitable for Coffee growing. Here they will find not only 
 land of the best quality, but also labour at their very doors. 
 If these people are kindly and honestly treated they will work r 
 and work willingly and well for the Britaniata, as they call us. 
 But England must take the utmost care that, in purchasing 
 the land, the present proprietors receive a fair value for it, 
 If, after a few years, they find out that they have been swindled, 
 there will be serious trouble. They will soon obtain firearms 
 and learn how to use them. Then they will not prove con- 
 temptible foes, especially as they have quite sense enough to 
 join together and make common cause. I do not desire to 
 dishearten intending settlers, but everyone should know what 
 the people are like, and that in coming to New Guinea they 
 will find an agricultural race owning the soil, and perfectly 
 aware that they do own it not a race of unfortunates like 
 the Australians, who, after being robbed of their land, were 
 left to perish of starvation, or ruthlessly shot down for daring 
 to hunt over their own soil. 
 
 "Cane 16 ft. high, Bourbon ribbon, and, I believe, Scott's 
 cane or Otaheite, a small yellow sort ; bananas in full bearing, 
 the large bunches tied up in leaves ; bread-fruit trees (A rtocarpus 
 incisa) 50 ft. high, and plantations of small trees of all sizes ; 
 taro, whappa, a very large-leaved species of arum, yams, 
 sweet potatoes, tobacco, pumpkin all were growing here in 
 profusion. The tillage also is superior to anything of the kind 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 24! 
 
 I have yet seen in the island. The weeds are ke"pt down, and 
 the soil well and deeply worked. In clearing the land, the 
 graceful palms have been spared, and add an element of beauty 
 to the scene as they raise their graceful fronds 70 ft. to 100 ft. 
 above the plantations. The country to the south of Wabadam 
 is open forest with isolated hills and ridges strewn over its 
 surface. The natives do not cultivate their flats. The soil 
 is too hard, and would require heavy labour before it could 
 be utilized. The scrub soil, on the contrary, is always moist 
 and loose. It is easily worked after the scrub has been cleared, 
 and remains light and friable." 
 
 There is a great future before New Guinea, 
 and the earliest settlers will reap the richest 
 harvest ! 
 
 BURMAH. 
 
 A very large portion of the surface of British 
 Burmah, admirably adapted for various kinds of 
 cultivation, still remains in its primeval state of 
 unproductive jungle. This is due to the entire 
 absence of natural energy on the part of the 
 Burmese, who have been described as the idlest 
 race under the sun presenting in this respect a 
 singular contrast to their active and industrious 
 brethren of the Celestial Empire. The total 
 area of old British Burmah is 87,220 square 
 miles, and according to the last Administration 
 Report, only 5,498 square miles are under culti- 
 vation, of which about 88 per cent, are devoted 
 to the production of rice. Labour has been as 
 scarce as in a dozen other localities o 
 
242 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 nature. The immigration question is one which 
 for long engaged the attention of the local 
 authorities, and' we learn that a definite arrange- 
 ment proposed some time back has at length 
 been entered into with the British India and the 
 Asiatic Steam Navigation Companies regarding 
 the fares of deck passengers between the East 
 Coast of India and Rangoon. According to 
 agreement these companies are to carry deck 
 passengers to Rangoon from Calcutta for Rs. 5 
 a-head ; from any of the ports north of Madras for 
 Rs. 8 ; and from Madras, or any of the ports 
 south of it, for Rs. 10 a-head. The Government 
 undertakes to supplement these charges by a 
 grant of Rs. for each passenger from Calcutta, 
 and Rs. f for each passenger from other ports. 
 It is probable that the reduction of fares will 
 have the effect of inducing a considerable number 
 of stout-limbed coolies to listen to the voice of 
 the coolie-maistry, and try their fortune on the 
 other side of the kala pani. The coolie-maistry 
 engages labourers at one of the coast ports, 
 pays their passage over to Burmah, keeps them 
 in a barrack there, and hires them out till 
 they have repaid all expenses incurred in their 
 behalf, with a handsome douceur to the enter- 
 prising maistry in addition. Labour of every 
 description is very dear in Burmah. 
 
 A bid is now being made for the presence 
 of men who understand the art of planting Tea, 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 243 
 
 Coffee, and spices. Such men are offered (by 
 reiterated advertisements) free grants of jungle 
 land in the Tavoy district, in a tract lying 
 between the 13 and 14 parallel of north latitude. 
 The lots placed at altitudes ranging from 100 
 to 6,800 feet above the level of the sea, and 
 exposed to a rainfall of about 200 inches, vary 
 in size from 100 to 1,200 acres. The only 
 immediate payment required is 8 annas per 
 acre for cost of survey and demarkation. The 
 grantee will not be called upon to pay any land 
 revenue till the tenth year of possession, when 
 he will be taxed at the rate of Rs. i 4 annas 
 an acre. He is welcome to every stick of 
 timber he finds on his lot, but the Govern- 
 ment reserve to themselves all possible minerals 
 which may exist underground, with due compen- 
 sation for any damage caused to the grantee's 
 land by search or mining operations. To 
 encourage pioneers in the Coffee and Cinchona 
 enterprise in Tavoy, Government promised to 
 " pay to the first four grantees who began bond 
 fide planting operations Rs. 15 per head for every 
 Indian or Chinese coolie, male or female, over 
 sixteen years of age, who may be settled and housed 
 on their plantations before the ist of March, 
 1885." One of the advantages of the district is 
 that steamers to and from Rangoon touch weekly 
 at a port in the district. The Chief Commis- 
 sioner seems to be very anxious to establish 
 
244 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 Cinchona plantations in the province, for a reward 
 of Rs. 100 has been offered to any Karen who 
 will undertake Cinchona cultivation ; but as yet 
 no application has been made for any of the 
 plants. Every explanation of the above plan of 
 settlement will be afforded on application to the 
 Deputy Commissioner of Tavoy, the Commissioner 
 of Tenasserim at Moulmein, or the Secretariat, 
 Rangoon. The subject is worth the attention of 
 young planters with a little ready cash on hand. 
 How the district will prosper remains to be 
 seen, but those on the spot are sending home 
 rosy accounts of the new land. It is one in which 
 labour should become abundant, where soil should 
 be cheap and good, " leaf disease ' absent or 
 nearly so, and in a country presenting exceptional 
 chances and openings to a young man, while the 
 climate on the hills is said to be very healthy. 
 " People seem to have little knowledge of where 
 Tavoy is ; their geographical knowledge regarding 
 British Burma is only limited : one man thinks 
 it's awfully moist and unhealthy, and another 
 wants to know if the land is still under King 
 Theebaw ! The climate is similar to Ceylon and 
 healthy for Europeans in the extreme ; they all 
 get fat. The rainfall this year, 190 inches. The 
 rain commences showery in April and May. In 
 June the monsoon sets in, and breaks up in July, 
 the end of; then from July to middle of November 
 nice showers ; no rain from middle of November 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 245 
 
 to middle of February ; then a few nice showers 
 only ; also a few showers in March, a heavy dew 
 at night, just the thing for the young planties. 
 The blossom season same as in Ceylon : January, 
 February and March, blossom in all the jungle, 
 and also Coffee and all fruit-bearing trees, durian, 
 mangosteen, caju-nuts, &c., &c. ; and as for * King 
 Theebaw,' he is farther away than the old home." 
 
 SAMOA. 
 
 Regarding this fertile little territory the Indian 
 Mercury says : 
 
 " An interesting official report has been published concerning 
 the resources of Samoa (Navigators' Island), and we note that 
 experts both for sugar and Coffee planting have favourably 
 reported upon the capabilities of the islands for these 
 industries. The Coffee plant has been in existence there for 
 some years, and, growing luxuriantly, has proved the suitability 
 of the climate and soil, but it has never been scientifically 
 treated, and in consequence is not as yet an article of 
 commerce. Some Coffee planters and speculators visited 
 Samoa during the past year with the view of settling, should 
 they find the country suitable for their several purposes ; but 
 the moral impossibility, under the present circumstances, of 
 obtaining an indisputable title to any parcel of land they might 
 buy deterred them from risking their capital. The native 
 tenure of land is intricate and complicated, and the inclination 
 of the natives to effect wrongful sales, with a view of reclaiming 
 the land subsequently, makes speculators very chary of investing 
 money in property that may at any time be disputed, perhaps 
 at one time on account of neglect of some native custom not 
 noticed at time of sale, and not provided against ; and perhaps 
 at another time by some relative presenting himself, who was 
 absent at the time of sale, either intentionally or accidentally, 
 and questioning the validity of sale on account of his not 
 
246 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 having given his consent, and having received no part of the 
 purchase-money. The total absence of hurricanes, or indeed 
 of any winds strong enough to cause damage, make these 
 islands more suitable for the growth of sugar-cane than many 
 other parts of the world, where the whole crop is liable to be 
 destroyed in one blow. In starting a plantation in Samoa, 
 after acquiring the land, the greatest difficulty would be in 
 procuring labour. The supply of Polynesian labourers is 
 visibly falling off, through the disinclination of natives to go 
 to Samoa to work, and the greater advantages and comfort 
 offered them in other parts, such as Queensland and Fiji." 
 
 A Ceylon planter who has made a personal visit 
 to the island takes a rather more cheerful view. 
 Doubtless here as elsewhere some men will succeed 
 while others will fail from the very first. He 
 writes : 
 
 " Of Coffee there were a few trees planted at an elevation 
 of about 500 to 600 feet above sea-level and looked remarkably 
 well. There was no leaf disease or other pest that I noticed. 
 A Coffee planter has opened a nursery of some 600,000 
 seedlings, which were to be planted out and, I believe, will 
 do very well indeed. The soil is a chocolate loam of great 
 depth. Labour, however, is the great drawback. They have 
 to get all their coolies from the Hebrides and Solomon 
 Islands, which are a long way off, and are also the recruiting 
 ground for the Fiji and Queensland planters, so that Samoa 
 is pretty well handicapped in this respect. 
 
 " The land is all mountainous, but does not rise abruptly 
 from the sea. Towards the beach it is planted with cocoanut 
 groves, throughout which are innumerable villages. Coral 
 reefs circle all the islands, inside which the water is smooth 
 and rarely ruffled by anything but a gentle breeze. To say 
 they are inviting, enchanting and altogether charming does 
 no more than express the feelings of all visitors. I was 
 pleased and delighted beyond telling with my stay. 
 
 " Darwin's sentence applies with truth here : ' Every 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 
 
 247 
 
 form, every shade of Nature so completely surpasses in 
 magnificence all that the European has ever beheld in his 
 own country that he knows not how to express his feelings.' ' 
 
 " SINGAPORE JAVA. 
 
 " This is Coffee shipped from the English free port of that 
 name. Singapore is situated on a small island, eight or 
 ten miles square, and not of itself particularly fertile ; yet 
 this place is the great emporium for the productions of 
 the whole Malayan Peninsula and Archipelago, comprising 
 hundreds of islands, many of them of large size, and upon 
 which many valuable and important articles are produced. 
 
 "The exports from Singapore were, according to the 
 Singapore market report, as follows : 
 
 To GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1875 
 
 16,827 
 
 2,288,472 
 
 1876 
 
 20,292 
 
 2,759,7 I 2 
 
 1877 
 
 l6,II5 
 
 2,191,640 
 
 1878 
 
 8,379 
 
 1,139,544 
 
 1879 
 
 16,462 
 
 2,238,832 
 
 1880 
 
 19,948 
 
 2,712,928 
 
 To UNITED STATES. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Piculs. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 1875 
 
 16,588 
 
 2,255,968 
 
 1876 
 
 13,947 
 
 1,896,792 
 
 1877 
 
 5,452 
 
 741,472 
 
 1878 
 
 9,248 
 
 1,257,728 
 
 1879 
 
 22,324 
 
 3,036,064 
 
 1880 
 
 6,277 
 
 853,672 
 
248 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 " The Coffee exported from Singapore is raised in the small 
 islands of Netherlands India, and the Philippine Islands. 
 It does not possess the fine flavour and intrinsic value of 
 Padang and Batavia Java, and some years it is of decidedly 
 inferior quality. All Java Coffee received here, and which 
 was produced free from the restrictions imposed by the 
 Government, is known as ' Free Coffee.' " Coffee, from Planta- 
 tion to Cup, F. B. THUR^ER. 
 
 THE PHILIPPINES 
 
 Are said to be peculiarly adapted to the raising of 
 Coffee, and we can well believe it. The berry 
 produced is equal if not superior in aroma and 
 flavour to that of Java, under which name it often 
 finds its way with much other island-grown Coffee . 
 to Singapore (as above stated), and so to Europe 
 or the United States. 
 
 Most of the small annual crop, which does not 
 exceed 3,300 tons per annum, is native grown, but 
 there are a few lonely European planters dotted 
 about the Archipelago. 
 
 AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Here, too, they have tried Coffee culture, but we 
 cannot say we think it is likely to be profitable 
 when grown on a large scale, in spite of Mr. Pink. 
 From Queensland Mr. Pink writes : 
 
 " I think there is no advantage in growing Coffea Liberica 
 here at present, as the leaf disease is unknown, and Coffea 
 Arabica does well, producing at the rate of 6 cwt. per acre. 
 There are now in this colony a number of Coffee planters 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 249 
 
 from Ceylon who are anxious to go into Coffee growing here, 
 and the Minister of Lands is about to have a quantity of 
 suitable land reserved for that purpose. The small farmers 
 are likewise just discovering that Coffee pays better than 
 corn and potatoes when there is a family of children to pick 
 the berries. Several farmers have brought and sold to the 
 merchants of Brisbane green Coffee berries at the rate of 
 lod. per Ib. this season. Consequently the demand for plants 
 has become very great, but fortunately we have an equally 
 large supply on hand to meet it, both of Liberica and Arabica. 
 The great fear we may say the absolute certainty is that 
 leaf-disease, which exists in Ceylon, in Mauritius and Fiji, 
 will sooner or later affect Coffee grown in Queensland." 
 
 This does not exhaust the possible spots in 
 the Pacific where Coffee may be tried with great 
 advantage, but touches upon some chief centres 
 of the planting enterprise. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA, 
 
 From hence half the world has drawn supplies for 
 a long time indeed u Brazilian Coffee " is an 
 expression bracketed with " Mocha Coffee " and 
 " Ceylon Coffee" all over the civilized globe 
 chance or some happy common virtue of soil or 
 climate having given the produce of these favoured 
 spots especial fame. 
 
 BRAZIL. 
 
 The following is the picture which the author 
 of " Wanderings South and East" gives us of 
 Brazil : 
 
25O COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 " Coffee, Coffee everywhere : whole forests cleared away 
 to make place for Coffee whole hills close shorn for Coffee ; 
 Coffee above on the right and again below on the left ; Coffee 
 along the valleys and along the hill-brows, and down the 
 slopes and up the rise ; Coffee drying in the sun on flat 
 open floors in front of peasants' houses ; Coffee in piles near 
 the cottage doors, or in sacks ready for carting ; waggon-loads 
 of Coffee being drawn toilfully along towards the railway; 
 Coffee, too, in little cups on the counters of wayside inns 
 in fact, everywhere Coffee. It is deplorable to see the 
 awful destruction of vegetable life in the production of this 
 berry. The virgin forest is burnt, and the hill-side disfigured 
 with smouldering logs and stumps. The lovely valleys are 
 stripped clean, and Coffee reigns supreme over hill and dale. 
 Agassiz convinced himself that this rich country had been 
 swept by glacial action, and that most successful Coffee 
 plantations were found exactly where the movements of ice 
 had most enriched the soil by transportation and mixture 
 of its combined elements. Half the entire supply of the 
 world comes from these hills, which are said to produce 
 no less than 260,000 tons per annum!" 
 
 The Brazilian climate varies greatly. As a rule 
 the rainy season commences in June and lasts until 
 November. The limits differ, however, according 
 to locality. In June all vegetation ceases, all seeds 
 ripen ; in July the leaves commence to turn yellow 
 and to fall ; in August vast tracts of land present 
 the aspect of a European winter without snow, with 
 two or three exceptions the trees being denuded of 
 leaves. Where the old mode of harvesting is in 
 vogue, this is the most favourable season for the 
 preparation of the Coffee cultivated on the moun- 
 tains. Being gathered, it is spread on the ground, 
 which exhales no moisture, but, on the contrary, 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 25! 
 
 absorbs it. Surrounded by an atmosphere in the 
 same conditions, the Coffee dries rapidly without 
 fermenting. 
 
 " From December to January the wet season 
 sets in, and with the first rainfalls the rivers, which 
 until then had been almost dry, with only here and 
 there a few pools, which served as watering-places 
 for cattle or as a refuge for fish, swell immensely. 
 Plants in a few days, as by a charm, reacquire 
 their verdancy ; the soil is covered with parti- 
 coloured flowers ; alimentary plants grow quickly 
 and produce abundantly." 
 
 " The Coffee of Brazil," says Mr. Thurber, 
 whom we have quoted before, " varies greatly in 
 colour and size. Most of the Rio Coffee received 
 here is a small-sized bean, varying in colour from 
 a light to a dark green, with some of a yellow hue, 
 often denominated Golden Rio. Large quantities 
 are artificially coloured, in order to meet the re- 
 quirements of certain sections where a prejudice 
 exists in favour of some peculiar colour. Various 
 chemicals are used in the process, some of which 
 are rank poison, while others are comparatively 
 harmless. By simply washing in clear cold water 
 it may easily be determined if the bean has been 
 artificially coloured. The flavour of most of the 
 Rio Coffee imported into the United States is, 
 as has been before stated, quite marked and 
 entirely different from that of any other sort. 
 The planters generally forward their Coffee to 
 
252 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 a commissario, or factor, who acts as their agent. 
 It is received in all sorts of lots and conditions from 
 many different growers, no regularity being observed 
 in the style of bag or the amount it contains. The 
 factor sells his stock to the dealers or packers 
 (ensaccadores), men that control large warehouses. 
 Coffee culture extends from the Amazon to the 
 province of San Paulo, and from the coast to the 
 western limits of the empire a surface exceeding 
 653,400 square kilometres. Within this territory it 
 is estimated that there are about 530,000,000 Coffee 
 trees, which cover an area of 1,400,000 acres. 
 The Coffee plantations situated on the high 
 lands, and exposed to the east, are the most pro- 
 ductive, but the industry prospers even in the 
 bottom lands, although the product is said to be 
 inferior in flavour." 
 
 On the high lands the gathering of the crop 
 begins in April or May and continues until Novem- 
 ber. The " West India process" of separating the 
 pulp, and then washing and drying the seeds, 
 prevails on most of the large estates. 
 
 Labour is a difficulty ; many planters are said 
 to have lately worked their estates to shreds, feeling 
 certain that with the extinction of slave labour their 
 chance of profit will be extinct. In fact, the general 
 opinion seems to be, Coffee in Brazil has been 
 overdone. " Recent reports estimate the stock of 
 Coffee in Rio de Janeiro and Santos at no less than 
 815,000 bags an enormous quantity, for which, of 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 253 
 
 course, markets will have to be found. At the 
 same time, many articles of ordinary food required 
 for the consumption of the people, and which could 
 easily be grown on the spot, continued to be largely 
 imported, notably flour. We do not say that Brazil 
 is poorer from having this large growth of Coffee 
 quite the contrary but she would be both richer 
 and more independent if much of her food was 
 grown on the spot, for internal consumption ; and 
 that this should be the case with her new rail- 
 ways there can be no question. Brazil is suffering 
 severely for having overdone Coffee cultivation and 
 neglected the raising of food products needed by 
 her people." 
 
 There does not seem to be any inducement for 
 young Englishmen to establish themselves here 
 while so much good soil under their own flag can 
 be obtained. Not a little Brazilian Coffee is sold 
 under the specious names of Laguara, Guatemala, 
 Costa Rica, Martinique, &c. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 From the Official English "Commercial Reports" 
 we gather that the production of Coffee as an 
 article of Mexican export may be said to have com- 
 menced within the past ten years. Previous to 1870 
 the imports of it into France and England were so 
 insignificant as not to merit separate mention in 
 
254 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 the customs returns, and even in the United States, 
 which has always taken by far the greater pro- 
 portion of the crop, its sale at that time was 
 comparatively small, about 1,800 to 2,700 cwt. 
 How great an impetus has been given of late to 
 this industry may be judged from the fact that 
 in the year 1881 the imports into these three 
 countries were: into England, 3,193 cwt.; France, 
 13,054 cwt. ; and the United States, 124,213 cwt. ; 
 besides small amounts sent to Barcelona, Ham- 
 burg, Santander, and Antwerp. 
 
 The finest qualities of Coffee are produced on 
 the western slopes of the Mexican plateau, in the 
 States of Colima and Michoacan, but the supply 
 is very little in excess of the home demand, and 
 only a small quantity of these classes is exported. 
 The great bulk of the Coffee that finds a market 
 abroad is grown near Cordova and Orizaba, in the 
 State of Vera Cruz, and also in the southern State 
 ofOajaca. Up to a few years ago the berry used 
 to be very carelessly prepared, and presented a bad 
 appearance when offered for sale, which, added to 
 the irregularity of the supply as also of the price, 
 was probably the reason why it was not more 
 extensively exported to Europe ; but these defects 
 are now being remedied, consequent on the estab- 
 lishment of a large and increasing trade, and it is 
 probable that ere long Mexican Coffee will become 
 better known and appreciated in the European 
 markets. 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 255 
 
 New York price lists quote Mexican Coffee as 
 follows : 
 
 Cents. 
 Cordova, green 9 to 10 per Ib. 
 
 white ... ii 13 
 Oajaca, white n ,, 13 ,, 
 
 Liverpool prices were 
 
 s. s. 
 
 Mexican Coffee, good ... 52 to 62 per cwt. 
 
 middling ... ' 44 49 
 
 A correspondent of the Galveston News gives 
 some information regarding the territory of Soco- 
 nusco, the possession of which is now a subject 
 of dispute between Mexico and Guatemala : 
 
 " It is a strip of land lying on the Pacific coast south-east 
 of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, and extending from the Bay of 
 Tonela to the Bay de Ocos, on the present line of Guatemala, 
 a distance of about 200 miles, and reaching inland to the 
 summit of the mountain range, from forty to fifty miles, con- 
 taining about 8,000 square miles. It was celebrated before 
 the Inquisition for its heavy yield of Coffee and fine quality 
 of chocolate. On the Guatemalan side of the boundary these 
 lands are held at very high prices. The valuable product 
 of Coffee, chocolate, sugar, rice, cotton, vanilla and indigo 
 is building up cities, beautifying the country, and enriching 
 its commerce. Grant's Mexican Southern Railroad will 
 penetrate this fertile region within two years. There is 
 a perfect stampede for its possession. The invigorating 
 temperature, pure water, mahogany, rosewood, walnut, Coffee, 
 rice, sugar, &c., all combine to make it attractive. There 
 are said to be single Coffee trees, ten or twelve years old 
 
256 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 yielding from twer^-five to fifty pounds of Coffee annually. 
 Labour is cheap, and lands are sold to colonists by the 
 Company on ten years' time, without interest." 
 
 OTHER AMERICAN STATES. 
 
 Venezuela and Colombia (where fine Coffee 
 is grown between 4,000 and 6,000 feet above sea 
 level) used to ship 7 to 12 per cent, of all Coffee 
 consumed in the United States. Paraguay Coffee 
 of the country is of an excellent quality, although 
 its flavour is somewhat bitter. At present it is 
 grown on a very limited scale, owing to the scarcity 
 of capital, and to the length of time which is 
 requisite before the cultivator is able to reap any 
 benefit. It is calculated that on the average a 
 period of five years or so must elapse before 
 plantations are ripe for their first harvest. " In 
 Costa Rica, they are grubbing up Coffee trees as 
 being no longer profitable, and planting rubber 
 instead, so Ceylon is not the only sufferer in 
 Coffee." 
 
 The decadence of Coffee crops, generally, every- 
 where surely must eventually bring down the enor- 
 mous stocks of Coffee, both in London and Europe. 
 
 Along the west coast of South America planta- 
 tions are found, but only from the latter state is 
 any quantity of beans exported. 
 
 Turning northwards, we have, in 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 
 
 BRITISH HONDURAS 
 
 257 
 
 A country with all the advantages of English rule. 
 There would seem to be at present only one small 
 Coffee estate in the colony, and that of an experi- 
 mental character. The following description of 
 this attempt will be read with interest, and it will 
 be noticed that in this, as in all the more important 
 industries, Mr. Morris (in " British Honduras," 
 E. Stanford, Charing Cross) speaks of a regular 
 supply of labour from external sources as essential 
 to success : 
 
 " About ioo acres had been cleared and established in 
 Coffee under the shade of bananas, with corn as an inter- 
 mediary crop. The Coffee trees about 30,000 were from 
 one to two years old, planted out. Seed had been obtained 
 from Martinique, Trinidad and Guatemala. As a whole, the 
 plantation was in a promising state ; in some cases the trees 
 were overshadowed by bananas, and consequently, the plants 
 were weak and ' spindled.' There is no doubt also that the 
 ground had been somewhat impoverished by the large crop 
 of corn (maize) which was then being taken off. 
 
 " Most of the trees about two years old were, however, 
 bearing their first crop, and looked as if, even at this early 
 age, some two or three hundredweights per acre would be 
 yielded by them. The plantation was well laid out, with 
 roads and intervals of 18 feet dividing the blocks. Naturally, 
 being a pioneering effort, the best mode of procedure adapted 
 to the district could not be obtained at once; and, again, 
 the difficulty of obtaining labour had hampered the under- 
 taking and increased the expenses. 
 
 " I left the plantation, however, with a favourable impres- 
 sion respecting the possibility of growing good Coffee in 
 
258 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 British Honduras, and I have no doubt that if coolie labour 
 could be obtained, the whole of this western district would 
 soon be dotted over with prosperous plantations. The cost 
 of clearing and cleaning land ready for planting is put down 
 at 6 per acre; the labourers, at present, owing to the 
 remoteness of the district, get from 42 to 50 cents per day." 
 
 It is just this question of labour that is always 
 arising. The Times observes : 
 
 "It appears the high rate of wages which prevails on the 
 Isthmus of Panama is attracting labour, and making the 
 production of Coffee unprofitable in Costa Rica, Columbia, 
 Venezuela, and even Brazil. Only in Spanish Honduras and 
 British Guatemala can Coffee now be said to be profitable. 
 The planters in Nicaragua, according to latest reports, have 
 a difficulty in clearing their expenses. In countries farther 
 south an annual loss is incurred, while in Brazil the shrinkage 
 of the crop has attracted the serious attention of the Govern- 
 ment. Wages have gone down in Honduras and Guatemala, 
 and if the present depression in the price of Coffee continues, 
 the Coffee planters of Brazil, Columbia, Venezuela, Costa 
 Rica, and Nicaragua will be ruined, while the more fortunate 
 planters of Mexico, Guatemala, and Honduras will have all 
 they can do to hold their own. Notwithstanding this gloomy 
 outlook, however, Coffee in Mexico is still believed to be the 
 coming industry, because the railways running from the United 
 States will bring the plantations into direct communication 
 with the consumers. This advantage, together with fairly 
 cheap labour, should prove decisive in the trade, supposing 
 Mexico to have equal facilities with other Coffee-growing 
 countries, such as Costa Rica, Ceylon, &c." 
 
 This brings us to the 
 
 WEST INDIES. 
 
 Of the lesser islands Dominica and Trinidad 
 yield about 3,000 tons each, the rest of the 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 25Q 
 
 group in the West Indies not producing enough 
 to give them a position as first-class Coffee-growing 
 countries. The total production of all the West 
 India Islands does not exceed 40,000 to 42,000 
 tons. In regard to Dominica, Dr. Alford Nicholls 
 reports on the rich-soiled, well-watered and heavily- 
 timbered Layon Flats in this the largest of the 
 Leeward Islands. He says the island is of volcanic 
 origin, and some of its mountains rise to 5,000 feet. 
 Dominica was once a scene of prosperous cultiva- 
 tion ; but first the Maroon War (waged by escaped 
 Negroes), then the effects of emancipation, and, 
 finally, the destruction of the Coffee trees by an 
 insect blight (Cemeostoma coffeellum) brought the 
 island down to depths of depression. The blight 
 still affects the Arabian Coffee, but, according to 
 Dr. Nicholls, the Liberian 'species resists Its 
 attacks. Cacao (so Dr. Nicholls spells it) flourishes 
 even when neglected, and he mentions a red pottery 
 clay eminently suitable for "claying" the beans. 
 Were a road or a tramway run through the rich 
 central flats, there would be a mine of wealth in 
 the fine timbers alone, including the bullet tree 
 (Bumelia retusa), the -trunk of which sometimes 
 attains a diameter of 7 feet, which means 21 in 
 circumference ! Also the green-heart (Nectandra 
 rodicei), which is placed first-class in Lloyd's list 
 of timbers for shipbuilding. 
 
 During 1884 Coffee in Jamaica the most im- 
 portant Coffee island of the region was very fairly 
 
260 
 
 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 prosperous. In the previous year, 84,357 cwts. was 
 exported, valued at ^160,617, of which 51,153 cwts, 
 went to the British Isles. 
 
 Of Liberian Coffee, 1,633 plants, and 17 qrs. 
 of cherry for seed, were sent of the Government 
 gardens a very small amount. 
 
 During three years the number of acres 
 under Coffee cultivation in the island has been 
 -(1881) 19,885; (1882) 22,842; (1883) 21,132. 
 
 Ground provisions, which are the ordinary food 
 of the people, occupy the largest cultivated acreage ; 
 next come the lands in sugar cane, and then those 
 under Coffee. 
 
 Last year's mean rainfall is thus summarized 
 in inches and fractions : 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 YEAR. 
 
 4-50 
 
 2-35 
 
 3-39 
 
 3-35 
 
 8-45 
 
 4-92 
 
 \ 
 / 
 
 ^ 66.64 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 4-23 
 
 6-75 
 
 6.76 
 
 9.65 
 
 6.69 
 
 5-70 
 
 In the district of the Santa Cruz Mountains 
 the Coffee is grown upon the red ferruginous earth 
 overlaying the white limestone formation. The 
 climate and rainfall there is said to be very similar 
 to those of Algiers. 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 26l 
 
 In 1878-79 the area in Jamaica devoted to 
 Coffee-growing was 22,853 acres. The following 
 interesting facts respecting Jamaica Coffee are 
 taken from a letter written by Mr. D. Morris to 
 the Ceylon Observer, from the Botanical Department, 
 Jamaica, in June, 1880. This gentleman says : 
 
 " The crop of last season was sold,- in some instances, at 
 1305. per cwt. I had the pleasure, the other day, of visiting 
 Radnor plantation. I found it a good type of Jamaica estates, 
 most of which have been in cultivation for more than a century 
 and a-half. In some places the trees were poor and ' sticky,' 
 but wherever the soil has been preserved, and especially in 
 4 bosoms,' the trees were looking healthy and strong. In spite 
 of ' no manure,' in spite of ' mammoty ' weeding for genera- 
 tions, these trees were bearing good crops, and, moreover, the 
 producer is able to obtain prices which Ceylon planters must 
 envy. 
 
 " Owing to the large areas nominally included under one 
 estate, the different ' Coffee-fields ' are sometimes two or three 
 miles away from the works, lying in ' bosoms ' of the hills, and 
 only visited for the occasional ' hoeing ' and picking of the 
 crop. Out of a nominal acreage of 1,000 acres often there are 
 only 1 60 to 200 acres, and sometimes only about 60 or 80 acres, 
 under cultivation. The other parts are in 'reccinate' (jungle), 
 or so steep that owing to ' breakaways ' and rocks it is impos- 
 sible to cultivate them. This gives a Jamaica Coffee estate 
 a very patchy appearance, and as cinchona has not yet been 
 taken up generally by planters, the uncultivated areas greatly 
 exceed those cultivated. Much more might be done with the 
 suitable Coffee lands if a regular system of nurseries were 
 established and plants put out with greater care. At present 
 new lands are planted up with ' suckers ' (or rather seedlings) 
 found under the trees. These .are pulled up with little or no 
 care, even when they have six or eight primaries, and after 
 being carried in bundles on heads exposed to the full rays of 
 
262 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 the sun, are put in holes and allowed to take their chance 
 without shade or shelter, 
 
 " As far as I have noticed, there is little disease on any 
 of the cultivated plants of Jamaica. With the exception of the 
 Cemiostoma coffeeilum, a little leaf miner similar to the Gracilaria 
 coffeefoliella (Nietner) of Ceylon, which cause the silvery tor- 
 tuous markings and blotches on Coffee-leaves, Jamaica Coffee 
 appears to be very free from disease. Our old friend the black 
 bug is here, but it does not give annoyance except sometimes 
 to badly cultivated and young Coffee." 
 
 Yet this year he speaks discouragingly of Jamaica 
 prospects. He mentions how, owing to the pre- 
 valence of comparative drought in the island for 
 the last four years, Coffee in Manchester and in 
 the lower hills, where settlers grow it, has suffered 
 very severely. There is consequently a serious 
 falling-off in the exports. While in 1883 there 
 were exported 84,358 cwts. of Coffee of the value 
 of 160,618, in 1884 the exports were only 48,378 
 cwts. of the value of 98,842. This is in quantity 
 less than in any year since 1869. The Coffee 
 industry will no doubt improve its position with 
 the return of favourable seasons ; but I fear, owing 
 to the low prices which have been ruling for some 
 years in this article, the settlers are gradually 
 relinquishing the cultivation, and where fields are 
 partially worn out, as in many districts of Man- 
 chester, they are being entirely abandoned. 
 
 Seventy-five years after the introduction of Coffee 
 into Hayti the island exported nearly eighty millions 
 of pounds per annum. 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 263 
 
 "The growers, however, exercised no care in handling it, and 
 sent it to market ungraded and imcleaned, and demand in 
 consequence gradually fell off. Owing to the enormously 
 increasing production of Rio, its place was easily filled by this 
 cheap Coffee, and those consumers who preferred a mild Coffee 
 could obtain Maracaibos, Savanillas and Bogotas, though at 
 higher prices. While the trade with the United States in this 
 Coffee fell off, that with Europe increased, and it is one of the 
 principal Coffees used in France and Germany, people there 
 not being so exacting as regards grading and cleaning as are 
 Americans. These shipments are made direct from Hayti to 
 Europe, and also by way of New York, where sometimes a 
 cargo finds a purchaser, the Coffee being very well adapted for 
 mixing with Maracaibos and Javas. This was, in fact, one of 
 its principal uses, when imported extensively into this country. 
 The Coffee itself has a mild, pleasant flavour, which, with its 
 cheapness, would commend it to many Coffee drinkers if it 
 were properly cleaned and graded. A firm in this city, 
 prominent in the West India trade, and which shipped large 
 quantities of the Coffee to Europe, resolved to try the experi- 
 ment of cleaning and grading it for the American market. The 
 experiment proved a success, though there is considerable 
 waste in cleaning." Rio News. 
 
 In fact, of South America and the West Indies 
 it may be said broadly that Nature does every- 
 thing she can for Coffee, and man does as little 
 as possible. 
 
 Eastwards, again, over the broad barrier of the 
 Atlantic, we may note in passing that on St. Helena 
 Coffee is grown in small patches varying from one- 
 fourth of an acre to two or three acres. At Planta- 
 tion House, Terrace Knoll, Bambu Groove, Elliotts, 
 
264 COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 Prospect, and Oaklands, fine patches of Coffee, 
 somewhat neglected and unpruned, it is true, indi- 
 cate the capabilities of the island to grow, in 
 sheltered hollows, a fair quantity of very good 
 Coffee. The extent of land actually suitable for 
 Coffee is, however, small. 
 
 A lady traveller has spoken enthusiastically of 
 the appearance of some shrubs planted in the 
 Canary Islands, and a plantation has been estab- 
 lished by a landowner in the neighbourhood of 
 Rome. It is stated that he realized a fair profit 
 with this year's harvest, which consisted of two 
 tons of Coffee per hectare ; but such facts are 
 hardly more than curiosities, we fancy. 
 
 AFRICA, 
 
 However, is the real home of the plant, where it 
 has always been indigenous, and Caffra, the district 
 whence it takes its universal name, was but the 
 place whence it overflowed into Arabia and the 
 outside world. 
 
 English enterprise has never yet done justice by 
 equatorial Africa. Small quantities of Coffee are 
 grown along the eastern coast, in Abyssinia, the 
 Somali country, Mozambique, Madagascar, Natal, 
 Reunion, and Mauritius ; but the total yield, so 
 far as its influence upon the supply of Europe and 
 the United States is concerned, is insignificant, as 
 the export capacity of all the places named did 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 265 
 
 not lately exceed from 600 to 800 tons annually. 
 The product of the eastern provinces of Africa, 
 taken in connection with the small crops raised on 
 the west coast, makes Africa contribute between 
 3,000 and 4,000 tons to the world's production, the 
 amount including Coffee grown in Egypt and the 
 interior countries of the continent ; and this simply 
 means that the Coffee growing (except perhaps in 
 the extreme south) is all done by natives, and 
 Ceylon planters will know what this means. 
 
 The following letter, written especially for this 
 chapter by one of the most popular of those 
 explorers who are rapidly opening up the " Dark 
 Continent," will be read with interest: 
 
 COFFEE IN AFRICA. 
 
 " The Coffee plant is one of the few useful economic 
 products that the African flora has as yet given to the world. 
 The genus CofTcea divided into many species is practically 
 indigenous to the African continent, for the wild Coffee in 
 Arabia only inhabits the mountain slopes of the western shore 
 of that peninsula where it faces the African mainland. Whilst 
 Coffee grows wild over most parts of tropical Africa, its cultiva- 
 tion in the Dark Continent is very slight and partial at present, 
 although it offers a future of boundless development. Almost 
 the only part of Africa that I know of wherein Coffee planting 
 is carried on by the natives of the soil, and not by aliens of 
 European or Arabian descent, is Northern Angola. It is 
 possible that here the idea sprang originally from Portuguese 
 tuition, but, nevertheless, in many districts lying between the 
 Lower Congo and Angola, wherein no white man has yet 
 penetrated, Coffee planting and gathering is carried on by the 
 
266 COFFEE I ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 natives, who bring their harvests down to the coast at Ambrig 
 and neighbouring settlements to sell to the white (principally 
 French) traders. 
 
 "The Portuguese colonists of Angola, Suo Thorne, and 
 Principe plant Coffee largely, and their products are high in 
 value. At the Gaboon the French missionaries have tried 
 with some success to introduce Coffee planting. The Ameri- 
 canized Negroes of Liberia cultivate lazily and half-heartedly 
 some of the fine local species, such as C. Liberiensis. I think 
 a little desultory planting goes on in Sierra Leone and the 
 Gambia Colonies. The French are doing a great deal in 
 Senegal. The Coffee plant grows wild in the Congo region, and 
 the districts round Glanlypool are eminently suited to its 
 cultivation, but as yet no one has commenced any Coffee 
 planting, and the natives of these countries, unlike the Negroes 
 farther south towards Angola, ignore the properties of the 
 Coffee berry. 
 
 " I believe something is done in Natal and a good deal is 
 going to be done on the Zambesi. Usambara, opposite 
 Zanzibar, is a glorious field for Coffee planting admirable 
 soil, peaceable inhabitants, cheap labour (from the Zanzibar 
 labour market), and land to be had for next to nothing. The 
 missionaries of the Universities' Mission are distributing the 
 Coffee berry among the inhabitants to induce them to cultivate 
 it. Transport is easy, and the distance from the coast and 
 good ports a matter of one to two days' journey. Further into 
 the interior there are increasingly fine sites and suitable soil for 
 Coffee planting, only owned as yet by the birds of the air and 
 the beasts of the field. The writer has planted Coffee on and 
 at the base of Mount Kilimanjaro, and from six months' 
 experience finds the young plants thrive wonderfully. 
 
 " Farther north, in Somaliland, Coffee is everywhere wild, 
 but apparently remains uncultivated by man. This rapid survey 
 of Africa brings us back to Southern Abyssinia and the country 
 of Kaffa, where Coffee first began to be cultivated and intro- 
 duced to the world. 
 
 " The best fields for Coffee planting in Africa known to the 
 writer are the Usambara, Pare, and Kilimanjaro districts (where 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 267 
 
 efficient and cheap labour may be procured close at hand in 
 Zanzibar) ; the Zambesi and the Nyassa district, Angola, Sao 
 Thorne, and Principe all Portuguese possessions, where land 
 is exceedingly cheap and life and property are secure ; the 
 Congo districts, the Gold Coast, and the Gambia, but the two 
 latter districts are well populated by aborigines and are 
 exceedingly unhealthy for Europeans. 
 
 11 The writer is convinced that Kilimanjaro and the 
 surrounding country offers almost the finest opening for Coffee 
 planting in Africa. It is sparsely populated, near the coast, 
 endowed with a perfect climate and singularly fertile soil." 
 
 Coffee at the Cape might have succeeded, but 
 " the Kaffirs will not work in Natal," we read in 
 " A South African Sketch Book " (Sonnenschein) 
 
 " Coolie labour is too expensive, and English labour cannot 
 be retained. Thus Coffee cannot be said, in any sense, to have 
 flourished well in the colony. In the sub-tropical climate of 
 Natal, the plant buds, flowers, and develops its berries in the 
 most erratic manner all the year round. Double, if not treble, 
 labour is necessary in the selection of the fruit; in short, it has 
 to be gathered two or three times over. Coffee bears its berries 
 in this most inconvenient fashion. The unhappy grower whose 
 trees are budding, flowering, and bearing all at the same moment 
 is placed on the horns of a dilemma. Either he must sacrifice 
 much of his crop, or else he must submit to two outlays in the 
 way of labour. This is a very awkward position to be in, in that 
 labour is not only expensive, but often absolutely unprocurable. 
 The Kaffirs, who are under monthly terms of engagement, are as 
 likely as not to leave one at a most critical juncture, when fine 
 crops must be gathered or perish. This has too often proved 
 disastrous to the prospects of the Coffee and sugar planters. 
 What kind of luck would our hop farmers call it if, in 
 addition to all the other risks to which they are exposed, 
 they were finally checkmated entirely, by having to whistle 
 for labour when the burr had become fully ripe and ready to 
 
268 COFFEE: ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 be gathered in ? The Natalians have imported coolie labour, 
 which is far more reliable than the so-called aboriginal labour, 
 to meet the difficulty. But coolie labour is expensive, in 
 that the importer has to pay the passage money of his servant 
 from India to Natal, and back again. The coolie is bound 
 for three years only, and it so happens that the unfortunate 
 employer, who cannot with all his prescience be expected 
 to see so far into futurity, is often compelled to dispense 
 with the services of the coolies, and let them return home, 
 when he most imperatively requires their services. 
 
 " There is plenty of soil favourable to the growth of 
 Coffee in Natal, but it is not always to be found in a con- 
 venient spot, that is to say, near the coast." 
 
 Liberia is the home of a famous variety, said 
 to be fairly proof against the leaf disease. For 
 foreigners it is exceedingly difficult to set an enter- 
 prise on foot. The Liberians cede no land in fee- 
 simple to whites, they at most lease it out for forty 
 years. Besides this, the white man would soon 
 suffer from the prevailing agues, and so have to 
 leave a great deal to the care of a coloured manager. 
 
 Formerly it was supposed that the Liberia 
 Coffee-tree, which exceeds all other known sorts in 
 size, was either introduced from India, or centuries 
 ago by the Portuguese. It is now generally held to 
 be of native growth, on account of its never attain- 
 ing its original size when transplanted elsewhere, and 
 that it is never found in any other part of Africa. 
 It is found only between 4 to 7 north latitude, and 
 it grows spontaneously from the seacoast to the 
 luxurious grassy plains of Abandingo Land. 
 
 The climate of Liberia seems unequalled for 
 
COFFEE COUNTRIES. 269 
 
 the culture of Coffee. The temperature varies in 
 the shade from 74 to 80 Fahrenheit, but rises in 
 the dry season from 90 to far beyond 100 ; the 
 lowest point, 62 at sunrise, was observed at Mon- 
 ravia in January, during the prevalence of the 
 harmattan-winds. The difference in the interior is 
 not so great, because the ground rises so rapidly ; 
 25 miles from the coast the land is already 500 feet, 
 and at a distance of 198 miles as much as 2,200 
 feet above the level of the sea. Yet the Coffee is 
 everywhere the same. Even in a wild state, there 
 are splendid trees from 10 to 12 inches in diameter; 
 the cultivated plants are not much smaller. For 
 laying out a plantation, the best land would be a 
 wooded, rocky, hilly country, a few miles from the 
 seashore ; there are found those loose loamy soils, 
 with a rocky ground and the manure of decayed 
 leaves, which are the most appropriate. The water 
 absorbed by the porous ground keeps, even in the 
 dry season, the Coffee tree fresh and verdant. A 
 sandy soil with a bottom of a few feet of loam would 
 also do very well. 
 
 Liberian Coffee has also been cultivated since 
 1880 in the Seychelles; the first plants were sent 
 from Kew and distributed among a few planters by 
 Mr. C. S. Salmon, then Chief Civil Commissioner. 
 They grew very rapidly, and those planted in proper 
 soil, and entirely exposed to the sun, began to 
 bear before two years old ; while others in rich 
 ground, and at a short distance from other trees, 
 
27O COFFEE : ITS CULTIVATION AND PROFIT. 
 
 grew with more vigour, but only began to bear long 
 after. It has been propagated in different localities, 
 and everywhere seems to prefer an open situation, 
 where it bears abundantly. The quantity lately 
 planted may amount to about 100 acres. 
 
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