-NRLF 
 
 5Efi 
 
 mm 
 
SANTA CRUZ 
 
 Gift of 
 
 MRS. ROY VERNON SOWERS 
 
 SANTA CRUZ 
 
MANUFACTURING ARTS 
 
 IN 
 
 ANCIENT TIMES 
 
 WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BIBLE HISTORY. 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES NAPIER, F.R.S.E., F.C.S., ETC. ETC. 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 " FOLK LORE OF THE WEST OF SCOTLAND," 
 
 " MAM AL OF THE ART OF DYEINU," "MANUAL OF DYEINO RECEIPTS," 
 "M\M;M. OF ELECTRO-METAXLURGY," "ANCIENT WORKERS IN METAL," 
 
 " NOTES AND REMINISCENCES OF PARTICK," ETC. ETC 
 
 PAISLEY: ALEXANDER GARDNER. 
 1879. 
 
PREFATORY NOTE TO RE-ISSUE. 
 
 SINCE the first issue of this volume, an important 
 question has been raised by archaeologists respecting 
 some of the treasures found in the tombs at Mycenae 
 that they are not of Grecian manufacture, but 
 probably that the bodies found were those of some 
 northern chiefs who had been killed or died in 
 Greece, and were buried at Mycenae with their 
 treasure. This supposition is supported by the 
 fact that, early in this era, the Goths and other 
 northern armies plundered Athens and many other 
 renowned places in Greece. 
 
 I think it probable that if chemistry was called 
 in as evidence in such inquiries, it would, at least, 
 yield much valuable circumstantial, if not positive, 
 evidence as to whether the articles found alongside 
 the bodies were of Grecian or Scandinavian manu- 
 facture. 
 
T 
 
 PREFA TOR Y NOTICE. 
 
 In ancient times, such manufactures as metallurgy 
 formed powerful guilds, under the control of govern- l\| /^ 
 ment, and they seldom changed either the quality 
 of the work or method of working, and I think that 
 nations so far apart as the north of Europe and 
 Greece may, and in all probability had, different 
 methods of compounding their alloys ; so that, were 
 this the case, strict analyses of the different articles 
 found would approximately determine whether they 
 were manufactured in Greece or Northern Europe. 
 In the alloy bronze, made with copper and tin, the 
 copper ore found in northern regions has often, if 
 not generally, small portions of cobalt and nickel 
 in them, which remain in the copper, and also in 
 the bronze, while the copper ore of Asia has no 
 such alloy. 
 
 Again, in the manufacture of gold articles, that 
 metal is generally hardened and made more workable 
 by a slight alloy of silver or copper. Some localities 
 and nations use the one metal and some the other 
 for this purpose, and this gives the gold a different 
 appearance in different places. 
 
 With the knowledge which archa3ologists have 
 attained in respect to form and other characteristics of 
 
iv. PREFA TOR Y NO TICE. 
 
 ancient works, I believe that, were analyses added 
 to this knowledge, the archaeologist would soon come 
 to determine, not only the age, but the locality 
 where the different articles were made. 
 
 As yet, I think archaeologists have not put that 
 value upon chemical investigation that it deserves, 
 and hope that this volume will help to stimulate 
 to such an inquiry. 
 
 J. N. 
 
 December, 1878. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 HAVING, many years ago, observed the frequent 
 mention in the Bible, and other ancient writings, 
 of articles which, for their production, must have 
 required a very advanced knowledge in the manu- 
 facturing arts, and also that incidental allusions 
 were sometimes made to the processes by which 
 these were produced, I became interested in the 
 subject, and started an inquiry as to how far such 
 passages should lead us to conclude that the 
 ancients were acquainted with processes similar 
 to those which we at present practise. I com- 
 menced by making a collection of all the passages 
 which I met with in my reading having any bear- 
 ing on the inquiry, especially those relating to 
 metallurgy. Having a practical knowledge of this 
 branch, acquired during several years' experience, 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 I soon came to form some definite conclusions on 
 the subject, and as I considered these of some 
 little importance, and likely to be generally 
 interesting, I embodied them in a paper which I 
 read before the Glasgow Philosophical Society, 
 and subsequently I published these notes in an 
 enlarged form in a small book entitled, " Ancient 
 Workers in Metal." 
 
 As this book has been out of print for some 
 time, and as since its publication I have consider- 
 ably extended my inquiries, so as to embrace other 
 trades and manufactures, of some of which, such 
 as dyeing and weaving, I have also a practical 
 knowledge, I now put the results of my inquiries 
 before the reader in this volume. 
 
 The method of argument followed in this volume 
 is the same as that which I pursued in " Ancient 
 Workers in Metal." I argue that when we find 
 mention made in history of certain manufactured 
 articles as in common use in ancient times, we are 
 compelled to concede that manufactories for the 
 production of such articles must also have existed ; 
 and knowing the processes we now follow in pro- 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 lucing similar articles, we may conclude that the 
 icients followed similar processes, at all events 
 jsses embracing the same principles. And 
 wherever I have found the data sufficient, I have 
 endeavoured to show this similarity, in some cases 
 I might say identity, between the ancient and 
 modern processes. 
 
 This field of inquiry, I think particularly suit- 
 able for practical men, who, like myself, may 
 not have had the advantage of a classical educa- 
 tion, but who know the processes and practical 
 difficulties of their own trade. They are well cir- 
 cumstanced for reasoning upon such allusions as 
 occur in Scripture and other ancient writings, to 
 matters bearing upon their own branch of manu- 
 facture. Such a course of inquiry would open up 
 to working men a new source of interest in the 
 study of the Bible, and probably the conclusions 
 arrived at might eventually prove a service to 
 those whose profession it is to explain the mean- 
 ing and truth of Scripture. 
 
 JAMES NAPIER. 
 
 PARTICK, April 1874. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 INTRODUCTION 1 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER .33 
 
 COPPER 94 
 
 TIN 122 
 
 BRONZE 148 
 
 IRON . 192 
 
 LEAD 217 
 
 MERCURY 227 
 
 ZINC 233 
 
 ANTIMONY 236 
 
 DYEING 239 
 
 SPINNING AND WEAVING 294 
 
 POTTERY . 301 
 
 (iLASS MAKING 310 
 
 BUILDING 318 
 
 THE ARK OF NOAH . 340 
 
MANUFACTURING ARTS IN 
 ANCIENT TIMES. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 'HE object which we have in view in the following 
 is to ascertain, from such references as occur 
 in the writings of ancient authors, especially such 
 are to be found in the Old Testament Scrip- 
 res, the probable state of the practical arts in 
 very ancient times. 
 
 We intend viewing our subject from the stand- 
 point of a practical workman, and we hope to 
 show that long ere Greece had attained the rank 
 of a nation, and thousands of years before she 
 reached her artistic greatness, many ancient nations 
 had attained to great, and even, when compared 
 with our present excellence, astonishing profici- 
 ency in many of the industrial arts, especially in 
 metallurgy, which may be considered the basis of 
 all the industrial arts ; also we hope to show 
 that such knowledge and skill, though forced by 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 circumstances from one locality, found lodgment 
 in another, and so was never entirely lost to the 
 world. By overlooking this fact, antiquarians have 
 drawn many wrong conclusions ; for instance, they 
 have too frequently regarded the attainments of 
 some particular nation at a certain era, as the 
 index of the world's attainments at that time, 
 forgetting the possibility that the world's advance 
 may not have been uniform for the whole. 
 
 General history seldom gives details of manu- 
 facturing processes ; nevertheless, the incidental 
 mention of a manufactured article is evidence that 
 such manufacture existed ; and knowing what we 
 would require to do to produce the same article, we 
 may reasonably suppose that it would require some 
 such similar process then ; and if they did not 
 possess the same facilities which we have, and if 
 such articles, found by archaeologists, be equal in 
 material and workmanship to what we can pro- 
 duce, we are compelled to appreciate their skill as 
 excellently great. For instance, when we find it 
 stated in the Bible that certain articles were made 
 of bronze, and know that this alloy is never found 
 native, but is always the product of a manufactur- 
 ing process, and when we know further that the 
 manufacture of several of the articles named is 
 attended with special difficulties, we are forced to 
 conclude that the ancients had methods of over- 
 coming these difficulties, and knew something of 
 the laws of chemical action, and that therefore 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 they had great knowledge and skill in respect to 
 this particular art. By following out this method, 
 and applying it to a variety of works of art 
 named in Scripture, we will be able to appreciate 
 better the meaning and value of the good old 
 Book, and see that it is of the highest importance, 
 as a history as well as a religious guide to man- 
 kind. This method of inquiry would make the 
 Bible a very pleasant occupation, and one well 
 suited for thoughtful working - men ; and Bibli- 
 cal scholars would also gain, if practical men 
 would thus throw their side-lights on the meaning 
 of many passages relating to the arts, concerning 
 which, at present, Biblical critics, as a rule, dis- 
 play a woful ignorance. 
 
 We have stated that the discovery and applica- 
 tion of metals is really the basis of the mechanical 
 arts, for it puts into the hands of man proper 
 tools, whereby he is enabled to overcome difficul- 
 ties which he could not possibly overcome without 
 them ; and indeed all advancement begins with 
 improved tools ; we will therefore, in the first 
 place, consider the different metallic arts of which 
 we have indications in ancient history, and then 
 refer to some of the manufacturing arts that are 
 of a chemical character, such as dyeing. 
 
 The origin of metallurgical operations can only 
 be a matter of speculation, and the speculation 
 will vary according to the position and imaginative 
 faculty of the individual venturing the solution of 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 such a problem. The wonderful results of the 
 operations, and their importance to man, have 
 caused many, both in ancient and modern times, 
 to believe that the art must have been communi- 
 cated to man by the gods. Others, again, have 
 ascribed the origin of the manufacture of metals 
 to accident ; they have supposed that a certain 
 mineral, by the force of fire, may have been made 
 to yield a metal, and that by repeating the process 
 with other minerals, other metals may have been 
 found out, and ultimately all the different metals 
 which lie concealed in mineral combinations in 
 the earth. 
 
 Various ancient historians speak of silver and 
 other metals being melted out of the earth during 
 the burning of woods upon the Alps and Pyre- 
 nees ; and even so late as 1762, a large mass of 
 mixed metal, composed of copper, iron, tin, and 
 silver, was melted out of the earth during the 
 conflagration of a wood that was accidentally set 
 on fire ; such may have suggested the burning of 
 certain stones, and the manufacture of metals in 
 some localities ; but this can only have been one 
 of the ways by which metals were discovered. 
 Several metals are found in a native state, re- 
 quiring no operation to bring .them into use, 
 and this may have led to trials being made of 
 different minerals, which were high in specific 
 gravity. Whatever may have been the origin of 
 the art of metallurgy, certain it is that it origi- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 nated at a very early period of man's history ; and 
 the knowledge once obtained, man has carried 
 with him to every part of the world, and with 
 him down the stream of time till the present day. 
 Like other arts, metallurgy has had at different 
 periods, and in different nations, a special and 
 temporary rise, prevalence, and decline. These 
 recurring periods, together with the meagre records 
 we possess of ancient history, make an investiga- 
 tion into the progression of the art from early 
 ages a very difficult undertaking ; but through 
 the aid of researches now being prosecuted amongst 
 the buried cities of the ancient world, we have 
 hope, especially if careful analyses are made of the 
 various metallic products found, that ultimately 
 we may arrive at a very clear view of the condi- 
 tion of the metallic arts at different periods, and 
 also a pretty correct idea of the progressive history 
 of these arts. 
 
 In this inquiry particular attention will be 
 given to the methods of extracting the metals from 
 their ores ; for although it be allowed that the 
 ancients may not have known the chemical prin- 
 ciples embraced in such operations, still the very 
 fact that they did extract metals is proof sufficient 
 of a very great amount of practical knowledge and 
 skill on the part of those employed in and direct- 
 ing such work. In order that the reader may 
 better understand the difficulties met with in the 
 processes of extraction, and appreciate the skill 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 required for overcoming such difficulties, it will be 
 necessary to treat of each metal separately, 
 describing the methods now in use for obtaining 
 the metal from the ore, and the various means 
 adopted for overcoming natural difficulties ; and 
 thereafter, comparing any references which may 
 exist in Scripture or other ancient works, we shall 
 see if such references are applicable to our present 
 processes, or to methods known to have been 
 in use, or if they are to be relegated to methods 
 entirely lost. 
 
 The nature of the country producing the raw 
 material of an art, determines the direction and 
 extent of knowledge of the art which the inhabi- 
 tants of that country will possess. For example, 
 the inhabitants of a country which does not pro- 
 duce ores of metals will not, as a natural conse- 
 quence, know much practically of the art of 
 extracting metals from ore, except some other 
 natural circumstance interfere to procure a rever- 
 sion of this rule. We have an example of this in 
 our own country. Cornwall and Devonshire are 
 the principal localities for producing ores of 
 copper. These countries, consequently, produce 
 the most skilled miners ; but, from the absence of 
 fuel or coal an essential substance in smelting 
 the inhabitants are not copper-smelters. Glamor- 
 ganshire, again, which produces no copper ore, 
 yet produces the most skilled smelters of copper 
 ore, because of the extensive supply of fuel in that 
 
INTRODUCTION. J 
 
 county, and its position to the ore-producing 
 counties making it more convenient and cheaper 
 to convey the ore to the fuel than the fuel to the 
 ore. Similar circumstances exist in Cuba and 
 other localities, so far as regards copper ore. But 
 in all cases where both ore and fuel are found 
 together, as a general rule, the locality producing 
 them will also possess skilled miners and metal- 
 lurgists, so far as regards smelting, or reducing 
 the ore to metal ; and the same circumstances 
 will, to a certain extent, produce the same results 
 in every age and every country. If metals are in 
 demand, and the ores are found in one locality 
 and fuel in another, means will be adopted either 
 to carry the ore to the fuel, as is done in our 
 couatry, or the fuel to the ore, as is done in Chili 
 and Australia ; and if both ore and fuel are found 
 together, they will be smelted on the spot, and 
 the inhabitants of that locality will be skilled in 
 the several arts of extracting and mining. If, 
 then, our object were the locality of metallurgical 
 operations, our inquiry would be concerned with 
 the physical character of ancient countries, which 
 would lead to an inferential reply ; but our inquiry 
 being more concerned with the operations than 
 the locality where such operations have been con- 
 ducted, we will not give any prominence to the 
 locality, except where it may illustrate the opera- 
 tions themselves. 
 
 We still know very little of the metallic pro- 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ducts of Palestine. Travellers who have visited 
 that country, and who have recorded their obser- 
 vations, have either been incapable of giving the 
 information, or their minds have been too much 
 occupied with other matters to allow them time to 
 investigate the mineralogical character of the 
 country. Let us hope that the Palestine Explor- 
 ing Expedition, which has done really good 
 service in acquainting us with the mineralogy of 
 the desert of the Exodus, may at an early date 
 return to work, and enlighten us concerning the 
 mineralogy of Palestine itself. As an inducement 
 to the children of Israel to leave Egypt, and take 
 possession of Palestine, Moses, who doubtless 
 had personal knowledge of the mineral-producing 
 character of the country, described it as " a land 
 whose stones are iron, and out of whose hills thou 
 mayest dig brass " (copper). We have, therefore, 
 reason for believing that Palestine was a mineral- 
 producing country. The very fact that Moses 
 held out the mineral aspect of the country as an 
 inducement is worthy of notice ; for it is an indi- 
 cation that metals were in those days highly prized 
 by both Egyptians and Hebrews. 
 
 No one can read the detailed account of the 
 structure of the ark, with its furniture, as given 
 by Moses, but must see that there were amongst 
 the Hebrews men well skilled in the art of fabri- 
 cating metals, and by whom the idea of going to 
 possess a country yielding metallic ores would be 
 
IN TROD UC TION. 9 
 
 highly appreciated. Nevertheless, we have little 
 evidence of the Hebrews cultivating the art of 
 metallurgy to any great extent after settling in 
 their own land. The skilled artificers who left 
 Egypt appear to have died in the wilderness 
 before obtaining an opportunity either for practis- 
 ing these arts, or teaching them to their children, 
 who, along with their offspring, were for centuries 
 afterwards so occupied in war in taking posses- 
 sion of their own promised land, and providing 
 for the more immediate wants of the community 
 that the arts, more allied to a people living in 
 peace, were not only not practised, but the know- 
 ledge of how to work in them ceased. The practice, 
 common then to victorious nations, of carrying off 
 as prisoners all artificers, especially such as manu- 
 factured the implements of war, reduced the 
 Hebrews during the wars of the Judges to a very 
 low condition as regards the metallic arts. 
 
 Concerning the days of Samuel we find the 
 following graphic statement : " Now there was no 
 smith found throughout all the la'nd of Israel ; 
 for the Philistines said, Lest the Hebrews make 
 them swords or spears ; but all the Israelites went 
 down to the Philistines to sharpen every man his 
 share, and his coulter, and his axe, and his mat- 
 tock, yet they had a file for the mattocks, 
 and for the coulters, and for the forks, and 
 for the axes, and to sharpen the goads." When 
 the kingdom was established in Solomon's time, 
 
I O IN TROD UCTION. 
 
 and when he was about to build the temple, he 
 was obliged to arrange with Hiram of Tyre for 
 skilled artificers in metal to execute the work for 
 that house, the workmen which David had taken 
 captive from other nations and reserved for this 
 great object not being sufficiently numerous or 
 sufficiently skilful a sad illustration of the 
 degrading effects of war upon a people. 
 
 The metals mentioned in Scripture, and in the 
 works of the most ancient profane writers, are 
 only six in number ; namely, gold, silver, copper, 
 lead, tin, and iron. Mercury or quicksilver was 
 known, and applied to metallurgical processes 
 before the Christian era, but no direct mention is 
 made of it in Scripture, nor any allusion which we 
 consider applies to it, consequently it will not be 
 considered. It has been argued, however, that as 
 metallurgists in ancient times employed mysterious 
 language in respect to metals generally, and 
 as their language with respect to mercury was 
 especially mysterious, for they regarded this as 
 the mother of all the metals, and through the 
 influence of which all metals were fructified, puri- 
 fied, and brought forth, that this metal may have 
 been known to the Egyptians in the earliest ages, 
 and also to the Hebrews, and that mercury may be 
 referred to in Scripture though in such a mysterious 
 way that we miss sight of the reference altogether. 
 In support of this thesis, passages like the follow- 
 ing are advanced : " Only the gold, and the silver, 
 
INTRODUCTION. 1 1 
 
 the brass, the iron, the tin, and the lead, every- 
 thing that may abide the fire, ye shall make it go 
 through the fire, and it shall be clean ; neverthe- 
 less it shall be purified with the water of separa- 
 tion : and all that abideth not the fire ye shall 
 make go through the water." This water, termed 
 " the mater of separation" has been supposed to 
 refer to mercury. 
 
 We quote the following from Sir John Petus' 
 translation of the works of Lazarus Erckern, 
 1683: 
 
 "And we are assured that in. Moses' time they 
 had the knowledge of all metals, as may be read 
 in Numbers xxxi. 21, where] Moses taught the 
 soldiers how the spoils of their heathen enemies 
 were to be purified. Commanding (as from God) 
 that all their gold, silver, brass, copper, iron, tin, 
 and lead, and everything that endureth the fire 
 (in the furnace, according to the Syriac), should 
 be purified by fire, and then to be accounted clean ; 
 yet it is also said in that text, that it shall be 
 separated by the water of separation by which 
 water, certainly, is meant quicksilver because 
 this doth purify, cleanse, and devour metals ; and 
 so Dr Salmon calls it a volatile juice or liquor ; for 
 nothing \>utfire, or that quicksilver aquafortis, can 
 separate those metals. The water of purification 
 of men was a distinct water from the water of 
 purification and separation for metals, and the 
 ingredients of the one are communicated to us, 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 but the Holy Spirit thought fit to conceal the 
 other from us." 
 
 Thus we see that this learned author acknow- 
 ledges the want of information upon the nature of 
 " the water of separation" but he nevertheless is 
 convinced that it was mercury, and that the Holy 
 Spirit, in consistence with the general spirit of 
 the age, kept it a secret. We think there is not 
 the slightest foundation for this supposition. The 
 water of purification was prepared by burning a 
 red heifer entire, then collecting the ashes mixing 
 them with water, and allowing this to stand. 
 This ceremony was instituted several years before 
 the date to which the passage quoted is referable, 
 and all that is stated in that passage is, that the 
 passing of the metals through the fire did not 
 render them ceremonially clean till they were 
 washed by this water of purification. Besides, 
 mercury does not purify, neither was it used for 
 separating copper, lead, iron, and tin, which 
 metals are named with the silver and gold that 
 were to be passed through the fire, and then washed 
 in the water of separation. 
 
 The construction of the ark of Moses, generally 
 termed the Ark of the Covenant, is the first work 
 of art of which we have any details in history ; it 
 was also the first work performed by the Israelites 
 as a nation. Few can read over the record of that 
 undertaking, and take into account the adverse 
 circumstances of the Israelites wanderers in the 
 
INTRODUCTION. 13 
 
 wilderness without perceiving that many of the 
 Israelites possessed great skill in various depart- 
 ments of art ; some of them had probably been 
 the highest-class artisans of Egypt. Nor was 
 this skill confined to the men ; there were among 
 the women many skilful weavers, embroiderers, 
 spinners, and workers in other arts then common 
 to females. 
 
 Moses, at a general meeting of the whole con- 
 gregation, explained the plan of the ark and its 
 construction, and proposed the means by which it 
 should be carried into effect ; this proposition was 
 heartily responded to. " And they came, both men 
 and women, as many as were willing-hearted, and 
 brought bracelets, and ear-rings, and rings, and 
 tablets, all jewels of gold : and every man that 
 offered, offered an offering of gold unto the Lord " 
 (Exod. xxxv. 22). 
 
 Moses then arranged for the construction and 
 completion of the work, appointing Bezaleel and 
 Aholiab as overseers and superintendents of the 
 whole. "And Moses said unto the children of 
 Israel, See, the Lord hath called by name Bezaleel 
 the son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of 
 Judah ; and he hath filled him with the spirit of 
 God, in wisdom, in understanding, and in know- 
 ledge, and in all manner of workmanship ; and to 
 devise curious works, to work in gold, and in silver, 
 and in brass, and in the cutting of stones, to set them, 
 and in carving of wood, to make any manner of 
 
14 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 cunning work. And he hath put in his heart that 
 he may teach, both he, and Aholiab, the son of 
 Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan. Them hath he 
 filled with wisdom of heart, to work all manner of 
 cunning work of the engraver ^' (Exod. xxxv. 
 30-35). 
 
 When reading this, and what follows of the 
 narrative, there are many who consider that these 
 men were instantaneously gifted, or inspired by 
 God, with a knowledge of their work, and that 
 they had not passed through an apprenticeship of 
 practical experience : such an idea we think 
 erroneous. Bezaleel was filled with wisdom ; ac- 
 cording to our interpretation, was a man of great 
 talent, having both head to understand and hands 
 trained to work. So was Aholiab ; and it is evi- 
 dent from the record, that the one had a greater 
 knowledge of certain kinds of work than the 
 other. They were skilled because they had learned 
 these arts in Egypt. But all wisdom is from God, 
 and Moses ppeaks in the current language of the 
 people, and in accordance with the Hebrew philo- 
 sophy, which refers all results directly to God. 
 
 That these two were only overseers, or respon- 
 sible men, and that they were assisted in the 
 performance of all this work by other Hebrews, 
 is evident from the following passage : " Then 
 wrought Bezaleel and Aholiab, and every wise- 
 hearted man, in whom the Lord put wisdom and 
 understanding to know how to work all manner 
 
IN TROD UCTION. 1 5 
 
 of work for the service of the sanctuary, according 
 to all that the Lord had commanded. And Moses 
 called Bezaleel and Aholiab, and every wise- 
 hearted man, in whose heart the Lord had put 
 wisdom, even every one whose heart stirred him 
 up to come unto the work to do it. And all the 
 wise men, that wrought all the work of the 
 sanctuary, came every man from his work which 
 he made " (Exod. xxxvi. 1, 2, 4). 
 
 If we read carefully the account of the work 
 done, and consider its amount and variety, we 
 must form no mean conception of the art know- 
 ledge possessed by these Hebrews. 
 
 To prove that the work performed by these 
 Hebrew artisans in the wilderness shows no mean 
 knowledge of the metallurgical arts, we will par- 
 ticularise a few of the articles made by them. In 
 the first place, we notice the two cherubims and 
 mercy-seat. The particular shape and form of the 
 cherubim is unknown. It is generally agreed 
 that they had a human head, whether a body, and 
 whether of human form, or of some animal, is not 
 certain. The representations given of these figures, 
 which were common in Egypt at that time, have 
 a body. They are thus described in Exod. xxxvii. 
 6-10. However, they are all represented with 
 wing?, and such appendages were upon those 
 placed on the mercy-seat. 
 
 " And he made the mercy-seat of pure gold : 
 two cubits and a half was the length thereof, and 
 

 -: 
 rf 
 d far, if ^j 
 
 (Eud. XXOTL 17-22)-^ ^ife-tfcde 
 
 lie 
 
 i 
 
7~ -- :r : 
 
 --: 
 
1 8 IN TROD UCTION. 
 
 66 The value of the twenty-nine talents and 
 738 shekels of gold will be 198,347, 12s. 6d. 
 The value of the silver contributed by 603,550 
 at half-a-shekel, or Is. 6d. per man, will amount 
 to 45,266, 5s. 
 
 " The value of the seventy talents and 2400 
 shekels of brass will be 573, 17s. 
 
 " The gold weighed 4245 pounds ; the silver, 
 14,603 pounds; and the brass, 10,277 pounds troy 
 weight. The total value of all the gold, silver, 
 and brass, will consequently amount to 244,127, 
 14s. 6d. ; and the total weight of these three metals 
 will amount to 29,124 pounds troy, which, reduced 
 to avoirdupois weight, is equal to fourteen tons 266 
 pounds." 
 
 If we take the Scripture narrative, and consider 
 the talent as equal to 125 pounds troy, and the 
 gold as worth 5475, and the silver as worth 
 342, 3s. 9d. per talent, then we find that the 
 whole value and weight somewhat differs from 
 the above. 
 
 " And all the gold that was occupied for the 
 work in all the work of the holy place, even the 
 gold of the offering, was twenty and nine talents, 
 and seven hundred and thirty shekels, after the 
 shekel of the sanctuary. And the silver of them 
 that were numbered of the congregation was an 
 hundred talents, and a thousand seven hundred 
 and threescore and fifteen shekels, after the shekel 
 of the sanctuary. . . . And the brass of the offering 
 
INTRODUCTION. 19 
 
 ras seventy talents, and two thousand and four 
 lundred shekels " (Exod. xxxviii. 24, 25, 29). 
 
 From the data above-mentioned we conclude 
 the following, in round numbers : 
 
 29 talents 730 shekels Gold, 160,107 
 
 100 1775 Silver, 34,422 
 
 70 2400 Bronze, 
 
 Reduced to avoirdupois pounds, @ Is 4d per ft.,.. 485 
 
 195,014 
 
 The weights given will stand as under : 
 
 Gold,. . ..3655 pounds Avoirdupois,. . .3007 pounds 
 Silver, 12,574 10,346 
 
 Bronze,..8850 7282 
 
 Total, 25,079 pounds Avoirdupois, 20,635 pounds 
 
 Equal in all to 9 tons 4 cwt. and 1 qr., the bronze 
 weighing upwards of three tons. 
 
 It must be remembered that this includes all 
 the metals used for outside work connected with 
 the tabernacle, as pins for tents, hinges, sockets, 
 curtain rings, &c. If we include the weight and 
 bulk of the curtains, and all the necessary furniture, 
 the number of Levites required to carry the whole 
 from place to place must have formed an imposing 
 multitude. 
 
 Whether the tabernacle was carried by the 
 Levites, or was only, as some suppose, taken 
 charge of by them, the real carrying being done 
 
2O INTRODUCTION. 
 
 by asses or oxen, the sight must have been 
 imposing. 
 
 The ark with its contents was comparatively 
 light, for it was carried between spokes or staves 
 by a few priests ; in Samuel's time a cart was used, 
 the whole being drawn by two milk cows. 
 
 That the Hebrews had such a quantity of metal 
 at this time strikes a casual reader with surprise ; 
 but it must be remembered that, on leaving Egypt, 
 they had individually obtained from their Egyptian 
 neighbours jewels and ornaments of various sorts ; 
 besides, we cannot suppose them entirely destitute 
 of such things, as they had but recently conquered 
 the Amalekites, &c., from whom they had taken 
 much spoil. The manner in which the collection 
 for the ark was made, indicates that many Hebrews 
 had metals in great abundance, and the collection 
 made at the numbering of the people, mentioned 
 in the following passage, proves this : " Every one 
 that passeth among them that are numbered, from 
 twenty years old and upward, shall give an offering 
 unto the Lord. The rich shall not give more, arid 
 the poor shall not give less, than half a shekel when 
 they give an offering to the Lord" (Exod. xxx. 
 14, 15). This refers to silver, and shows that its 
 possession was universal, and the demand such 
 that it was not above the means of the poorest, 
 and, at the same time, far below that of the wealthy. 
 It has been calculated, from the number who left 
 Egypt, that the collection would form a sum amount- 
 
IN TROD UCTION. 
 
 21 
 
 \g to about 38,000. After the formation of 
 ark, it does not appear that the Hebrews were 
 
 died upon again publicly to exercise their skill 
 the arts. Their forty years' wandering rendered 
 such a call quite unnecessary. During that time 
 all those who had learned these arts in Egypt died, 
 and with them, in all probability, passed away 
 much of their knowledge and skill, and except in 
 making weapons of war, and probably instruments 
 for agriculture, the Hebrews, for several centuries, 
 were so much engaged in taking and retaining pos- 
 session of their land, that the higher arts of civilised 
 life could not well be cultivated ; consequently, not- 
 withstanding the enormous wealth that had been 
 accumulated in the time of David, when his son 
 Solomon began to erect the temple (a work which 
 their forefathers, when they left Egypt, could have 
 accomplished without assistance), skilled work- 
 men could not be obtained amongst the Hebrews 
 there were found none who could undertake the 
 superintendence or do the skilled work of casting 
 and working in metals. Although the higher 
 classes of Israel were very wealthy, yet amongst 
 them were but few artisans, and no Bezaleels or 
 Aholiabs, no cunning workers in all kinds of gold 
 and silver, blue and purple, &c. ; such men had 
 to be obtained from another country. There were, 
 however, masons and carpenters, and such work- 
 men as were essential in a country, even in times 
 of war: but the higher class of artisans had declined 
 
22 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 amongst them. David says : " Moreover, there 
 are workmen with thee in abundance, hewers and 
 workers of stone and timber, and all manner of 
 cunning men for every manner of work" (1 Chron. 
 xxii. 15). Many of these referred to were no doubt 
 Hebrews, but we think it more than probable that 
 a great many of them were captives taken by David, 
 and kept by him for this great work, which is 
 somewhat established by the following passage. 
 When Solomon is negotiating with the King of 
 Tyre for men and materials, he says : " Send me 
 now therefore a man cunning to work in gold, and 
 in silver, and in brass, and in iron, and in purple, 
 and crimson, and blue, and that can skill to grave 
 with the cunning men that are with me in Judali 
 and Jerusalem, whom David my father did pro- 
 vide " (2 Chron. ii. 7). 
 
 As we have said, and as here exemplified by 
 David, it was the policy and practice of ancient 
 monarchies to enrich their capitals with the most 
 costly of everything with great buildings and 
 utensils and decorations of the finest and richest 
 quality. 
 
 These structures were almost wholly the product 
 of manual labour. In their wars the victors took 
 a large number of prisoners ; the able-bodied but 
 unskilled prisoners they set to work at ordinary 
 manual labour ; but the skilled workmen were 
 employed in their particular crafts, to enrich with 
 their work the dwellings of the monarch and his 
 
INTRODUCTION. 2$ 
 
 nobles, and the public buildings of the capital. 
 To the modern, the costliness and profusion of 
 decoration in some of these ancient buildings is 
 almost incredible, and when we come to accept 
 the descriptions as facts, we are forced to conclude 
 that in the manufacturing and decorative arts the 
 ancients were far advanced. Mr G. Eawlinson, 
 describing the ancient palace of Shushan or 
 Persepolis, says, " The floors were paved with 
 stones of various hues, blue, white, black, and red, 
 arranged doubtless into patterns, and besides, were 
 covered in places with carpeting. The spaces between 
 the pillars were filled with magnificent hangings, 
 white, green, and violet, which were fastened with 
 cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and 
 pillars of marble, screening the guests from sight, 
 while they did not too much exclude the balmy 
 breeze. The walls of the apartment were covered 
 with plates of gold. All the furniture was rich 
 and costly. The golden throne of the monarch 
 stood under an embroidered canopy or awning, 
 supported by pillars of gold inlaid with precious 
 stones. Couches resplendent with silver and gold 
 filled the rooms. The private chamber of the 
 monarch was adorned with a number of objects, 
 not only rich and splendid, but valuable as pro- 
 ductions of high art. Here, impending on the 
 royal bed, was the golden vine, the work of 
 Theodore of Samos, where the grapes were imitated 
 by precious stones each of enormous value. Here, 
 
24 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 probably, was the golden plane-tree, a worthy com- 
 panion of the vine, and here, finally, was a bowl 
 of solid gold, the work also of the great Samonian 
 metallurgist." 
 
 As was the palace, so would be the dwellings 
 of the nobility. Compare this description with 
 what is said in the book of Esther, of Shushan 
 the palace, and the reader will find the truth of 
 the one verified by the statements of the other. 
 The same author in describing Ecbatana, an 
 ancient city of Bible times, says, " The battlements 
 which crown the walls were of different colours ; 
 those of the outer wall or circle were white, next 
 black, third scarlet, fourth blue, fifth orange, 
 sixth silver, seventh gold." This, says Mr Raw- 
 linson, may seem mythical, but he adds, " The 
 people who roofed their palaces with silver tiles, 
 and coated all their internal woodwork with plates 
 of silver or gold, may have been wealthy enough 
 to make even such a display as Herodotus here 
 describes, and there is every reason to believe that 
 in Babylon, there was at least one temple orna- 
 mented exactly as the city of Ecbatana is said to 
 have been." 
 
 From a consideration of the different metals 
 known to the ancients, and of the relics of the 
 metallurgical arts which have been found amongst 
 the ruins of ancient cities, we have not the 
 slightest hesitation in affirming that the ancients 
 obtained their metals from the ores by fusion. We 
 
INTRODUCTION. 2$ 
 
 also think it probable that practical metallurgy 
 had its beginning in the first ages of man's 
 existence in the world ; at all events, in the 
 earliest ages to which history refers, we find 
 metals named as in common use. We have no 
 details of the particular processes adopted for ob- 
 taining metals from their ores in these very early 
 times, neither have we details of the practical 
 operations in the manufacture of metallic articles. 
 We may have no description of the forms of their 
 furnaces, nor of the materials of which these were 
 composed, but we have evidence that they had a 
 great facility in constructing such. In corrobora- 
 tion of this, we may instance the short time taken 
 by Aaron to cast the calf or bull. Were artificers 
 in this age placed in similar circumstances, and 
 called upon to make or cast such a figure, they 
 would find it difficult to do the work within the 
 time the Israelites did it ; and except they had the 
 necessary moulds and other instruments, this 
 could not be done without the presence of the 
 most skilled artificers. All these the Israelites 
 would also require, and, if they had such things 
 with them and there is every probability they 
 had then our position is strengthened, that the 
 Hebrews were, many of them, the skilled artificers 
 of Egypt, and that in leaving that country, they 
 had carried their tools with them. 
 
 Upon the subject of moulds we may quote the 
 following from Wilson's u Archaeology : " " Among 
 
26 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 all the varied and primitive relics which have been 
 from time to time discovered, none exceed in 
 interest the stone and bronze moulds in which the 
 earliest tools and weapons of the native metal- 
 lurgists were formed. They have been found in 
 Scotland, England, Ireland, and in the Channel 
 Islands, exhibiting much diversity of form and 
 various degrees of ingenuity and fitness for the 
 purpose in view, some of which are of bronze and 
 highly finished. In the Museum of the Society of 
 Antiquaries of Scotland there are casts of a pair 
 of large and very perfect bronze Celt moulds of 
 unusual size and peculiar form." Probably the 
 ancient Israelites carried with them, as a part of 
 the spoil taken from Egypt, a bronze mould of 
 apis. Stone moulds were used in ancient times 
 before bronze moulds came to be used. Dr Wilson 
 says on this subject : 
 
 " But still more interesting are the ruder stone 
 moulds, in some of which we may trace the full 
 efforts of the Aborigines of the stone period to 
 adapt the materials with which they are familiar 
 to the novel arts of the metallurgist. This is 
 particularly observable in a stone mould preserved 
 in the Belfast Museum. It is polygonal in form, 
 and exhibits upon four of its surfaces indented 
 moulds for axe-heads of the simplest class. In 
 this example there is no reason to believe that 
 any corresponding half was used to complete the 
 mould. The melted metal was simply poured 
 
INTRODUCTION. 2/ 
 
 into the indented surface, and left to take shape 
 by its equilibrium on the exposed surface. 
 Weapons formed in this way may frequently be 
 detected, while others, full of air-holes, and 
 roughly granulated on the surface, appear to have 
 been made in the still simpler mould formed by 
 an indentation in sand; others of the stone 
 moulds have consisted of pairs like those of 
 bronze. A very curious example of this descrip- 
 tion was found a few years since in the isle of 
 Anglesea. It is a cube of hone-stone, nine inches 
 and a-quarter in length, by four inches in breadth 
 at its widest extremity. Each of its four sides 
 are indented for casting different weapons two 
 varieties of spear, a lance, or arrowhead, and a celt 
 with two loops. Only one stone was found, but 
 another corresponding one is obviously requisite, 
 by means of which four complete moulds would be 
 obtained.'' 
 
 The means adopted for obtaining an intense 
 heat to melt and cast metals, were similar to ours 
 by bellows or blowing through pipes with the 
 mouth. Wilkinson, in his "Ancient Egypt," 
 has given the figure of a smelting operation. 
 The furnace seems only a heap of fire upon the 
 surface of the earth, and the bellows are two 
 large bags filled with air, upon which a man 
 is standing with a foot upon each bag the 
 aperture of the bag being connected with a pipe 
 leading into the fire ; while the man is seen put- 
 
28 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ting all his weight upon one bag to compress out 
 the air into the fire, he is also seen lifting up his 
 foot, and, at the same time, the upper fold of the 
 other bag, by a string in his hand, by which the 
 bag is being again filled with air. This appa- 
 ratus is, no doubt, both simple and rude, and if it 
 refers to the ordinary metallurgical operations 
 performed by the nation, one could hardly suppose 
 that castings of any great size could be obtained 
 unless with great difficulty; nevertheless, such a 
 simple apparatus may have been used by the 
 Hebrews in the wilderness, both in the construc- 
 tion of the calf and the serpent. If the metal was 
 melted in crucibles or pots, any number of these 
 could be used to suit the work in hand. Wilkin- 
 son remarks, in reference to the bellows, " that 
 rude as it may seem, it indicates the knowledge 
 of certain fundamental principles, such as the 
 valve, which had not been before accredited to 
 them for these bags, when emptied, could not be 
 refilled and preserve their usefulness without a 
 valve." 
 
 Concerning the quantity and cost of the various 
 metals, we have no particular data ; but it may be 
 stated, that a metal, as well as any other object 
 which has a known intrinsic use, and is required 
 by a community, will rise and fall in value, 
 according to the quantity obtainable and the cost 
 of production ; so that if a pound of iron is 
 required, and it cost the value of the weight of an 
 
INTRODUCTION. 2Q 
 
 ounce of gold to obtain it, and bring it to market, 
 then that will be the relative value of the two 
 metals. This law holds good in all ages and 
 countries ; and the fact of iron ore existing in 
 abundance, will not lower the value of the 
 metal if the cost of extracting it from the ore is 
 great. For instance, the metal aluminium sells 
 at a much higher price than iron, notwithstanding 
 that the ore of that metal, which is common clay, 
 is so abundant. In Scripture, iron is always 
 referred to as an article of comparative low value, 
 and of greater abundance than bronze, as is 
 indicated by such passages as the following : 
 " And gave for the service of the house of God of 
 gold five thousand talents and ten thousand 
 drams ; of silver, ten thousand talents ; of brass, 
 eighteen thousand talents; and one hundred 
 thousand talents of iron." 
 
 Hence, following these principles, we infer that 
 the methods of extracting iron were so far simple 
 and easy, enabling it to be sold cheaper than either 
 tin or copper, but when we consider the articles 
 recorded as having been made of iron, we think we 
 have evidence sufficient that it was plentiful at a 
 very early age. When iron and bronze are 
 named together in certain proportions, we may 
 form some general idea of the current quantity of 
 one by the abundance of the other, especially 
 when that other is the more valuable. The 
 
3O INTRODUCTION. 
 
 relative quantity of bronze and iron mentioned 
 above is 18 bronze to 100 iron. 
 
 If anything like these proportions are maintained, 
 and we believe they were greatly increased by time, 
 the abundance of iron must have been very great 
 in the fourth century before Christ. 
 
 The perfection in the art of casting bronze 
 attained by the Grecians, is amply borne out by 
 the many specimens of such art still existing, and 
 scattered throughout the various museums of 
 Europe a perfection which artificers of the 
 present day endeavour to imitate to surpass, 
 is considered impossible. How far back we are 
 to look to for the first attainment of this high 
 state of perfection in the metallic arts is not 
 known. 
 
 Kawlinson, speaking of the art of engraving 
 as shown on the cylinder of Urukh, says " The 
 drawing on the cylinder was as good, and the 
 engraving as well executed, as any work of the 
 kind, either of the Assyrian or the late Babylonian 
 period." There still exists on numerous jewels 
 found in the ruins of ancient cities, evidence of 
 the great skill possessed by Egyptians, Phoenicians, 
 Greeks, and Romans, in the delicate art of engraving 
 on precious stones, an art which gradually and 
 greatly declined during the middle ages of the 
 Christian era ; and we have not yet been able to 
 bring this art back to its former perfection, nor 
 do we even know in many instances by what 
 
IN TROD UC T10N. 3 I 
 
 means these ancient workers produced such, beau- 
 tiful and intricate work. Our highest acquirements 
 reach no further than a slavish imitation of work- 
 men, who lived and died upwards of 3000 years 
 ago, and whom we regard as belonging to the rude 
 ages of the world. 
 
 It must have been observed by those who have 
 read works on the genuineness or authenticity of 
 the Pentateuch, and other historical books in the 
 Old Testament, that one argument often used by 
 a certain class of people is, that articles of manu- 
 facture are named in these books as being in 
 common use at the time the books were written ; 
 while from profane history, it can be shown that 
 the materials or substances capable of making 
 such articles were not discovered till long after 
 the reputed authors of the sacred books were dead, 
 and, consequently, that such books could not have 
 been written by the reputed authors, or the account 
 of these articles must have been interpolated by 
 later hands, and that in consequence Scripture 
 history is not to be relied upon. We think the 
 reader will notice the fallacy of this reasoning, 
 which rests in this, that, especially in ancient times, 
 certain arts have for periods been in common 
 practice among a people or nation, but eventually, 
 on account of war, or from other causes, the art at 
 length ceased among them and knowledge of it 
 became lost. We have an instance of this in the 
 history of the Hebrews from the time they left 
 
3 2 IN TROD UCTION. 
 
 Egypt till David ascended the throne of the 
 kingdom. Probably many other ancient nations, 
 besides the Israelites, attained to great perfection 
 in particular arts, but by a change of dynasty or a 
 series of wars these arts fell into dissuetude and 
 were lost. One instance of the above fallacious mode 
 of argument may be stated. Because Plutarch 
 and some other Grecian writers repeat a tradition 
 that iron was not discovered till after the fall of 
 Troy, it is argued that Joshua could not have 
 been the writer of the book of Joshua, for in it is 
 mentioned that the enemies of Israel used chariots 
 of iron " And all the Canaanites who dwelt in the 
 valley have chariots of iron, both they who are of 
 Bethshean and its towns, and they who are of the 
 valley of Jezreel " (Joshua xvii. 16); and this was 
 centuries before the fall of Troy. Notwithstanding 
 the classic tradition of the Greeks, there is evidence 
 of iron being in common use many ages before 
 Joshua lived, and both Joshua and Moses in 
 writing their histories spoke of things as they 
 existed. 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 THE two metals, gold and silver, we intend to treat 
 together, for the following reasons : 
 
 I. They are almost always associated in nature. 
 
 II. In Scripture references they are generally 
 Loth included. 
 
 III. The methods for their extraction and puri- 
 fication are similar. 
 
 Both gold and silver are found in nature, in 
 the metallic state, in great abundance, and, con- 
 sequently, these metals are considered to have been 
 the first to attract the attention of man, more 
 especially gold, that metal being widely diffused 
 through the earth in small quantities, and in the 
 locality of the primary or plutonic rocks, the 
 quantity is sometimes very large. The constant 
 action of air and moisture upon the surface of 
 these rocks causes their decomposition, and small 
 portions are thus from time to time loosened and 
 disintegrated. The gold in the rock is not subject to 
 this decomposition, but is loosened by the decay 
 of the stone, and carried from the high to the low 
 levels by rain, where, washed by currents of water, 
 the light earthy matters are carried away, and the 
 
 c 
 
34 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 gold left in a more concentrated state, consequently, 
 in course of time, large tracts of country become 
 covered, it may be many feet deep, with this 
 washed debris of the mountain, composed of sand 
 and particles of gold. Hence, newly-discovered 
 countries, where the primitive rocks exist, are 
 often gold-producing, the production being limited 
 to the extent of valley so covered, as well as 
 the depth of the debris. It often happens that, 
 after the debris is exhausted, the original rock from 
 which the valley had been filled is made productive 
 by artificial grinding and washing, as is being done 
 in California, Australia, and Mexico. Whether or 
 not this artificial washing of the ground, or pul- 
 verised rock, was practised in the earlier ages, 
 we will have occasion to consider hereafter. The 
 natural condition in which gold is found in valleys, 
 and on the margin of rivers, has very early notice 
 in history. 
 
 Speaking of Eden, Moses says, " And a river 
 went out of Eden to water the garden ; and from 
 thence it was parted, and became into four heads. 
 The name of the first is Pison : that is it which 
 compasseth the whole land of Havilah, where there 
 is gold ; and the gold of that land is good" 
 (Gen. ii. 10-12). 
 
 And in the book of Job, which many able 
 commentators consider to be as old as that of 
 Moses, it is stated, " As for the earth, it has dust 
 of gold." The late Sir R Murchison in his 
 

 GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 35 
 
 " Ancient Siluria," remarks upon this passage in 
 Job, as follows, " Modern science, instead of con- 
 king, only affirms the aphorism of the 
 patriarch Job, who has shadowed forth the down- 
 ward persistence of the ore (silver), and the 
 superficial distribution of the other (gold) ; surely 
 there is a vein for the silver, and the earth has 
 dust of gold." 
 
 From these natural circumstances, so distinctly 
 stated in the foregoing passages, taken in con- 
 nection with the natural properties and character 
 of gold, viz., its being always found in the metallic 
 state, its high specific gravity, its colour, its polish, 
 its malleability, &c., it is not surprising that it 
 attracted the attention of the first inhabitants of 
 the earth, and that they early began to use it for 
 different purposes in the arts. In the first notice 
 of gold, just quoted, there is a strong presumption 
 that it had also been found in other localities 
 than the one referred to, and that different qua- 
 lities of the gold were known; hence the remark, 
 <' The gold of that land was good." 
 
 Gold is an element, and is not essentially good 
 and bad, but in itself can only be of one quality ; 
 and, therefore, when different qualities are observed, 
 it must depend upon certain admixtures. The 
 only thing that can make gold bad is its having in 
 combination some other metal or metals ; so that 
 the observation referred to in the text warrants us 
 in concluding that, in that early age gold was an 
 
36 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 article of value, and that its value ranged accord- 
 ing to its purity ; but that they had methods for 
 purifying the gold from the inferior metals alloyed 
 with it, so early as the days Moses refers to, is not 
 stated. That it was used for manufacturing 
 articles, either for use or ornament, is highly pro- 
 bable, not only from the fact that it was familiarly 
 known, but because iron and copper two metals 
 much more difficult to obtain and to work than 
 gold were used for some industrial purposes by 
 the great-grandson of Cain, who, we are told, was 
 an "instructer of every artificer in brass and 
 iron" (Gen. iv. 22). Indeed, it is more than pro- 
 bable, that the working of brass and iron resulted 
 from the experience they had obtained while 
 endeavouring to work the gold, which we are led 
 to believe was found in the locality where these 
 artificers lived. If they knew how to make 
 copper and iron from their ores, the gold could 
 not possibly escape their notice. 
 
 We will now refer to the present methods for 
 extracting the gold from the ores, or rather the 
 earths, with which they are mixed ; for, as already 
 stated, gold is found in the metallic state in the 
 primitive rocks or alluvial soil, in small thin leaves 
 and threads, and little dendrical pieces attached to 
 quartz, and sometimes in small loose particles in 
 crevices of rocks, and also in pieces mixed witli 
 the alluvial soil, now popularly termed nuggets, 
 but more generally it is found in the form of small 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 37 
 
 grains like sand, mixed with, the ddbris of the 
 primitive rocks. The metal is very seldom found 
 pure, but generally combined with silver, and 
 often copper. The gold from different localities is 
 characterised by the extent and kind of alloy which 
 it contains, and even the same locality will produce 
 little differences in quality ; as for example, the 
 quality of Californian gold has been given by T. 
 H. Henry and Eivat in 100 parts : 
 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 Gold, . . . 
 
 90-01 
 
 86-57 
 
 90-70 
 
 Silver, . . . 
 
 9-01 
 
 12-33 
 
 8-80 
 
 Copper, . . . 
 
 86 
 
 29 
 
 ... 
 
 Iron, .... 
 
 ... 
 
 54 
 
 38 
 
 99-88 99-73 99'88 
 
 The following are the analyses of Australian 
 gold by A. D. Thomas, Australia : 
 
 No. 1. Sample of metal coated with Iron-Oxide. 
 Gold, .... 87-78 87-77 
 
 Silver, .... 6'07 6'54 
 
 Oxide Iron, . . 615 5-69 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 Freed entirely from Iron by fusion, gave 
 
 Gold, .... 93-53 93-06 
 
 Silver, .... 6'47 6'94 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 Another specimen of Gold gave 
 
 Gold, .... 96-42 
 Silver, .... 3-58 
 
 100-00 
 When the gold is found in large pieces, as in 
 
38 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 nuggets, it can be nearly all separated from the 
 earthy particles by mechanical means, then by 
 fusion in a crucible, any remaining portions of 
 earthy matter separate and float upon the surface. 
 When the grains of gold are small, and not 
 easily separated from the earthy matrix by the 
 hand, the whole is put into a crucible with a little 
 borax, and fused ; the gold is then obtained at the 
 bottom of the crucible as a small button or ingot ; 
 but when the gold is found in the form of dust 
 mixed up with the soil, whether naturally or 
 formed by grinding the rock, the whole is first 
 subjected to washing, either by hand-basins, or 
 by those vessels and instruments termed cradles, 
 by which means the greater portion of the earthy 
 matters are washed away ; or the dust is put into 
 a current of water, which is made to pass at a 
 certain velocity over a large flat surface ; or, what 
 is very common, over woollen cloths stretched out ; 
 the earth being lighter is carried along with the 
 water current, and the gold falls and is retained 
 by the cloth. This concentrated and washed gold 
 dust is collected into proper vessels, and a quantity 
 of mercury (quicksilver) is mixed with it, which 
 dissolves or amalgamates with the gold or other 
 metals, in the same manner as water dissolves sugar, 
 and the earth is left upon the top of the mercury, 
 and easily removed. In some fine gold dust sul- 
 phur and iron are present, and greatly interfere 
 with the perfect reaction of the mercury \ the dust 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 39 
 
 is therefore, in such cases, submitted to a roasting 
 which drives off the sulphur, and sets the gold 
 entirely free to be taken up by the mercury. This 
 mixture of mercury and gold, termed an amalgam, 
 is subjected to a high heat in a retort, or what is 
 more common, under an iron bell, when the mer- 
 cury distills over and is recovered in the same 
 manner as steam is condensed into water, and the 
 gold and silver and other metals remain behind, 
 and are separated by a process to be afterwards 
 described. 
 
 Another method for extracting the pure gold 
 from the gold dust, is by mixing with it a quantity 
 of oxide of lead (litharge), and a little charcoal, 
 with flux, if necessary, and bringing the whole to 
 fusion in a crucible. The oxide of lead is reduced 
 by the charcoal to the metallic state, and combines 
 with the gold and silver present. 
 
 The lead, with the gold and silver, is put upon 
 a hollow plate or flat vessel made of bone ashes, 
 called a cupell, and submitted to a good red heat. 
 When in this state, a current of air is blown upon 
 the fused metals by bellows, which oxidises or sco- 
 rifies the lead, and the gold and silver remain 
 behind, pure but combined. 
 
 These are the methods now practised for 
 obtaining the gold, or gold and silver, when in 
 fine dust and mixed with other matters, as oxides 
 of metals. The gold may also be procured from 
 earthy matters, even although in fine dust, by 
 
4O GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 putting the mixture into a crucible or earthen pot, 
 and applying a strong heat ; the gold melts and 
 collects at the bottom, and thus separates itself 
 from the earthy matters ; and if lime, soda, or 
 such substances be added as a flux, these combine 
 with the earths, assist the fusion, and make the 
 whole operation easy and simple ; although in this 
 process there is a much greater risk nay, 
 almost a certainty of loss. The metal being so 
 valuable, this method is not now adopted. Still 
 we are of opinion that this process was the one 
 practised in early ages for extracting the gold and 
 silver from their ores. All these processes refer 
 equally to ores of silver, but silver being often 
 found in a mineralised state, combined with other 
 substances, such as sulphur, chlorine, and oxygen, 
 its ores are generally subjected to a roasting or 
 calcining in a furnace before submitting them to 
 the amalgamation process. A very old method, 
 and one still extensively practised in Mexico, for 
 demineralising the silver, and causing it to combine 
 with the mercury, is that termed the Patio process. 
 The ore is finely ground and mixed with common 
 salt and sulphide of copper, previously roasted 
 and ground, and the whole made up into heaps, 
 and trodden out uniformly by mules. Mercury is 
 added from time to time, and in the course of 
 from twenty to twenty-five days the operation is 
 complete. The mercury is separated from the 
 mass by washing, and it then contains the silver 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 41 
 
 and gold which had existed in the ore. This 
 amalgam is treated in the same manner as de- 
 scribed above for gold by distillation. 
 
 Another method for mineralised silver ore is 
 now adopted where opportunity presents itself. 
 The ore is finely ground and mixed with common 
 salt, and subjected to a dull red heat in a furnace : 
 by this means the silver is converted into a 
 chloride. The whole is then put into large casks 
 or barrels with water, and scraps of iron and 
 mercury. The iron combines with the chlorine, 
 and the silver becomes reduced to the metallic 
 state, and combines with the mercury, forming an 
 amalgam, which is carefully collected at the ter- 
 mination of the process, and distilled as already 
 described. If copper is in the ore, it forms part 
 of the amalgam, and remains in the silver after 
 the mercury is distilled off, and has to be separated 
 afterwards either by the action of acid or cupellation. 
 Although these processes are only applied to silver 
 ore, yet any gold present is obtained along with 
 the silver in the amalgam. In ores where the 
 silver exists in the metallic state these processes 
 are not necessary. When the lead process is 
 applied, these last operations are also unnecessary 
 the raw ore being simply mixed with the 
 litharge, charcoal, and flux, and fused, when the 
 lead is obtained, containing all the silver and 
 gold, which is afterwards cupelled, as in the case 
 of gold. 
 
42 GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 The Indians in Peru perform their smelting 
 operations in small portable furnaces or cylindrical 
 tubes of clay pierced with holes. In these, they 
 place layers of silver ore, galena, and charcoal, 
 and the current of air which enters the holes 
 quickens the heat and gives it a great degree of 
 intensity. These furnaces are removed from one 
 elevation to another to suit the force of the winds. 
 When the wind is strong, too much fuel is con- 
 sumed. By this operation the natives obtain 
 argentiferous masses, which they smelt again in 
 their cottages by a species of cupel lation. Ten or 
 twelve persons sit round the fire, and through cop- 
 per tubes from one to two yards in length, and 
 contracted in the bore at one end, they blow upon 
 it; by which means the lead is scorified and the 
 silver obtained pure. 
 
 When gold and silver have copper or other 
 inferior metals alloyed with them, which is often 
 the case, they are purified by different methods, 
 according to circumstances. The main principle 
 involved in these methods may be thus stated : 
 
 When gold or silver are subjected to a high 
 heat, they remain, even during fusion, in a pure 
 metallic state that is, they do not become tar- 
 nished by combining with oxygen ; on the contrary, 
 if they somehow had got oxidised, a red heat would 
 drive the oxygen away. If we take a piece of 
 clean copper and make it red hot, it becomes 
 black by combining with oxygen ; if we take this 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 43 
 
 coating of oxide off, and repeat the operation, 
 another coating of oxide is formed ; and so on 
 until the whole copper is oxidised. The same 
 takes place with tin and other inferior metals. 
 If, then, we take an alloy of copper, gold, and 
 silver, and expose it to a fusing heat in a current 
 of air, the copper will thus combine with oxygen, 
 and if the oxide is removed from the surface, the 
 oxidation will continue as long as there is copper 
 present, leaving the gold and silver pure. If 
 there be a large quantity of the alloy, the purifi- 
 cation by this means will require a long time. 
 
 It has been long known that certain salts which 
 contain large quantities of oxygen, when exposed 
 to a high heat, give off this oxygen ; one of these 
 salts is nitre or saltpetre. This fact is, therefore, 
 taken advantage of in purifying gold and silver. 
 The alloy is fused in a vessel, such as a crucible, 
 and, instead of exposing the fused alloy to the air, 
 to oxidise the copper or other inferior metals, salt- 
 petre is thrown upon the melted alloy, which, by 
 giving its oxygen to the inferior metals, effects 
 their oxidation, thus purifying the gold and silver. 
 The impure alloy may also be mixed and fused 
 with metallic lead, and then the whole subjected 
 to cupellation. 
 
 Having thus described the operations for extract- 
 ing and refining the precious metals, we have now, 
 according to our plan, to inquire what references 
 there are in Scripture or other ancieit writings, 
 
44 GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 which will enable us to infer that any of these 
 operations were practised in ancient times ? or, if 
 not any of these, what other? In this inquiry we 
 may often be startled with references which indi- 
 cate greater knowledge of metallurgical operations 
 in ancient times than we were prepared to admit ; 
 and if we begin at the earliest ages and come 
 down to the present time, we shall find evidence 
 that the advancements made in working the pre- 
 cious metals in modern times are not great in 
 extent. Pliny describes the amalgamation process 
 for extracting gold and silver from the earths, 
 and it is nearly the same as that practised at the 
 present day; and, going back in the inquiry, the 
 evidences go to prove that all metallurgical opera- 
 tions were not only practised, but the operators 
 and workers in metal were held in great esteem, 
 and constituted an important item in a nation's 
 prosperity ; and that, during war, artificers in 
 metal were preserved and taken captive, in order 
 to enrich the conquering party, as is illustrated in 
 the following passage "And all the men of might, 
 even seven thousand, and craftsmen and smiths a 
 thousand, even them the King of Babylon brought 
 captive to Babylon " (2 Kings xxiv. 16). 
 
 In ancient times, in Egypt, and doubtless also 
 in other countries, and until within the last two 
 centuries, an idea prevailed that gold was the only 
 true metal, and that all other metals were different 
 conditions of gold that all metals could thus be 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 45 
 
 transmuted or converted into gold and that some 
 substance existed, or could be made, which would 
 have the power of converting every metal into gold. 
 This idea obtained for all metallurgical operations 
 a high position, and gave to the investigations 
 of the properties of the various metals, and their 
 actions and reactions with one another, and with 
 other substances, a prominent place in the studies 
 of the learned. It need not, therefore, be wondered 
 at that the ancients became skilled in many metal- 
 lurgical processes, and also knew many substances 
 capable of acting upon the baser, and separating 
 these from the noble metals. So early as the days 
 of Job, familiar mention is made of refining : 
 " Surely there is a mine for silver and a place for 
 gold, which men refine " (Job xxviii. 1). 
 
 In Scripture, references to metallurgical opera- 
 tions are more frequent in the poetical than the 
 historical portion. The poet, to illustrate or 
 enforce some great moral fact or principle, de- 
 scends for a time to some minute detail, in 
 order to bring out the full force of the inference 
 he intends to draw, and often a single word 
 contains a deep and extensive meaning. A 
 beautiful illustration of this is found in the fol- 
 lowing passage : " The words of the Lord are 
 pure words, even as silver tried in a furnace of 
 earth purified many times " (Ps. xii. 6). Here 
 we observe David is not satisfied with saying 
 that the word of the Lord is pure as silver tried 
 
46 GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 and purified many times: he wishes to represent 
 the most perfect state of purity, consequently 
 he descends to a particular method, and says, 
 tried in a furnace of earth. This distinct refer- 
 ence to an earthen furnace leads naturally to 
 the conclusion that different methods were then 
 known and practised, and that the earthen furnace 
 was considered best. Now, several methods have 
 been described, by which we know gold and silver 
 may be purified, independent of the process by 
 mercury, to which we can find no reference in 
 Scripture. These methods we will briefly repeat. 
 
 1st. Exposing the impure metal in fusion to a 
 current of air. This method is not only tedious, 
 but cannot be relied upon for perfectly purifying 
 the gold and silver, even though often repeated. 
 
 2d. Keeping the alloy in a melted state, and 
 throwing upon it nitre, with a little bone-ash or 
 earthy matter, which aid the process. This is 
 scummed off from time to time, and each time 
 more nitre is added, until the precious metals are 
 purified, which is known by the fused surface re- 
 maining bright. This process of purifying is 
 quicker than the first, and gives pure metal. 
 
 3d. Mixing the impure metals with a quantity 
 of lead, and subjecting the whole to fusion upon a 
 flat vessel made as already described, either with 
 bone-ash as in this country, or with clay lime and 
 wood-ash as in Mexico and India, allowing no fuel 
 to come into contact with the fused metals, but 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 47 
 
 blowing upon the fused mixture with bellows or 
 other means of causing a strong current of air, thus 
 oxidising all the inferior metals. The oxides thus 
 formed are partly absorbed by the cupell, which 
 is the bone-ash vessel, and are partly carried off by 
 the draft. This is by far the most perfect method 
 to ensure the complete purity of the gold and silver, 
 although the process may have to be repeated. 
 
 Knowing that the cupelling process, No. 3., was 
 practised at a very early period, we think it pro- 
 bable that it is the method of purification referred 
 to by the Psalmist. That the purification of the 
 precious metals was performed by the cupelling 
 process, very shortly after David's time, is clearly 
 indicated in various parts of Scripture. Indeed, 
 some of the early prophets, as well as those of a 
 later date, give a glowing description of the whole 
 process, and draw from it a spiritual lesson. 
 " Thy silver is become dross I will bring again 
 my hand upon thee, I will purify thy dross and 
 take away all thy tin " (alloy) (Isa. i. 25); accord- 
 ing to the marginal reading it is, " I will take 
 away thy dross in the furnace." The prophet 
 Jeremiah is more explicit. " They are all brass 
 and iron ; they are all corrupters. The bellows 
 are burned, the lead is consumed of the fire ; the 
 founder melteth in vain : for the wicked are not 
 plucked away. Keprobate silver shall men call 
 them " ( Jer. vi. 28-30). This description is very 
 perfect. If we take silver having the impurities 
 
48 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 in it referred to in the text, namely, iron, copper, 
 and tin, and mix it with lead, and place it in the 
 fire upon a cupell, it soon melts ; the lead will 
 oxidise, and form a thick, coarse crust upon the 
 surface, and thus consume away, but effect no puri- 
 fying influence. The alloy remains, if anything, 
 worse than before. 
 
 The prophet says that the alloy was put into 
 the fire with lead the whole was melted. There 
 is no lack of heat ; but the lead was consumed 
 that which should have purified the silver passed 
 away as dross, and the silver was left unre- 
 fined, because " the bellows were burned" 
 there existed nothing to blow upon it. Lead is 
 the purifier, but only so in connection with a blast 
 of air blown upon the melted metals. We can- 
 not pass over the aptness of the illustration in its 
 application to affliction being sent upon a sinful 
 people, to draw them from their wickedness, repre- 
 sented by the heat and melting, and how ineffectual 
 these will be in removing the sin, represented by 
 the impure metals, if the Spirit do not accompany 
 the operation, and blow upon it. 
 
 Ezekiel, using the same process as a figure, gives 
 the position of the cupell in the furnace. " Son 
 of man, the house of Israel is to me become as 
 dross : all they are brass, and tin, and iron, and 
 lead, in the midst of the furnace ; they are even 
 the dross of silver. Therefore, thus saith the 
 Lord God, Because ye are all become dross, 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 49 
 
 behold, therefore I will gather you in the midst 
 of Jerusalem. As they gather silver, and brass, 
 and iron, and lead, and tin, into the midst of the 
 furnace, to blow the fire upon it, to melt it ; so 
 will I gather you in mine anger and in my fury, 
 and I will leave you there, and melt you. Yea, I 
 will gather you, and blow upon you in the fae of 
 my wrath, and ye shall be melted in the midst 
 thereof. As silver is melted in the midst of the 
 furnace, so shall ye be melted in the midst there- 
 of " (Ezek. xxii. 18-22). This is a very graphic 
 description of the process of cupellation. Collect- 
 ing the impure silver and mixing it with lead, and 
 putting the whole in the midst of the furnace, no 
 doubt upon a cupell, and when melted, blowing 
 upon it for the purpose of scorifying and burning 
 out all the impurities. The different commenta- 
 tors we have consulted upon these verses, refer to 
 the materials being collected and put into the 
 furnace, simply for the purpose of being melted ; 
 the blowing having reference to the fire in order to 
 produce an intense heat, such as in blast or cupola 
 furnaces. Now, we think these explanations are 
 erroneous and inapplicable to the circumstances, 
 and they entirely destroy the beauty of the figure. 
 For, such an alloy as that named in the text 
 melts at a very low heat not more than can be 
 produced in a common kitchen fire therefore the 
 blowing of the fire to get intensity of heat is not 
 necessary. 
 
 D 
 
SO GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 Again, were the materials named in the text 
 put into the furnace amongst the fuel, and the 
 fire blown as is done in a blast or cupola furnace, 
 the results which are said to follow could not 
 occur, as the presence of the fuel with the metal 
 would prevent scorification, no matter how intense 
 the heat. 
 
 Now, compare the text with the cupelling pro- 
 cess. The vessel or cupell containing the alloy is 
 surrounded by the fire, or, in the words of the 
 prophet, placed in the midst of it, and the blow- 
 ing, as will be observed, is not directed on the fire, 
 but on the fused metals figuratively, Israel the 
 object to be purified; and when this view of the 
 matter is taken, the figure is perfect, as nothing 
 can resist this scorifying process. Intense heat 
 is not required for scorification. 
 
 There is another appropriate reference to these 
 operations, which still further proves the correct- 
 ness of our views on their refining operations with 
 gold and silver i " Who shall stand when He 
 appeareth ? for He is like a refiner's fire : and He 
 shall sit as a refiner and purifier of silver, and He 
 shall purify the sons of Levi, and cleanse them as 
 gold and silver " (Mai. iii. 2, 3). There is 
 nothing in this passage directly referring to the 
 process of refining, further than the position of the 
 refiner and the result of the operation. We will, 
 however, 'endeavour to illustrate this reference. 
 When the alloy is melted as before described, 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 5 I 
 
 upon a cupell, and the air blown upon it, the sur- 
 face of the melted metals assumes a deep orange 
 red colour, and a kind of flickering wave of colour 
 constantly passes over the surface, caused by the 
 vapouring of the oxygenated impurities. As the 
 process proceeds, the heat is increased, because 
 the nearer the metals approach purity, the more 
 heat is necessary to keep them in fusion. After 
 a time the colour of the fused metals becomes 
 lighter the impurities only forming reddish striae, 
 which continue to flit over the surface. At this 
 stage, the refiner watches the operation, with 
 great earnestness, until all the orange colour 
 and striee disappear, and the metal assumes a 
 bright mirror -like appearance, reflecting every 
 object around ; and the refiner, as he looks upon 
 the mass of refined metal, may see his own 
 image reflected therefrom, and thus he can form 
 a very correct judgment respecting the purity of 
 the metal. If he is satisfied, the fire is with- 
 drawn and the metal removed from the furnace ; 
 but if the metal does not assume this mirror- 
 like appearance, more lead is added and the 
 process continued. 
 
 This text may also apply to a refiner at the 
 side of the furnace, casting into the melting 
 pot the scorifying flux, such as nitre, to burn 
 away the dross, and watching its success. The 
 metal in this case also assumes that mirror-like 
 
52 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 appearance described, but the cupelling operation 
 being well known in the days of Amos, and being 
 most suitable to the figure of the text, we are 
 inclined to believe that the sacred poet refers to 
 the cupelling operation. 
 
 The following are a few more extracts from 
 Scripture referring to the purification of gold and 
 silver. 
 
 " When he hath tried me, I shall come forth as 
 gold " (Job. xxiii. 9). 
 
 " Thou hast tried us, as silver is tried " (Ps. 
 Ixvi. 10). 
 
 " Take away the dross from the silver, and 
 there shall come forth a vessel for the finer " 
 (Prov. xxv. 4). 
 
 " I will bring the third part through the fire, 
 and will refine them as silver is refined, and will 
 try them as gold is tried " (Zech. xiii. 9). 
 
 These statements and warnings addressed to the 
 people, evidence that the operations referred to 
 were well known, otherwise their application would 
 not have been understood. 
 
 We have repeatedly stated that all these opera- 
 tions are equally applicable to the purification of 
 gold as well as silver, so that when they are asso- 
 ciated in the raw ore, as they generally are, they 
 will be found together at the termination of the 
 refining process. 
 
 Gold is seldom, if ever, found in nature free from 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 5 3 
 
 silver, the quantity of silver varying from 2 to 
 30 per cent. Silver again is seldom found free 
 from gold, the quantity of gold varying from 1 to 5 
 per cent. The separation of these two metals from 
 each other is an operation performed after the 
 cupelling or purifying we have described is com- 
 pleted. This operation is termed, in modern 
 technical phraseology, PARTING, and is performed 
 in the following manner : 
 
 The alloy is beat into thin plates, and the silver 
 separated by dissolving it out, with either nitric or 
 sulphuric acid. If gold prevails in the alloy, more 
 silver has to be added, to render it better fit for 
 the parting process. When nitric acid is used as 
 the solvent, the proportions of the metals should 
 be three of silver to one of gold ; and when 
 sulphuric acid is used, six of the former to one of 
 the latter. On boiling the thin plates of the alloy 
 in the acid the silver only is dissolved, and the 
 gold remains, the solution of silver is subsequently 
 poured off, and the gold, after being thoroughly 
 washed, is melted and cast into ingots or bars. 
 To the solution of silver a quantity of common 
 salt (chloride of sodium) is added, which pre- 
 cipitates the silver as a chloride ; this is collected 
 and fused with carbonate of soda or potash, the 
 silver being then obtained as a pure metal ; or 
 there may be placed in the solution of silver, 
 sheets of copper, when the copper combines with 
 the acid, and the silver is deposited as metal, and 
 
54 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 is then collected, washed, fused, and cast into 
 ingots. 
 
 We cannot find any reference in Scripture, or 
 other ancient writings, which enable us to infer 
 whether or not these operations for parting small 
 quantities of silver from gold were practised in 
 ancient times. Only two passages occur that 
 refer to distinct and different operations being 
 applied to gold and silver. These are " The 
 fining-pot is for silver, and the furnace for gold ; " 
 and " As the fining-pot for silver, and the furnace 
 for gold " (Prov. xvii. 3. and xxvii. 21). These are 
 translated by some commentators "As silver is 
 tried by the fining-pot and gold by the furnace." 
 Commentators also generally state that thejfoemy- 
 pot means crucible, or melting-pot. If this be 
 the case, we know of no operation practised in 
 modern times that the above passages will refer to 
 in other words, there is no operation in which 
 a melting-pot or crucible is used that is peculiar 
 to silver, nor any peculiar to gold that is performed 
 in a furnace. All such operations apply equally 
 to both ; and if any distinct operation existed at 
 the time of Solomon, the process, so far as we are 
 aware, is now lost. It may be, however, that the 
 word fining-pot does not refer to a crucible, but 
 to some operation practised for parting. If, for 
 example, the term fining pot could refer to the 
 vessel or pot in which the silver is dissolved from 
 the gold in the parting process, as it may be called 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 55 
 
 with propriety, then these passages have a meaning 
 in accordance with our modern practice, and suit 
 admirably the inference Solomon draws a trying 
 or testing of a man's character. However, this is 
 but a supposition, and must be taken as such, even 
 although plausible, for they may have had means of 
 testing the quality of gold and silver, and separat- 
 ing them, in the days of Solomon that we have 
 not. Excepting the above passages, there is no 
 other reference in Scripture to operations applied 
 to gold and silver separately ; but with regard to 
 the substances used in the operation of parting, it is 
 well known that the ancient Egyptians were ac- 
 quainted with both nitric and sulphuric acids, and 
 also knew that these acids dissolved silver. The 
 writings and markings upon ancient mummy cloth 
 are now found to have been done by a solution of 
 silver and the solution of silver which they used 
 is all but positively ascertained to have been the 
 nitrate, the marking ink of our own day, which is 
 strong presumptive evidence as to their knowledge 
 of the action of acids upon silver ; and this is also 
 a circumstantial evidence in favour of their using 
 such means for separating silver from gold, as 
 the fact could hardly escape their notice, for in 
 dissolving the silver the gold would be left. But 
 to assert that they were acquainted with all the 
 requirements now known to us for obtaining 
 perfectly pure gold and silver by such operations, 
 would be more than our references warrant; in- 
 
56 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 deed, the repeated references to certain qualities 
 and kinds of gold in Scripture, is a kind of pre- 
 sumptive proof that they were not in the habit 
 of perfectly purifying or separating the gold from 
 the silver, and the small quantities of silver re- 
 maining would give a distinctive character to the 
 gold. If the parting process was not perfectly 
 understood, the silver would not be perfectly 
 separated, which would produce certain distinctive 
 qualities of gold of less or more value. Different 
 localities were known to produce gold of a certain 
 fineness, either from its being in a pure state 
 natively, or imported from these localities after 
 being subjected to the operations of parting ; these 
 qualities were named after the localities from which 
 they were brought, as " the gold of Oplier" " gold 
 of Parvairn," "gold from the north," &c., &c. 
 Parvaim is said to mean eastern, and may be in 
 contradistinction to gold from the north. 
 
 Mr Charles Beke, in the Athen&um of date Nov. 
 1868, says that "Opher was in Persia; the gold field 
 was in Eastern Africa, the shipping port being at 
 the Gulf of Persia (the land of Opher) ; the gold 
 was named after the place it was shipped from, 
 the same as many other articles are at the present 
 day, such as Mocha coffee, Turkey rhubarb, &c., 
 named from the place they are imported from, but 
 not where they grow. The voyage mentioned in 
 the Bible, from Ezion Geber to Opher, is said to 
 be three years, but it may have been less than 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 5 / 
 
 two years, as by Hebrew rule any part of a year 
 was called a year ; thus, say the voyage began in 
 December, and ended in January following, it would 
 be called two years; and if it took till January 
 twelvemonths, it would be called three years, 
 although in reality only fourteen months ; so that 
 the voyage there and back may have occupied in 
 reality on]y two years." Beckmann, in his " History 
 of Inventions," states positively that the ancients 
 did not know the means of separating gold and 
 silver : " The ancients used as a peculiar metal a 
 mixture of gold and silver, because they were not 
 acquainted with the art of separating them, and 
 afterwards gave it the name of electrum" He 
 thinks they considered this a distinct metal, but 
 Pliny mentions electrum to have been made 
 artificially by mixing four parts gold and one of 
 silver, proving that in his day they did not consider 
 it a distinct metal. 
 
 We fhink, from what has been shown in the 
 references produced from Scripture upon the 
 metallurgical operations of gold and silver, that 
 the ancients were well versed in these arts, and 
 that many of the most delicate operations, requiring 
 considerable chemical skill, were practised by them. 
 The advancements made in these metallurgical 
 operations in modern times have not been so new 
 to the world as we are sometimes led to suppose. 
 However, we will have opportunities of illus- 
 trating, in other parts of this volume, how it 
 
58 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 happens that advancement in the arts has not 
 been a steady progression from early days to the 
 present; but that processes and operations well 
 known to the ancients have become lost, and after 
 a lapse of time, been again discovered, requiring 
 many years to regain their former perfection. So 
 that, taking our stand at the present date, and 
 looking back to the palmy days of Egypt, Greece, 
 or Israel, we know little of what has passed from 
 us in the interval ; and except from the survivals 
 of ancient art, or where the poet, to adorn his 
 verse, has borrowed from the arts an analogy to 
 illustrate passing life, we have little knowledge of 
 how the ancient world did in the practical opera- 
 tions of metallurgy. 
 
 A list of gold and silver articles in common use 
 in ancient times, would embrace all the articles 
 and purposes to which these metals are applied 
 at the present time, both for domestic and public 
 use, indicating extensive manufacturing opera- 
 tions ; and even the delicate and fine operations of 
 gilding and plating wood and inferior metals with 
 gold and silver, were also practised in ancient 
 times. Sheet silver is referred to in Scripture, 
 " Silver spread into plates is brought from 
 Tarshish, and gold from Uphaz, the work of the 
 workman, and of the hands of the founder; blue 
 and purple is their clothing : they are all the work 
 of cunning men." Had they rolling mills in 
 those days, or were the sheets beat out with the 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 59 
 
 hammer? We think it was the work of the 
 hammer, and the process is referred to as being 
 employed at an earlier age than that of the 
 quotation, both for forming plates of gold and 
 silver. Gold and silver, beat out thin, and cut 
 into threads for sewing or weaving, are referred 
 to in the construction of the ark ; and Wilkinson 
 states that gold was beat out in leaf, and conse- 
 quently into plates, in ancient Egypt. 
 
 Gold and silver were used in ancient times for 
 the purposes of exchange, either in the form of 
 coined money, or some other forms of a standard 
 quality, and weighed when exchange was made. 
 
 In Siam at the present day the currency is 
 silver, and no payments are made in minted pieces 
 of gold. If in large transactions gold is used, 
 it is in the form of leaf or bars, and is weighed. 
 We read in Scripture that Abraham bought the 
 cave and field of Machpelah from Ephron, with 
 silver weighed over to him in the current money 
 of the time. " And Abraham weighed to Ephron 
 the silver which he had named in the audience of 
 the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, 
 current money with the merchants." 
 
 Some commentators argue that because such a 
 sum is named in silver, gold could not have been 
 used for coinage or exchange at that time ; this is 
 a negative way of reasoning. The French, for 
 example, name large sums of money in francs 
 silver coins ; but it would be a great mistake to 
 
6O GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 conclude from this that the French had no gold 
 coinage. Or supposing that but one transaction had 
 been recorded in the reign of one of our early kings, 
 such as one hundred and twenty shillings having 
 been paid for something or another, we would not 
 think of reasoning therefrom that gold was not 
 then in use for the purposes of exchange ; the fact 
 of silver being so distinctly named in the text, in 
 itself favours the opinion that other metals were 
 in use for exchange purposes. 
 
 It is also stated that because the silver was 
 weighed it could not have been in the form of 
 coined money, but pieces of silver probably stamped 
 to indicate the quality ; we think that the passage 
 refers to pieces of silver of a fixed weight, and 
 used as coins whatever may have been their shape, 
 and not to the mere weighing of a heterogenous 
 lot of silver. The word shekel is a name for a 
 coin as well as for a weight. At the present day 
 in some parts of the east where regular coins are 
 used, but owing to their not being milled on the 
 edges, or other precautions taken to prevent them 
 from being scraped and lightened, the just and 
 honourable merchant in transferring a number of 
 them weighs them. The practice may have been 
 similar in ancient times, but Abraham, who, be- 
 sides being an upright man in all his transactions, 
 knew well the character of the people he had to do 
 with, may therefore have weighed out the four 
 hundred shekels of money. So that the weigh- 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 6 1 
 
 ing was an act of policy and strict commercial 
 honesty. 
 
 Thomson, in " The Land and the Book," has 
 the following remarks upon this transaction 
 between Abraham and Ephron : " My experience 
 in these transactions leads me to believe that this 
 price was treble the actual value of the field. 
 But, says the courteous Hittite, four hundred 
 shekels, what is that between thee and me ? Oh 
 how often you hear these identical words on similar 
 occasions ! and yet, acting on their apparent 
 import, you would soon find out what and how 
 much they meant. Abraham knew that too, and 
 as he was then in no humour to chaffer with the 
 owner, whatever might be his price, he proceeded 
 forthwith to weigh out the money. Even this 
 is still common ; for although coins have now a 
 definite name, size, and value, yet every merchant 
 carries a small apparatus by which he weighs 
 each coin, to see that it has not been tampered 
 with by Jewish clippers." And he further says 
 that the deeds of such a purchase are the same 
 now as then : every item must be enumerated. 
 " The cave that was therein, and all the trees 
 that were in the field, and that were in the borders 
 round about, were made sure." 
 
 The fact of their having weights for transfers, is 
 of itself a proof of considerable advancement in 
 commercial dealings, as a fixed standard of weight 
 must previously have been agreed upon. Probably 
 
62 GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 the balance was first used for the purpose of 
 weighing metals or money as articles of exchange. 
 This transaction of Abraham's suggests another 
 necessity, namely, a standard of quality in the 
 metal, whether coined or otherwise. It has been 
 shown that the value of the precious metals varies 
 according to their purity; fifty shekels, by weight, 
 of one quality, may not be worth more than the 
 half of fifty of another quality ; therefore some 
 fixed standard of quality must have been agreed 
 on in commerce to insure justice and equality in 
 all money transactions. The passage does not say 
 that Abraham gave four hundred shekels of 
 refined silver, but four hundred shekels of silver 
 current money with the merchants. This was, no 
 doubt, money of a fixed standard of value agreed 
 to, or understood, by the merchants ; and the 
 possession of such a standard implies not only a 
 knowledge of the refining of the metal to bring it 
 to the required purity, but also a method of test- 
 ing, whereby silver, not up to the standard, could 
 be detected, and not allowed to pass as current 
 money with the merchants. 
 
 The quantity of the precious metals possessed 
 by men in ancient times is another matter which 
 has startled historians and commentators from its 
 vastness, and has caused many to question the 
 accuracy of the statements, because we have 
 nothing equal to it now ; a style of argument 
 which is very erroneous, as it takes our own 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 63 
 
 experience, or the experience of the present, as 
 the proper test whereby to judge of the past, and 
 this often without duly considering all the cir- 
 cumstances of the two periods. 
 
 For several centuries previous to the last forty 
 years, gold and silver were very scarce throughout 
 the world. The communities through which they 
 have become diffused are very extensive and wide- 
 spread, so that great accumulations in one place 
 have not been permitted, and are hardly possible 
 in our commercial age. In ancient times this 
 diffusive influence was much less, hence greater 
 accumulations were made of the precious metals, 
 both by individuals and nations. Besides, there 
 have been periods in the world's history when 
 gold and silver were got in very great abundance 
 compared with other periods ; and the period from 
 which we intend to take our data for comparison 
 with the present age was probably one of the 
 most favourable recorded in the history of the 
 world, namely, the days of Solomon. 
 
 According to estimates made by Baron Hum- 
 boldt, the whole produce of the precious metals 
 from all the known countries in the world, from 
 1800 to 1848, was in value about 390,000,000. 
 Since 1848, there have been discovered the new 
 gold fields of California and Australia. By an- 
 other authority, the total amount of gold in use 
 in 1848 was estimated at 600,000,000, and the 
 annual supply was believed to be between eight 
 
64 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 million and nine million sterling, but since that 
 time the annual supply has been greatly on the 
 increase. From a French work by M. Roswag 
 " Metaux Precieux " we extract the following 
 estimate of the amount of the precious metals 
 in the world in 1857, given in sterling money : 
 
 Silver value 1,347,125,000 
 
 Gold 851,250,000 
 
 2,198,375,000 
 
 He calculated the average yearly increase at the 
 rate of 
 
 Silver value 10,000,000 
 
 Gold 20,833,333 
 
 30,833,333 
 
 Taking this data from 1857 to 1872=fifteen 
 years, we have 
 
 Silver value 150,000,000 
 
 Gold 312,499,995 
 
 462,499,995 
 
 which, added to that of 1857, gives as the gross 
 quantity of the precious metals in the world at the 
 end of 1872, not deducting tear and wear 
 
 Silver value 1,497,125,000 
 
 Gold 1,163,749,995 
 
 2,660,874,995 
 
 In going back to Biblical times, we have no such 
 data as the statistics of mines throughout the 
 whole world ; but at the period we have referred 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 65 
 
 to, we have an account of an extraordinary and 
 systematic accumulation of the precious metals 
 for a specific object, stretching over forty years. 
 From the day David was anointed king of Israel, 
 he seemed to have been fully impressed with the 
 belief in God's promise, that he was to be the 
 instrument for establishing the Israelites as the 
 first nation in the world, in connection with the 
 worship of the true God ; hence every victory he 
 achieved was looked upon by him as the means 
 which God was using for effecting this great end ; 
 and after defraying the necessary expenses, remu- 
 nerating and rewarding his people and army, the 
 remainder of the spoils taken in war were accumu- 
 lated for the great object of his life, as is shown in 
 such passages as the following : " And David took 
 the shields of gold that were on the servants of 
 Hadadezer, and brought them to Jerusalem. And 
 from Betah, and from Berothai, cities of Hadade- 
 zer, king David took exceeding much brass And 
 
 Joram brought with him vessels of silver, and 
 vessels of gold, and vessels of brass : which also 
 king David did dedicate unto the Lord, with the 
 silver and gold that he had dedicated of all nations 
 which he subdued" (2 Sam. viii. 7-11). "And 
 he took their king's crown from off his head, the 
 weight whereof was a talent of gold, with the 
 precious stones : and it was set on David's head. 
 And he brought forth the spoil of the city in 
 great abundance " (2 Sam. xii. 30). Even before 
 
66 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 David's reign this setting aside for God a part of 
 all the spoils taken in war, was practised ; and 
 much of what had been dedicated was in existence 
 at this time, as is indicated by such passages as 
 the following : " And all that Samuel the seer, 
 and Saul the son of Kish, and Abner the son of 
 Ner, and Joab the son of Zeruiah, had dedicated, 
 and whosoever had dedicated anything, it was 
 under the hand of Shelomith and of his brethren." 
 But none, evidently, had the same fixed object in 
 view as David, which object he made the promi- 
 nent aim of his life. The law of Moses forbade 
 kings accumulating gold and silver for private 
 purposes : " Neither shall he greatly multiply to 
 himself silver and gold" (Deut. xvii. 17). This 
 probably accounts for David's extraordinary per- 
 sonal liberality to the cause, and is another proof 
 of the sincerity with which he acted in all religious 
 matters. 
 
 No sooner had David subdued the enemies of 
 Israel and established his kingdom, than he began 
 to develop this great object of his life the erection 
 of a temple to establish religious worship in his 
 kingdom, and make Jerusalem its great centre. 
 He first calls an assembly of the priests, the nobles, 
 and elders of the people, representing the whole 
 interests of the nation, along with Solomon, his 
 successor, and divulges to them his great plan, 
 the instructions he had received from on high, and 
 what he wished them to do in helping on this 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 6/ 
 
 great work. He also specifies his accumulations 
 for this purpose : " Behold in my trouble I have 
 prepared for the house of the Lord, a hundred 
 thousand talents of gold, and a thousand thousand 
 talents of silver, and of brass and iron without 
 weight ; for it is in abundance " (1 Chron. xxii. 
 14). David, finding that his days were rapidly 
 shortening, while his anxieties increased for the 
 peace and welfare of his young successor, and for 
 the fulfilment of his great work, calls another and 
 probably more numerous meeting of the represen- 
 tatives of the people, and earnestly urges their 
 interest in the cause in the following language : 
 u Now I have prepared with all my might for the 
 house of my God, the gold for things to be made 
 of gold, the silver for things to be made of silver, 
 and the brass for things to be made of brass, and 
 iron for things to be made of iron, and wood for 
 things to be made of wood, onyx stones, and 
 stones to be set, glittering stones of divers colours, 
 and all manner of precious stones and marble 
 stones in abundance. Moreover, because I have 
 set my affections to the house of my God, I have 
 of mine own proper goods of gold and silver, 
 which I have given to the house of my God, over 
 and above all that I have prepared for the holy 
 house, even three thousand talents of gold, of the 
 gold of Ophir, and seven thousand talents of 
 refined silver to overlay the wall of the house 
 with " (1 Chron. xxix. 2-4). 
 
68 GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 The response to this appeal and example was 
 very satisfactory, and is no doubt the largest 
 voluntary collection ever made for church building 
 purposes : " Then the chief of the fathers and 
 princes of the tribes of Israel, and the captains of 
 thousands and of hundreds, with the rulers of the 
 king's work, offered willingly, and gave for the 
 service of the house of God of gold five thousand 
 talents and ten thousand drams, and of silver ten 
 thousand talents, and of brass eighteen thousand 
 talents, and a hundred thousand talents of iron, 
 besides precious stones," &c. (1 Chron. xxix. 6, 7). 
 
 This contribution of David from his personal 
 property is supposed by some to be included in 
 the sum mentioned in our first extract ; but this 
 we think erroneous. Not only is this a separate 
 sum, but it is stated by the donor that it is to be 
 applied for a specific purpose the overlaying of 
 the walls of the house and its quality is referred 
 to as being the best, " the gold of Ophir, and 
 refined silver," and it is also evident from the 
 following passage that the others had already 
 contributed from their share of the spoils to make 
 up the large sum accumulated : " Which Shelo- 
 mith and his brethren were over all the treasures 
 of the dedicated things, which David the king, 
 and the chief fathers, the captains over thousands 
 and the captains over hundreds, and the captains 
 of the host, had dedicated. Out of the spoils 
 won in battle did they dedicate to maintain the 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 69 
 
 house of the Lord" (1 Chrou. xxvi. 26, 27). 
 So that the voluntary contributions made by David 
 and the representatives of the people were extra 
 contributions. The gross sums calculated and 
 reduced to our standard for the sake of compari- 
 son, stand as follows : 
 
 Talent of gold worth 5475 ; the talent being 
 125 Ibs. in weight, will make the value of the 
 gold about 73s. per ounce. The talent of silver 
 is valued at 342, 3s. 9d., or 4s. 4^d. per ounce. 
 The gross of the value given will be 
 
 Sum accumulated and in the ( Gold, .... 547,500,000 
 public Treasury, ( Silver, . . , 342,187,500 
 
 Contributed by David from his ( Gold, . . . . 16,425,000 
 private resources, ( Silver, . . . 2,395,312 
 
 (Gold, , 28,000,000 
 
 Contributed by the people, 
 
 939,929,687 
 
 Total value of Gold, .......... 591,925,000 
 
 Silver, ......... 348,004,687 
 
 When we consider the weight of all this metal, 
 amounting to many thousand tons, it is not sur- 
 prising that many are startled, and are rather 
 more inclined to suppose that errors have occurred 
 in the transcribing, than that so vast an accumu- 
 lation could have been made by any one people. 
 
 But the quantity of the precious metals pos- 
 sessed by the Israelites at that period is no crite- 
 rion of what was in use in the whole world. The 
 
7O GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 Phoenicians were then the masters of the sea, and 
 had extensive commercial relations with most 
 known countries, and had in their possession a 
 vast number of miners working in different mines. 
 Solomon was wise enough to perceive that 
 to maintain the greatness of Israel in peace, 
 they must become a commercial people. He 
 therefore made arrangements with Hiram, king 
 of Tyre, for ships and men to navigate them, to 
 instruct his people in this art, and he also fitted 
 out a navy for himself, as is stated : " And 
 Hiram sent him by the hands of his servants' 
 ships, and servants that had knowledge of the 
 sea " (2 Chron. viii. 18). " And king Solomon 
 made a navy of ships in Ezion-geber, which is 
 beside Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea, in the 
 land of Edom. And Hiram sent in the navy his 
 servants, shipmen that had knowledge of the sea, 
 with the servants of Solomon. And they came to 
 Ophir, and fetched from thence gold, four hundred 
 and twenty talents, and brought it to king 
 Solomon" (1 Kings ix. 26-28). "And again, 
 it is stated that " The weight of gold that came to 
 Solomon in one year was six hundred and threescore 
 and six talents of gold ; beside that which chapmen 
 and merchants brought. And all the kings of Arabia 
 and governors of the country brought gold and 
 silver to Solomon" (2 Chron. ix. 13, 14). 
 
 Lawson, in his Scripture Gazetteer says : " It 
 is traditionally related that when the Phoenicians 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 7 1 
 
 visited Spain, they found the silver in such abund- 
 ance, that they not only loaded their ships to the 
 water's edge, but made their common utensils and 
 even anchors of this metal. This statement har- 
 monises with the representations given by the 
 Spanish discoverers of Peru; and, whether exag- 
 gerated or not, certain it is that the Phoenicians 
 lost no time in taking possession of the country, 
 and forming colonies in the present Andalusia." 
 
 " When the Phoenicians first settled in Iberia, 
 artificial mine works were unnecessary; the ore 
 lay exposed to view, and a light incision was all 
 that was requisite to procure it in abundance. 
 The inhabitants were little acquainted with its 
 importance until the demands of the commercial 
 adventurers, and their avidity to possess it, first 
 taught them its value. When the stock which the 
 inhabitants had on hand, and for which they re- 
 ceived various articles in exchange, was exhausted, 
 the Phoenicians saw it necessary to open mines, 
 and the fate of the Iberians afterwards became 
 deplorable." 
 
 If the period to which this tradition refers be 
 near the time of Solomon, it harmonises with the 
 statement made in Scripture, " Silver being little 
 thought of in those days, being plentiful as 
 stones." 
 
 Aristotle refers to one visit to Tartessus where 
 for the oil and other products of little value which 
 they had in their vessels, they received so much 
 
72 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 silver, that they were unable to carry it, and at 
 last cut off the masses of lead which served them 
 as anchors, and substituted silver in the place of 
 them. This is important proof, not only of the 
 abundance of silver, but also of lead, seeing that 
 masses of it were used for anchors. 
 
 There are other facts referred to in Scripture, 
 which prove that the precious metals were much 
 more abundant in ancient than modern times. 
 The queen of Sheba, along with other gifts, brought 
 gold with her from her own kingdom to Solomon: 
 " And she gave the king one hundred and twenty 
 talents of gold " (2 Chron ix. 9) equal to 
 657,000. 
 
 When Haman, the favourite of the Persian king, 
 Ahasuerus, wished to prosecute his ambitious 
 designs, and proposed his plan for destroying the 
 Jews, thinking that it might be objected to from 
 the effect it was likely to have upon the national 
 exchequer, he makes the following offer : " If it 
 please the king, let it be written that they may 
 be destroyed : and I will pay ten thousand talents 
 of silver to the hands of those that have the 
 charge of the business, to bring it into the king's 
 treasuries " (Esther iii. 9). If the talent referred 
 to be the Babylonish talent, the sum will be about 
 2,119,000 ; but if reckoned by the Jewish talent, 
 it will be upwards of 3,000,000, offered by a 
 private person for an object of ambition a sum 
 which would not affect his position as a man of 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 73 
 
 wealth, or it would have frustrated his object. 
 Gold is not named by Haman ; but we are not to 
 suppose that this whole wealth in precious metals 
 was in silver, as we know from history that gold 
 was very abundant amongst the Persians at that 
 time. Herodotus relates that when Xerxes went 
 into Greece, Pythius, the Lydian, had 2000 talents 
 of silver, and 4,000,000 of gold darics, which is 
 estimated at 5,500,000. 
 
 We were not a little surprised to find Mr 
 Gladstone, in his " Juventus Mundi," say that in 
 Homer's time, silver seems to have been much 
 more rare than gold, because it was chiefly 
 obtained by scientific means. David and Homer 
 were nearly contemporaneous authors, and the 
 relative quantity of silver provided and given for 
 the erection and furnishing of the Temple is about 
 nine times that of gold, so that silver could not 
 have been so very rare. 
 
 We take the following, from Herodotus, in 
 reference to the temple of Belus, from Kitto's 
 " Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature:" -- "And 
 there belongs to the temple in Babylon another 
 shrine lower down, where there stands a large 
 golden image of the god, and near it is placed a 
 large golden table, and the pedestal and throne 
 are gold ; and, as the Chaldeans say, these things 
 were made for eight hundred talents of gold, and 
 out of the shrine is a golden altar. And there 
 is another great altar where sheep offerings are 
 
74 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 sacrificed, for it is not permitted to sacrifice upon 
 the golden altar except sucklings only ; but upon 
 the greater altar, the Chaldeans offer every year a 
 thousand talents' worth of frankincense at the 
 time when they celebrate the festival of the god. 
 And there was at that time a statue of twelve 
 cubits of solid gold ; but I did not see it, but 
 relate merely what was told to me by the Chal- 
 deans. Darius Hystaspis wished to have this 
 statue, but did not dare to take it; but Xerxes, 
 his son, took it, and slew the priest who forbade 
 him to move the statue. Thus is the sacred place 
 adorned, and there is also in it many private 
 offerings. These offerings made by individuals, 
 consisting of statues, censers, cups, and sacred 
 vessels of massy gold, constituted a property of 
 immense value. On the top, Semiramis placed 
 three golden statues of Jupiter, Juno, and Rhea. 
 The first was forty feet high, and weighed one 
 thousand talents. The statue of Rhea was of the 
 same weight : the goddess was seated on a golden 
 throne with lions at each knee, and two serpents 
 of silver. The statue of Juno was erect like that 
 of Jupiter, weighing eight hundred talents : she 
 grasped a serpent by the head with her right 
 hand, and held in her left a sceptre enriched with 
 gems. A table of beaten gold was common to 
 these three divinities, weighing five hundred 
 talents. On the table were two goblets of thirty 
 talents, and two censers of five hundred talents 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. J$ 
 
 each, and three vases of prodigious magnitude. 
 The total value of the precious articles and 
 treasures contained in this proud achievement of 
 idolatry has been computed to exceed one hundred 
 and twenty millions sterling." The amount of 
 the gold and silver taken by Cyrus when he 
 conquered Asia, according to the account of Pliny, 
 was 126,224,000 of our money. 
 
 "We may mention here what is related of Sarda- 
 napolis: " When his last hope was extinguished of 
 saving the city, he fled into his palace, and order- 
 ing a vast pile to be reared in the court, on which 
 he accumulated all his treasure, amounting to a 
 prodigious value, and close to which he placed his 
 eunuchs, his concubines, and lastly himself, he 
 set fire to it, and perished amidst the splendid 
 ruins. Athenians represent these treasures as 
 worth a thousand myriads of talents of gold, and 
 ten times as many talents of silver this is four- 
 teen hundred millions sterling." 
 
 Pliny mentions that Pompeius Magnus, after 
 his third triumph over the kings and nations of 
 Asia made the following presents, " To the state 
 he presented two thousand millions of sesterces ; 
 to the legati and quaestors who had exerted 
 themselves in defence of the sea coast he gave one 
 thousand millions of sesterces, and to each indi- 
 vidual soldier six thousand sesterces," the number 
 of soldiers who received this sum is not given. 
 
76 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 The sum given to the state is equal to 16,666,666 
 Tothelegati . . 8,333,333 
 
 24,999,999 
 
 Mr G. Rawlinson, writing about the wealth of 
 the palace of Susan or Persepolis, says, " The golden 
 throne of the monarch stood under the embroid- 
 ered canopy or awning supported by pillars of 
 gold inlaid with precious stones ; couches resplen- 
 dent with silver and gold filled the rooms. " And in 
 Ecbatana, the palace, which, according to a writer 
 in the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitan," "was nearly 
 a mile in circumference, the roof was covered with 
 tiles of silver, and the beams, ceilings, and pillars 
 were all covered with scales of silver and gold." 
 
 Gahn, vol. ii., states that " Crassus, proconsul 
 of Rome, entered Jerusalem to pillage the Temple. 
 Eleazer, the treasurer of the Temple, promised him 
 a bar of gold, weighing 300 mina, which was 
 preserved in a beam at the entrance to the Holy 
 of Holies, on condition that he would leave the 
 remainder of the treasures untouched. This con- 
 dition Crassus solemnly swore to observe, but as 
 soon as he had obtained the golden bar, he robbed 
 the temple of two thousand talents which Pompey 
 had left, and took eight thousand talents besides." 
 Taking these sums by Jewish weights it would 
 equal 54,782,850. Josephus says, that when 
 Jerusalem was taken, the quantity of gold was 
 so great, that in Syria the gold fell to one half 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 77 
 
 its value." The Jews were always and still are 
 the greatest accumulators of the precious metals. 
 From these and many other statements in history, 
 we think we have conclusive evidence that gold 
 and silver were much more plentiful in ancient 
 than they are in more modern times; at all 
 events they were accumulated in greater quantities 
 in certain localities than they now are ; and there- 
 fore we do not see why we should doubt the state- 
 ments of Scripture history that such a quantity 
 of precious metals were in the hands of the 
 Israelites. 
 
 In the meantime, and before we leave for the 
 present the consideration of gold and silver, we 
 will offer a few observations upon that puzzle to 
 commentators, and object of ridicule to infidels 
 and others, namely, the destruction of the golden 
 calf made by Aaron in the wilderness, which in 
 its manufacture and destruction is one of the most 
 interesting circumstances in the Scripture history 
 of the metallic arts. For the sake of our non- 
 practical readers we may explain that from the 
 high malleable property of gold, it cannot be 
 ground. If a piece of gold be taken and pounded 
 in a mortar, or hammered, it will get flattened to 
 almost any extent, but will never be ground to 
 powder. Now as the Scripture says that Moses 
 ground the calf to a powder, the question arises, 
 In what way was it done ? Some commentators 
 are of opinion that the calf was not ground, that 
 
78 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 Moses deceived the people, keeping the gold, and 
 substituting something else instead, which he 
 made them believe was the gold. Others, again, 
 unwilling to admit the above supposition, or 
 confess that they are ignorant of the method, 
 have mentioned other means as being more pro- 
 bable, and thus get over the difficulty to their 
 own satisfaction. Finding it stated in some old 
 book on chemistry, that gold could be made pot- 
 able or soluble by a certain mixture, this has 
 been taken hold of as the probable if not^ the 
 veritable process adopted by Moses. A few in- 
 stances will suffice to show how much has been 
 made of a mere figment. 
 
 Our first quotation is from Dr Kitto's " History 
 of Palestine :" " Commentators have been much 
 perplexed to explain how Moses burned the golden 
 image and reduced it to powder. Most of them 
 offer only vain and improbable conjectures, but an 
 able chemist has removed every difficulty on the 
 subject, and has suggested this simple process as 
 that which Moses employed : Instead of tartaric 
 acid, which we employ for a similar purpose, the 
 Hebrew legislator used NATRON, which is very 
 common in the East. The Scriptures, in informing 
 us that Moses made the Israelites drink this 
 powder, show that he was perfectly acquainted 
 with all the effect of this operation. He wished 
 to aggravate the punishment for their disobedience, 
 and for this purpose no means could have been 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 79 
 
 more suitable ; for gold rendered potable by the 
 process I have spoken of is of a most detestable 
 taste. To this from GOQUET it may be well to 
 add, that the operation of the acids which act upon 
 gold is much assisted by the metal being previously 
 heated. In this we see the reason why Moses 
 cast the golden image into the fire." 
 
 Dr Memes, in his " Fine Art among the Jews," 
 in Kitto's " Journal of Sacred Literature," vol. iii. 
 says, "In all the processes of metallurgy, as well as 
 in the different departments of metallic sculpture, 
 the artisans were practically conversant. In one 
 of these operations, difficult even to modern science, 
 that of calcination, Moses shows himself proficient 
 to a degree which formerly perplexed commentators, 
 until the more recent experiments in chemistry 
 showed that the golden calf might have readily 
 been reduced to a calx by burning it with natron, 
 of which abundance could be obtained in the 
 desert." 
 
 This evidently refers to the same process as the 
 above, only Dr Memes is a little more definite in 
 saying that the metal was first calcined. Calcina- 
 tion means subjecting a metal or other substance to 
 a red heat in contact with air to oxidise it, which, 
 notwithstanding Dr Memes' assertion to the con- 
 trary, is one of the most simple and easily per- 
 formed processes in the art of metallurgy. To 
 form a calx is to fuse the oxide of a metal either 
 alone or with a flux, also a simple and easily per- 
 
8o 
 
 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 formed operation. Gold, however, subjected to 
 the process of calcination will not oxidise, and 
 fusing it with natron has no effect upon it. The 
 same author further says in the article above 
 quoted from, and which is quoted in Kitto's 
 " Daily Bible Illustrations, 1872," in favour of a 
 theory that the calf was made of wood and covered 
 over with thin gold : 
 
 " The facility with which such a work could be 
 executed, suits the exigency in question, while 
 the beauty and utility of similar artistic operations 
 are abundantly proved by the earlier work of the 
 Greeks. Of the Archaic specimens of this art we 
 still possess such information as seems clearly to 
 demonstrate that to this species of art belonged 
 the sculpture of Aaron. Pausanias described a 
 statue of Jupiter by Learchus, the most ancient 
 then known, having been executed in the eighth 
 century before our era formed of plates of brass 
 hammered round and fastened by rivets with a 
 ' case ' or c foundation ' of wood, exactly as the 
 calf in the wilderness is supposed to have been 
 constructed. Thus the earliest classic records lead 
 us up to Egyptian practice, for to Egypt all con- 
 cede the parentage of ancient art and there we 
 easily obtain the most probable idea of the true 
 nature of Aaron's performance, Israel's molten 
 calf." How a wooden calf gilt can be called a 
 " molten calf" we leave Dr Memes to answer. 
 Aaron says, " I said unto them, whosoever hath 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 8 1 
 
 any gold, let them break it off ; then I cast it into 
 the fire, and there came out this calf." Could he 
 say this of a wooden figure? Common sense 
 forbids this ; and the Doctor does not say that the 
 translation is wrong. But to return to the grind- 
 ing of the calf. 
 
 In favour of this natron theory, Dr Eadie 
 speaks in a still more positive manner : " To 
 have drunk of water so filled with particles 
 of gold dust that they formed a kind of sedi- 
 ment in it, was no great hardship; nor can we 
 well understand how the ashes of the calf could 
 be mingled with so much water as would suffice 
 to be a powerful draught to the whole of the 
 idolaters ; but if we suppose that he who was 
 learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, 
 employed some chemical preparation, such as was 
 known to the ancient world, and dissolved the 
 gold by means of natron, or other similar sub- 
 stance, the penalty was especially nauseous : the 
 smell and taste of gold so dissolved are fearfully 
 revolting." These last observations, as to the 
 dissolving of gold by natron to the smell and 
 taste given by the compound formed are so 
 stated that no one could doubt that the 
 Doctor is speaking of matters he practically 
 knows. At the same time, any one but slightly 
 acquainted with chemistry, and the properties 
 of gold, the whole of these references would 
 only produce a smile, were it not that such 
 
 F 
 
82 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 influential writers making dogmatical statements 
 of this kind do great harm to Biblical truth. 
 Lest the natron, which is stated to be capable of 
 dissolving gold, might be something different 
 from what we had considered it, we turned it up 
 in Dr Eadie's " Biblical Cyclopaedia," the book from 
 which we took the above extract, and it is there 
 said to be " carbonate of soda" Now, if Moses 
 used this substance to make the gold potable, it is 
 a process entirely lost. Nothing like it is known 
 in the present day, and if the Doctor could define 
 the process, it would be a most valuable discovery. 
 The same chemical blunder seems to have been 
 made by GOQUET, quoted by Dr Kitto, but he re- 
 fers to the substance used being acid, and that the 
 heating of the gold in the fire was to assist the 
 action of this acid upon the metal. Natron is not 
 an acid, but the opposite an alkali. In order to 
 find out the source of these opinions that have 
 been so eagerly adopted, and what experiment was 
 referred to in these extracts that have so taken the 
 fancy of our Biblical commentators, after consi- 
 derable research we found in Thomson's " History 
 of Chemistry," that Stahll, who lived in the seven- 
 teenth century, discovered that if 1 part gold, 3 
 parts potash, and 3 parts sulphur are heated 
 together, a compound is formed which is partially 
 soluble in water. If this be the discovery referred 
 to, which I think very probable, it has certainly 
 been made the most of by Biblical critics. If we are 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 83 
 
 allowed to mix up with the calf ten times the bulk 
 of other matters in order to make a grindable 
 or a potable compound, there are several other and 
 much more simple ways of doing so than with 
 potash and sulphur. But, unfortunately for these 
 explanations, they do not agree with what Moses 
 says he did. The account given in the Bible 
 will not warrant us in supposing that in the fire 
 there was added ten times the bulk of the calf of 
 other matters ; and even although that had been 
 done, it would not have taken up one-hundredth 
 part of the calf, from practical difficulties in 
 this process. In reviewing this matter, it may 
 be as well first to consider what is said about the 
 operation in the Bible, as it should be chiefly 
 consulted: "And he took the calf which they 
 had made, and burned it in the fire, and ground 
 it to powder, and strewed it upon the water, and 
 made the children of Israel drink of it." 
 
 This last clause, " made the children of Israel 
 drink of it," has added to the difficulty. Metallic 
 gold is not soluble in water, the strewing of gold 
 upon the river would not affect the taste of the 
 water, consequently, if the water was affected by 
 the operation, then the gold must have been con- 
 verted into a compound soluble in water. So far, 
 then, this would necessitate some such process as 
 Stahll's, not only to have it capable of being 
 ground, but soluble; but we do not think that 
 this clause, " made them drink of it," necessarily 
 
84 GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 means that the taste of the waters was affected by 
 the addition of the gold dust, but simply was an 
 act of contempt to exhibit the utter worthlessness 
 of such gods. Then a chemical compound need 
 not be sought for to explain the difficulty. The 
 mere act of grinding, either in a mortar, or 
 between stones, could be easily effected by the 
 addition of a very minute quantity of lead, or tin, 
 to the gold, which renders it quite brittle and 
 capable of being ground to powder ; but we do 
 not think that even this was done. In the recapi- 
 tulatory book a more definite account is given by 
 Moses of the operations by which this grinding 
 was effected :- " And I took your sin, the calf 
 which you had made, and burned it with fire, and 
 stamped it, and ground it very small, even until 
 it was as small as dust, and I cast the dust 
 thereof into the brook that descended out of the 
 mount " (Deut. ix. 21). 
 
 In this account there is no indication of 
 solubility, but rather the opposite ; because if it 
 were soluble, and intended to make and keep the 
 waters bitter for a time, there was no necessity 
 for grinding it so fine as mentioned ; but apart 
 from any supposition, let us follow this plain 
 statement given by Moses himself of the opera- 
 tion 
 
 1. It was put into the fire, no doubt, so that it 
 might be cast into bars or ingots of suitable 
 size for the operations to follow. 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 85 
 
 2. " And stamped it; " that is, beat it out into 
 thin laminae or leaves. It is well known how thin 
 it is possible to beat out gold much thinner 
 than the finest paper now made; and Wilkinson, 
 in his " Ancient Egypt," says that the Egyptians 
 were well skilled in the art of gold-beating, con- 
 sequently so would Moses be, as well as many of 
 the Israelites, as the following passage proves : 
 " And they did beat the gold into thin plates, and 
 cut it into wires (or threads), to work it in the 
 blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and in 
 the fine linen and skilful work." 
 
 3. " And ground it very small , even until it was 
 as dust." Gold-leaf placed between stones or in 
 a mortar, and ground, can be thus reduced to 
 fine powder, fine as dust -a little oil, honey, or 
 any unctuous liquid moistening it, facilitates 
 this operation. Extensive manufactories exist 
 in England performing these same operations 
 under a patent at the present day, converting 
 malleable metals and alloys into fine powders, fine 
 as dust, known in commerce as metallic bronze; 
 and so fine is this bronze, that it resembles more 
 the dust from the wings of a moth or butterfly, 
 than metal. The laminar structure of these dust 
 particles will cause them to float in water for 
 hours, and in a running stream for days ; so that 
 even Dr Eadie's difficulty of not knowing " how 
 the ashes of the calf could be mingled with so 
 much water as would suffice to be a painful 
 
86 GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 draught to the whole of the idolaters," is thus 
 easily got over even allowing that it was in- 
 tended for the people to drink the dust. Con- 
 sidering that these operations were performed by 
 hand in the wilderness, it must have been very 
 humiliating for the idolaters to continue from day 
 to day, probably from week to week, as it would 
 require much time, in the presence of the people, 
 pounding, stamping, and grinding their god before 
 which they had so recently danced, played, and 
 bowed themselves, as the God who had brought 
 them out of Egypt. Contempt could not be more 
 complete. 
 
 There is a singular idea handed down by tra- 
 dition, that the beards of all those who drank of 
 these waters took the colour of gold. Bochart 
 refers to the fragment of a version of Exodus 
 begun in the thirteenth century, in which the 27th 
 verse of chapter xxxii. is thus translated, " Slay 
 every man his brother, his friend, his neighbour, 
 namely those who have the golden beards." An 
 explanation or gloss is added, " Those who wor- 
 shipped the calf had their beards gilded ; for the 
 powder was stuck there by miracle." Whatever 
 was the origin of this tradition, it shows that in 
 early times they had no such idea as our modern 
 commentators have of Moses converting the gold 
 into a salt for solution. 
 
 The grinding of idols and altars that had been 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 8/ 
 
 used in idolatrous worship, was repeatedly prac- 
 tised afterwards, as is stated in several parts of 
 Scripture. Rawlinson, referring to this practice, 
 says, in reference to Josiah burning and stamping 
 the idols, and casting the powder on the graves of 
 the children of Israel, that these were no doubt 
 metal, and agrees exactly with what Moses did 
 with the calf. Josephus, in the 7th chap, of Book 
 viii. , states that the fashion of powdering the hair 
 was practised in Solomon's days, and that the 
 riders of his horses were accustomed to powder 
 their hair with gold dust. In all probability 
 this powder was obtained as we get our bronze 
 powders, and as Moses ground the calf. 
 
 After publishing our little work, "Ancient 
 Workers in Metal," our remarks upon the grind- 
 ing of the calf were found fault with by Dr Eadie, 
 who took the opportunity in a foot-note in his 
 "Life of Dr Kitto," to give us a severe rebuke for 
 our audacity in venturing to question the truth of 
 his statements, and after a sneer at our inability 
 to explain how Moses ground the calf, leaves his 
 readers with the impression that the grinding was 
 done by some wonderful unknown process. We 
 replied in a letter to the Editor of the " Journal of 
 Sacred Literature," and, as it is calculated to bring 
 out the matter more fully, we give the letter, 
 and leave the verdict to the decision of our 
 readers. 
 
88 GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 " Sin, In a recent number of your journal, my 
 little book upon Ancient Metallurgy was favour- 
 ably noticed. In that work I endeavoured to show 
 that references made to metallurgical operations 
 in Scripture, generally agree with the operations 
 for effecting the same purpose in the present day. 
 Connected with these metallurgical subjects is the 
 demolition of the golden calf by Moses, which has 
 long been termed the commentators' puzzle. 
 
 " Amongst several others who had ventured, or 
 rather adopted, conjectures upon this puzzle, I 
 made particular reference to the Eev. Dr Eadie, 
 who apparently adopting an old conjecture that 
 Moses fused the calf with sulphur and an alkali, 
 and produced a grindable and potable compound 
 has represented Moses as mixing and fusing it 
 with carbonate of soda, and considers the process 
 a familiar operation. 
 
 " Instead of following these impractical and 
 absurd conjectures, or searching to find some 
 process that could be applied without reference to 
 the text, I considered Moses' plain and graphic 
 statement, and showed that it exactly corresponds 
 with what we, in our manufacturing operations, 
 really do at the present day for effecting the same 
 object grinding metals to powder and contented 
 myself with this, as being at all events a con- 
 sistent and practical process. However, Dr Eadie 
 still thinks differently, and in his recent ' Life of 
 Dr Kitto,' I have been honoured with a special 
 
GOLD AND SIL VER. 89 
 
 notice in reference to this matter, which I will 
 now quote : 
 
 "Another recent author has taken up and rebuked both 
 Dr Kitto and ourselves upon a point on which he possesses 
 practical skill and experience. The matter in dispute is 
 the demolition of the golden calf by Moses. The conjec- 
 ture may be untenable that Moses dissolved the calf in 
 some chemical fluid, and mixed the nauseous potion with 
 the water which he compelled the Israelites to drink, 
 though certainly a solvent sufficient for the purpose might 
 easily be fixed upon, and might be known to Egyptian 
 chemistry. The words of Moses are, 'He burned it in 
 the fire, and ground it to powder, and strewed it upon 
 the water, and stamped it, and ground it very small, 
 even until it was as small as dust.' Mr Napier thus 
 explains the process, ' It was put into the fire that it 
 might be cast into bars suitable for the operations which 
 were to follow.' Thus the modern chemist says it was 
 melted, but Moses declares it was ' burned ' in the fire ; 
 not melted, certainly, for the different language plainly 
 describes a different process. By stamping, Mr Napier 
 understands beating it out into thin leaves, a refinement 
 of operation which the words do not warrant. The text 
 implies that the burning was not fusion, but some un- 
 known process that prepared the metal for the stamping 
 and grinding, a process which Mr Napier, though he 
 meditated a book on the Chemistry of the Bible, has not 
 discovered, but has been obliged to leave unexplained. 
 
 " That Dr Eadie holds a high position in his own 
 sphere of labour, and is an eminent authority in 
 that field, no one can doubt, but on matters of 
 practical science it is evident he is not sufficiently 
 informed. The Doctor says that < the conjecture 
 
QO GOLD AND SILVER. 
 
 may be untenable that Moses dissolved the calf in 
 some chemical fluid, though certainly a solvent 
 sufficient for the purpose might easily be fixed 
 upon, and might be known to Egyptian chemists.' 
 This is true ; the dissolving the calf in a chemical 
 fluid is untenable, not for want of one being 
 discovered, as solvents sufficient for the purpose 
 are known, and we are now all but certain were 
 also known to Egyptian chemistry, but the text 
 will not admit of a dissolving process, however 
 practical and well known. The processes referred 
 to in the text are mechanical, not chemical. 
 
 " Metallic gold cannot be combined with another 
 solid body in the fire without one of them being 
 melted, and the whole of the compound formed by 
 their combination being in a state of fusion 
 afterwards, so that Dr Eadie's critical examination 
 of the original strikes at the root, not only of 
 his own, but all the conjectures of the same kind 
 which have been made. It is to be regretted 
 that the Doctor did not define what is really 
 meant by the word ' burn,' which he so positively 
 says cannot be applied to fusion. The operation 
 of burning may be defined as the combination of 
 a body with oxygen when subjected to the heat or 
 fire. Thus a piece of coal or wood put into a fire 
 burns, and the compound formed between the 
 oxygen and the body burned being a gas, the 
 whole is dispelled. Under these circumstances, 
 burning is identical with complete destruction. 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 9 1 
 
 Certain metals, such as iron and copper, put into 
 a fire, also burn, but the compound formed 
 between the metal and oxygen being- solid, is a 
 crust upon the surface of the metal which protects 
 from further burning. By removing this crust, 
 burning goes on to form another crust, and so on 
 until the whole of such metals may be burned 
 through time, and these metals are by this process 
 as fully destroyed as the coal or wood. Had the 
 calf been made of such burnable metals, the word 
 burn, taken in this sense, would have been 
 applicable, as being within practical possibility, 
 although the text, as translated, hardly allows 
 this mode of destruction. When this definition 
 of the word burn is applied to gold it is untenable. 
 It is one of the distinguishing properties of gold 
 to resist the fire, which means being incapable of 
 burning. Indeed, when gold is combined with 
 oxygen, and this oxide put into a fire, the metal 
 is revived, and the oxygen given off, and fire has 
 ever been the practical means for purifying gold, 
 as is evident from Scripture. So prominent and 
 well known is this law, that to burn gold by 
 putting it in the fire would be as great a miracle 
 as causing the head of an iron axe to swim above 
 water; and we have no idea from the text, that 
 Moses in burning the calf wrought a miracle, 
 or wished the Israelites to believe so, but rather 
 that he performed a well known operation. May 
 not the word burn have a more popular sense than 
 
9 2 GOLD AND SIL VER. 
 
 that here given, and evidently meant by the 
 Doctor's remarks, as it appears to have in other 
 passages of Scripture, i.e., Deut. iv. 11, < And 
 the mountain burned with fire ? ' The term 
 is popularly applied to making a body red hot. 
 However, the true rendering of the original, and 
 the meaning evidently applied to the term burn, 
 I leave to scholars as an important inquiry. 
 
 "The objection which the Doctor makes to 
 hammering the gold into thin leaves previous to 
 grinding, as being too refined, or rather that 
 the language will not warrant so refined an 
 operation, I only mention, because many of our 
 most refined operations in metals were familiar to 
 the ancient Egyptians, and consequently would be 
 referred to incidentally in the most popular 
 manner, as seems to be done in the text under 
 review. As to the ability of the Egyptians to 
 beat gold there can be no dispute. 
 
 " As to the Doctor's remarks upon my meditating 
 a book upon the Chemistry of the Bible, while I 
 had not discovered how Moses burned the calf, I 
 would merely say that the demolition of the calf 
 did not come within the sphere of chemistry, and 
 I believe no chemist has been capable of dragging 
 it into that false position. I understood, and still 
 believe, that the process was wholly mechanical ; 
 and it is astonishing how men professing a belief 
 in the record, and yet wise beyond what is written, 
 lay aside a plain description of a process done 
 
GOLD AND SILVER. 93 
 
 under the eyes, and by the direction of the writer 
 of it, and say, ' No, that is not what you did ; 
 you must have dissolved it in some chemical fluid 
 you were told of in Egypt, or melted it with some 
 such substances as sulphur and an alkali, or, 
 perhaps, natron being plentiful in your country, 
 you have melted it in this ; you were not me- 
 chanical enough or sufficiently refined in your 
 operations to do it in the way you have stated.' 
 Such is really the language that has been used in 
 reference to this passage. 
 
 " I would say, in conclusion, that I do not advo- 
 cate any particular mode of demolishing the calf. 
 All I wish to show is the identity of the process 
 described by Moses, as translated in the authorised 
 version, with the practice of the present day, and 
 that if we were called upon to perform the same 
 task, we would adopt the same method as Moses 
 describes. I would add, that if commentators, 
 however high they stand in theological science, 
 would, when they fearlessly, often recklessly, 
 venture into the field of practical science, adhere 
 more closely to the text, there would be fewer 
 puzzles ; or probably, what would be a wiser 
 course, if they would let all matters requiring the 
 knowledge of practical science alone, if they have 
 not personally studied them, Scripture truth 
 would certainly gain and not lose. I am yours, 
 &c., JAMES NAPIER." 
 
COPPER. 
 
 THE next metal the metallurgy of which we are 
 now to consider is copper. The name copper 
 (cuprum) is said to be derived from Cyprus, an 
 island in the Mediterranean originally peopled by 
 the Phoenicians, because it was a rich mineral 
 district. Pliny and Strabo mention that in their 
 time this island was celebrated for minerals, among 
 which are mentioned a variety of metallic ores. 
 
 Copper is found in great abundance in nature in 
 a mineralised state, that is, in combination with 
 other substances, the more common of which are 
 oxygen, sulphur, and carbonic acid ; these mineral 
 combinations are termed ores, and the copper is 
 separated from the other substances by smelt- 
 ing. The various copper ores have each distinct 
 characteristics ; they are either very heavy, or 
 beautifully coloured purple, blue, or green, and 
 would on account of these colours attract very 
 early attention. It is occasionally found in nature 
 in a metallic state so pure as to be used at once 
 for manufacturing purposes, either for making 
 articles of copper or alloys. There are abundant 
 instances of this in modern times where masses 
 
COPPER. 95 
 
 of metallic copper are found. At the mines at 
 Lake Superior, in America, a mass of copper was 
 found a great many tons in weight ; it is there- 
 fore probable that quantities of native copper 
 were also found in mines in ancient times, so 
 that the ancients could possess this metal without 
 the necessity of smelting it from ores. But 
 judging from modern times the quantity thus 
 found is upon the whole so trifling, it would 
 scarcely be worth naming as a trade, and if even 
 such huge masses were found as at Lake Superior, 
 it would certainly be a work of great difficulty to 
 reduce them to a size suitable for the furnace or 
 smelting-pot, as they cannot be broken like stone, 
 but have to be cut, requiring tools of particular 
 hardness, and other appliances and operations more 
 difficult than the smelting and obtaining the metal 
 from the ore. The copper so obtained must have 
 formed but a very small portion of the supply, as 
 we may infer from the extensive use made of that 
 metal both in the arts and for common articles 
 of use. It must, therefore, have been procured from 
 the ore, and that of necessity implies a knowledge 
 of smelting. We read in Job, " Copper is molten 
 out of the stone," a direct intimation that the 
 ancients were acquainted with that process. 
 
 Before proceeding to describe the smelting pro- 
 cess, we will notice what references are made to 
 copper in Scripture. In our translation the word 
 only occurs once, and that is when enumerating 
 
96 COPPER. 
 
 the various articles brought by the Jews from 
 Babylon into their own country. Ezra says, 
 " Also twenty basins of gold of a thousand drams, 
 and two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold." 
 Almost all Biblical critics agree that these vessels 
 were not made of copper, but of a rich alloy 
 capable of taking on a bright polish. This we 
 think highly probable, as copper was then in com- 
 mon use amongst the Babylonians, and would not 
 therefore be "precious as gold." Some commen- 
 tators, without due consideration, however, have 
 supposed it probable that those vessels were made 
 of Corinthian copper ', or Corinthian brass, an alloy 
 of peculiar richness, found after the burning of 
 Corinth among the ashes of some of the temples, 
 and formed by the fusing of various metals together. 
 But as the Jews returned from Babylon in the 
 year 536 B.C., and Corinth was not destroyed till 
 146 B.C., nearly four centuries after, it is impossible 
 that these vessels could have been made of that 
 alloy. Others with greater probability think they 
 were composed of an alloy of gold and other metals 
 much esteemed amongst the Persians, which took 
 on a high polish and was not subject to tarnish. 
 
 In reference to the copper of Scripture, it must 
 be remembered that the translators, not being 
 acquainted with the technicalities of metallurgic 
 art, did not understand the distinctions which 
 names bear in the arts ; hence we find the word 
 brass used synonymously with copper and bronze. 
 
COPPER. 97 
 
 Brass is a compound of copper and zinc ; bronze 
 a compound of copper and tin alloys of distinct 
 character and composition, and of artificial pro- 
 duction, there being no such things as a brass or 
 bronze ore. Consequently, when we read, " Brass 
 is molten out of the stone," or, " Out of whose hills 
 thou mayest dig brass," it is evident that it is not 
 the alloy brass which is meant, but the metal or 
 ore of copper. Besides, there is no evidence in 
 Scripture or in other writings, nor has any remnant 
 of ancient art been found to prove, that the metal 
 zinc was known at all to the ancients. In most 
 other instances the word brass should be translated 
 bronze ; and as copper is the principal metal in 
 this alloy, it follows that a reference to bronze 
 necessitates a previous knowledge of the metal- 
 lurgical operations for copper. Bronze was an 
 alloy well known in the earliest times. Indeed, 
 among the antediluvians we find mention of 
 Tubal-cain, "an instructor of every artificer in 
 brass and iron." From this, though it is not men- 
 tioned, we may infer that the knowledge of metal- 
 lurgy, and the art of working such metals as iron 
 and copper, greatly facilitated Noah's operations, 
 both in the preparation of materials for the ark, 
 and the construction of that monster vessel itself. 
 We will now describe the methods of extracting 
 the metallic copper from the ores by smelting, 
 and point out practical difficulties in the process. 
 We mentioned in a preceding part that gold and 
 
 a 
 
98 COPPER. 
 
 silver, when in union with oxygen, gave off that 
 oxygen when heated to redness ; but if oxide of 
 copper be brought to a state of redness, the same 
 effect is not produced ; on the contrary, the oxygen 
 is more firmly fixed. So strong is the attraction 
 of copper for oxygen at this temperature, that if 
 pure copper be heated to redness, it combines with 
 oxygen, forming a black crust. If, however, when 
 the oxide of copper is at a high temperature, car- 
 bonaceous matter, such as charcoal, be brought into 
 contact with it, the carbon combines with the 
 oxygen, forming carbonic acid gas, which flies off, 
 leaving the copper in the metallic state. Hence, 
 when an ore-compound of copper and oxygen is 
 mixed with coal, and brought to a bright red heat 
 in a furnace, the copper is reduced to the metallic 
 state, and falls to the bottom, where it can be run 
 off by an opening made for the purpose at the 
 bottom part of the furnace. 
 
 So that, so far as this kind of ore, namely, the 
 oxide, is concerned, the process is so simple that 
 even the rudest people living in the neighbour- 
 hood of such ore could not fail to know the means 
 of extracting the metal from it. Should the metal 
 be combined with carbonic acid, forming the ex- 
 tensive class of ores termed carbonates, such as 
 malachite, azure copper, &c., the same operations 
 are applicable to them as described. The carbonic 
 acid flies off at a dull red heat, and leaves the 
 copper in a state of oxide ; so that by the time 
 
COPPER. 99 
 
 the heat has risen sufficiently to melt the copper, 
 the ore is in the condition of oxide, and the copper 
 will become reduced and melt, as just stated. 
 These two classes are considered to have been 
 the principal ores smelted until a comparatively 
 late date; nevertheless, we do not see why we 
 should limit the ancients in matters, the know- 
 ledge of which is so closely allied to what they 
 did know, and which we find so simple. 
 
 When the copper is combined with sulphur, 
 forming what is termed a sulphide ore, it is first 
 subjected for a considerable time to a dull red 
 heat, which drives off the sulphur, oxygen taking 
 its place, and converting the copper into an oxide. 
 This operation of burning off the sulphur is done 
 in different ways, first breaking up the ore into 
 small pieces, and piling it up into a large heap, 
 with air openings underneath, the ore being mixed 
 with coal, turf, dried dung, or other carbonaceous 
 matters, to maintain the temperature. These heaps 
 generally amount to several hundred tons. When 
 the heap is first made, it is covered over with clay or 
 turf ; a fire is then kindled at one end, which, com- 
 municating with the carbonaceous matter through- 
 out the heap, induces a slow combustion of the 
 mass, which continues burning for a period of from 
 ten to twelve months, during which the sulphur 
 is not only driven off, but all the metals present 
 are oxidised, and the earthy matters also brought 
 to a condition of greater fusibility. This operation 
 
IOO COPPER. 
 
 is termed calcining ; and so destructive to plant- 
 life are the fumes given off, that no vegetation 
 can exist for a long distance around these heaps. 
 Recently this operation has been performed in 
 large reverberating furnaces constructed for the 
 purpose. 
 
 The method of calcining in heaps in the open 
 air is one that has been employed from very 
 early times, and is still practised in the Island of 
 Anglesea, and on different parts of the continent. 
 When a heap of ore is calcined, and the sulphur 
 well burned off, the continental practice is to trans- 
 fer the ore to a cupola furnace, and mix it with 
 fuel, and when it is fused, an impure copper is 
 obtained. If a portion of sulphur still remains in 
 the ore, a quantity of copper will be found combined 
 with it after fusion. This is subjected to another 
 burning, until the copper is free of sulphur, and 
 is again fused ; the impure copper is afterwards 
 purified by refining. In this country, where cupola 
 furnaces are not used, the calcined ore is put into a 
 reverberatory furnace, and fused ; but as the sulphur 
 is seldom, perhaps never, entirely taken out of the 
 ore by calcining, and as fusion merely serves to sepa- 
 rate the earthy matters and other impurities, the 
 copper and remaining sulphur form a compound 
 by themselves, which has afterwards to be sub- 
 jected to fire and a current of air to remove the 
 remaining sulphur, after which the copper is 
 obtained by fusion. If all the sulphur be driven 
 
COPPER. 101 
 
 away before fusion, then carbonaceous matters are 
 mixed with the oxide of copper remaining, and 
 copper is obtained as described for the oxide ; but 
 in the present day, in this country, the sulphur 
 is purposely not all driven off, the copper being 
 obtained without the use of carbonaceous matters. 
 The more common method at present in use for 
 obtaining the copper from sulphide ores is as 
 follows : The ores always contain a large quantity 
 of earthy matters, the copper present being gene- 
 rally little more than 10 per cent of the whole 
 stone. The ore is broken into small pieces, and 
 submitted to a low red heat for several hours in a 
 large reverberatory furnace, with a current of air 
 passing over the surface of the ore, which is turned 
 over every now and again, to expose a new surface 
 to the current. This process burns off a large 
 portion of the sulphur, and oxidises some of the 
 iron which is always present in such ores. This 
 calcined ore is then transferred to another rever- 
 beratory furnace of lesser size, and fused, during 
 which process the earths and oxidised iron 
 combine, and form scoria or slag. The copper 
 then combines with the remaining sulphur and 
 iron, and the mixture, by reason of its greater 
 gravity, sinks under the scoria. The slag is then 
 skimmed off with a rake, and the metallic portion 
 run from the furnace into a pit of water, and 
 thus granulated. This granulated mass is again 
 calcined, and fused as before ; and so on, alter- 
 
IO2 COPPEK. 
 
 nately roasting and fusing, until the iron and 
 most of the sulphur are burned off. The copper 
 and sulphur left are then existing in the condition 
 known to chemists as subsulphide. This is then 
 submitted to another roasting at a higher heat, 
 when, by a beautiful chemical reaction between 
 the sulphur and oxygen of the air, the copper is 
 obtained in the metallic state. 
 
 This beautiful, although somewhat tedious, pro- 
 cess, the result of long experience, has now 
 become a necessary process for working such ores 
 of copper as are found in this country, having in 
 them different metals, which by their oxidation 
 and fusing with carbonaceous matters, would 
 combine and deteriorate the copper ; but by the 
 process described these metals are scoriated, and 
 the copper and sulphur left pure, to be treated 
 as above. These operations require much practical 
 skill on the part of the workmen employed, and 
 about eight days' constant work before the metal 
 is obtained pure and fit for market. 
 
 Whatever may have been the process adopted 
 by the ancients for the extraction of copper from 
 the ore, there are certain practical difficulties, 
 arising out of the nature of the metal as well 
 as the character of the ores, which must have 
 existed in ancient times as well as at the present 
 day. These difficulties must be overcome before 
 the metal is in good condition for being manu- 
 factured into objects of art. Thus copper ores, 
 
COPPER. IO3 
 
 as we have already stated, especially the sulphide 
 ores, have small portions of other rnetals mixed 
 with them, which are capable of being reduced by 
 carbon ; and these being fusible at a temperature 
 of melted copper, consequently become alloyed 
 with the copper, and render it impure. When 
 this is the case, the copper must be kept at a 
 melting-heat, and exposed to the air ; and the 
 metals alloyed with it, oxidising more rapidly than 
 the copper, are consequently burned or roasted off. 
 Much copper, however, is lost by this method. 
 Another process may also be adopted : the alloyed 
 copper may be fused, and a quantity of pure oxide 
 of copper added ; this will tend to oxidise the 
 deteriorating metals, and purify the copper. The 
 first of these processes is the one adopted at the 
 present time, and the copper, burned or oxidised 
 off, is recovered by other operations. 
 
 Again, pure copper, when melted, absorbs 
 oxygen and other gases, which render it hard and 
 brittle ; and although it may be used for casting, 
 it cannot be used for hammered or rolled work. 
 Now, the method of overcoming this difficulty 
 is by plunging into the melted copper a piece of 
 green wood, and holding it in this condition until 
 a portion of metal taken out, and tested by 
 hammering and breaking, shows it to be in, a 
 malleable state. This operation is termed refin- 
 ing, or toughening. 
 
 Mr E. H. Palmer, in his " Desert of the Exodus," 
 
IO4 COPPER. 
 
 speaking of the mineral wealth, says " This 
 formation is rich in mineral wealth, containing 
 many veins of iron, copper, and turquoise. The 
 absence of all convenience for smelting and 
 transport deprives them of commercial value at 
 the present day ; but the ancient Egyptians appear 
 to have had greater facilities, and to have- worked 
 the ores upon an extensive scale. The neighbour- 
 hood of Serabit el Khadim and Magharah abounds 
 in mines, in hieroglyphic tablets recording the 
 names and titles of the kings under whose 
 auspices they were worked. One of the tablets 
 found mentions the " Goddess of copper " as 
 being the presiding deity of the place. From the 
 inscription and cartouches found there, it is 
 evident that the mines were in fall working order 
 at the time of the Exodus, and that the neigh- 
 bourhood of Serabit el Khadim must have been 
 occupied by a large colony of workmen, and 
 probably a considerable military establishment to 
 preserve discipline, as the miners were chiefly 
 selected from criminals and prisoners of war. 
 
 " There are abundant vestiges of large colonies 
 of Egyptian miners, whose slag-heaps and smelt- 
 ing furnaces are yet to be seen in many parts 
 of the peninsula. These must have destroyed 
 many miles of forests in order to procure the fuel 
 necessary for carrying on their operations. 
 
 " The instruments employed I believe to have 
 been chisels of bronze, or other hard metal, 
 
COPPER. IO5 
 
 and not the flint flakes which are found in 
 such quantities in the vicinity. The Egyptians, 
 we know, were expert metallurgists, and flint 
 implements could hardly have made such marks 
 as those on the stone. The country around the 
 mines contains numerous evidences of the immense 
 smelting operations carried on by the ancient 
 Egyptians." 
 
 Speaking of another district, called Eagasta, 
 and its copper mines, he says " A large dyke runs 
 through the granite along the top of a low 
 ridge of hills, and contains thin layers of the 
 metal in a very pure form. The grain of the 
 rock itself also contains a considerable quantity 
 of the ore in minute particles ; but the miners 
 seem to have been ignorant of any method for 
 crushing the stone, and seem to have contented 
 themselves in picking out the thin layers of 
 sulphate (sulphide ?) of copper from the dyke. 
 At the end of the ridge the ore has been worked 
 out in a small cave ; and in one place where the 
 vein takes a dip, a shaft has been sunk to a 
 considerable depth. The neighbouring hills are 
 covered with pathways in every direction ; and 
 the numerous remains of smelting furnaces which 
 may yet be seen show that mining operations 
 were once carried on upon a very large scale in 
 the vicinity." 
 
 These observations would have had their value 
 greatly enhanced had Mr Palmer given a description 
 
IO6 COPPER. 
 
 or sketch of the remains of the furnaces which were 
 used in smelting, and also obtained analyses of 
 the slags and ores. To show of how ancient 
 date is the mining and smelting of copper ores, we 
 extract the following notes from an article by H. 
 Bauerman, on the "Geology of Arabia Petria," 
 read to the Geological Society of London in 
 1868:- 
 
 " At Wady Khalig, a tributary of Wady Baba, 
 about four miles below Nasb, the iron and man- 
 ganese bed has been extensively excavated by the 
 old miners. The old workings extend about 120 
 yards along the face of the hill ; the walls and 
 pillars are covered with small chisel or gad marks, 
 apparently made with a tool about three-fourths or 
 seven-eighths of an inch in breadth. There are no 
 inscriptions, or any other guide to the probable 
 date of these workings ; but it is evident, from the 
 extraordinarily poor character of the ore, that they 
 must belong to a very early period, when metals 
 were of uniform value, owing to their production 
 being confined to a few localities. 
 
 " The ores from the mine at Wady Khalig were 
 smelted in Wady Nasb, close to the springs, as is 
 evidenced by the mass of slag which forms a 
 roughly elliptical heap about 350 yards in length 
 and 200 in breadth. The depth is very variable, 
 and probably not more than eight or ten feet at the 
 most ; and over the greater part of the area the 
 slag forms only a thin covering to the rock. Upon 
 
COPPER. ID/ 
 
 digging into the heaps, numerous clay twyer- 
 nozzles, with an air-passage of about three-quarters 
 inch diameter, were found. These have evidently 
 been formed by the accretion of the slag to the 
 wall of the furnace in front of the blast, and in 
 many cases have been repaired by plastering fresh 
 clay over the former face an operation which 
 is seen from some of the broken twyers to have 
 been repeated three or four times. In one in- 
 stance the slag nose was accumulated to such 
 an extent as almost completely to block up the 
 passage for the blast. In nearly all cases, shots 
 of metallic copper are found included in the slag 
 adhering to the twyers, but not a fragment of 
 unaltered ore, or any kind of regulus, was found, 
 although carefully looked for. The only building 
 that can be regarded as having formed part of 
 a furnace is a pair of small walled enclosures of 
 unequal size, the larger one being about six feet 
 square, and the other two and a half feet square, 
 both being walled in on three sides to a height of 
 about two feet from the ground. These may 
 possibly have been the outer walls of a hearth or 
 low-blast furnace, but no trace of any lining that 
 had been subject to the action of heat could be 
 detected. In the smaller compartment a stone 
 pestle, worked round, and about one and a half 
 inches in diameter, was found. 
 
 " On examining the different parts of the heap, 
 it became evident, from the nature of the slags 
 
IO8 COPPER. 
 
 themselves, that several different operations were 
 carried on here. Thus in places the fragments 
 are broken up small, and contain many shots of 
 metal, now mostly changed]to malachite. These are 
 probably rich selected cinders, either from the first 
 fusion, or perhaps from the refinery, which have 
 been put on one side for further treatment ; while 
 on the other hand, at the upper end of the heap, 
 crusts of well-smelted, clean slag, from one and a 
 half to two inches in thickness, are spread over the 
 ground, as though they had been allowed to flow from 
 the furnace, and solidify on the rock in the place 
 where they are now found. It may well be, there- 
 fore, that these represent the operations of larger 
 furnaces, worked perhaps at a later period, when 
 the art of metallurgy was further advanced than 
 was the case when the thinner and less perfectly 
 melted slags were produced. 
 
 " At the lower end of the Nasb valley there is 
 another slag-heap of smaller extent, but in other 
 respects similar to that of the springs. A third 
 was found in Wady Gharandel, upon a terrace of 
 limestone, far away from any place producing 
 copper ores, but near water, proving that the sites 
 for smelting-works were determined chiefly by 
 the presence of springs, where there is usually 
 some quantity of wood even at the present time. 
 The charcoal used for smelting appears to have 
 been derived from the acacia vera, which still 
 flourishes round the springs. I was unable to 
 
COPPER. 
 
 find any traces of the ruins of large calcining 
 furnaces and basins that had probably served as 
 stamps and catch-pits, as described by Dr Figari 
 Bey." 
 
 Speaking of the ancient miners' tools found in 
 the old workings in Wady Magharah, he says 
 " The old faces of the works bear irregular tool- 
 marks, which leave no doubt that they have been 
 made with flint flakes, great numbers of which are 
 found strewing the valleys and hill-sides, and 
 within the workings. Most of the flakes are of a 
 triangular section brought up to a point, which is 
 generally well worn and rounded, and the shape 
 of which when blunted corresponds perfectly with 
 the grooves on the face of the rock." 
 
 He also found fragments of stone hammers in 
 the workings ; and from other fragments of tools, 
 and small cylindrical blocks of wood, having a 
 notched head to receive a withe or cord, he 
 thinks that these were mountings for the flint 
 chisels employed by the ancient miners; for with- 
 out something of this kind it would be difficult to 
 work with the flakes, owing to their tendency to 
 break across when not struck fairly on the top. The 
 hammers found in the workings were of a very 
 rude kind, in many cases being rough frag- 
 ments of dolorite. 
 
 " The period over which the working of the 
 mines at Wady Magharah extends, according to 
 the evidence of the numerous hieroglyphic tablets 
 
IIO COPPER. 
 
 covering the face of the cliff, as interpreted by 
 Egyptologists, extends from the 3d to the 13th 
 Manethonian dynasties, corresponding to an in- 
 terval of about 1600 years. There seems little or 
 no difference of the work done in cutting the 
 tablets of the oldest and the newest, so that there 
 seems to have been little progress made in the art 
 of cutting stone during that long period ; indeed, 
 the oldest is the best." 
 
 These extracts are very suggestive. In the 
 first place, as to the date of these smelting and 
 mining operations, when was the third Mane- 
 thonian dynasty ? Having consulted authorities 
 and calculated back, we find that the year 812 
 B.C. occurs in the 25th dynasty, and 1920 B.C. is 
 the date when Abraham is said to have visited 
 Egypt, which was in the 15th dynasty. Between 
 these two periods there are 11 08 years, equal on an 
 average to 110 years to each dynasty. If we allow 
 110 years for the 14th dynasty, and add the 
 1600 years given above from the 13th to the 3d 
 dynasty, we have 
 
 From 3d to 13th dynasty, . . 1,600 
 
 14th . 110 
 
 From Abraham, .... 1,920 
 
 We have, 3,630 years B.C. 
 
 as the date of the first tablet when the copper 
 mines were wrought. 
 
 In the second place, we have here a period of 
 
COPPER. 1 1 1 
 
 1600 years, during which these mining operations 
 were in progress, when there were nothing but 
 stone tools used of the rudest sort. According to 
 a rule laid down hy certain archaeologists, these 
 people lived in the stone age ; and yet we see that 
 all this time they were mining and smelting 
 copper, which in all probability was carried away 
 to Egypt, and used for making bronze. Is it not 
 likely, as suggested by Mr Palmer, that these 
 miners were banished felons and prisoners of war ? 
 and that, like other nations in ancient times, Egypt 
 retained the prisoners who were skilled workmen 
 to enrich their cities, and those who were not 
 skilled sent to the mines ? and that to make their 
 lot more arduous, they were not allowed other kind 
 of tools but those they themselves could make 
 from stone, and yet were obliged to do their "tale" 
 of work, as was the case at a later date, when the 
 Israelites were refused straw, and had to gather 
 it themselves ? These researches prove the impor- 
 tant fact, that even in these very ancient times 
 copper, and no doubt other metals also, were 
 smelted, and their value highly appreciated, by the 
 Egyptians. There are no references to copper 
 smelting in Scripture except the fact mentioned 
 in Job that " copper was molten out of the 
 stone," so that we cannot say what methods were 
 practised by the Jews. But there is little doubt 
 that the same difficulties occurred then as now; 
 and if they did not overcome them through the 
 
112 COPPER. 
 
 same methods exactly as we do now, they must 
 have employed others equally efficient, otherwise 
 their copper would not stand working. 
 
 Again, in making copper alloys that are to stand 
 working by hammer, or to be rolled into sheets, 
 the copper used must be of the purest quality. 
 
 Illustrations of this principle are numerous. One 
 may be cited by referring to the well-known alloy 
 termed yellow metal, which is so extensively used 
 for sheathing, boiler pipes, and engine work. The 
 copper for this alloy is made expressly for it, and 
 termed best select ; and if anything be wrong with 
 the copper, either through imperfect refining or 
 through having an alloy in it, it will not suit. The 
 same is the case with bronze guns, and such articles 
 of that alloy which have to stand great wear and 
 fatigue. The copper must be of the best quality 
 for success. 
 
 Many of the ancient copper alloys had to stand 
 working by the hammer, and their bronze was 
 such, in respect to toughness or hardness, that we 
 cannot at the present day make anything to sur- 
 pass it. This is surely strong presumptive evidence 
 that the copper, as well as the tin they used for 
 these alloys, was pure, and that they understood the 
 methods of effecting this object. This is further 
 proved by some analyses made of ancient bronze, 
 which will be found in another part of this work. 
 
 In searching for evidence of the modes of smelt- 
 ing copper, or any other metal in ancient times, 
 
COPPER. 
 
 there is very little data to be found upon which 
 we can rely. Such arts were confined to guilds, 
 and were kept secret, the hard manual labour being 
 performed by slaves, prisoners of war, and criminals, 
 so that written descriptions are not to be found, 
 and the writers of history too often despised such 
 arts, and consequently they did not notice them 
 with any minuteness ; hence, as already stated, we 
 are much more indebted to the figures and alle- 
 gories of the poet, explained inductively, than to 
 any direct description. In our opinion, the first 
 method of smelting ores was by heaping together 
 wood and ore, and burning them in masses. In 
 Macedonia, where, in the time of Philip, the father 
 of Alexander, lead mines were worked and the 
 ore smelted, large heaps of slag are still found, 
 so far above the level of the rivers of the country, 
 that the furnaces in which they were produced 
 must have been blown by bellows, or probably so 
 arranged, like the old bloomeries, that they were 
 blown by the wind. 
 
 Pliny mentions that King Numa, the immediate 
 successor of Romulus, founded a fraternity of 
 brassfounders (bronze-workers). This statement, 
 if correct, shows that copper, which is the principal 
 constituent of bronze, was plentiful. The same 
 writer states that two distinct kinds of copper 
 were exported from Cyprus, one called coronarium, 
 which, when reduced into thin leaves and coloured 
 
 with oxgall, had a golden colour, and was em- 
 
 H 
 
114 COPPER. 
 
 ployed for making coronets and tinsel ornaments 
 for actors, from which, circumstance it derived its 
 appellation. Another variety, which was named 
 regulaire, is not particularly described ; like the 
 former, it could stand hammering. 
 
 It is also mentioned that in France it was usual 
 to melt copper among red-hot stones, for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining a steady heat, as a quick fire 
 was found to blacken the metal, and render it 
 brittle. Pliny states that the process was com- 
 pleted in one operation, and that the quality would 
 be improved by more frequent melting ; he also 
 remarks that all kinds of brass melt best in cold 
 weather. 
 
 Aristotle tells us that the Mosynasci, a people 
 who inhabited a country not far from the Euxine 
 Sea, were said to make their copper of a splendid 
 white colour, not by the addition of tin, but by 
 mixing it with an earth found in the country. It is 
 probable that this earth was calamine or zinc ore, 
 and that the metal obtained was really brass. But 
 these remarks give us no idea of how the smelting 
 operations were performed ; and when Pliny and 
 other ancient writers do refer to practical arts, 
 they are not very correct in their description of the 
 processes. And the translators of their works have 
 added to the confusion, either through ignorance, 
 or on account of the poverty of the original lan- 
 guage in technicalities, as we find brass in one 
 place, copper in another, white copper in a third, 
 
COPPER. 115 
 
 all used indiscriminately, without regard to whether 
 the original referred to pure copper, or to copper 
 whitened by the addition of tin or lead, or by any 
 other process. This being the case, we must use 
 inductive reasoning, and more especially as a great 
 part of our present inquiry refers to a much earlier 
 date than the days of Pliny. 
 
 It does not appear that pure copper alone was 
 very extensively used by the ancients, either for 
 ornamental purposes or for use. This may be 
 accounted for by the difficulty of toughening pure 
 copper so as to fit it for the hammer ; yet the fact 
 that copper vessels made by hammering have been 
 discovered amongst ancient relics, shows that they 
 were not ignorant of toughening. It has been 
 mentioned that toughening is effected by insert- 
 ing poles of green wood into the melted copper. 
 This is for the purpose of removing any oxygen 
 which may have combined with the metal, and 
 which makes it brittle. But other matters may be 
 used instead of wood. If a small portion of lead or 
 tin be added to the copper, these will effect the 
 same purpose, although preventing the copper from 
 being entirely pure, as any excess of tin or lead 
 above that required to take out the oxygen will re- 
 main in the copper. If the quantity is small, this 
 would not affect the quality of the metal, either 
 for use as copper or for bronze, for which copper 
 seems to have been principally used by the ancients. 
 And that this mode of toughening was known to 
 
Il6 COPPER. 
 
 the ancients is more than probable from their 
 great skill in manufacturing bronze. The best 
 way to determine this question is by making 
 analyses of ancient copper, for, as a general rule, 
 copper so toughened or deoxidised will contain 
 small portions of tin or lead, whichever metal has 
 been used. The following are the only analyses 
 we can find: 
 
 Statues of copper horses erected in ancient 
 times ; date not known. Analysed by Klaproth 
 
 Copper, 99-3 
 
 Tin, -7 
 
 100-0 
 
 Broken spear-head. Analysed by J. A. Phillips. 
 
 No date 
 
 Copper, 99-71 
 
 Sulphur, . . -28 
 
 99-99 
 
 Coin, A.D. 262. Analysed by J. A. Phillips- 
 Copper, 9713 
 
 Tin, -10 
 
 Silver, 1-76 
 
 Iron, 1-01 
 
 100-00 
 
 Coin, A.D. 267. Analysed by J. A. Phillips- 
 No. 1. No. 2. 
 Copper, . . . .-. 98-50 98'00 
 
 Tin,j -37 -51 
 
 Iron, -46 -05 
 
 Silver, . . -76 1-15 
 
 100-09 99-71 
 
COPPER. 117 
 
 These analyses are too few to warrant us in 
 drawing conclusions as to the mode of refining 
 and deoxidising. Besides, they are mostly samples 
 of cast copper, where the toughening process was 
 not necessary. One reason why copper was not ex- 
 tensively used in a pure state for utensils was on 
 account of its tarnishing quickly, thereby producing 
 a poisonous matter upon its surface, unfitting it for 
 domestic purposes. Michaeli makes the obser- 
 vation that Moses seems to have given a preference 
 to copper vessels over earthen, and on these 
 grounds endeavours to remove the common pre- 
 judice against their use for culinary purposes. But 
 this is a dangerous conclusion, and no doubt arose 
 from that confusion of terms referred to of calling 
 bronze copper. We are inclined to think that 
 Moses used no copper vessels for domestic purposes, 
 but bronze the use of which is less objectionable, 
 it not being so apt to tarnish, and takes on a 
 finer polish, and also being much more easily 
 melted and cast, would be more extensively used 
 than copper alone. Nevertheless, there is evidence 
 in the remains of articles that have been found 
 in old ruins, dating probably before Moses' time, 
 that copper was used for purposes to which we 
 cannot apply it, showing that the ancients pos- 
 sessed a certain knowledge of how to use copper 
 tools which we have lost. 
 
 In describing one of his excavations in ancient 
 Chaldea, Mr Loftus says " Following the wall for 
 
1 1 8 COPPER. 
 
 a distance of six feet, the workmen discovered a 
 number of copper articles arranged along it, which 
 form a very curious and quite a unique collection, 
 consisting of large caldrons, vases, small dishes, 
 and dice-box (?), hammers, chisels, adzes, and 
 hatchets ; a large assortment of knives and daggers 
 of various sizes and shapes, all unfinished ; massive 
 and smaller rings, a pair of prisoner's fetters, three 
 links of a small chain, a ring weight, several 
 plates resembling horse-shoes, divided at the heel 
 for the insertion of a handle, and having two holes 
 in each for pins ; other plates of a different 
 shape, which were probably primitive hatchets ; 
 an ingot of copper, and a great weight of dross 
 from the same smelted metal. There was likewise 
 a small fragment of a bitumen bowl overlaid with 
 thin copper, and a piece of lead. The conclusion 
 arrived at from an inspection of these implements 
 and articles is, that they were the stock-in-trade 
 of a coppersmith, whose forge was near at hand ; 
 but the explanation of their connection with the 
 public edifice near which they were found is by no 
 means clear. They are well and skilfully wrought. 
 One of the hatchets particularly attracted my 
 attention, being of the same form as that repre- 
 sented on the tablet of the man attacking a lion. 
 The articles which I conceived to be dice-boxes 
 precisely resemble those of modern form. The 
 knives were all adhering together en masse, their 
 rough, broad edges proving that they were never 
 
COPPER. 119 
 
 finished by the cutler. The total absence of iron 
 in the older mines implies that the inhabitants 
 were unacquainted with that metal, or at any rate, 
 that it was seldom worked." With this last 
 remark we do not agree. The absence of metallic 
 iron in connection with copper is not to be won- 
 dered at, for besides the rapid destruction by oxi- 
 dation of iron articles lying in the earth, this 
 destruction is hastened vastly by the presence of 
 copper when in contact, by the generation of a 
 galvanic action. Probably, however, iron was 
 very scarce in Chaldea, and only used along with 
 copper, perhaps, as Wilkinson suggests, to tip their 
 chisels, &c. 
 
 After reading the above, we wrote to the author, 
 and asked if any of the specimens had been 
 analysed, and if there was any tin in combination 
 with the copper, to which he kindly replied, and 
 referred to specimens in Mr Yaux's room in the 
 British Museum, and also stated that some of 
 them were being tested at the School of Mines, 
 and remarked 
 
 " It will be extremely interesting and curious to 
 ascertain that they contain tin, because those from 
 Tel Sefr are of so much earlier date than those 
 discovered by Layard at Nimroud. There being 
 no tin that I am aware of in the Persian mount- 
 tains, can it be possible that the metal could have 
 been derived from Britain at such remote date 
 (1500 B.C.)?" 
 
I2O COPPER. 
 
 We afterwards learned that a sample of these 
 curious relics was being analysed by Mr Spiller of 
 the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, to whom we wrote, 
 and received the following reply : 
 
 " I have then to report that there is but one 
 sample in my hands, and that apparently a very 
 important one a copper instrument (a sort of 
 knife-blade) brought from Tel Sefr by the late Mr 
 Loftus. It is essentially copper, containing only 
 small quantities of the impurities usually occurring 
 in crude samples of that metal, but no tin. The 
 specimen is pretty deeply incrusted with red oxide 
 (innermost), with green carbonate, and also has 
 considerable patches of crystallised atacamite, 
 this latter resulting no doubt from the corrosion 
 of the copper under a soil more or less charged 
 with attractive chlorides." 
 
 That vast quantities of copper were in common 
 use, and applied to various purposes in remote 
 ages, is further corroborated by other writers and 
 travellers. The author of " Notes of a Rough Ride 
 from the East," says, respecting the ruins of 
 ancient Persepolis " There stood in stately solitude 
 the pride of ages which appear almost fabulous 
 from their distance of empires, nearer by five 
 centuries to the time of Noah than to ours, and of 
 which no traces remain ; but here are sufficient to 
 verify the narrative of their splendid existence, 
 and to show that in some arts, and these amongst 
 the noblest, our vaunted march of intellect is but 
 
COPPER. 121 
 
 an idle boast. Indeed, were it not from the 
 models the more servilely the better this march 
 would most certainly be a countermarch. As 
 it is, where is the modern city that will have 
 such a glorious wreck as this after its ephemeral, 
 though perhaps more utilitarian, existence has 
 passed away. Diodorus Siculus says a triple 
 wall surrounded the place. The first wall was 
 sixteen cubits in height, defended by parapets 
 and flanked with towers. The second was in form 
 like the first, but twice its elevation. The third 
 was a square, and cut in the mountain, being sixty 
 cubits in height, and defended by palisades of 
 copper, and has doors of the same metal twenty 
 cubits high." Taking twenty-one inches as the 
 length of the cubit, these doors would be thirty- 
 five feet high ; whether cast or hammered, these 
 are indicative of high metallurgical skill. 
 
TIN. 
 
 TIN is very seldom found in the metallic state, <*^ 
 then only in very small quantities. It is abund- 
 antly found in some localities in a mineralised 
 state, combined with oxygen and sulphur, termed 
 respectively oxide and sulphide of tin, which con- 
 stitute the ores of that metal. These ores are 
 generally very heavy, and are found either in 
 little pieces in the beds, or what has formerly been 
 the beds, of rivers, mixed with sand, or in masses 
 in veins of rocks, mixed and combined with a stony 
 matrix. The former kind, mixed with a large 
 quantity of earthy matter, is collected, and 
 washed with a strong stream to free it from the 
 impurities. The metal obtained from this is the 
 purest, and is known in commerce as STREAM TIN. 
 When found in veins of rocks, the ore is crushed 
 to a fine powder, and washed in the same manner. 
 The ore, by reason of its gravity, subsides, and is 
 collected and taken to the smelting-house, where 
 it is first roasted in a reverberatory furnace, to free 
 it from the sulpher, and also from arsenic, with 
 which it is sometimes in combination. It is then 
 mixed with lime and carbonaceous matters, and 
 fused for about eight hours. The carbon com- 
 
TSN. 123 
 
 bines with the oxygen, and passes off as car- 
 bonic acid ; while the lime unites with the silica 
 and other earthy impurities, forming a slag. The 
 tin is still further purified by re-fusion. When 
 other metals, such as copper, iron, &c., are in the 
 ore, and are reduced with the tin, the pigs or blocks 
 of the mixture are placed in a furnace, and kept 
 at a heat sufficient to melt tin, but not the alloyed 
 metals. By this method the tin is sweated out, and 
 obtained nearly pure. Sometimes the impure 
 alloy is kept in a melted state for a length of time, 
 when the impurities separate by gravity. The tin 
 is afterwards subjected to operations of refining 
 somewhat similar to copper, by melting and 
 inserting into the mass poles of green wood. 
 
 These processes of separating and refining are 
 so simple, that although no record of the ancient 
 methods have been left us, we may safely conclude 
 that the same methods obtained then as now, the 
 only difference being the shape and construction 
 of furnaces. 
 
 The ores of tin are not very extensively diffused 
 through nature, although found in great abundance 
 in a few localities. " The most remarkable feature 
 in tin mining," says Dr Smith in his " Cassiterides," 
 " seems to be the enduring character of the mines. 
 Wherever tin has been produced in any consider- 
 able quantity within the range of authentic history, 
 there it is still abundantly found. In Banca, we are 
 told, the supply is inexhaustible ; and Cornwall can 
 
124 TIN. 
 
 now supply as large a quantity annually as it ever 
 did." There is no evidence of tin having been 
 found in or near Egypt or Palestine, and, as already 
 stated by Mr Loftus, there is none in the Persian 
 mountains ; so where the early inhabitants of 
 such countries obtained their tin is still a matter 
 of inquiry. Some authors consider that it was 
 obtained from the Indies ; but Pliny asserts that 
 in his day tin was not procured from India. Some 
 suppose that the Egyptians obtained tin as the 
 Phcenicians did, from Spain and Cornwall ; while 
 not a few consider that they obtained it through 
 the Phoenicians or Sidonians. That they did obtain 
 it from the Phoenicians at an early period of their 
 history is evident ; but we think Egypt had sources 
 more direct for obtaining the great quantities they 
 evidently required. That tin as a separate metal 
 was known in very ancient times is questioned by 
 several able commentators on Scripture, because 
 the word Bedil, which is generally translated tin, 
 was equally applicable to a mixture of lead and 
 tin, or a sort of refuse obtained from the refining 
 of silver. " After an accurate investigation," says 
 Beckmann in his " History of Inventions," " should 
 everything said by the ancients of their supposed 
 tin be as applicable to a metallic mixture as to 
 our tin, my assertion, that it is probable, but by 
 no means certain, that the ancients were acquainted 
 with our tin, will be fully justified." And again 
 he says " The Greek translators considered Bedil 
 
TIN, 12$ 
 
 to be what they called Cassiteros, and as the 
 moderns translated this by Stannum, these words 
 have thus found their way into the Latin, German, 
 and other versions of the Hebrew Scriptures, which 
 therefore can contribute very little towards the 
 history of this metal. The examination of the 
 word Cassiteros would be of more importance ; 
 but before I proceed to it, I shall make some 
 observations on what the ancients called Stannum. 
 This at present is the general name of our tin, 
 and from it seems to be formed the estain of the 
 French, the tin of the low German and English, 
 and the zuin of the high German. It can, how- 
 ever, be fully proved that the stannum of the 
 ancients was no peculiar metal, at any rate not 
 our tin, but rather a mixture of other metals, 
 which, like our brass, was made into various 
 articles, and employed for different purposes, on 
 which account a great trade was carried on with 
 it." 
 
 " The oldest mention of tin is in Scripture 
 Numbers xxxi. 22. Moses seems to name all the 
 metals then known ; and besides gold, silver, 
 copper, iron, and lead, he mentions also Bedil, 
 which all commentators and dictionaries make to 
 be tin. It seems probable that in this passage 
 Bedil is our tin ; but must it not appear astonish- 
 ing that the Midianites in the time of Moses 
 should have possessed this metal ? " 
 
 We do not feel the same astonishment at tin 
 
126 TIN. 
 
 being named, even in this early age, along with 
 copper and iron metals more difficult to obtain ; 
 neither do we think Beckmann need feel, consis- 
 tently, surprised at the existence of this metal in 
 these times, as he himself admits that bronze was 
 known from the very earliest ages and this be- 
 ing a combination of tin and copper, it could not 
 have been made without tin ; or if the word applied 
 to a mixture of lead and tin, from which bronze 
 was made, then such bronze would yield, by ana- 
 lysis, lead, copper, and tin, a supposition which 
 the analyses of ancient bronze do not verify. The 
 circumstance that the same word was applied to a 
 mixture of lead, tin, and silver, as well as to pure 
 tin, does not affect the probability of pure tin be- 
 ing known. Lead and tin are very seldom found 
 together in the same ore ; and where they are found 
 mixed, it has been the result of accident or art. 
 In our own workshops, it is quite common to call 
 the technical term solder, tin, although known 
 to have much lead in it. How obscure, then, 
 would any description of art be to the general 
 reader were technical terms used without explana- 
 tion ; and may not this be the source of much of 
 the obscurity in Pliny, and others who treat of 
 practical arts, while they were not themselves 
 skilled in them ? As illustrative of such obscurity, 
 take the following translation from Pliny : 
 
 " Black lead has a double origin, for it is either 
 produced in a vein of its own, without any other 
 
TIN. 127 
 
 metal, or otherwise it is mingled with silver in 
 the same mine, being mixed together in the same 
 stone of ore, and they are only separated by melt- 
 ing and refining in a furnace. The first liquor 
 that flows from the furnace is tin (stannum), and 
 the second silver ; that part which remains behind 
 is galena, the third element of the vein, which 
 being again melted, after two parts of it are 
 deducted, yields Mack lead." The first part of this 
 quotation, which concerns the natural production 
 of the ore, is clear, and easily understood; the 
 second part, descriptive of the practical process, 
 is as obscure as could well be conceived. We 
 quote the following from an interesting paper 
 by J. Phillips, F.R.S., on ancient mining in 
 Britain : 
 
 " Tin, the ore of which has been found at the 
 surface in many situations, with auriferous sand 
 and gravel, cannot have been long unknown to 
 the gold-finders in the East and West. Some one 
 of the many accidents which may, and rather must, 
 have accompanied the melting of gold, would 
 disclose the nature of the accompanying metal, 
 whose brilliance, ductility, and very easy fusi- 
 bility, would soon give it value. The melting of 
 tin ore is, however, a step in advance of the fusing 
 of native gold. The gold was fused in a crucible 
 made of white clay, which only could stand the 
 heat and chemical actions which that generated ; 
 but tin ore would, in this way of operation, prove 
 
128 TIN. 
 
 entirely infusible. It must be exposed at once to 
 heat, and a free carbonaceous element. The easiest 
 way of managing this is to try it on the open hearth. 
 Perhaps some accidental fire in the half-buried 
 bivouacs of the Damnonii may have yielded the 
 precious secret. As to the fuel, we are told that 
 pine wood was best for brass and iron; but the 
 Egyptian papyrus was also used, and straw was 
 the approved fuel for gold. In the metalliferous 
 county of Cornwall peat is plentiful. 
 
 " As the bellows were used at least a thousand 
 years before Pliny, we have here all the materials 
 for a successful tin-smelter's hearth. If the smelt- 
 ing works were on waste land, and a little sunk in 
 the ground, we recognise the old ' bole ' or ' bloom- 
 ing ' of Derbyshire, now only a traditional furnace, 
 but anciently the only one for the lead and iron of 
 that county. Pure tin once obtained, there must 
 intervene a long series of trials and errors before 
 its effect in combination with lead, brass, and 
 silver, could be known before the mode of con- 
 quering the tendency to rust in the act of solder- 
 ing can be discovered. From all this it follows 
 that the smelting of tin might be, and probably 
 was, performed by the inhabitants of the Cornish 
 peninsula. This art they may have brought from 
 the far East Phoenicians may have taught it 
 them. But all the accounts of the ancient tin 
 trade represent the metal, and not the ore, as being 
 carried away from the Cassiterides. Diodorus 
 
TIN. 
 
 I2 9 
 
 mentions the weight and cubical form of the tin in 
 blocks carried from Ictias to Marseilles and Nar- 
 boune, and Pliny says of the Gallecian tin that it 
 was melted on the spot." 
 
 Dr Alexander, in his " Ancient British Church," 
 quotes from the Kev. F. Thackeray's " Eesearches " 
 the following passage : " The tin, lead, and 
 skins of Britain, instead of being immediately 
 shipped in Cornwall, or other maritime districts, 
 are said to have been taken to the Isle of 
 Wight, thence transported to Vannes, and other 
 ports of Brittany, afterwards conveyed overland to 
 Marseilles, and finally exported to all parts of the 
 world which traded with the Greeks." Dr A. also 
 states that Bochart deduces the word Britannia 
 from the Hebrew word Barab-anac, " the land of 
 tin." 
 
 Mr Richard Edmonds discovered some fragments 
 of a bronze furnace in Cornwall, which he con- 
 siders had been brought there by the Phoenicians, 
 who gave such things in exchange for lead, tin, and 
 hides. After some observations upon the locality 
 where these fragments were found, and other 
 correlative circumstances, he considers the manu- 
 facture of these fragments to date back not less 
 than two thousand years. They were coloured by 
 charcoal, and had a deep-green coloured patna 
 upon them. The analysis of these by Mr R. Hunt 
 gave 
 
 i 
 
130 TIN. 
 
 Copper, 72 
 
 Tin, 9 
 
 Iron, 4 
 
 Earthy matters, .... 3 
 
 Carbonic acid, &c., . . . .12 
 
 100 
 
 The town where these relics were found is the 
 oldest in the country, and has two names 
 Market Jew, and Marazion or Marghasion, which 
 means in Hebrew Market Mount. Mr Edwards 
 therefore considers that Jews had found their way 
 in very ancient times to this, and had purchased 
 the ores of tin from the natives, and smelted them, 
 and sold the metal to the Phoenicians ; and the 
 name of the locality was therefore called by the 
 Jews Marazion, and by the natives Market Jew, 
 hence the double name. If the Jews ever estab- 
 lished a market in Cornwall to which the natives 
 could bring their ore, and also set up smelting 
 works to prepare the tin for the Phoenicians, it 
 must have been at a comparatively recent time 
 after the Phoenicians had taught the Jews the way 
 to Cornwall ; but more probably the Jews who 
 were located there were captives taken by the 
 Phoenicians, and put to work in their smelting 
 houses. The remnants of smelting pits found in 
 Cornwall, says Mr Edwards, are termed Jew's 
 houses. 
 
 Dr Daniel Wilson, in his " Prehistoric Annals 
 of Scotland," speaks thus of tin: 
 
 " The familiarity of the ancient Britons with tin, 
 
TIN. 131 
 
 though this metal does not occur in a native state, 
 may be readily accounted for from the ore being 
 frequently found near the surface, and requiring 
 only the use of charcoal, and a very moderate 
 degree of heat, to reduce it to the state of a metal. 
 We have no specific mention of any other source 
 from whence the ancients derived the tin which 
 they compounded with the copper found so abund- 
 antly in several parts of Asia; with the single 
 and somewhat vague exception made by Strabo, 
 when he calls a certain place in the county of the 
 Drangi, in Asia, by the name of Cassiteron. That 
 tin was known, however, from very early times, 
 not only by the discovery of numerous early 
 Egyptian and Assyrian bronze relics, but also by 
 its being noted by Moses among the spoils of the 
 Midianites, which were to be purified by fire ; 
 and by Ezekiel, among the metals of which Tar- 
 shish was the merchant of Tyre. . . . The 
 allusions of Herodotus leave no room to doubt that 
 his information was derived indirectly from others. 
 The Phoenicians long concealed the situation of 
 the Cassiterides from all other nations ; and even 
 Pliny treats as a fable the report of certain islands 
 existing in the Atlantic, from whence white lead or 
 tin was brought. It need not, therefore, surprise 
 us to learn so little of these islands from ancient 
 writers, even though we adopt the opinion that 
 they continued for many centuries to be the chief 
 source of one of the most useful metals. Antimony 
 
132 TIN. 
 
 is found in the Kurdish mountains, and pure 
 copper ore abounds there as well as in the desert 
 of Mount Sinai; but no tin is found throughout 
 any part of Assyria. It is a metal of rare occur- 
 rence, though found in apparently inexhaustible 
 quantities in a very few localities. The only 
 districts, according to Berzilius, where it is 
 obtained in Asia, are the islands of Banca, only 
 discovered in 1710; and the peninsula of Malacca, 
 where Wilkinson conceives it possible that tin may 
 have been wrought by the Egyptians. The mines 
 of Malacca are very productive, and may have been 
 the source from whence Tyre derived ' the multi- 
 tude of riches ; ' but we have no evidence in 
 support of such conjectures. Cornwall still yields 
 a larger quantity of the ore than any other locality 
 in the old or new world where it has yet been 
 discovered, and many thousands of tons have been 
 exported by the modern traders to India, China, 
 and to America. Taking all these circumstances 
 into consideration, it seems in no degree impro- 
 bable that long before Solomon sent to Tyre for a 
 6 worker filled with wisdom and understanding, and 
 cunning to work all works in brass,' or employed the 
 fleets of Hiram, king of Tyre, to bring him precious 
 metals and costly stones for the temple at Jeru- 
 salem, the Phoenician ships had passed beyond the 
 pillars of Hercules, and were familiar with the 
 inexhaustible stores of these remote islands of the 
 sea, which first dawn on the history as the source 
 
TIN. 133 
 
 of tliis most ancient alloy. Strabo's description of 
 the natives of the Cassiterides is not to be greatly 
 relied upon. According to him they were a 
 nomade, pastoral race, of peaceful and industrious 
 habits ; but he refers especially to their mines of 
 tin and lead, the produce of which they exchanged 
 with the foreign traders, along with furs and 
 skins, for earthenware, salt, and copper vessels 
 and implements." 
 
 Since Drs Alexander, Wilson, and Mr Philips 
 wrote, Dr George Smith has made a very exhaus- 
 tive inquiry into the source of tin in ancient times. 
 Concerning the statement that the metal was 
 taken to the Isle of Wight, and thence to 
 Marseilles, he writes " It is founded on a great 
 error in commercial geography. Diodorus simply 
 states that the men who dig and prepare the tin 
 carry it to a British isle near at hand/' This, 
 Dr Smith argues, cannot mean the Isle of Wight, 
 which is two hundred miles distant ; and then he 
 says " The trade of which we speak began at 
 least as early as 1200 B.C., and lasted more than 
 a thousand years. Marseilles was not founded 
 earlier than 600 B.C., and Narbo not until 400 
 years later. It is presumed that none will 
 contend that tin was taken from Britain by 
 this overland route before that date 600 B.C. 
 If the Phoenicians conducted their commerce 
 in Cornwall, it would be infinitely more to their 
 advantage to take the commodity direct to their 
 
134 TIN. 
 
 vessels at Cadiz, than to transport it to Gaul, 
 allow it to go entirely out of their hands for a 
 thirty-days' land journey, and then to re-ship 
 it at the mouth of the Rhone. This could not 
 have been the case ; yet prior to this date the 
 trade had attained its widest extent." 
 
 About the year Marseilles was founded, Ezekiel 
 speaks of the commerce of Tyre, and names tin 
 procured from Tarshish as one of the chief com- 
 modities sold in their fairs. All our researches 
 have conducted us to the conclusion that the 
 principal part of this tin was found in Britain, 
 and brought from thence in Phoenician vessels, by 
 the way of Gades to Tyre. The maritime traffic 
 of the Phoenicians is of very early date. The 
 city of Tyre was founded, according to Dr Hales, 
 2267 B.C. ; but before Tyre there was an older 
 city Zidon. Jacob, about 1900 B.C., alludes to 
 the practice of navigation by this people thus 
 " Zebulon shall dwell at the haven of the sea, 
 and he shall be for a haven of ships, and his 
 border shall be unto Zidon." Joshua, about 1600 
 B.C., calls Zidon " the great Zidon," and speaks 
 of the more recent capital as " the strong city of 
 Tyre," and there is every evidence of their early 
 excellence in manufactures. " The vase of silver 
 which Achilles proposes as a prize in the funeral 
 games in honour of Patroclus was a work of the 
 skilful Sidonians. The garment offered by Hecuba 
 as a propitiation to Minerva was the work of 
 
TIN. 135 
 
 Sidonian women, whom Paris had brought with 
 him to Troy when he visited Phoenicia. The 
 bowl of silver with edges of gold which Menelaus 
 gives to Telemachus is called a work of Hephais- 
 tos, and was given to him by a king of the 
 Sidonians." 
 
 Respecting tin Dr Smith sums up : " We recall 
 attention to the simple fact that tin was an 
 article of ancient commerce, at least as early as 
 B.C. 1200, on the eastern shores of the Mediter- 
 ranean. This is an established truth. It is certain 
 that tin was used and sold at Sidon and Tyre at 
 this early date. Whence, then, did it come ? The 
 universal testimony of all history and tradition 
 answers, from Britain. This testimony has been 
 received, and the British origin of the tin supplied 
 as an article of commerce in the earliest times 
 has been believed by great numbers of learned 
 men in different ages and countries. Having 
 carefully studied the subject, they have been fully 
 convinced that the ancient Phoenicians traded 
 with Britain for this metal, and regularly took it 
 from the coast of this island, in Phoenician ships, to 
 Tyre and Sidon. The names of those who have 
 entertained this opinion would, if collected, ex- 
 hibit a body as numerous, as intelligent, and 
 as entitled to deference and respect, as could be 
 found supporting almost any historical truth.'* 
 
 It is very probable that in ancient times the 
 tin ore was smelted at or near the mines, or in 
 
136 TIN. 
 
 the country where the mines were situated, and 
 only the metal sent away in ships. Hence we 
 have no allusions to tin smelting operations 
 in Scripture ; but Diodorus, speaking of the 
 people of Britain, says " They that inhabit the 
 British promontory of Balerium (Land's End), by 
 reason of their converse with strangers, are more 
 civilised and courteous to strangers than the rest 
 are. These are the people that prepare the tin, 
 which with a great deal of care and labour they 
 dig out of the ground ; and that being rocky, the 
 metal is mixed with some veins of earth, out of 
 which they melt the metal, and then refine it. 
 Then they cast it into regular blocks, and carry it 
 to a certain place near at hand called Ictis." 
 
 The first mention of tin in the Scriptures is 
 in the time of Moses, after the Israelites had 
 fought against the Midianites. It constituted a 
 part of the spoils taken from that people, and the 
 reference is to the method by which such metals 
 were to be made ceremonially pure, thus " Only 
 the gold and the silver, the brass, the iron, the 
 tin, and the lead, everything that may abide the 
 fire, ye shall make it go through the fire." 
 
 This ceremony of passing the metals through 
 the fire has been supposed by some to mean 
 making them red-hot. Such an idea is absurd. 
 Many of the metallic articles taken in this and 
 other wars were no doubt manufactured, and the 
 attempt to make them red-hot would destroy 
 
TIN. 137 
 
 them. Tin, for instance, melts at a temperature 
 of 420 Falir., about twice the heat of boiling- 
 water, and only half of the temperature of red- 
 ness ; and lead melts at 620 Fahr. : so that if the 
 passing through the fire meant making them red 
 hot, it would melt both the tin and the lead. The 
 passing through the fire, in our opinion, means a 
 mere heating, to destroy organic matter, which 
 would be effected by passing them suddenly 
 through a fire or flame. We have seen this 
 method practised before lath-brick, or such polish- 
 ing materials, had reached remote dwellings 
 the blades and prongs of knives and forks, before 
 being used, were plunged into the red, glowing 
 embers, and then wiped clean and made ready for 
 use. The same practice is referred to by the 
 prophet Ezekiel "Then set it empty upon the 
 coals thereof, that the brass of it may be hot, and 
 may burn, and that the filthiness of it may be 
 molten in it, that the scum of it may be consumed." 
 
 The relative value of tin compared with the 
 other ordinary metals is nowhere stated, but 
 that it was classed with the ordinary, or inferior 
 metals, is apparent from various passages in 
 Scripture, and other ancient writings. 
 
 There are no indications that tin was used alone 
 in the manufacture of vessels or ornaments; 
 although the ease with which it melts and can be 
 cast, the whiteness of its colour, and its not 
 being subject to tarnish, incline us to the belief 
 that it was used alone for various purposes. 
 
138 TIN. 
 
 Neither is there reference in Scripture to the 
 use of tin for overlaying or plating other metals. 
 Pliny, however, speaks of tin-plate and the coating 
 of copper utensils with tin as being common in 
 ancient times, and as having been done in a very 
 perfect manner. He says the articles so tinned 
 could scarcely be distinguished from silver, and 
 adds that the tinning did not increase the weight 
 of the vessels, the metal being applied so thin. 
 
 Beckmann says " That vessels were made of cast 
 tin at an early period is highly probable, although 
 I do not remember to have seen any of them in 
 collections. I am acquainted only with two instances 
 of their being found both of which occurred in 
 England. In the beginning of last century, some 
 pieces of tin were discovered in Yorkshire, together 
 with other Roman antiquities; and in 1756 some 
 tin vessels of Roman workmanship, with Roman 
 inscriptions, were dug up in Cornwall." 
 
 From the ease with which tinned iron is de- 
 stroyed, by exposure to a damp atmosphere, it could 
 hardly be expected to be found now, although the 
 process had been in general use in ancient times. 
 
 Other applications of tin, which give evidence 
 of great advancement in the arts, are known to 
 have existed in very early times. According to 
 recent discoveries, the oxide of tin was used, both 
 by the ancient Egyptians and Assyrians, for ena- 
 melling and glazing earthenware, an application 
 which until lately was considered quite a modern 
 invention. 
 
TIN. 139 
 
 In support of the supposition that tin in an- 
 cient times was occasionally used by itself for 
 objects of art, we have an eminent corroboration 
 in that classical puzzle to the learned the shield 
 of Achilles. This famous shield is said to have 
 been made of five plates of metal, two of which 
 were tin. The following is a literal translation of 
 the passage in the " Iliad," describing the making 
 of the shield of Achilles, translated by a friend 
 of ours, who is an eminent Greek scholar : 
 
 " Thus speaking, he indeed left her there, and 
 went to the bellows. These indeed he turned to 
 the fire, and ordered them to labour. And 
 twenty pair of bellows all blew in the melting 
 pit, sending forth a manifold vehement blast of 
 air at one time indeed to assist him to hurry on 
 the work, at another time the contrary, just as Vul- 
 can might wish, and the work might be finished. 
 And he threw into the fire indestructible brass 
 and tin, and precious gold and silver. Then 
 afterwards he placed on the stithy a huge anvil, 
 and he grasped in his hand a powerful hammer, 
 and with the other he grasped a pair of tongs. 
 
 " And first of all he made a shield, both long and 
 strong (closely pressed), working it curiously on 
 all sides ; and he surrounded it with a glittering 
 rim, threefold, flashing, and from it a silver-studded 
 strap. And indeed there were five plates (layers) of 
 the shield itself, and in it he made many curiously 
 wrought things with knowing mind." 
 
 We refer to this extraordinary piece of art here, 
 
140 
 
 TIN. 
 
 because it is one of the few instances where "tin is 
 mentioned as used alone. The use of tin in this 
 way has caused some commentators on Homer to 
 write with considerable confusion, and to deduce 
 erroneous deductions. The latest instance we have 
 seen is that of the Eight Honourable W. E. Glad- 
 stone, in his " Juventus Mundi." We take the 
 liberty of quoting several passages from his book 
 
 " Archaeological inquiry is now teaching us to 
 investigate and to mark off the periods of human 
 progress, among other methods, by the materials 
 employed from age to age for making utensils and 
 instruments. And the poems of Homer have this 
 amongst their many peculiarities ; they exhibit 
 to us, with as much clearness, perhaps, as any 
 archaeological investigation, one of the metallic 
 ages. It is, moreover, the first and oldest of the 
 metallic ages, the age of copper, which precedes 
 the general knowledge of the art of fusing 
 metals, which (as far as general rules can be laid 
 down) immediately follows the age of stone, and 
 which in its turn is probably often followed by the 
 age of bronze, when the combination of copper with 
 tin has come within the resources of human art. 
 
 " The grand metallic operation of the poem is 
 that of Hephaistos in the production of the 
 shield. The metals used were gold, silver, tin, 
 and chalcos which has been, by mere licence of 
 translators, interpreted as brass, for there was no 
 brass till long ages after Homer had rolled away 
 which has been more plausibly taken to mean 
 
TIN. 141 
 
 bronze and which, after a good deal of inquiry, I 
 am satisfied can only mean copper, either univer- 
 sally or absolutely, or as a general rule with very 
 insignificant exceptions. 
 
 " The discussion would be too long for this 
 place ; but the passage immediately before us of 
 itself affords almost sufficient instruction. 
 
 "In the formation of the shield there is no 
 mixture or fusion of metals. The same, and all the 
 same which are put into the roaring fire, reappear 
 each by its original name in various portions of the 
 shield. There is indeed one passage where a trench 
 is represented, and this is called kuanee, a word 
 meaning either made of kuanos, or like kuanos in 
 colour. There are two reasons for giving the 
 latter signification to the word : one that it 
 commonly bears that sense in Homer ; the other 
 that although kuanos may have been a mixed 
 metal, yet there is no sign of founding or casting 
 in the great masterpiece of Hephaistos. 
 
 "He could only mix by melting; and had he 
 melted metals we must have heard of moulds to 
 receive them. Instead of this, the only instru- 
 ments which he makes ready for the work are 
 
 "1. The anvil; 
 
 " 2. The hammer in (right) hand ; 
 
 " 3. The pincers in his left. 
 
 " It is plain, then, that he was supposed not to 
 melt, but only to soften the metals by heating, and 
 then to beat them into the form he wished to 
 produce. 
 
142 TIN. 
 
 " Had Homer been conversant with the fusing or 
 casting of metals, this is the very place where we 
 must have become aware of it ; especially as his 
 works of skilled art are all of Phoenician origin or 
 kin, and his Hephaistos is a god of Phoenician 
 associations. 
 
 " If chalcos be not copper, then copper is never 
 mentioned in Homer. But in an early stage of 
 society copper was commonly by far the cheapest 
 and most accessible of metals, and it is quite 
 impossible to suppose that we never once hear of 
 copper from an author who incessantly makes 
 mention (so it is argued) of another metal, whereof 
 it is by far the largest component part." 
 
 Against these conclusions we find several 
 objections. In the first place, where and how 
 was the plentiful supply of copper obtained? for 
 the author says, " This was an age preceding 
 the knowledge of fusing metals." 
 
 Was all the copper before and in Homer's time 
 found in the metallic state, and so pure that it could 
 be hammered and worked into tools and implements 
 for general use. We have already shown that 
 methods of melting and casting this metal were 
 known centuries before Homer ; and although con- 
 siderable masses of metallic copper are sometimes 
 found, yet such finds are rare, and could not make it 
 cheap and common, especially in an age when metals 
 were abundantly used. " Copper," says Job, "is 
 molten out of the stone," and we have no doubt 
 this was also the method of obtaining it in 
 
TIN. 143 
 
 Homer's days, and which made it " the only one 
 metal common in Greece at that time." 
 
 In the second place, Mr Gladstone says of the 
 making of the shield, " The same, and all the 
 same which are put into the roaring fire, reappears 
 each by its original name," &c. As mentioned 
 before, tin melts at 420 Fahr., far under the tem- 
 perature of red heat. What the result would be of 
 putting this metal into a roaring fire is easily con- 
 ceived : neither anvil, hammer, nor pincers would 
 be of much use for it. Then " the roaring fire was 
 kept up by a blast of twenty pairs of bellows." 
 Whether the fuel was wood or charcoal, copper, 
 gold, and silver would all melt in such a fire with 
 ease. Our own opinion is, that the description of 
 the making of the shield is not to be taken as a 
 correct technical detail of the process, of which in 
 all probability the poet was ignorant, but that he 
 simply drew a poetic figure from popular know- 
 ledge, and it being made by divine aid, a large 
 licence was taken. We shall be able to form 
 a more correct judgment from the description 
 given of the shield after it was finished, which 
 finished article the poet probably had seen, or had 
 it described to him. The passage is thus tran- 
 slated by our friend " Nor did then the mighty 
 spear of the warlike Augas break through the 
 shield, for the gold, the gift of a god, hindered it 
 (kept it back), but indeed it drove (pierced) 
 through two folds; but verily there were three 
 remaining, since Vulcan had beaten out five plates, 
 
144 
 
 TIN. 
 
 two of brass, and two within (behind) of tin, and 
 one golden (viz., two front of brass, two behind 
 of tin, and the middle of gold), by which, indeed, 
 the brazen spear was held." Another translation 
 of the same passage runs thus 
 
 " Of five plies it pierced only two, 
 And these were brass ; there still remained three, 
 The one of gold, the other two of tin ; 
 And stopped by the brass it could not be, 
 But coming to the gold, it thus stuck in." 
 
 The word translated plies here is by some 
 translators called plates. This is all clear and 
 distinct. 
 
 Of Vulcan's use of the bellows we find in another 
 part of the poem these words " That fixed his 
 coals sometimes with soft and sometimes with 
 vehement air, as he willed, and his work required." 
 That is, as the metal in the fire at the time re- 
 quired more or less heat to melt. We think that 
 they were all melted, and then cast in the same 
 mould separately ; and these castings Vulcan took 
 with his pincers and hammered, smoothing and 
 hardening the metals, and fitting them for bind- 
 ing together with the silver-studded strap. 
 
 Mr Gladstone says the word kuanee or hua.no 
 in Homer "generally means the type of a very 
 dark colour, and may possibly mean bronze. The 
 Greeks had bronze in small quantities ; it was 
 more valuable than copper, but apparently less 
 prized than tin. In the planetary worship of the 
 
TIN. 145 
 
 East six deities were connected with six pure 
 metals, and one with kuanos. In Homer we find the 
 six metals with kuanos. Now, as the septiform 
 system was apparently represented in the seven 
 gates of Thebes, and as the Greeks evidently de- 
 pended on the Phoenicians for imported metals, I 
 conclude that kuanos was the seventh metal, a 
 mixed one, and I know no conclusive reason why 
 it should not be bronze." Although this con- 
 clusion is opposed to some of his former statements, 
 it nevertheless gives the key to Hephaistos's 
 operations, and to Mr Gladstone's difficulty re- 
 specting the word kuanos. The word translated 
 trench by him, and pit by others, we believe 
 refers to the mould in which the different plates of 
 the shield were cast ; and this mould was made of 
 bronze, and such a mould would certainly be aptly 
 typified, or would typify a dark colour, as such 
 moulds when used become very dark. That bronze 
 moulds were used in very early times has been 
 clearly proven by such being discovered in ancient 
 ruins. 
 
 Concerning what Mr Gladstone says about 
 bronze, we may have something further to say in 
 the following chapter ; but his inference that 
 society was at the time of Homer only in what is 
 termed the copper age, the age following stone 
 and preceding bronze, is certainly most extraor- 
 dinary in the face of history and archaeological 
 researches. 
 
 K 
 
146 TIN. 
 
 Since the above went to press, Mr Gladstone has 
 published a poetic translation of Homer's descrip- 
 tion of the manufacture of the shield, from which 
 we copy the following : 
 
 So he spake, and left the goddess ; 
 Straightway to the bellows drew, 
 Fixed them fire ward, set them blowing, 
 Mouths a score in all they blew 
 Reddening, whitening all the furnace 
 With their timely various blast, 
 As the god and work required it, 
 Slower now, and now more fast. 
 Precious gold and stubborn copper, 
 Silver store and tin he cast 
 In the flame. The ponderous anvil 
 Next upon its block he tries ; 
 One hand grasps the sturdy hammer, 
 One the pincers firmly plies. 
 
 n. 
 
 First of all the shield he moulded, 
 Broad, and strong, and wrought throughout 
 With a bright and starry border 
 Threefold thick, set round about. 
 Downward hung its belt of silver, 
 Five the layers of the shield, 
 And with skilful mind he sculptured 
 Rare devices o'er its field. 
 
 In his preface to this poem, Mr Gladstone says, 
 " The materials used in the composition of the 
 shield deserve notice. The metals cast into the 
 furnace are copper, tin, gold, and silver." If 
 copper was put into the furnace, it entirely disap- 
 pears in the shield, which was composed of two 
 plates bronze, two of tin, and one of gold. So that 
 
TIN. 147 
 
 one of two things must follow : either Hephaistos 
 made bronze of the copper when making the shield, 
 or Mr Gladstone's translation of the word copper 
 is wrong. One idea in the lines above suggests 
 an answer as follows 
 
 " Precious gold and stubborn copper, 
 Silver store and tin he cast 
 In the flame." 
 
 There is no practical sense in which stubborn can 
 be applied to copper when compared with gold and 
 silver. Copper melts at a lower heat than gold, and 
 it is as malleable as silver ; but if bronze is sub- 
 stituted for copper, then stubborn is appropriate, as 
 bronze is much less malleable than either silver or 
 gold. We are therefore strengthened in our opinion 
 that Mr Gladstone is wrong when he says in his 
 " Juventus Mundi " that " in the formation of the 
 shield there is no mixture or fusion of metals." 
 In the above poem there are many indications of 
 castings which could not be made without fusion, 
 such as 
 
 " There a herd of kine he moulded, 
 Some in tin and some in gold," 
 
 which were no doubt cast and fastened upon the 
 shield after it was made. 
 
BRONZE. 
 
 AMONG the great historic nations of antiquity, the 
 chief consumpt of copper and tin was in the 
 manufacture of bronze; and the quantities of these 
 metals necessary for this purpose must have been 
 very great, for bronze seems to have been the prin- 
 cipal metallic substance of which articles both of 
 utility and art were formed. Wilkinson, Layard, 
 and others, found bronze articles in abundance 
 amongst the debris of all the ancient civilisations 
 to which their researches extend, proving that the 
 manufacture of this alloy was widely known at a 
 very early period; and strange to say, when we con- 
 sider the applications of some of the tools found, 
 we are forced to the conclusion that the bronze 
 of which they were made must originally have 
 been in certain important particulars superior to 
 any which we can produce at the present day. In. 
 these researches were found carpenters' and masons' 
 tools, such as saws, chisels, hammers, &c., and also 
 knives, daggers, swords, and other instruments 
 which require both a fine hard edge and elasticity. 
 Were we to make such tools now, they would be 
 useless for the purpose to which the ancients 
 applied them. Wilkinson says, "No one who has 
 
BRONZE. 149 
 
 tried to perforate or cut a block of Egyptian 
 granite will scruple to acknowledge that our best 
 steel tools are turned in a very short time, and 
 require to be re-tempered ; and the labour experi- 
 enced by the French engineers who removed the 
 obelisk of Luxor from Thebes, in cutting a space 
 less than two feet deep along the face of its par- 
 tially decomposed pedestal, suffices to show that, 
 even with our excellent modern implements, we 
 find considerable difficulty in doing what to the 
 Egyptians would have been one of the least 
 arduous tasks." 
 
 But Wilkinson believes that bronze chisels were 
 used for cutting granite, as he found one at 
 Thebes, of which he says, "Its point is instantly 
 turned by striking it against the very stone it 
 was used to cut ; and yet, when found, the sum- 
 mit was turned over by blows it had received 
 from the mallet, while the point was intact, as if 
 it had recently left the hands of the smith who 
 made it." 
 
 " Another remarkable feature in their bronze," 
 says the same author, "is the resistance it offers 
 to the effects of the atmosphere some continuing 
 smooth and bright though buried for ages, and 
 since exposed to the damp European climate. 
 They had also the secret of covering the surface 
 with a rich patina of dark or light green, or other 
 colour, by applying acids to it." 
 
 It is probable that many of the children of Israel, 
 
ISO BRONZE. 
 
 while slaves in Egypt, were workers in foundries 
 and other works where metallic articles were 
 manufactured. If this conjecture be correct, it 
 will help to explain that interesting portion of 
 Scripture history, the journeyings in the wilder- 
 ness, and account for the ability they possessed 
 of working in metals. Their casting and work- 
 ing into shape such articles as the calf, the 
 serpent, and the more elaborate metallic work of 
 the Tabernacle, is strong circumstantial evidence 
 in favour of the supposition that the Israelites 
 while in Egypt were not as a whole employed in 
 the labour of brickmaking. 
 
 But before entering on an investigation of the 
 bronze works of art mentioned in the Bible, let us 
 direct our attention to the manufacture of bronze 
 as it is carried on at the present day. Bronze, 
 then, is a mixture of copper and tin, and by vary- 
 ing the proportions of mixture of these metals 
 different qualities of bronze are produced. One 
 quality may be hard but brittle, another both 
 hard and flexible ; a third when polished may 
 yield a bright, reflecting surface, suitable for 
 mirrors ; while a fourth may be found excellent 
 bell metal. To make good bronze requires very 
 careful attention during the operation of mixing 
 the two metals. Something more is required 
 than merely fusing a certain quantity of copper 
 and tin together ; or, as is generally supposed to 
 be the case, fusing copper, and adding some tin to 
 
BRONZE. 151 
 
 it. To obtain a good homogeneous alloy, hard 
 and tough, the tin ought to be mixed with due 
 proportions of copper, and cast into blocks, and 
 this alloy remixed with more copper, and that 
 probably several times, if there be no old bronze to 
 add to the mixture. Copper and tin which have 
 impurities in them do not make good bronze for 
 tools, swords, daggers, guns, &c., but bronze for 
 coins, for casting figures, and such like, does not 
 require to be so pure. 
 
 Again, the tendency, on account of the different 
 gravities of the two metals, when fused together 
 to partially separate and settle in strata, affects 
 greatly the quality of the bronze ; and it requires 
 great skill and watchfulness to avoid this, by 
 casting at a particular heat, and also by poling 
 that is, by inserting poles of green wood into the 
 melted mass, which not only causes violent 
 ebullition, but prevents oxidation of the metals. 
 A knowledge of these processes and conditions 
 being necessary in order to make good bronze, 
 such knowledge must have been possessed by the 
 ancients before they could produce such bronze 
 as we find they did make. The acquirement of 
 such knowledge must have been a gradual process 
 stretching over a long period, and society must 
 have been in a very advanced state when such 
 exact proportions, processes, and conditions were 
 so well understood that different qualities could 
 be produced at will. 
 
152 BRONZE. 
 
 Very few analyses of ancient bronze are recorded 
 compared with what might have been expected, 
 considering the number of ancient articles in 
 bronze which we now possess, and the interesting 
 nature of the inquiry. The few which we have 
 noticed, however, are worthy of consideration. 
 
 We have already referred to a chisel which 
 Wilkinson found in an ancient quarry in Egypt. 
 This, when analysed, gave 
 
 Copper, .... 94-0 
 Tin, . . . . .5-9 
 Iron, ! 
 
 100-0 
 
 An ancient chisel from Peru, analysed by 
 Vauqueline, gave 
 
 Copper, .... 94 
 Tin, 6 
 
 100 
 
 These two appear to be exactly the same quality 
 of alloy. The density of the last is given as 8.815, 
 which is very high; the density of Wilkinson's 
 chisel is not given. Bronze varies considerably in 
 density, even when the metals are mixed in the 
 same proportions. The purer the metals, the 
 greater the density. We recollect a statement 
 made by the late Colonel Dundas, who at the 
 time was chief of the arsenal department, con- 
 cerning a bronze cannon made from very pure 
 copper ; that although the proportional composition 
 
BRONZE. 153 
 
 of the alloy was the same as that of the other 
 cannons in the arsenal, its density was greater 
 than any they had ever had. 
 
 A dagger (locality not given), analysed by 
 Klaproth, gave 
 
 Copper, 91-6 
 
 Tin, 7-5 
 
 Lead, -9 
 
 100-0 
 
 A dagger (locality not given), analysed by 
 Heslm, gave 
 
 Copper, 93-4 
 
 Tin, 6-6 
 
 100-0 
 An Egyptian dagger, analysed by Vauqueline, 
 
 gave 
 
 Copper, 85-0 
 
 Tin, 14-0 
 
 Iron, 1-0 
 
 100-0 
 Celtic arms, analysed by Fresenius, gave 
 
 Copper, 92-00 
 
 Tin, 6-70 
 
 Lead, -69 
 
 Iron, -29 
 
 Nickel, -31 
 
 99-99 
 Gallic axe/analysed by Girardine, gave 
 
 Copper, 85-90 
 
 Tin, 14-10 
 
 100-00 
 
154 
 
 BRONZE. 
 
 Among ancient bronzes the very ancient is 
 generally found to be the purest in quality, that 
 is, has less mixture of other metals, and we 
 believe if more attention were paid to the com- 
 position of ancient bronzes, the localities where 
 found, and probable dates of manufacture, we 
 might yet trace the sources where the metals, 
 the copper especially, were obtained. When we 
 find bronze containing cobalt and nickel, it is 
 highly probable that these metals were in the 
 copper, and that the copper was obtained from 
 localities where such metals are found. Copper is 
 found abundantly where no cobalt or nickel are 
 known to exist. 
 
 In Moore's " Ancient Metallurgy " we find the 
 following analyses of very pure bronze : 
 
 A Grecian helmet, no date given 
 
 Copper, 81-5 
 
 100-0 
 
 A sword, found in the peat-moss of the Souirne 
 
 Copper 87-47 
 
 A sword, found at Abbeville 
 
 Copper, .... 
 Tin, 
 
 100-00 
 
 85 
 15 
 
 100 
 
BRONZE. 155 
 
 Another sword, where found not stated 
 
 Copper, 90 
 
 Tin, 10 
 
 100 
 
 Sword-blade, found under Chertsey Bridge, 
 Thames. Analysed by J. A. Phillips 
 
 Copper, 90-00 
 
 Tin, 9-54 
 
 Iron, -33 
 
 99-87 
 
 Fragment of sword-blade, found in Ireland. 
 Analysed by Phillips 
 
 Copper, 91*39 
 
 Tin, 8-38 
 
 9977 
 Celt- 
 Copper, 90-18 
 
 Tin, 9-82 
 
 100-00 
 
 The analyses in general agree with many 
 synthetical experiments, made by Dr Pearson, with 
 different proportions of tin and copper. He came to 
 the conclusion that the fittest proportion for the 
 manufacture of weapons and tools is one part of 
 tin to nine parts of copper. Of ancient bronzes for 
 different purposes we add the following : 
 
 Bowl or dish, from Nimroud. Analysed by Dr 
 
 Percy 
 
 Copper, 87-57 
 
 Tin, 10-43 
 
 100-00 
 
156 
 
 BRONZE. 
 
 Hook, from Nimroud. Analysed by Dr Percy 
 
 Copper, 89-85 
 
 99-63 
 
 Bronze, overlaying iron. Analysed by Dr Percy 
 
 Copper, 
 Tin, . 
 
 . 88-37 
 . 11-33 
 
 9970 
 
 "This," says Dr Percy, "was a small casting 
 in the shape of the foreleg of a bull; it formed 
 the foot of a stand, consisting of a ring of iron 
 resting upon three feet of bronze. It was deeply 
 corroded in places, and posteriorly was fissured at 
 the upper part. A section was made, which 
 disclosed a central piece of iron, over which the 
 bronze had been cast. The casting was sound, 
 and the contact perfect between the iron and 
 surrounding bronze. It was evident, on inspec- 
 tion, that the bronze had been cast round the 
 iron, and that the iron had not been let into the 
 bronze. Some interesting considerations are sug- 
 gested by this specimen. 
 
 " The iron was employed either to economise 
 the bronze for the purpose of ornament, or because 
 it was required in the construction. If the former, 
 iron must have been much cheaper than bronze, 
 and therefore, probably more abundant than has 
 been generally supposed. No satisfactory conclu- 
 sion can be arrived at on this point, from the fact 
 
BRONZE. 157 
 
 that bronze antiquities are much more frequently 
 found than those of iron, for the obvious reason 
 that bronze resists much better than iron de- 
 struction by oxidation. Although I think there 
 are reasons to suppose that iron was much more 
 extensively used by the ancients than seems to be 
 generally admitted, yet in the specimen in 
 question it appears to me most probable that the 
 iron was used because it was required in the con- 
 struction. And if this be true, the Assyrians 
 teach a lesson to many of our modern architects 
 and others, who certainly do not always employ 
 metals in accordance with their special properties. 
 The instrument under consideration, it will be 
 borne in mind, was one of the feet of a stand, 
 composed of an iron ring, resting upon vertical 
 legs of bronze. A stand of this kind must have 
 been designed to support weight, probably a large 
 caldron ; and it is plain that the ring portion 
 should therefore be made of the metal having the 
 greatest tenacity, and the legs of metal adapted to 
 sustain vertical or superior cumbent weight. Now, 
 this combination of iron and bronze exactly fulfils 
 the conditions required. I do not say that a ring 
 of bronze might not have been made sufficiently 
 strong to answer the purpose of the ring of iron ; 
 but I do say that, in that part of the instru- 
 ment, iron is more fitly employed than bronze. 
 Moreover, the contrast of the two metals may have 
 been regarded as ornamental." 
 
158 BRONZE. 
 
 Bell. Analysed by Dr Percy 
 
 Copper, 8470 
 
 Tin, 14-10 
 
 98-80 
 
 Here it will be observed that where sound is 
 required the proportion of tin is increased. 
 
 Dr Percy also remarks upon the general character 
 of the metallic objects obtained by Mr Layard : 
 " There are numerous other objects in metal in Mr 
 Layard's collection at the British Museum which 
 are extremely interesting in respect to the mode 
 of manufacture, and which require very accurate 
 examination before they can be properly described 
 by the metallurgists. The beautiful workmanship 
 of the vessels which Mr Layard believes to have 
 been used in religious ceremonials is especially 
 deserving of attention, and demonstrates the skill 
 of the Assyrians in their treatment of bronze. 
 
 " One specimen particularly deserves attention. 
 It was a thin, hollow casting in bronze, which 
 was attached to the end of one of the arms of the 
 throne. The casting had evidently been chased, 
 and for that purpose, must have been filled with 
 some soft material, such as pitch, which is used at 
 the present time. In the interior there was some 
 black matter, which, on examination, I found to 
 burn like pitch, and leave an earthy residue, so that 
 probably a mixture of asphaltum and earth had 
 been employed for the purpose mentioned.'' 
 
BRONZE. 159 
 
 Although the remark of Dr Percy about the 
 bell having more tin than the other bronzes, to 
 give sonorousness, is very ingenious, and pro- 
 bably correct, yet in the preceding analyses we 
 find swords and other articles having more tin 
 compared with the copper than the Babylonian 
 bell. 
 
 We take the following analyses from Wilson's 
 " Prehistoric Annals of Scotland : " 
 
 1st, A lituus, or musical wind-instrument, 
 found in the river Witham, Lincolnshire, gave 
 
 Copper, 88 
 
 Tin, 12 
 
 100 
 
 2d, Spear-head, which had been cast, as was 
 evident from its rough surface, figure, texture, and 
 grain 
 
 Copper, 86 
 
 Tin, 14 
 
 100 
 This had a little silver. 
 
 3d, A saucepan, also cast 
 
 Copper, 86 
 
 Tin, 14 
 
 100 
 
 4th, Scabbard: this had an iron sword with- 
 in 
 
 Copper, 90 
 
 Tin, * 10 
 
 100 
 
l6o BRONZE. 
 
 Leaf-shaped sword. Analysed by Professor 
 George Wilson 
 
 Copper, ..... 88-51 
 
 Tin, 9-30 
 
 Lead, 2-30 
 
 100-11 
 A xe-head. By Professor Wilson 
 
 Copper, 88-05 
 
 Tin, 11-12 
 
 Lead, -78 
 
 99-95 
 
 Palstave or celt. By Professor Wilson 
 
 Copper, 81-19 
 
 Tin, 18-31 
 
 Lead, 75 
 
 100-25 
 Bronze caldron. By Professor Wilson 
 
 Copper, 92-80 
 
 Tin, 5'15 
 
 Lead, 1-78 
 
 99-73 
 
 The small portions of lead found in some of these 
 we do not think was intentionally added as a part 
 of the alloy, but may have been an impurity either 
 in the tin or copper, or it may have been that the 
 manufacturers used lead in refining their copper 
 as we do now, and a small portion remained in 
 the refined copper, as will be found in all our 
 tough-cake copper, that is, copper made for rolling 
 
BRONZE. l6l 
 
 and hammering at the present day. But this can- 
 not be said of the following, also analysed by Dr 
 George Wilson : 
 
 Caldron 
 
 Copper, 84-08 
 
 Tin, 7-19 
 
 Lead, 8'53 
 
 99-80 
 Roman camp-kettle 
 
 Copper, 88-22 
 
 Tin, 5-63 
 
 Lead, 5'88 
 
 99-73 
 
 Here there has evidently been lead added to the 
 alloy ; but although all of them are in all probabi- 
 lity of Roman manufacture, it may be that centuries 
 intervene between the dates when they were made. 
 And as we have already said, when the dates and 
 localities of the manufacture of these relics are found, 
 it will give us a greater insight into the progression 
 of metallic art; or otherwise, the analyses of any 
 ancient bronze would be a key to the date and 
 place of manufacture. 
 
 For articles such as coins, medals, figures, and 
 statuary, less care was taken in the proportions 
 and purity of the metals used in the alloy, as 
 is evidenced by a few analyses of coins by Mr J. 
 A. Phillips : 
 
1 62 BRONZE. 
 
 Roman As, B.C. 500 
 
 Copper, 69-51 
 
 Tin, 7-10 
 
 Lead, 22-02 
 
 Iron, ...... '48 
 
 Cobalt, -59 
 
 99-70 
 Semis, B.C. 500 
 
 Copper, 62-05 
 
 Tin, 7'62 
 
 Lead, 29'35 
 
 Cobalt, '23 
 
 Nickel, '19 
 
 Iron, -17 
 
 99-61 
 Quandaus, B.C. 500 
 
 Copper, 72-17 
 
 Tin, 7-17 
 
 Lead, ' 19'52 
 
 Iron, -41 
 
 Cobalt, '29 
 
 Nickel, -20 
 
 9976 
 Alexander the Great, B.C. 335 
 
 Copper, 86'73 
 
 Tin, 13-15 
 
 Sulphur, '7 
 
 9975 
 Julius and Augustus Csesar 
 
 Copper, 78-88 
 
 Tin, 7-95 
 
 Lead, 12-80 
 
 99-63 
 
BRONZE. 163 
 
 However, there are coins later than these that 
 are purer alloy. For instance, an Attic coin 
 analysed by Mitscherlitz, gave 
 
 Copper, 88-46 
 
 Tin, . . . . . . 10-04 
 
 Lead, . . . . . . T05 
 
 99-55 
 
 Coin of Alexander the Great, analysed by 
 Schmid, gave 
 
 Copper, 95'96 
 
 Tin, 3-28 
 
 Lead, -76 
 
 100-00 
 
 In the numerous analyses of coins we find no 
 fixed proportions. Different kings seem to have 
 made a change in the quality of their coins, 
 according to the state of the national exchequer, 
 and quantity or value of each metal. There is one 
 thing worthy of notice in the above analyses, 
 viz., that those of the same date 500 B.C., are 
 very nearly the same quality, and they have all 
 cobalt and nickel, while these metals do not appear 
 in the coins 160 years later, made by a different 
 nation. Analyses of coins might be multiplied to 
 a considerable extent, but without adding much to 
 the present inquiry. 
 
 Let us now direct our attention to the bronze 
 articles mentioned in the Bible. In the descrip- 
 
164 BRONZE. 
 
 tion of the formation of the laver for the tabernacle, 
 occur the following words "And he (Bezaleel) 
 made the laver of brass, and the foot of it of brass, 
 of the looking-glasses of the women assembling, 
 which assembled at the door of the tabernacle 
 of the congregation " (Exod. xxxviii. 8). 
 
 The word translated brass should be bronze, that 
 translated foot is rendered in a marginal note 
 cover, and that translated looking-glasses is 
 rendered in another note mirrors. As it was a 
 bronze foot or cover which was manufactured from 
 these mirrors, it is self-evident that the mirrors 
 must have been metallic. And as we know that it 
 was customary in very early times for women to 
 wear as an article of dress a bronze mirror, we 
 have no hesitation in concluding that these 
 "looking-glasses of the women" were bronze 
 mirrors. 
 
 Bronze suitable for mirrors must contain a large 
 proportion of tin. Our speculum metal for tele- 
 scopes, which yields the most perfect mirror yet 
 known, consists, in round numbers, of two parts 
 copper, and one part tin. An ancient Etruscan 
 mirror, analysed by Gerard, gave 
 
 Copper, . . . . .67-12 
 
 Tin, 24-93 
 
 Lead, 8-13 
 
 100-18 
 
 Another ancient mirror, analysed by Klaproth, 
 gave 
 
BRONZE. 165 
 
 Copper, 62 
 
 Tin, .32 
 
 Lead, 6 
 
 100 
 
 That the cover or lid -foot, we consider an incor- 
 rect translation was made of a special quality 
 of bronze, is significant of at least two things. 
 1st, It indicates that at this very early period 
 special qualities of bronze were known and 
 manufactured for distinct purposes. 2d, The 
 particularising of mirror bronze gives the clue to a 
 purpose beyond that of being merely a lid, which 
 this cover was intended to serve, viz., that of a 
 mirror. The laver was the basin or wash-stand 
 in which the priests washed, and the cover on 
 .being turned back would serve as a mirror in 
 which they could examine themselves before 
 approaching the altar. 
 
 The altar of burnt-oifering, or brazen altar as 
 it is termed, was made of boards, and then over- 
 laid with bronze. The size of this altar, taking 
 Sir Isaac Newton's measure of a cubit, was ten feet 
 five inches square, and six feet three inches high. 
 The horns of this altar, and the staves or poles for 
 carrying the fire grate, were also made of wood, 
 overlaid with bronze. The bronze covering this 
 large platform and stands, was no doubt cast into 
 plates and hammered thin, we say this advisedly, 
 both from the necessity of the case, and also from 
 the comparatively small quantity of bronze that 
 was used ; a-nd it is indicative of skill in the 
 
1 66 
 
 BRONZE. 
 
 manufacture of the alloy, for we have already shown 
 that it is only bronze of certain qualities that have 
 this property. All the articles that were to come 
 into contact with the fire during sacrifice, were 
 made of or covered with bronze. Of these we have 
 the grate of network, fire-pans, shovels, tongs, 
 pots, basons, and the rings attached to the grate, 
 through which the staves were, put for carrying it 
 with the fire. There were also made of bronze flesh 
 hooks, pins for staying the tabernacle, and what 
 are termed the sockets into which were inserted 
 the pillars or uprights, on which was suspended 
 the roof and curtains of the outer court of the 
 tabernacle, and the door. These were no doubt 
 masses of bronze with socket holes for the pillars, 
 which either stood upon, or were fixed into the 
 ground. To cast a mass of metal with a socket 
 hole, whether a round or square hole, would require 
 a core an operation that shows a considerable 
 advance in the knowledge of casting. The dis- 
 covery of casting in core is claimed by the Greeks, 
 centuries after this date. The weight of these 
 bronze sockets is not given, but those made for 
 the pillars of the inner court, which were silver, 
 were each one talent of silver, equal to 103 Ibs. 
 avoirdupois. Supposing the bronze sockets to be 
 of the same weight, we find from Exod. xxxvi. 38, 
 that there were five for the pillars of the tabernacle 
 door, and in chap, xxxviii., we find mention of 
 pillars with the sockets of bronze, these at 103 
 
BRONZE. 167 
 
 Ibs. each give a gross weight of fifty-two cwts. 
 The whole weight of bronze used in the tabernacle 
 is given at 70 talents and 2400 shekels, equal to 
 7282 Ibs. avoirdupois, or sixty-five cwts. ; taking 
 fifty-two cwts. from this leaves 13 cwts. for tent 
 pins, furniture, laver, and overlaying of the altar ; 
 which we think warrants our statement that the 
 sheets overlaying the wood must have been 
 thin. We have no indication that they used 
 rollers in these times for rolling out metal into 
 sheets, but they were certainly expert with the 
 hammer. 
 
 In the chapter on gold and silver, some idea of 
 the great amount of precious metals used in the 
 construction, and in the manufacture of the vessels 
 of the temple was given, but there is no statement 
 by which we can determine the quantity of bronze 
 used in this vast structure ; either from the vastness 
 of the amount, or because it was of comparatively 
 little value. We find it stated, " And Solomon 
 left all the vessels unweighed, because they were 
 exceeding many, neither was the weight of the 
 brass (bronze) found out ; " evidently from their 
 number, and probably from their size, for many 
 of the bronze productions were of immense weight. 
 It is impossible for any one to read over the 
 graphic account given in the Scriptures, of the 
 construction of the temple, especially of the pro- 
 ductions in metal, without being struck, not only 
 with the number of the vessels and largeness of 
 
1 68 
 
 BRONZE. 
 
 the castings, but with the great variety of the 
 work done. 
 
 First we may mention the two bronze pillars, 
 the dimensions of which we give in English 
 measure, taking the cubit to be according to Sir 
 Isaac Newton's calculation, equal to twenty-five 
 inches. In the account of the dimensions of these 
 there is some discrepancy in 1 Kings vii. 15, 16. 
 We read, " For he cast two pillars of brass, of 
 eighteen cubits high a piece : and a line of twelve 
 cubits did compass either of them about. And 
 he made two chapiters of molten brass, to set 
 upon the tops of the pillars : the height of the 
 one chapiter was five cubits, and the height of the 
 other chapiter was five cubits." Again in 2 
 Chron. iii. 15, we find the passage, " Also he made 
 before the house two pillars of thirty and five 
 cubits high, and the chapiter that was on the 
 top of each of them was five cubits." Commenta- 
 tors have endeavoured to reconcile these discrep- 
 ancies. The first is the measurement that is 
 generally agreed upon, and which we adopt. 
 
 These pillars, then, without the capitals measured 
 thirty-seven and a half, and in round numbers 
 eight feet in diameter ; if they were hollow, as 
 Whitson in his translation of Josephus thinks they 
 were, the metal would not be less than three and 
 a half inches thick, so that the whole casting of 
 one pillar must have weighed from twenty to 
 twenty-five tons. The height of the capitals was 
 
BRONZE. 169 
 
 ten feet five inches, which reckoning them also to 
 have been hollow, and of the same thickness as 
 the pillars, would give a weight of about ten tons 
 each. From the following description, all prac- 
 tical men will be able to appreciate the elaborate- 
 ness of the workmanship, in the finishing of these 
 capitals with their pillars. " And nets of checker 
 work, and wreaths of chain work, for the chapiters 
 which were upon the top of the pillars ; seven for 
 the one chapiter, and seven for the other chapiter. 
 And he made the pillars, and two rows round 
 about upon the one network, to cover the chapiters 
 that were upon the top, with pomegranates : and 
 so did he for the other chapiter. And the 
 chapiters that were upon the top of the pillars 
 were of lily work in the porch, four cubits. And 
 the chapiters upon the two pillars had pomegran- 
 ates also above, over against the belly which was 
 by the network : and the pomegranates were two 
 hundred in rows round about upon the other 
 chapiter. And upon the top of the pillars was 
 lily work ! so was the work of the pillars finished." 
 The pillars when set up would measure about 
 forty-seven feet in height. 
 
 The next great work is the bronze altar, which 
 measured forty-one feet eight inches square, and 
 twenty feet ten inches high, forming a platform 
 of seventeen hundred and thirty-six square feet. 
 
 Some Scripture commentators are of opinion 
 that this altar was made in the same way as the 
 
I7O BRONZE. 
 
 brazen altar in the tabernacle, of wood and over- 
 laid with bronze. We think that if this had 
 been the case, mention would have been made 
 of the fact, as mention is made when wood is 
 overlaid with gold, and are inclined to think 
 that the altar was entirely of bronze. It is 
 thus described : " Moreover he made an altar of 
 brass, twenty cubits the length thereof, and twenty 
 cubits the breadth thereof, and ten cubits the 
 height thereof." The thickness of the metal used 
 for this altar is nowhere given, but supposing it to 
 have been three inches, the whole weight of the 
 metal would not be under two hundred and fifty 
 tons. 
 
 The next large casting is that termed the 
 molten sea: "Also he made a molten sea of ten 
 cubits from brim to brim, round in compass, and 
 five cubits the height thereof; and a line of thirty 
 cubits did compass it round about. And under it 
 was the similitude of oxen, which did compass it 
 round about : ten in a cubit, compassing the sea 
 round about. Two rows of oxen were cast when 
 it was cast. And the thickness of it was an hand- 
 breadth, and the brim of it like the work of the 
 brim of a cup, with flowers of lilies ; and it re- 
 ceived and held three thousand baths." This im- 
 mense hemispheric vessel would therefore measure 
 twenty-one feet eight inches in diameter, and be 
 ten feet five inches deep in the centre. This large 
 casting could not weigh less than thirty tons, and 
 
BRONZE. I/I 
 
 would be capable of holding twenty thousand 
 gallons of water. The brim had cut out upon it, 
 or was ornamented with " flowers of lilies," 
 probably cast and fixed upon the brim as if grow- 
 ing, and oxen were carved or cut on the outside 
 all round, to the number of 300, and it stood 
 upon a pedestal of twelve bronze oxen : " It 
 stood upon twelve oxen, three looking toward the 
 north, and three looking toward the west, and 
 three looking toward the south, and three looking 
 toward the east : and the sea was set above upon 
 them, and all their hinder parts were inward." 
 
 The size of these oxen or bulls is not given, 
 but they must have been of considerable size, so 
 as that their corresponding legs would give thick- 
 ness and strength, sufficient to support so great a 
 weight ; for when the vessel was filled with water, 
 the whole weight would be upwards of one hundred 
 tons. How appropriate would such legs as those 
 described by Dr Percy and found by Mr Layard 
 be, where iron was found overlaid with bronze ; 
 however, bronze can bear an enormous weight 
 before crushing. 
 
 There were also castings of a smaller sort, the 
 details of which, as given by the sacred narrator, 
 show them to have been castings of very consider- 
 able size, as for instance : " And he made ten 
 bases of brass ; four cubits was the length of one 
 base, and four cubits the breadth thereof, and 
 three cubits the height of it. The work of the 
 
BRONZE. 
 
 bases was on this manner : they had borders, and 
 the borders were between the ledges : and on the 
 borders that were between the ledges were lions, 
 and oxen, and cherubims : and upon the ledges 
 there was a base above : and beneath the lions 
 and oxen were certain additions made of thin 
 work. And every base had four brazen wheels 
 and plates of brass ; and the four corners thereof 
 had undersetters : under the laver were under- 
 setters molten, at the side of every addition. And 
 the mouth of it within the chapiter and above was 
 a cubit : but the mouth thereof was round after 
 the work of the base, a cubit and a half : and also 
 upon the mouth of it were gravings with their 
 borders, foursquare, not round. And under the 
 borders were four wheels ; and the axle-trees of 
 the wheels were joined to the base : and the height 
 of a wheel was a cubit and half a cubit. And 
 the work of the wheels was like the work of a 
 chariot wheel: their axle-trees, and their naves, 
 and their felloes, and their spokes, were all molten. 
 And there were four undersetters to the four 
 corners of one base : and the undersetters were of 
 the very base itself. And in the top of the base 
 was there a round compass of half a cubit high : 
 and on the top of the base, the ledges thereof and 
 the borders thereof were of the same. For on the 
 plates of the ledges thereof, and on the borders 
 thereof, he graved cherubims, lions, and palm trees, 
 according to the proportion of every one, and 
 
BRONZE. 173 
 
 additions round about. After this manner he 
 made the ten bases : all of them had one casting, 
 one measure, and one size " (1 Kings vii. 27-37). 
 These bases, fitted upon wheels, constituted 
 carriages for supporting and moving about the 
 ten layers, or large bronze vessels for washing, 
 &c. The whole workmanship of these bases, as 
 described, is indicative of great skill. The lavers 
 are thus described : "Then made he ten lavers of 
 brass ; one laver contained forty baths, and every 
 laver was four cubits, and upon every one of the 
 ten bases was one laver." When it is considered 
 that each of these vessels were capable of holding 
 three hundred gallons of water, upwards of a ton 
 weight of water each, we obtain a better idea of 
 their size. Each vessel, upon its carriage, and 
 full of water, would weigh no less than two tons. 
 We need not specify more of these large works 
 constructed for the temple ; those named are 
 sufficient to verify what has been stated in refer- 
 ence to the knowledge of working in bronze 
 possessed by these artisans. A due estimate of 
 the massive character of the castings made, must 
 lessen the surprise felt on reading the statement, 
 that the weight of the brass was not known from 
 its abundance. That different qualities of bronze 
 were made and used for different purposes, for 
 beauty or suitability, is apparent from the follow- 
 ing general passage (1 Kings vii. 45), " And the 
 pots, and the shovels, and the basins : and all 
 
174 BRONZE. 
 
 these vessels, which Hiram made to king Solomon- 
 for the house of the Lord, were of bright .brass." 
 These were in all probability made of bronze, 
 containing a larger proportion of tin ; an alloy of the 
 character of speculum metal, which when polished 
 would present an imposing appearance. 
 
 Any practical metallurgist who reads carefully 
 the description given of the metallic work, exe- 
 cuted for the temple, must form no mean estimate 
 of the skill of these ancient workers in the metal- 
 lurgical arts, not only in casting, but in the delicate 
 and intricate operations of engraving, carving, and 
 chasing. It must also be apparent, in reading 
 over the account of these enormous castings, that 
 vast mechanical resources must have been within 
 their reach, in order to remove, fit up, and place 
 in position, such vast masses of metal. 
 
 Two questions arise : Where were these castings 
 made, and of what material were the moulds? In 
 reply to these questions, we find the following 
 statement (1 Kings vii. 46) : 
 
 " In the plain of Jordan did the king cast them, 
 in the clay ground between Succoth and Zartham." 
 According to the marginal reading, the translation 
 should be : " In the depth of the clay ground," 
 showing that they were moulded in clay. Some 
 have suggested that the smelting and casting 
 operations were performed outside Jerusalem for 
 sanatory purposes. We scarcely think the smoke 
 question troubled the dwellers in Jerusalem, and 
 
BRONZE. 175 
 
 are more inclined to accept the reasons, which the 
 statement of the sacred historian naturally suggests. 
 Clay mixed with sand is the moulding materials 
 still used for bronze castings. So large a quantity 
 of metal as some of these castings required would not, 
 in all probability, be fused in one furnace. For all the 
 large castings, especially for such a massive casting 
 as the " sea of brass," it is highly probable that a 
 whole series of furnaces were put in operation at 
 the same time, and all tapped together, and the 
 molten metal run into one mould. Such series of 
 furnaces are generally set in a sort of circle or 
 square, under a large dome or roof, from which 
 rises a large chimney or tower. These structures 
 are generally in the neighbourhood of towns, and 
 always present a very conspicuous appearance. 
 Now, if a similar method was adopted in these early 
 days, it may explain the reference of Nehemiah, 
 in the following passage : " Malchijah the son of 
 Harim, and Hashub the son of Pahath-moab, 
 repaired the other piece, and the tower of the 
 furnaces." This may imply that such a structure 
 as we have just described did at one time exist 
 on the plains of Jordan, erected probably in the 
 time of Solomon, and it may have continued a 
 place for metallurgical operations a national 
 foundry up to the time the Jews were carried 
 captive into Babylon. Again, at the restoration, 
 or rather during the rebuilding and refurnishing 
 of the temple, the same metallurgical operations 
 
176 BRONZE. 
 
 would be resumed, hence the repairing of these 
 furnaces would form an important object to the re- 
 turned captives ; and as they came out from the midst 
 of a people who were well skilled in metallurgical 
 operations, as is evidenced by such work as the 
 golden image in the plains of Dura, and the re- 
 searches of Layard and others, it is probable that 
 many of the Jews were well skilled in the metallic 
 arts. When we consider the enormous quantity 
 of bronze, which must have been used in the con- 
 struction and furnishing of the temple, and that 
 about ten per cent, at least of the whole must have 
 been tin, we are led to form some conception] of 
 the abundance of this metal at that period. To us 
 this matter has a home interest from the circum- 
 stance, that it is all but certain that the tin used 
 for the work of the temple was found in our own 
 island. As tin is not named separately, it is 
 probable that the Phoenicians made and sold the 
 bronze, and that it was not manufactured by the 
 Jews ; and this is made more probable from the 
 absence of articles made wholly of tin being 
 found in ancient ruins. 
 
 The knowledge of metallic arts possessed by the 
 Israelites when they left Egypt, but which during 
 the time of the Judges had, on account of the 
 special circumstances of the nation, been allowed 
 to lapse till such knowledge was practically lost, 
 was again recovered during the building of the 
 temple, being then introduced by the Phoenicians. 
 
BRONZE. 
 
 After this time some knowledge of metallic arts 
 appears to have been retained by them, and never 
 afterwards lost; for after this period we find frequent 
 references in Scripture to smiths and other arti- 
 ficers in metals, and also we find mention made of 
 particular metallic works requiring considerable 
 skill, which were manufactured by themselves. 
 "With the exception, however, of these two periods 
 viz., the construction of the tabernacle and the 
 temple the Hebrews do not appear to have ever 
 been a manufacturing people, or to have excelled 
 in any metallic arts. 
 
 There were certain ancient temples and palaces 
 which contained immense wealth in the quantity 
 of metals with which they were furnished and 
 adorned, but we have not seen an account of 
 any single building on which there was such an 
 expenditure of metal of all kinds as the temple of 
 Solomon. Such vast treasures, accumulated in one 
 building, were well calculated to excite, and did 
 excite, the cupidity not only of wicked and extra- 
 vagant rulers, but of the monarchs of other nations. 
 It will be interesting to ascertain, if possible, what 
 became of such a vast quantity of metal thus 
 brought together into the house of the Lord. 
 
 The temple was commenced in or about the 
 year 1011 B.C., and forty-one years after this 
 date, 970 B.C., Shishak, king of Egypt, captured 
 Jerusalem, and plundered the temple and palace 
 of much gold, taking away the shields and targets 
 
 M 
 
1/8 BRONZE. 
 
 of gold, which were afterwards replaced by 
 targets and shields of bronze, an account of 
 which is given in 1 Kings xiv. "And it came 
 to pass, in the fifth year of King Rehoboam, 
 that Shishak, king of Egypt, came up against 
 Jerusalem : and he took away the treasures of the 
 house of the Lord, and the treasures of the king's 
 house ; he even took away all : and he took away all 
 the shields of gold which Solomon had made. And 
 King Rehoboam made in their stead brazen shields, 
 and committed them unto the hands of the chief of 
 the guard which kept the door of the king's house." 
 
 The extent of this spoliation, we think, requires a 
 little modification. The reading of the passage is 
 clearly that the King of Egypt took away all the trea- 
 sures of " the house of the Lord, and the treasures 
 of the king's house ; " but the word treasure has 
 evidently a limited meaning. It probably means all 
 the wealth that was stored up as bars of gold and 
 silver. The only manufactured articles named 
 which he seems to have taken were the targets and 
 shields. The value of the targets and shields would 
 be somewhere about 230,000. It is said the 
 rulers of Israel humbled themselves, and became 
 servants or tributaries to Shishak; so that probably 
 the sums or articles he got were matters of agree- 
 ment, or it required all the metals stored up 
 with the shields and targets to pay the tribute 
 demanded. 
 
 In the meantime Judah had been led into 
 idolatry by Abijah and his wife, the mother of 
 
BRONZE. 
 
 King Asa. Asa, when lie became king, removed 
 his mother from being queen, and put down her 
 idolatries, destroyed her idol, stamped it and 
 burned it, and turned his heart to the worship 
 of God. It is said (2 Chron. xv. 18), " He 
 brought into the house of God the things that his 
 father had dedicated, and that he himself had dedi- 
 cated, silver and gold and vessels." Asa reigned 
 peaceably until 920 B.C. ; when he was besieged 
 by the King of Israel. In this strait he made 
 free use of the treasures of the temple to bribe 
 the King of Syria to assist him against Israel. 
 " And Baasha, king of Israel, went up against 
 Judah, and built Ramah, that he might not suffer 
 any to go out or come in to Asa, king of Judah. 
 Then Asa took all the silver and the gold that 
 were left in the treasures of the house of the Lord, 
 and the treasures of the king's house, and delivered 
 them into the hand of his servants : and King Asa 
 sent them to Ben-hadad the son of Tabrimon, the 
 son of Hezion, king of Syria, that dwelt at 
 Damascus, saying, There is a league between me 
 and thee, and between my father and thy father : 
 behold, I have sent unto thee a present of silver 
 and gold ; come and break thy league with Baasha, 
 king of Israel, that he may depart from me " 
 (1 Kings xv. 17-19). This present of gold and 
 silver evidently did not embrace any of the works 
 of art, but only that which was stored in the 
 treasury of the temple. 
 
 Jehoshaphat, the son of Asa, seems to have 
 
ISO BRONZE. 
 
 turned his attention to raising his kingdom in 
 arts and commerce : he built new cities, and 
 fortified those his father had built ; he also built 
 forts, and established storehouses throughout the 
 land; he appointed learned men to teach the 
 people the law, which embraced moral, civil, and 
 religious duties, for the purpose of re-establish- 
 ing that commerce in gold which flourished so 
 greatly in the days of Solomon ; he entered into 
 an alliance with Ahab, the king of Israel, who was 
 married to a princess of Phoenicia, the then great 
 maritime nation of the world, and at Ahab's 
 death he renewed this alliance with Ahaziah, 
 Ahab's son. In order to further this project, he 
 built large ships that were intended to sail to 
 Ophir ; but we suspect Ahaziah was not so true 
 and faithful an ally as Hiram was to Solomon, 
 for these vessels never went out on their voyage, 
 but were wrecked in the harbour where they were 
 built, of Eziongeber, on the Red Sea. The union 
 of Joram, Jehoshaphat's son, with the daughter 
 of Ahab, Athaliah, a determined idolatress, who 
 ruled the nation through her husband, and at 
 his death murdered the seed royal and had 
 herself proclaimed queen, was a source of much 
 evil to Judah. During her reign the temple 
 was allowed to get out of repair, while she 
 used much of its treasures for the service of 
 her idolatrous worship. From this neglect and 
 spoliation, the temple, or certain portions of it, 
 suffered great injury. "For," says the record, 
 
BRONZE. iSl 
 
 " the sons of Athaliah, that wicked woman, had 
 broken up the house of God, and also all the 
 dedicated things of the house of the Lord did they 
 bestow upon Baalim." The disrepair and spolia- 
 tion of the temple at this time seems to have 
 been so great as to unfit it for the proper worship 
 of God, as prescribed by the law ; for at the death 
 of Athaliah, which took place about 870 B.C., it 
 was found necessary to have it repaired, and for 
 this purpose a voluntary contribution or collection 
 was made, the contributions being dropped into 
 a box or chest placed in the temple, as is stated in 
 2 Chron. xxiv. 11-14 " And thus they did 
 day by day, and gathered money in abundance. 
 And the king and Jehoiada gave it to such as did 
 the work of the service of the house of the Lord, 
 and hired masons and carpenters to repair the 
 house of the Lord, and also such as wrought in 
 iron and brass to mend the house of the Lord. 
 So the workmen wrought, and the work was 
 perfected by them, and they set the house of 
 God in his state, and strengthened it. And 
 when they had finished it, they brought the 
 rest of the money before the king and Jehoiada, 
 whereof were made vessels for the house of the 
 Lord, even vessels to minister, and to offer withal, 
 and spoons, and vessels of gold and silver." 
 
 When King Ahaz visited the King of Assyria, 
 he saw at Damascus an altar of superior workman- 
 ship that pleased him so much, that he sent a 
 pattern or drawing of it to Jerusalem, with orders 
 
1 82 BRONZE. 
 
 to have one made for him exactly similar against 
 his return, that he might worship thereon " And 
 King Ahaz went to Damascus to meet Tiglath- 
 pileser, king of Assyria, and saw an altar that was 
 at Damascus : and King Ahaz sent to Urijah the 
 priest the fashion of the altar, and the pattern 
 of it, according to all the workmanship thereof. 
 And Urijah the priest built an altar according to 
 all that King Ahaz had sent from Damascus : so 
 Urijah the priest made it against King Ahaz came 
 from Damascus. And when the king was come 
 from Damascus, the king saw the altar : and the 
 king approached to the altar, and offered thereon. 
 And he brought also the brazen altar, which was 
 before the Lor<}, from the forefront of the house, 
 from between the altar and the house of the Lord, 
 and put it on the north side of the altar." This was 
 followed immediately by a sacrilegious act of the 
 grossest kind " And King Ahaz cut off the 
 borders of the bases, and removed the laver from off 
 them, and took down the sea from off the brazen 
 oxen that were under it, and put it upon a pave- 
 ment of stones " (2 Kings xvi.) 
 
 Dr Kitto, in his " History of Palestine," thinks 
 that these bases, and also the twelve oxen, were 
 probably melted down for idolatrous purposes. 
 The twelve oxen, however, were not melted, for they 
 are named by Jeremiah among the articles taken 
 away to Babylon. Probably the oxen were used 
 for some idolatrous object. 
 
 On this subject the Rev. Mr Rawlinson, in his 
 
BRONZE. 183 
 
 " Ancient Monarchies/' says that " Tiglath-pileser 
 was a very religious person, which was manifested 
 in the number and great gifts he conferred upon 
 his gods. And according to the usual mode of 
 reasoning adopted, his success and great prosperity 
 made it evident that not only his earnestness in 
 his devotions, but the gods he worshipped were 
 really the true gods. And this would evidently 
 sway mightily with a weak-minded monarch sucli 
 as Ahaz. As bronze bulls and oxen were held in 
 high esteem in Babylon, symbolising their wor- 
 ship, it is more than probable that the oxen were 
 preserved. Indeed it is very probable that the 
 brazen laver was removed for the purpose of 
 obtaining the oxen on which it stood." 
 
 We are of opinion, from reading the statement in 
 2 Kings xvi. 17, that along with the borders of 
 the bases cut off, the metal of the large bronze 
 altar was used up by Ahaz for altars or idols about 
 the city of Jerusalem, for the temple was shut up 
 " And Ahaz gathered together the vessels of the 
 house of God, and cut in pieces the vessels of the 
 house of God, and shut up the doors of the house 
 of the Lord, and he made him altars in every 
 corner of Jerusalem." 
 
 In the catalogue given by Jeremiah of the 
 articles taken away to Babylon, the brazen altar is 
 not named ; this we think would not have been 
 omitted if it was then in existence. 
 
 Hezekiah succeeded Ahaz, and in his reign the 
 temple was again opened and cleaned, and the 
 
1 84 BRONZE. 
 
 vessels which Ahaz had cast aside and polluted 
 were purified " Moreover all the vessels which 
 King Ahaz in his reign did cast away in his 
 transgression have we prepared and sanctified; 
 and behold, they are before the altar of the 
 Lord." Also, " He (Hezekiah) removed the high 
 places, and brake the images, and cut down the 
 groves, and brake in pieces the brazen serpent 
 that Moses had made; for unto those days the 
 children did burn incense to it : and he called it 
 Nehushtan." Nehushtan is stated in the r margin 
 to mean a "piece of brass." Possibly Hezekiah 
 had the brazen sea replaced upon the oxen, as it 
 was before. 
 
 We find mention made here of the altar of the 
 Lord. Some have supposed that this was the ori- 
 ginal large bronze altar ; but " altar of the Lord " 
 would be the name given to whatever altar existed 
 in the temple at the time, and does not necessarily 
 signify the large altar removed by Ahaz. 
 
 Even good King Hezekiah despoiled the temple 
 of part of its fittings; but this was in an emer- 
 gency, and for the safety of the nation. His non- 
 payment of the stipulated tribute-money to the 
 King of Assyria provoked the anger of that 
 powerful monarch, who, in the fourteenth year of 
 Hezekiah's reign, poured his troops into Judea, 
 and took the fenced cities. At this Hezekiah's 
 courage failed him, and he sent to the King of 
 Assyria this humiliating message " I have 
 offended: return from me; that which thou put- 
 
BRONZE. 185 
 
 test on me I will bear." Sennacherib exacted 
 three hundred talents of silver and thirty talents 
 of gold. Taken as Jewish talents, this would be 
 about 266,906. We think that this sum was 
 the amount of the tribute-money which was due, 
 but that the Assyrians also exacted a large sum 
 to remunerate them for withdrawing from the 
 campaign ; for it is said that " Hezekiah gave him 
 all the silver that was found in the house of the 
 Lord and in the treasures of the king's house ; 
 and he cut off the gold from the doors of the 
 temple of the Lord, and from the pillars which 
 Hezekiah king of Judah had overlaid, and gave 
 it to the King of Assyria." We can scarcely 
 imagine that the exchequer of the nation was so 
 poor at this time that they could not pay so 
 comparatively small a sum 266,906 without 
 despoiling the temple. He probably adopted this 
 method to meet the present emergency until 
 a call was made upon the nation, which supposi- 
 tion is strengthened by the fact that Hezekiah 
 very quickly recovered from this loss of wealth; 
 for we find it stated shortly afterwards, " And 
 Hezekiah had exceeding much riches," of which 
 he made a boastful show to the ambassadors of 
 the King of Babylon. 
 
 Nearly a century after this exhibition of wealth, 
 Nebuchadnezzar, after a protracted siege, reduced 
 Jerusalem, destroyed the temple, and carried away 
 most of the metals to Babylon " And the pillars 
 of brass that were in the house of the Lord, and 
 
1 86 BRONZE. 
 
 the bases, and the brazen sea that was in the 
 house of the Lord, did the Chaldeans break in 
 pieces, and carried the brass of them to Babylon. 
 And the pots, and the shovels, and the snuffers, 
 and the spoons, and all the vessels of brass where- 
 with they ministered, took they away. And the 
 firepans, and the bowls, and such things as were 
 of gold in gold, and of silver in silver, the 
 captain of the guard took away. The two pillars, 
 one sea, and the bases which Solomon had made 
 for the house of the Lord ; the brass of all these 
 vessels was without weight." Jeremiah, furnishing 
 a catalogue of the same articles, says " And the 
 basins, and the firepans, and the bowls, and the 
 caldrons, and the candlesticks, and the spoons, and 
 the cups ; that which was of gold in gold, and that 
 which was of silver in silver, took the captain of the 
 guard away. The two pillars, one sea, and twelve 
 brazen bulls that were under the bases, which 
 King Solomon had made in the house of the Lord : 
 the brass of all these vessels was without weight." 
 The large bronze altar is not here mentioned. 
 Whether the gold used in overlaying the house, 
 and in making up the furniture of the temple, 
 was all removed previous to this, is not certain ; 
 but from what is stated, it would appear that 
 much gold remained. The removal of such a vast 
 quantity of metal to Babylon must have been a 
 formidable undertaking. 
 
 Many of the sacred vessels of gold and silver 
 were preserved from destruction, and carried to 
 
BRONZE. IS/ 
 
 Babylon by the Assyrians, who placed them in 
 the temple of their idols. Very shortly after the 
 removal of the gold, silver, and brass from the 
 temple in Jerusalem, " Nebuchadnezzar the king 
 made an image of gold, whose height was three- 
 score cubits, and the breadth thereof six cubits : 
 he set it up in the plain of Dura, in the province 
 of Babylon." 
 
 This taking place so shortly after the fall of 
 Jerusalem suggests the supposition that the image 
 may have been made from the metal removed 
 from that city. The siege had been a formidable 
 undertaking, and sufficiently important to warrant 
 a memorial being erected ; and the image, besides 
 being set up in honour of some god, was in all 
 probability not only for the purpose of being wor- 
 shipped, but might at the same time commemorate 
 the defeat of the Jews and the taking of Jeru- 
 salem. This suggests a reason why the Jews were 
 watched during its dedication, and why the three 
 young patriots did not go to the dedication of 
 the image attendance being not only an acknow- 
 ledgment of the superiority of the Assyrian gods 
 over the God of Israel, but a rejoicing at their 
 own defeat. It is quite within the range of pro- 
 bability that some of the bronze articles found by 
 Mr Layard and others in the ruins of Babylon 
 may have been either part of the furniture of, or 
 made from the bronze formerly in, the temple of 
 Solomon. 
 
 In the account of this sack of the temple, it is 
 
1 88 BRONZE. 
 
 remarkable that no mention is made of the Ark of 
 the Covenant, no word to say whether it was carried 
 to Babylon or destroyed. In either case, it is more 
 than probable that such an event would have been 
 referred to by Jewish historians, as the great 
 national reverence for this object would have 
 induced them to have lamented either its de- 
 struction or removal. We are inclined to think 
 that this sacred vessel was hid by pious priests, 
 who, foreseeing certain destruction coming upon 
 the city and temple, removed it to a place of 
 safety, and their death following, the locality of 
 its hiding-place was forgotten. 
 
 When the Jews returned from Babylon to their 
 own land, B.C. 536, they obtained permission to 
 carry back with them the sacred vessels of their 
 temple which had been preserved in the temples 
 of Babylon since their captivity. It is thus nar- 
 rated by the historian of that event " Also 
 Cyrus the king brought forth the vessels of the 
 house of the Lord which Nebuchadnezzar had 
 brought forth out of Jerusalem, and had put them 
 in the house of his gods ; even those did Cyrus, 
 king of Persia, bring forth by the hand of 
 Mithredath the treasurer, and numbered them unto 
 Sheshbazzar, the prince of Judah. And this is 
 the number of them : Thirty chargers of gold, a 
 thousand chargers of silver, nine and twenty knives, 
 thirty basins of gold, silver basins of a second sort 
 four hundred and ten, and other vessels a thousand. 
 All the vessels of gold and of silver were five 
 
BRONZE. 1 89 
 
 thousand and four hundred. All these did Shesh- 
 bazzar bring up with them of the captivity that 
 were brought up from Babylon to Jerusalem " (Ezra 
 i. 7-11). These were simply what were brought back 
 from Babylon; but the Jews, with an enthusiasm 
 that always characterised them in relation to their 
 temple, gave liberally of their substance. Although 
 at this time they were doubtless much impoverished, 
 the various gifts in gold and silver, and vessels 
 made of the same recorded in Ezra and Nehemiah, 
 amounted to close on two millions of our money, 
 exclusive of garments, and other articles in metal 
 not valued. And they continued to enrich their 
 temple with the precious metals until its final 
 destruction. The most of what may be termed 
 the furniture or furnishing of the second temple 
 remained in it until it was destroyed by Titus after 
 the Christian era. These were then carried in 
 triumph to Rome, as Josephus, who was an eye- 
 witness, testifies " But for those that were 
 taken in the temple of Jerusalem, they made the 
 greatest figure of them all. The golden table, of 
 the weight of many talents ; the candlestick that 
 was made of gold, though its construction was now 
 changed from that which we made use of for its 
 middle shaft was fixed upon a bases, and the small 
 branches were produced out of it to a great length, 
 having the likeness of a trident in their position, 
 and had every one a socket made of brass for a lamp 
 at the top of them. These lamps were in number 
 seven, and represented the dignity of the number 
 
BRONZE. 
 
 seven amongst the Jews " (Josephus' " War with 
 the Jews," Book vii., Whitson's translation). 
 
 The figure of the candlestick was sculptured on 
 the triumphal arch of Titus, which is still to be 
 seen. It appears, however, from another extract 
 from Josephus, that there were more candlesticks 
 in the temple than one. He says that " a priest 
 named Jesus, a son of Thebuthus, on condition 
 of having his life spared, brought out to Titus 
 from the sacred treasury two candlesticks formed 
 like the candlestick of the temple, some tables, 
 cups, and other vessels, all of solid gold, and very 
 heavy, as also the sacred veils, the official robes 
 of the high priest, ornamented with precious 
 stones, and many of the sacred utensils. Phineus, 
 the treasurer of the temple, who also was taken 
 prisoner at this time, delivered to Titus the robes 
 and girdles of the priests, a great quantity of 
 purple and scarlet, which was preserved for the 
 veils, and also cinnamon, cassia, and other sweet 
 spices, which were used for incense." 
 
 We are inclined to think that neither the candle- 
 stick carried by Titus, nor any of them in the 
 temple at the time of its destruction, was the 
 candlestick made in the wilderness. That this 
 was that candlestick, however, has often been 
 assumed : the historical evidence is against that 
 assumption. There is no mention of this candle- 
 stick having been carried to Babylon, nor does it 
 appear in the list of the articles brought back ; 
 such an important item, we think, would not have 
 
BRONZE. IQI 
 
 been omitted in both lists. The same remark 
 applies to the table. We think that the candle- 
 stick of Moses was removed from the temple before 
 its destruction by sacrilegious or friendly hands. 
 The candlestick represented on the arch of Titus 
 does not correspond with that made by Moses, and 
 the table is neither in shape nor dimensions that 
 made in the wilderness. It may represent the 
 altar of incense. 
 
 After the triumph, the candlestick taken by 
 Titus was deposited in the Temple of Peace, and 
 according to one story, fell into the Tiber from 
 the Milvian bridge, during the flight of Mexentius 
 from Constantinople, in 312 A.D. Gibbon says 
 that G-enseric sacked Borne in 455 A.D., and took the 
 candlestick with him to Carthage ; and Belisarius 
 finding it there when he defeated the Vandals, 
 brought it to Constantinople. Then in 534 A.D. 
 it was deposited, with other vessels of the Jewish 
 temple, in the Christian Church at Jerusalem. It 
 has never been heard of since, but it is possible it 
 may be found yet, when we get free access to the 
 sacred places to excavate ; and if found, it would 
 certainly form one of the most interesting relics 
 of antiquity, even although not that of the taber- 
 nacle. The golden tables referred to by Josephus 
 no doubt found their way into the national 
 exchequer of Rome, to help them to carry on those 
 wars which ultimately brought about the ruin of 
 the Roman Empire itself. 
 
IRON. 
 
 IRON is the most universally diffused of the metals, 
 being present in some of its combinations in 
 almost every substance in nature, whether animal, 
 vegetable, or mineral. It is very seldom found in 
 the metallic state. Its most important combina- 
 tions, in a metallurgic point of view, are with 
 oxygen and carbonic acid, and in these combina- 
 tions it is found in sufficient abundance for all 
 our wants. The reduction of these ores to the 
 metallic state is performed by the same means as 
 described for the oxides of other metals namely, 
 by mixing with coal, and other carbonaceous 
 matters, and subjecting to a heat of sufficient 
 intensity to cause fusion. The greater portion of 
 the iron made in this country at the present time 
 is obtained from the carbonate. This carbonate is 
 found mixed or combined either with coaly matter, 
 in which case it is termed blackband, or with 
 clayey matters, which are termed clay or slate 
 band. In either case the ore is broken into small 
 pieces ; and if there is not sufficient coaly matter 
 in the ore, it is mixed with coal, so as to burn. 
 The whole is made into a large heap, and set on 
 
IRON. 
 
 193 
 
 ire, which dispels carbonic acid as well as carbon, 
 and leaves the iron as oxide, with less or more 
 earthy matters, as clay and silica, which are 
 got rid of by mixing with the ore a quantity of 
 lime, which during the process of fusion combines 
 with the earths, and forms scoria or slag. This 
 floats on the surface of the fused mass, and is 
 separated from the iron by being let out of the 
 furnace at a different part. The iron thus obtained 
 is known as cast iron, and is afterwards, when 
 required, converted into malleable iron by re- 
 peated heating and hammering. To effect the 
 fusion of cast iron, we must have furnaces of very 
 large dimensions, and powerful steam-engines for 
 blowing the fire, before the heat is rendered 
 sufficiently intense to reduce the ore. And here 
 lies the interest in connection with the inquiry 
 into the metallurgical operations of iron in ancient 
 times, back even to the infancy of the human 
 race. The smelting and manufacture of iron by 
 this method is surrounded with so many difficulties, 
 and needs so many requirements and such skill, 
 that were there no other means of obtaining it than 
 by this one process, of first making cast iron and 
 converting that into malleable, we would naturally 
 expect it to have been among the last of the 
 metals brought into use. And it is no doubt this 
 view of the question that has caused so much 
 scepticism concerning the early use of iron. Instead 
 of it being the last of the metals brought into use, 
 
 N 
 
I 9 4 
 
 IRON. 
 
 we find it among the first named in history " And 
 Zillah, she also bare Tubal-cain, an instructor of 
 every artificer in brass and iron " (Gen. iv. 22). 
 In Thomson's " History of Chemistry," the Doctor, 
 knowing the difficulty connected with this very 
 early knowledge of iron, suggested " that in 
 these early days it is possible native iron may have 
 existed, as well as native gold, silver, and copper, 
 and in this way Tubal-cain may have become 
 acquainted with its existence and properties." 
 But as it must have been a more difficult task 
 for Tubal-cain to make bronze than iron, we are 
 afraid that the Doctor has chosen his standpoint 
 from his knowledge of our requirements, and has 
 forgotten that oxide of iron can be easily reduced to 
 the metallic state although not fused, even at an 
 ordinary red heat, and the metal made fit for use, 
 by hammering also at a red heat. This matter we 
 shall have occasion to speak of further on. We 
 think, therefore, the Doctor's supposition that 
 Tubal-cain had native iron to work upon is not a 
 very happy one, seeing there is scarcely an instance 
 of iron being found native, and then only in quanti- 
 ties so small as to be of no practical value. Even 
 allowing it to have been more abundant in the 
 early ages of man's history, the difficulties of free- 
 ing it from the matrix must have been about as 
 great as those in reducing it from the ore, unless 
 we allow a knowledge of the magnet, by which it 
 could be gathered from the rocks after they were 
 
IKON. 195 
 
 ground; but this would be an admission equally 
 baseless, since the soil is so destructive to iron 
 as to oxidise articles made of it in the course of a 
 few centuries even in dry climates, so that all 
 traces of them are lost, and this same destructive 
 process would operate on native iron. 
 
 The method of manufacturing iron from its ore 
 adopted by the Indians is very simple, and of a very 
 ancient date, and probably is the same as was prac- 
 tised by the ancient Egyptians, and other nations. 
 
 The furnace is built as follows : First a trench 
 is made in the ground about three feet deep, 
 having a sloping side *or entrance, and then a 
 furnace of brick or stone is made upon the side of 
 the trench ; the bottom of the furnace has an in- 
 cline into the trench, and holes by which to remove 
 the slag from the furnace. After a fire is kindled, 
 the ore of iron, which is an oxide, is mixed with 
 charcoal, and put into the fire ; two bellows made 
 of skins are connected to a clay-pot which pro- 
 jects from the bottom of the furnace, and is placed 
 upon a plank, or planks, laid over the trench in 
 front of the fire. A man sits and works the 
 bellows by hand, pressing down one with the right 
 hand, and then the other with the left, which 
 produces a continuous stream of wind. In a short 
 time the ore softens, a part of it melts along with 
 the impurities, and forms slag or scoria, which is 
 taken out by one of the holes or openings of the 
 furnace. The remainder of the iron loses its 
 
1 96 IRON. 
 
 oxygen by the charcoal, and forms a tough, pasty 
 mass. About twelve hours after, the iron is 
 withdrawn in blocks. The blocks of crude metal 
 are then put into another furnace, and heated to a 
 welding heat ; it is then taken out and subjected 
 to beating and hammering. This beating drives 
 out any scoriaceous matters, and the metal 
 toughens and refines. This method, with slight 
 modifications in the shape of the furnace, aris- 
 ing probably from local circumstances, has been in 
 use from the earliest ages, not only for iron, but 
 for that compound of it termed steel, which will 
 be apparent from the following interesting account 
 of the manufacture of iron and steel in India 
 given by Dr Ure : 
 
 " The manner in which iron ore is smelted and 
 converted into wootz, or Indian steel, by the 
 natives at the present day is probably the very 
 same that was practised by them at the time of 
 the invasion of Alexander ; and it is a uniform 
 process from the Himalaya mountains to Cape 
 Comorin. The furnace or bloomery in which the 
 ore is smelted is from four to five feet high, 
 somewhat pear-shaped, being about five feet wide 
 at bottom, and one foot at top. It is built entirely 
 of clay, so that a couple of men may finish its 
 erection in a few hours, and have it ready for use 
 the next day. There is an opening in front about 
 a foot or more in height, which is built up with 
 clay at the commencement, and broken down at 
 
IKON. 197 
 
 the end of each smelting operation. The bellows 
 are usually made of a goat's skin, which has been 
 stripped from the animal without ripping open the 
 part covering the belly. The apertures at the legs 
 are tied up, and a nozzle of bamboo is fastened 
 into the opening formed by the neck. The orifice 
 of the tail is enlarged and distended by two slips 
 of bamboo; these are grasped in the hand, and 
 kept close together in making the stroke for the 
 blast ; in the returning stroke, they are separated 
 to admit the air. By working a bellows of this 
 kind with each hand, making alternate strokes, a 
 tolerably uniform blast is produced. The bamboo 
 nozzles of the bellows are inserted into tubes of 
 clay, which pass into the furnace at the bottom 
 comes off the temporary wall in front. The fur- 
 nace is filled with charcoal, and a lighted coal 
 being introduced before the nozzles, the mass in 
 the interior is soon kindled. As soon as this is 
 accomplished, a small portion of the ore, previously 
 moistened with water, to prevent it from running 
 through the charcoal, but without any flux what- 
 ever, is laid on the top of the coals, and covered 
 with charcoal, to fill up the furnace. In this 
 manner ore and fuel are supplied, and the bellows 
 are urged for three or four hours. When the pro- 
 cess is stopped, and the temporary wall in front 
 broken down, the bloom is removed with a pair of 
 tongs from the bottom of the furnace. 
 
 " In converting the iron into steel, the natives 
 
198 IRON. 
 
 cut it into pieces to enable it to pack better in the 
 crucible, which is formed of refractory clay, mixed 
 with a large quantity of charred husk of rice. It 
 is seldom charged with more than a pound of iron, 
 which is put in with a proper weight of dried 
 wood, chopped small, and both are covered with 
 one or two green leaves, the proportions being, in 
 general, ten parts of iron to one of wood and 
 leaves. The mouth of the crucible is then stopped 
 with a handful of tempered clay, rammed in very 
 closely to exclude the air. As soon as the clay- 
 plugs of the crucible are dry, from twenty to 
 twenty^four of them are built in the form of an 
 arch in a small blast-furnace ; they are kept 
 covered with charcoal, and subjected to heat, urged 
 by a blast, for about two hours and a half, when 
 the process is considered to be complete. The 
 crucibles being now taken out of the furnace, and 
 allowed to cool, are broken, and the steel is found 
 in the form of a cake, rounded by the bottom of the 
 crucible." The remnants of some of these bole fur- 
 naces or bloomeries still exist in our own country. 
 These modes of manufacturing iron and steel 
 are, in the opinion of all who have studied the 
 subject, the same as those practised in the earliest 
 ages of the world ; and although the processes are 
 simple, and the apparatus rude, still they are very 
 effective, and produce metals of the best kind. 
 Rude as the whole appears to be, yet it must have 
 been the result of considerable experience. The 
 
IRON. 199 
 
 formation of the bellows the composition of the 
 crucibles the charging of the furnaces and cru- 
 cibles all tell of experience and observation. 
 There is no reference in Scripture or other ancient 
 book to the methods practised by the ancients for 
 obtaining iron from its ores ; but that it was 
 obtained and in common use in the very earliest 
 ages is clearly proven by the constant reference 
 to this metal and its properties in the oldest 
 histories extant, and long before the age of any 
 historian. The Scriptures are full of such refer- 
 ences, showing that the Hebrews had knowledge 
 of these practical arts. A few centuries after the 
 Flood, taking the early date of Job, iron ore is 
 referred to in the following language, " Iron is 
 taken out of the earth." Moses refers to iron 
 furnaces in terms which show that they have been 
 in use, and well understood by those he was 
 addressing. He makes the furnace the object of an 
 allegorical figure expressive of intense suffering 
 " But the Lord hath taken you, and brought you 
 forth out of the iron furnace " (Deut. iv. 20). 
 The same writer also refers to the ore of iron as 
 existing in Palestine " Out of whose hills thou 
 mayest dig iron and brass " (Deut. viii. 9). That 
 it was a common article in different countries is 
 evident from its being mentioned amongst articles 
 taken from the Midianites, and concerning which 
 general rules were given for purifying. In cor- 
 roboration of these statements, and in order to 
 
200 
 
 IRON. 
 
 prove the early use of iron, and even of steel, the 
 following extract is taken from Wilkinson's 
 " Ancient Egypt : " " Iron and copper mines are 
 found in the Egyptian desert which were worked 
 in old times ; and the monument of Thebes, and 
 even the tombs about Memphis, dating more than 
 4000 years ago, represent butchers sharpening 
 their knives on a round bar of metal attached to 
 their aprons, which, from its blue colour, can only 
 be steel. And the distinction between the bronze 
 and iron weapons in the tomb of Kameses III., 
 one painted red and the other blue, leaves no doubt 
 of both having been used at the same periods." 
 
 These facts harmonise with the reference in 
 Scripture to engraving on precious stones and 
 other works, which operation, so far as our know- 
 ledge goes, necessitates the use of both iron and 
 steel. The fact of there being no iron articles 
 found in the ancient ruins of Egypt and Nineveh, 
 is easily accounted for by the rapid destruction of 
 that metal when exposed to air and moisture. 
 The iron instruments of war and art used by our 
 own forefathers a few centuries ago, that have 
 been subjected to such action, are now, when 
 found, mere fragments, with scarcely a trace of 
 their original shape, which a visit to any of our 
 public museums will verify ; so that the absence of 
 similar articles in very ancient ruins is easily 
 accounted for. It is true that profane history says 
 little or nothing of iron in ancient times a 
 
IRON. 201 
 
 circumstance often referred to in proof of iron not 
 being known, or, if known, only obtained in very 
 minute quantities. It is well known that the 
 Scriptures, equally valuable and ancient, are seldom 
 referred to when this subject is considered. Even 
 many of those who profess their belief in the 
 divine authenticity of the Scriptures, yet pass 
 over such incidental references with indifference, 
 and, to avoid noticing seeming difficulties, admit 
 certain inferences upon art without much inquiry. 
 In our opinion, numerous incidental references to 
 arts and manufactures, or the products of these, 
 are of very great importance, as illustrations of 
 great truths in history, and also of the existence 
 of arts which, because of an impression that these 
 ages were barbarous, some cannot admit to have 
 existed. Since in Scripture we find iron articles 
 named as being in use for the ordinary purposes 
 of life, and these the same purposes to which they 
 are now put by ourselves, it is much stronger 
 evidence, because positive, that iron was abundant, 
 than is any negative evidence derived from the 
 mere absence of mention of iron in the meagre 
 history of other nations, or the non-existence of 
 iron in ancient ruins. It is no stretch of fancy 
 or of reason to conclude from such references that 
 the method of extracting iron from its ore was 
 well known, and so easily performed as to be no 
 barrier to the common and everyday use of iron. 
 If for its manufacture we require peculiarly -built 
 
2O2 IRON. 
 
 furnaces and strong blasts, the ancients must 
 have had means of producing the same effects ; 
 but whether their appliances for this purpose were 
 the same as ours whether their furnaces were 
 built of brick or stone, or their blast driven by 
 bellows or engine or whether they used wood or 
 coal as fuel, or made one ton per day or per week 
 we know not. The fact, however, is undeniable, 
 that they were in possession of means of overcom- 
 ing many of the same difficulties that we overcome ; 
 and that the advancement we have made is more 
 in the means of facilitating the process than in 
 any discovery of the reduction* But the extent of 
 their appliances is made somewhat apparent by 
 consideration of the several objects to which iron 
 was applied, as recorded in Scripture. 
 
 In warfare the use of iron weapons of various 
 kinds is named at a very early period, and is referred 
 to throughout the whole history of the Jewish 
 people, as the following quotations will show : 
 
 "And all the Canaanites who dwell in the 
 valley have chariots of iron, both they who are of 
 Beth-shean and its towns, and they who are of the 
 valley of Jezreel" (Josh. xvii. 16). "And Judah 
 could not drive out the inhabitants of the valley, 
 because they had chariots of iron " (Judges i. 19). 
 " Jabin, king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor, 
 the captain of whose host was Sisera, who dwelt in 
 Harosheth of the Gentiles. And the children of 
 Israel cried unto the Lord; for he had nine 
 
IRON. 203 
 
 hundred chariots of iron; and twenty years he 
 mightily oppressed the children of Israel " (Judges 
 iv. 2, 3). Even allowing, as some suppose, that the 
 designation iron chariots means chariots with iron 
 weapons, like scythes, stretching out from their 
 sides which chariots were driven with great 
 force through the ranks of the enemy, mowing 
 them down in their course it does not invalidate 
 the statement that iron was abundant, and used 
 in great quantities by the nations of that early 
 period. " And the staff of his spear was like a 
 weaver's beam, and his spear's head weighed six 
 hundred shekels of iron" (1 Sam. xvii. 7). " But 
 the man that shall touch them must be fenced 
 with iron, and the staff of a spear " (2 Sam. xxiii. 
 7), probably referring to coats of mail. " And 
 Zedekiah, son of Chenaanah, made him horns of 
 iron" (1 Kings xxii. 11). " He shall flee from 
 the iron weapon, and the bow of steel shall strike 
 him through" (Job xx. 24). Here we have not only 
 iron weapons, but steel ; and if we allow the use 
 of steel bows for shooting of arrows, it indicates 
 an extraordinary advance in the manufacture of 
 iron as well as implements of warfare. That such 
 instruments as iron-tipped arrows may have also 
 been used is indicated by the following passage 
 " Canst thou fill his skin with barbed irons? or 
 his head with fish spears ? " (Job xli. 7). 
 
 There are again many references to its use in 
 arts and manufactures. Job speaks of having 
 
2O4 IRON. 
 
 his words graved in the rock with an iron pen. 
 " And he brought forth people that were therein, 
 and put them under saws, and under harrows 
 of iron, and under axes of iron" (2 Sam. xii. 31). 
 " And David prepared iron in abundance for the 
 nails for the doors of the gates, and for the join- 
 ings " (1 Chron. xxii. 3). " The sin of Judah is 
 written with a pen of iron" (Jer. xvii. 1). 
 " Thou hast broken the yokes of wood, but thou 
 make for them yokes of iron" (Jer. xxviii. 13). 
 " They drank wine, and praised the gods of gold 
 and of silver, of brass, of iron, of wood, and of 
 stone " (Dan. v. 4). " For three transgressions 
 of Damascus, and for four I will not turn away 
 the punishment thereof, because they have thrashed 
 Gilead with thrashing instruments of iron " 
 (Amos i. 3). " As iron sharpeneth iron, so a man 
 sharpeneth the countenance of his friend " (Prov. 
 xxvii. 17). "And he shall cut down the thickets 
 of the forest with iron" (Isa. x. 34). 
 
 The mode of working and tempering iron seems 
 to be referred to in the following passage " The 
 smith with the tongs both worketh in the coals, and 
 fashioneth it with hammers, and worketh it with 
 the strength of his arms " (Isa. xliv. 12). Michaelis 
 translates the passage thus " The smith bends the 
 iron, works it in a fire of coals, and forms it with 
 the hammer; he labours on it with a strong arm." 
 
 We have iron referred to also in common use for 
 domestic purposes. " For only Og, king of Bashan, 
 
IRON. 205 
 
 remained of the remnant of giants ; behold, his bed- 
 stead was a bedstead of iron " (Deut. iii. 11). 
 
 Indeed iron is referred to in various ways in 
 Scripture, proving without doubt not only its 
 general use among the nations, but their under- 
 standing of its properties and its manufacture ; so 
 that the poetic and moral writers make its proper- 
 ties figures for illustrating their lessons. There 
 are iron bars and pillars and gates and walls 
 referred to as impenetrable. Different qualities of 
 iron are referred to by Jeremiah " Shall iron 
 break the northern iron and the steel? " " Foras- 
 much as iron breaketh in pieces and subdueth all 
 things, and as iron that breaketh all these, shall it 
 break in pieces and bruise " (Dan. ii. 40). 
 
 The possession of iron seems to have been 
 considered as a source of wealth to a nation, and 
 is referred to as such along with other metals by 
 Joshua " And when Joshua sent them away 
 also unto their tents, then he blessed them and 
 spake unto them saying, Return with much riches 
 to your tents, and with very much silver, and with 
 gold, and with brass, and with iron" (Joshua xxii. 8). 
 
 Particular attention has been given to the 
 references in Scripture, because the existence of 
 iron in large quantities in ancient times has been 
 doubted, and the opinion generally maintained 
 that bronze was used previous to iron, and for all 
 the purposes for which iron was afterwards used. 
 It is also stated by Greek writers that iron was 
 
2O6 IRON. 
 
 discovered about the year 1406 B.C. fifty years 
 after Moses wrote. We are rather inclined 
 to differ from these opinions ; and the more they 
 are considered in connection with all the circum- 
 stances, the more the assertion that bronze was 
 used instead of iron for all purposes appears in- 
 correct and untenable. The first notice of bronze 
 in the Scriptures is in connection with iron ; 
 and we have shown that so far as Scripture 
 history is concerned, iron is generally named 
 along with bronze. Even allowing that Moses, 
 in stating that Tubal-cain was an instructor of 
 every artificer in iron and brass, was only repeat- 
 ing a common tradition of his day, it will not 
 affect the correctness of the assertion that iron is 
 named as early as bronze. The book of Job has 
 many references to iron, showing that it was used 
 for those purposes to which Greek writers say 
 bronze was applied long after. It is difficult to 
 understand how bronze-edged tools alone could be 
 used by the Israelites for engraving the twelve 
 precious stones set in the breastplate, these stones 
 being of the hardest known substances. This is 
 admitted to be difficult to explain by those who 
 have considered the subject. Dr Lester, in a 
 recent paper in the "Philosophical Transactions," 
 thinks that the ancients possessed the secret of 
 tempering steel better than the moderns. This 
 would explain the difficulty. 
 
 In Rawlinson's " Five Great Monarchies," speak- 
 
IRON. 207 
 
 ing of the metals in use in the reign of Urukh, 
 a thousand years before the engraving of the 
 stones for the breastplate, there is mention 
 made of iron being in common use along with 
 bronze, copper, and lead, and also stone implements. 
 In what metallic age would some of our archaeolo- 
 gists place King Urukh? 
 
 We have also abundant references in profane 
 history to the prevalence of iron in ancient times 
 to verify the statements in Scripture. Pliny, and 
 several other ancient writers, mention various 
 countries and places which in their time pro- 
 duced excellent steel. The art of hardening iron 
 and steel by immersion while red-hot in cold 
 water, is referred to by Homer. He says, that 
 when Ulysses bored out the eye of Polyphemus 
 with a burning stake, it hissed in the same 
 manner as water when the smith immerses a piece 
 of red-hot iron in order to harden it. The pas- 
 sage is thus translated by Pope 
 
 " And as when armourers temper in the ford 
 The keen-edged pole-axe, or the shining sword, 
 The red-hot metal hisses in the lake 
 Thus in his eyeball hissed the plunging stake." 
 
 In ages near to the Christian era, among the 
 Greeks and other nations the operations in the 
 manufacture of iron were performed by slaves. If 
 this was the practice in ancient Egypt, it is not 
 improbable that one of the forms of slavery used 
 to coerce the Israelites was labouring at the iron 
 
208 IRON. 
 
 furnaces; and when Moses speaks of having 
 delivered them from the iron furnace, there may 
 have been a reality in the reference which would 
 be fully understood by all who had suffered such 
 oppression. Diodorus, writing long after the 
 exodus, represents the labour of the slaves at the 
 iron furnaces of Greece as the most intolerable of 
 all tyrannies. 
 
 In order to give some idea of the extent of the 
 manufacture and use of iron among what is termed 
 the Gentile nations in the earliest ages of their 
 history, we may refer to Hesiod, who is amongst the 
 earliest authors whose writings have come down to 
 us. He divides the ages of man into four, namely, 
 golden age, silver age, bronze age, and iron age 
 which last was the one he lived in supposed to 
 be about 944 B.C., a few years after Solomon's 
 death. Although this is no doubt an allegorical 
 comparison, and we think has not the same mean- 
 ing as our archaeological division into stone, 
 copper, bronze, and iron ages as descriptive of 
 the ascending progress of civilisation, at the same 
 time it must have a certain relation to historical 
 fact, and is therefore significant in this inquiry 
 as iron must have been in pretty general use in 
 Hesiod's time, so as to assume in the poet's mind 
 such a position. Homer represents one of his 
 heroes encouraging his men in the following 
 words " Their flesh is neither stone nor iron, 
 to endure strokes given with the cutting edge of 
 
IRON. 209 
 
 bronze ; " rather an anomalous circumstance to 
 use a bronze weapon, when iron is acknowledged 
 to be able to resist its strokes, and to be every 
 way superior ; and as Homer flourished in the iron 
 age of Hesiod, one would have expected his hero 
 to have been furnished with iron weapons ; while 
 Achilles' sword is stated to have been made of 
 bronze. The Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, in his 
 "Juventus Mundi," places Homer in the copper 
 age of the archaeologists, while Homer himself 
 makes many references to the ordinary use of 
 both bronze and iron. Dr Moore, in his " Ancient 
 Mineralogy," says, " In Homer's time iron was well 
 known, and the poet employs, as well as Moses 
 does, the names of iron and brass in both a literal 
 and figurative sense, as though the two metals 
 were applied indifferently to the same purposes, 
 whether of war or peace, and regarded as possess- 
 ing in like manner the properties of hardness 
 and tenacity. Iron, however, was used much 
 more sparingly than brass, being for the reasons 
 no doubt that have been stated, much the rarer of 
 the two ; accordingly we find that a rudely cast 
 mass of iron, which had been used by Eetion as a 
 quoit, is represented by Achilles when he offers it 
 among the prizes at Patroclus' funeral, as a five 
 years' provision of iron for one who cultivates 
 extensive and rich fields, so that his shepherd or 
 his ploughman when they need iron, may, without 
 going to the city for it, satisfy their wants." 
 
 o 
 
2IO /RON. 
 
 All this is very suggestive. Iron is mentioned 
 as an article of commerce when Mentor tells Tele- 
 machus that he has iron which he is going to 
 exchange at Tennes for copper. It may be that 
 these were iron tools or iron to make tools for the 
 miners who were working in the copper mines. 
 Homer refers to iron being in use for various pur- 
 poses. " He applied the string to his breast, and 
 the iron to his bow." Areithous " broke the phal- 
 anxes with an iron club ; " probably this was some- 
 thing like the spear of Goliath with its head of 
 iron. The chariot of Juno is said to have had an 
 iron axle with brass wheels. It is also mentioned 
 as spoil taken in war, and as treasure laid up by 
 the wealthy. In a similar way it is referred to in 
 Scripture " But hither I shall bring gold and 
 red brass, and women elegantly clad, and white 
 iron." " Many precious treasures be among my 
 fathers 7 riches, brass, and gold, and iron curiously 
 wrought." It is also referred to by Homer in a 
 figurative sense : " The iron tumult reach the 
 brazen heavens," and " the insolence and violence 
 of suitors to reach the iron heaven." Ulysses 
 is said to be made of iron, because he does 
 not know fatigue, and so on. Iron is referred 
 to by Homer in the same style as it was centuries 
 before his day by Moses and Joshua; so that it 
 is rather anomalous to represent Homer as living 
 at the commencement of the copper age of our 
 archa3ologists while he is so familiar with iron. 
 
IRON. 2 1 1 
 
 Speaking of Egypt, Mr Basil Cooper, in his paper 
 upon the " Antiquity of the Metals," says, " We 
 find that there also, as well as on the classical soil of 
 Greece and Rome, the origin of the art of working 
 in iron is pushed back into the mythological and 
 prehistoric age. We have no reason to doubt the 
 testimony of Diodorus, when he repeats that the 
 Egyptians assigned this invention also, as well as 
 all the other more important arts of life, to their 
 great national culture-divinity, Osiris." 
 
 In " Iron " it is stated that an English gentleman 
 has recently discovered near the Wells of Moses, 
 by the Red Sea, the remains of ironworks so vast 
 that they must have employed thousands of work- 
 men. Near the works are to be found the ruins 
 of a temple, and of a barracks for the soldiers pro- 
 tecting or keeping the workmen in order. These 
 works are supposed to be at least three thousand 
 years old. 
 
 In Layard's "Ancient Nineveh," he says, "When 
 descending the Tigris on a raft to the ruins of 
 Nimroud, he passed a considerable cataract, formed 
 by a solid wall of masonry, which wall his guide 
 told him was the remains of a great dam built by 
 Nimroud, and that in autumn, before the winter 
 rains, the large stones of which the dam was con- 
 structed were united by clamps of iron, which 
 were frequently visible above the surface of the 
 stream. It was, in fact," says Layard, " one of 
 the monuments of a great people to be found in 
 
212 IRON. 
 
 all the rivers of Mesopotamia, which were under- 
 taken to secure a supply of water to the innumerable 
 canals spreading like net-work over the surround- 
 ing country, and which, even in the days of 
 Alexander, was looked upon as the works of an 
 ancient nation." We would like to know by 
 what means the iron was fixed into the stone. 
 
 As a proof of the plentiful use of iron in very 
 ancient times among the Assyrians, we give the 
 following extract from Vaux's " Nineveh " : "In 
 one of the chambers there was a large quantity of 
 iron amongst the rubbish, and Mr Layard soon 
 recognised in it scales of armour, similar to that 
 on some of the figures. Each scale was, when sepa- 
 rated, from two or three inches long, rounded at 
 one end and square at the other, with a raised or 
 embossed line in the centre. The iron was so 
 much decomposed that it was difficult to detach 
 it from the soil. Under the earth other portions 
 of armour were found, some of copper, others of 
 iron inlaid with copper. A perfect helmet was 
 found, resembling in shape and in the ornaments 
 the pointed helmet of the bas-relief, but it fell 
 into pieces immediately the earth was removed. 
 The lines which are seen round the lower part of 
 the pointed helmet in the sculptures are thin 
 stripes of copper inlaid in iron." These extracts 
 are very suggestive, in a practical point of view, 
 not only as indicating a common use of iron, but 
 also great skill in the working or manufacturing 
 
IRON. 2 1 3 
 
 of articles in it. The inlaying of one metal with 
 another, and that the hardest of the metals, shows 
 a degree of skill not inferior to anything we do 
 in our day in the working of metals, and it also 
 goes far to illustrate many references made in 
 Scripture to metals and metallic implements, which 
 would otherwise be obscure. 
 
 It seems to us that in all ages of the world, so 
 far as history and discovery has gone, there has 
 always been some active nucleus or centre of civi- 
 lisation, and in these centres the arts were known 
 to the greatest perfection of the age, and in most 
 cases where researches have been made, when one 
 metal has been found, there is not wanting evi- 
 dence of the presence also of others. It may be 
 that a metal, such as copper, where it is found 
 native, may be in use where there is no bronze ; 
 but it is almost impossible to believe that any 
 people should obtain such perfection in such a 
 complicated process as the manufacture of bronze, 
 and not have iron, the ores of which being abun- 
 dant and wide-spread, and the metal as easily 
 reduced from the ore as either tin or copper, even 
 without the use of twenty pairs of bellows. In our 
 own forefathers' time when they manufactured iron 
 in bloomeries, the fire was blown by the winds 
 of heaven. Hence, we think that iron was known 
 as early as bronze, although from its requiring 
 much more labour to fit it for useful purposes, 
 and from other causes, it may not have been so 
 
214 IKON. 
 
 abundant in some localities as bronze was ; so that 
 it may have been used along with bronze for pur- 
 poses to which the latter could not be applied 
 alone, such as hewing or engraving on hard stone ; 
 in which case, as Wilkinson suggests, a casing of 
 iron may have been used, and, indeed, tools cased 
 or tipped with iron have been found in our own 
 country. The fact that Sir G. Wilkinson found a 
 bronze chisel in a quarry in Thebes, is not suffi- 
 cient evidence that they either quarried or hewed 
 stones with such, more especially when it is known 
 that at the time when this chisel was used, iron 
 and steel were in common use. Butchers are 
 represented on the Egyptian monuments as sharp- 
 ening their knives with steel, as butchers are in 
 the habit of doing at the present day, and as 
 seems to have been the practice in Solomon's 
 time, when he makes it a symbol for stimulating 
 intercourse between man and man to sharpen 
 their understanding and produce warmer friend- 
 ship. We hardly think that the knives used by 
 the Egyptian butchers were of bronze. About 
 the same time that the chisel is said to have 
 been used, there occurs a significant passage in 
 the writings of Moses " And there shalt thou 
 build an altar unto the Lord thy God, an altar 
 of stones : thou shalt not lift up any iron 
 tool upon it. Thou shalt build the altar of the 
 Lord thy God of whole stones " (Deut. xxvii. 5, 
 6). And again, " As Moses the servant of the 
 
IRON. 2 1 5 
 
 Lord commanded the children of Israel, as it is 
 written in the book of the law of Moses, an altar 
 of whole stones, over which no man hath lift up 
 any iron" (Joshua viii. 31). This prohibition is 
 against hewing or dressing stones for the altar. If 
 bronze was used for this purpose, the prohibition 
 is not only incomplete but meaningless. As the 
 Israelites had just left Egypt, we think the use of 
 iron for hewing stones, referred to in this passage, 
 is applicable to the Egyptian practice, and if, as 
 A. G-. Wilkinson suggests, a shield of steel may 
 have been used over the bronze edge, it is an 
 evidence that iron was in use as early as hewing 
 of stones, and as early as bronze ; and to tip bronze 
 with steel for hewing must have been a very nice 
 operation, and shows the skill possessed by the 
 ancients in working in the metal. Bronze tools 
 so tipped have recently been found. Such facts go 
 far to show that the regular succession of stone, 
 bronze, and iron, so dogmatically laid down by 
 some archaeologists, is not a universal law ; indeed, 
 there is evidence to the contrary in our own day 
 in Cape Colony, where there are savages who 
 appear never to have known or wrought in copper 
 or bronze, who, nevertheless, are most excellent 
 manufacturers and workers in iron. 
 
 Overlaying of iron with tin has been mentioned 
 as an art probably known to the ancients. Pliny 
 mentions the overlaying of copper with tin, as is 
 now done, to protect culinary vessels from poisonous 
 
2l6 IRON. 
 
 verdigris. No articles made of iron, overlayed 
 with tin, have been found ; but this can scarcely 
 be a proof against the use of tinned iron in ancient 
 times, as it is very easily destroyed by corrosion. 
 It is now known that iron was covered with bronze, 
 which gave the strength of iron when required, 
 and, at the same time, retained the external beauty 
 of the bronze. Several objects having this over- 
 laying were found in the ruins of ancient Nineveh 
 by Mr Layard, who has the following passage upon 
 this remarkable fact : " It would appear that the 
 Assyrians were unable to give elegant forms or a 
 pleasing appearance to objects made in iron alone ; 
 and that, consequently, they frequently overlayed 
 that metal with bronze, either entirely or partially, 
 by way of ornament." 
 
 It may be remarked here, that the operation of 
 covering iron with bronze is one of considerable 
 difficulty in our day, and not known to have 
 existed until these examples of the ancients were 
 brought to light. These facts prove that the 
 ancients were well skilled in metallurgical opera- 
 tions, and verify the truth of the words of Scrip- 
 ture in their many references to iron and other 
 metals. Perhaps, however, some of these refer- 
 ences allude to practices now unknown ; hence 
 the difficulty often experienced by commentators 
 and others who endeavour to explain them. 
 
LEAD. 
 
2l8 LEAD. 
 
 the refuse mounds left behind, is the sulphide 
 (galena), which is of a blue slate colour. This 
 is subjected for a time to a low red heat, in a 
 free current of air, by which a portion of the 
 sulphur is oxidised, part being carried away as 
 sulphurous gas, and part remaining as sulphate 
 of lead. The heat of the furnace being then 
 increased, this sulphate undergoes decomposition, 
 and reacting on the remaining sulphide ore, all 
 the lead is reduced to the state of metal without 
 any mixture with coal. This is done in a rever- 
 beratory furnace, and is the process by which lead 
 ore is smelted at the present time. 
 
 The sulphide of lead may also be reduced by 
 putting it into a furnace or crucible, with flux such 
 as soda or potash or mixing with it metallic iron. 
 These last processes, however, are not profitable, 
 and not applied on a large scale. As to whether 
 any of these methods were adopted by the ancients 
 for obtaining the metal from the ore we have no 
 reference, either in sacred or profane history, except 
 the obscure notice of Pliny already referred to. 
 
 Dr Kitto, in his "Physical History of Palestine," 
 says, " that lead ore is known to have existed in 
 considerable quantity in the neighbourhood of 
 Sinai, and also near Egypt, hence the supply to 
 Egyptians and Israelites was of easy access, and is 
 quite consistent with the early notice of it in 
 {Scripture." 
 
 In Moses' triumphal song, celebrating the over- 
 
LEAD. 219 
 
 throw of Pharaoh in the Bed Sea, he says, " They 
 sank as lead in the mighty waters " (Exod. xv. 10), 
 a familiar expression, the same as our saying, "As 
 heavy as lead," &c. ; an expression that clearly 
 proves that lead was then in common use, and its 
 common physical property well known. It is also 
 mentioned among the spoils taken by the Israelites 
 from the Midianites " The gold and the silver, 
 the brass, the iron, the tin, and the lead " (Numb, 
 xxxi. 22), evidence, we think, that it was held of 
 considerable value among the Hebrews. In the 
 book of Job, the patriarch makes a beautiful refer- 
 ence to a use to which this metal was applied, " Oh 
 that my words were now written! Oh that they were 
 printed in a book ! that they were graven with an 
 iron pen and lead in the rock for ever! " This pas- 
 sage clearly indicates that when the book of Job was 
 written, lead was not only well known, but applied 
 to one at least of the fine arts. This reference is 
 considered to refer to an inscription first engraved 
 on stone, and afterwards filled in with lead a 
 beautiful application for the preservation of writ- 
 ing. The various objects for which the metal lead 
 was used and applied in very ancient times are 
 not mentioned in Scripture. Its extreme softness, 
 the rapidity with which it tarnishes, its want of 
 sound, and other general properties, are against its 
 employment for domestic purposes, but we believe 
 it was used for many of the purposes to which it is 
 put at the present time. Pliny mentions that it 
 
22O LEAD. 
 
 was used in his day, and before his time, for water 
 pipes, as it is at present, and that sheet lead was 
 used for covering articles for their protection. He 
 also mentions it being used for writing tables. 
 Whether, however, it was applied to these objects 
 by the Egyptians or Hebrews in the earlier ages 
 of their history, is not certain, but we think it pro- 
 bable that it was used as early as the days of Moses 
 for such purposes. In order to show the extent of 
 its use, and the enormous quantity possessed in 
 ancient times, but later than that of Moses, we 
 quote the following from Kitto's " Cyclopsedia 
 of Biblical Literature," article, " Babylon," in 
 reference to the stupendous hanging gardens of 
 Babylon in the time of Nebuchadnezzar: 
 
 " The level of each terrace was then formed in 
 the following manner : The top of the piers was 
 first laid over with flat stones, sixteen feet in 
 length, and four feet in width ; on these stones 
 were spread beds of matting, then a thick layer of 
 bitumen, after which came two courses of bricks, 
 which were covered with sheets of solid lead." 
 
 We extract the following from Dr Thomson's 
 " Land and the Book " : 
 
 " In the wildest of those gorges whose outlines 
 lie in misty shadows along the south end of 
 Lebanon, bursts out a copious spriDg called Neb'a 
 et Tasy, Fountain of the Cup. It is the source 
 of the Zahrany. The ancient Sidonians coveted 
 this ice-cold water, and did actually lead it to their 
 
LEAD. 221 
 
 city, along a line of canal which might well con- 
 found the boldest engineer. A channel was hewn 
 in the rock, into which the new-born river was 
 turned, and thence carried down the gorge south- 
 ward until it could double the promontory of 
 Jerju'a, after which it meandered as it could north- 
 ward for eight miles, spanning deep ravines over 
 high arches, and descending into Wady Kefrah be- 
 low Jeba'ah. Beyond this, the aqueduct was led 
 along frightful cliffs, where goats can scarcely keep 
 their feet, for more than a mile, and thence it 
 followed the ridge of Kefr Milky, past the village, 
 into the wady of the San?k, where it was joined by 
 another aqueduct from Neb'a or Rahib, the source 
 of that river. The two canals were taken thence 
 down the river, but separately, one about fifteen 
 feet above the other. The system of arches by 
 which these works were carried across the ravines 
 and rivers is still almost perfect, and the cliffs to 
 which they cling are absolutely perpendicular for 
 miles together. As there are no traces of arches 
 by which the water was led across the low plain 
 up to the city, it has been conjectured that the 
 Sidonian engineers were acquainted, at that early 
 age, with the principle in hydrostatics that water 
 will rise to the level of its source. People also 
 tell me that fragments of earthen pipes, incased in 
 lead, have been dug up in the gardens in the pro- 
 bable line of these canals. These may have served 
 to conduct the water to the city." 
 
222 LEAD. 
 
 There is much that is suggestive in the above 
 extract ; the incasing of earthen pipes in lead for 
 the conveyance of water agrees with what Pliny 
 says in reference to covering articles with sheet 
 lead for their protection. But lead pipes were 
 used as conduit pipes in ancient Rome. Among 
 the metallic articles found in Pompeii are lead 
 pipes that had been used for conducting water 
 through the city. James Young, Esq., F.R.S., 
 after visiting the ruins of Pompeii, sketched 
 for us the form of these pipes in section Q 
 the opening at a being filled in with lead to com- 
 plete the pipe. In order to find whether the metal 
 used for filling in partook of the nature of solder, 
 a small piece was analysed and found to be pure 
 lead, no tin being present. It would be important 
 to know if other ancient pipes were made in the 
 same way. This form of pipe shows that in these 
 days they did not practise our method of drawing 
 out lead pipes ; but whether the lead was cast or 
 beaten into sheets, and then beat into shape upon 
 a mandril, we do not know. It is probable that 
 when the sheets were beaten up into the form of 
 a pipe as shown, melted lead was poured into the 
 space at a, completing the pipe. In this case, a 
 mandril or other means would be required inside, 
 to prevent the melted lead from passing through. 
 
 Lead ore is found abundantly in Britain, and there 
 is every evidence that the lead mines of this country 
 were wrought by the ancient Romans, and probably 
 
LEAD. 223 
 
 lead formed a part of the traffic of the Phoenicians. 
 Sir E. Murchison says, that " lead cast in Boman 
 moulds, pig 8^ in fact, of the age of Hadrian and 
 other emperors, have been found in Fifeshire, 
 Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and some other counties. 
 The shape of the ingots or pigs are nearly the 
 same as at the present day, and the inscriptions 
 are made in raised letters on the top." 
 
 In writing of these, Mr J. Phillips has the 
 following passage : 
 
 " A third with the inscription, also in raised 
 letters on the top, was found on Matlock Moor, in 
 the year 1787. It weighed 173 Ibs., and was 
 seventeen and a half inches in length, and at 
 bottom twenty and a half. The inscription was, 
 TL CL. TB. LYT. BR. EX. ARG." 
 
 Under " silver " we have shown that lead was 
 used in the earliest times for purifying silver in 
 the same manner as we do it now namely, mixing 
 lead with silver and melting them upon a cupel, 
 or flat vessel made of bone earth, and then oxi- 
 dising the lead by blowing upon the surface of the 
 fused mass, till the silver is left pure. Having 
 established the fact that lead was used for puri- 
 fying silver, and knowing that the greater portion 
 of lead ores contain silver, sometimes in con- 
 siderable quantity, and that lead ores are in the 
 present day an important source of that metal, we 
 are warranted in believing that this fact was 
 known to the ancients, and that their lead ores 
 
224 LEAD. 
 
 were a source of silver to them, and may have 
 been an important source. Pliny states that the 
 ore of lead is found mixed with silver in the same 
 mine. 
 
 It is highly probable that the Phoenicians were 
 extensively engaged in lead smelting, but whether 
 it was smelted at the mines, and imported as 
 metal into Phoenicia as tin was, we do not know, 
 but the prophet Ezekiel mentions it as an article 
 sold in their markets thus: " With silver, iron, tin, 
 and lead, they traded in thy fairs" (Ezek. xxvii.12). 
 
 The familiar tone in which lead is always re- 
 ferred to in Scripture, and by ancient authors, lead 
 us to believe that it was in use in the earliest ages. 
 
 In the purifying of silver with lead, they 
 necessarily would form litharge, or oxide of lead. 
 This oxide, when heated with coal or carbonaceous 
 matters, produces metal again a process which 
 would undoubtedly be practised for recovering the 
 lead. This oxide of lead is used in the present day 
 for the manufacture of salts of lead, and for paints, 
 glazes, enamels, and making glass. Some of the 
 glazes upon articles of pottery, and the paints on 
 the clay vessels found in ancient Egypt and 
 Nineveh, have been analysed, and found to con- 
 tain oxide of lead ; in other words, to be composed 
 of the same materials as those which we now use 
 for the same purposes, and which, until lately, was 
 considered an invention of our own time. Dif- 
 ferent coloured glazes and pigments used by the 
 
LEAD. 225 
 
 ancient Assyrians have been found by analysis to 
 contain oxides of copper, cobalt, iron, tin, and 
 lead. 
 
 Lead is also used by us along with tin, for solder- 
 ing certain metals together. The Scripture does 
 not mention the composition of solder, yet the fact 
 that soldering was practised, is evident from the 
 following passage : " So the carpenter encouraged 
 the goldsmith, and he that smootheth with the 
 hammer him that smote the anvil, saying, It is 
 ready for the soldering : and he fastened it with 
 nails, that it should not be moved " (Isa. xli. 
 7). This is another beautiful description of a 
 practical process in metallurgy, and is similar to 
 the method now practised in soldering two pieces 
 of metal; after being smoothed and prepared, 
 they are fastened together by iron clasps, or 
 holders for soldering. The word, nails, according 
 to the margin, is a mistranslation meaning 
 holder or clasp. It is also a fine description of 
 the division of labour a system not only eco- 
 nomical, but calculated to make the finest work, 
 and the most expert workmen. The nature or 
 kind of solder is not stated in the passage, but 
 the term goldsmith being used, indicates that the 
 article being soldered may have been of gold or 
 silver. Solder used for these metals is generally 
 made of copper, silver, and tin, or such an alloy 
 as melts at a lower heat than the metals soldered. 
 The passage, however, states the practice, and 
 
 p 
 
226 LEAD. 
 
 indicates a general use, and this has been verified 
 by articles found in ancient Egypt that had been 
 soldered. Wilkinson says : " In coarser work, or 
 in those parts which were out of sight, the Egyp- 
 tians soldered with lead. The oldest specimen of 
 metal soldered which I am acquainted with, is the 
 sistrum of Mr Burton its date is uncertain ; and 
 though, from the style of the figures engraved 
 upon it, we may venture to ascribe it to a Phar- 
 aohnic age, the exact period when it was made 
 cannot be fixed." Pliny states that lead was used 
 for soldering lead and other metals, and this agrees 
 with the manner in which the lead pipes found in 
 Pompeii were made. It must be borne in mind 
 that the term solder, both in ancient and modern 
 times, does not indicate any particular compound of 
 metals, but simply a metallic substance, used for 
 joining metallic surfaces. To a plumber the term 
 means an alloy of lead and tin, to the copper- 
 smith an alloy of copper and zinc, to the silver- 
 smith an alloy of copper, silver, and tin ; so that 
 when solder is mentioned in ancient writings, as 
 in modern, it does not necessarily mean any 
 particular alloy. 
 
MERCURY. 
 
 WHEN the metal mercury, or quicksilver, was 
 first discovered, is not known. But that it was 
 known in ancient times, at least as early as 
 Aristotle's time, is clearly shown by Pliny and 
 other writers. There are some, however, who con- 
 clude from the mysterious language used bj> 
 the adepts or alchemists in ancient times, and 
 the ancient ideas regarding metals, more especially 
 mercury which was looked upon as the mother 
 by which all the metals were fructified, purified, 
 and brought forth that this metal may have been 
 known to the ancient Egyptians in the earliest 
 ages, and also to the Hebrews. Such writers consider 
 that in the passage where Moses directs that all 
 the metals taken from the Amalekites should be 
 made to pass through the fire, and afterwards to 
 be " purified by the water of separation," that this 
 water of separation was mercury. We quote the 
 following on this passage from Sir John Petus' tran- 
 slation of the works of Lazarus Erckern, 1683 : 
 " And we are assured that in Moses' time, they 
 had the knowledge of all metals, as may be read 
 in Numbers xxxi. 21, where Moses taught the 
 soldiers how the spoils of their heathen enemies 
 
228 MERCURY. 
 
 were to be purified, commanding (as from God) 
 that all their gold, silver, brass, copper, iron, tin, 
 and lead, and everything that endureth the fire 
 (in the furnace, according to the Syriac), should 
 be purified by fire, and then to be accounted clean. 
 Yet it is also said in that text that it shall be 
 separated by the water of separation by which 
 water certainly is meant quicksilver because 
 this doth purify, cleanse, and devour metals, and, 
 as Dr Salmon calls it, a volatile juice or liquor ; 
 for nothing but fire, or that quicksilver, aquafortis, 
 can separate those metals. The water of purifica- 
 tion of men was a distinct water from the water 
 of purification and separation for metals, and the 
 ingredients of the one are communicated to us ; 
 but the Holy Spirit thought fit to conceal the 
 other from us." 
 
 We think there is no foundation for this sup- 
 position of this old master of assaying and metal- 
 lurgy, Lazarus Erckern. The water of purification 
 was prepared by burning a red heifer entire, 
 then collecting the ashes and mixing them with 
 water, as given in Numbers xix. ; besides mercury 
 does not purify, nor can it be used for separating 
 the metals named in the passage. There is no 
 reference to the metal mercury, so far as we can 
 discover, in the Old Testament Scripture, and we 
 think that from its peculiar qualities of dissolving, 
 or apparently absorbing and devouring other 
 metals, had such a metal been known to the poets 
 
MERCURY. 229 
 
 of ancient Israel, they would have used it as a 
 figure descriptive of some of the conquering 
 nations. The property that mercury has for dis- 
 solving and amalgamating with metals, particu- 
 larly all those known to the ancients, except iron, 
 would very soon suggest an important use. It 
 does not unite with earths ; when therefore gold or 
 silver is diffused through earthy matters, such as 
 sand, and quicksilver be added, it combines with 
 the metals, and forms an amalgam or solution, tak- 
 ing up the precious metals from the sand, which is 
 easily removed from the amalgam. As mercury 
 is volatilised at a moderate temperature, this amal- 
 gam has merely to be heated, when the mercury 
 distils off, and leaves the gold or silver behind ; 
 if both metals be present they are mixed. That 
 this use was made of quicksilver by the ancients 
 is stated by Pliny, who says that it was used for 
 separating gold from its impurities, and that the 
 quicksilver was afterwards separated by straining 
 through leather, a process still in use for sepa- 
 rating the excess of mercury that may have been 
 used, but it requires heat to separate the last 
 portions. 
 
 " Yitruvius," says Beckmann, in his " History of 
 Inventions," u describes the manner of recovering 
 gold from cloth in which it has been woven, 'the 
 cloth,' he says, 6 is to be put into an earthen 
 vessel and placed over the fire, in order that it 
 may be burned. The ashes are then thrown into 
 
23O MERCURY. 
 
 water, and quicksilver added; the latter attracts 
 the particles of gold and unites with them ; the 
 water is poured off and the residue put into a 
 piece of cloth, which being squeezed with the 
 hands, the quicksilver, on account of its fluidity, 
 oozes through the pores, and the gold is left pure 
 in a compressed mass.' ' The gold would not be 
 obtained pure by this process, but would contain 
 some of the quicksilver. The heating of the mass 
 in a crucible, or any suitable vessel over a fire, 
 however, would drive off as vapour the remaining 
 mercury, and pure gold would then be obtained. 
 Probably they did not know in Vitruvius's time 
 the art of distilling in close vessels, and recover- 
 ing the mercury. When gold and quicksilver 
 amalgam is rubbed upon other metals till they 
 are coated with it, such as, for instance, an article 
 made of silver, the coated silver then heated, the 
 mercury is volatilised, and the gold remains upon 
 the surface of the silver. By this means silver 
 and other metals were gilt. This process of gild- 
 ing was extensively practised in ancient times, 
 but how far back we do not know, and it has 
 continued to be practised up to the present time ; 
 indeed it was the principal process for gilding till 
 1840, when it was to a great extent superseded by 
 the electro process. Other uses to which quick- 
 silver was applied by the ancients are not very 
 clearly defined. At whatever period mercury was 
 known as a metal, its principal ore, the bisul- 
 

 MERCURY* 231 
 
 phide, wherever found, would not fail to attract 
 the attention even of the rudest people by its 
 brilliant red colour, and there are sufficient 
 evidences to show that it was used as a pigment 
 or paint in very early times, under the name of 
 vermilion. Pliny says it was used as a pigment 
 by the Romans, and was in ancient times held in 
 high estimation, and used for religious purposes. 
 In ancient Rome it was the custom on festival 
 days to colour with vermilion the face of the 
 statue of Jupiter, and the bodies of triumphant 
 generals. Amongst the Ethiopian nations also 
 it was held in great esteem, their nobles being 
 in the habit of painting their bodies all over with 
 it ; their statues also were coloured vermilion. It 
 was the colour of honour, which will be more 
 fully treated under dyeing. Vermilion was also 
 used as a paint for rooms amongst the Jews. Jere- 
 miah, in chapter xxii., referring to the luxurious 
 dwellings, says (verse 14), "I will build me a wide 
 house and large chambers, and cutteth him out 
 windows ; and it is ceiled with cedar, and painted 
 with vermilion." Ezekiel also refers to its use for 
 paint in Babylon thus (xxiii. 14.), " For, when she 
 saw men pourtrayed upon the wall, the images 
 of the Chaldeans pourtrayed with vermilion." We 
 can hardly conceive of an extensive use of this 
 ore, without a knowledge of the metal, as it is 
 obtained from the ore at a heat under redness ; so 
 that we think it possible that at whatever date we 
 
232 MERCURY. 
 
 can trace the use of the ore, the metal would 
 then be known. However, in this inquiry we 
 must guard against being led astray by the name 
 given to this paint by ancient writers, as this 
 name sometimes only refers to the colour, what- 
 ever it is made of, and in this way is confusion. 
 This ore of mercury is sometimes termed minium, 
 and ranked with this ore of lead, and even with 
 the red oxide of iron, the colour being similar, 
 so that it is often difficult to know what the 
 writer refers to, unless when some peculiar pro- 
 perty of the paint is given ; but this is not attri- 
 butable, we think, to ignorance concerning its 
 distinctive character on the part of practical 
 men, but to ignorance on the part of Pliny and 
 other writers, who had no technical knowledge. 
 Many of our own historians make sad mistakes in 
 technical matters, which is not to be wondered at; 
 but what is really surprising is, that some of the 
 leading encyclopedias and dictionaries are not free 
 from blemishes in this direction ; for instance, the 
 metal zinc is spoken of in some dictionaries as a 
 sort of semi-metal, and ranked with sulphur. 
 
ZINC. 
 
 THE metal zinc was discovered in the sixteenth 
 century of our era. It exists abundantly in nature 
 in a mineralised condition, forming ores, some of 
 which were well known to the ancients. Its alloy 
 with copper forms what is now technically named 
 brass, and which is said to have been discovered 
 in the thirteenth century. This discovery came no 
 doubt from finding that a certain mixture of what 
 was a zinc ore and carbon, with copper in-fusion, 
 gave a uniform compound metal, capable of being 
 used in the arts. At the same time, there is no 
 doubt but the alloy of copper and zinc was known 
 to the ancients, at least in Pliny's time. Its oxide 
 was known and used in his day as medicine, and 
 was obtained from the copper furnaces in the island 
 of Cyprus. Calamine, or carbonate of zinc, is often 
 mentioned as having been found in Cyprus. 
 
 Brass is easily formed by fusing together such 
 ores of zinc with carbonates of copper, and might 
 be so obtained by the ancients long before the dis- 
 covery of zinc as a separate metal. Zinc being a 
 volatile metal would make the discovery of its true 
 character longer of being found out, and when it 
 is volatilised in an open furnace it passes off as an 
 
234 
 
 ZINC. 
 
 oxide. It was this sublimed oxide, condensed in 
 the colder portions of the copper furnaces, that 
 was used in medicine. That an alloy of zinc 
 and copper was known and used for castings, is 
 proved by the analysis of several. The following 
 two are by Mr J. A. Phillips : 
 
 Brass of Cassio family B.C. 20. 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Zinc, .... 
 
 Iron, .... 
 
 Large brass of Nevo A.D. 60. 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Zinc, .... 
 
 Tin, .... 
 
 82-26 
 
 17-31 
 
 35 
 
 99-92 
 
 81-07 
 
 17-18 
 
 1-05 
 
 99-30 
 
 The name calamine, or cadmia, applied to this ore 
 of zinc, is said to have been derived from Cadmus, 
 who lived about 1500 B.C., and who is said to have 
 introduced the making of brass at- Thebes, by mix- 
 ing the ore with copper in a fire. We have doubts 
 of the correctness of these statements. If brass 
 had been made in Thebes in that early age, we 
 could hardly fail to get some of the remains of 
 brass articles among the ruins of that ancient 
 city, but we have not seen or heard of anything 
 approaching to brass, nor have we seen the analysis 
 of any alloy having zinc in its composition until we 
 come near to the Christian era. It will be exceed- 
 
ZINC. 235 
 
 ingly interesting if further explorations should 
 bring forth articles made of brass or having zinc 
 in them, as such might indicate the source of the 
 copper or its ores. It is quite possible that cala- 
 rnine may have been imported into Thebes for a 
 time, and used as stated above, and afterwards, 
 from certain causes, ceased to have been brought 
 into the country; so that the brass made from it 
 may not have been very extensive, and the absence 
 of brass articles among the findings may not be 
 an absolute objection to the statement referred to. 
 However, we must wait further inquiry. We have 
 no scriptural evidence of any such thing as brass, 
 as we understand the term, having been known. 
 ainon the Jews. 
 
ANTIMONY. 
 
 WE do not think that the metal antimony was 
 known to the ancients ; but one of its ores, the 
 sulphide, was known from a very early date. This 
 was termed stibium, and was used by women as a 
 paint for painting the eyebrows, eyelashes, and 
 edges of the eyelids, in order that the eyes might 
 appear larger and brighter ; a large bright eye 
 being considered a point of beauty in a woman. 
 The practice is still continued by Eastern women, 
 and we find it repeatedly referred to in Scripture. 
 In 2 Kings ix. 30, it is said, " And when Jehu 
 was come to Jezreel, Jezebel heard of it ; and she 
 painted her face " (translated eyebrows, or she 
 put her eyes in painting, as in the marginal notes), 
 " and tired her head, and looked out at a window." 
 Jeremiah says (iv. 30), " Though thou clothes t 
 thyself with crimson, though thou deckest thee 
 with ornaments of gold, though thou rentest thy 
 face " (eyes in the marginal rendering) " with 
 painting, in vain shalt thou 1 make thyself fair." 
 And Ezekiel refers to the practice amongst Jewish 
 women thus (xxiii. 40): "And furthermore, that 
 ye have sent for men to come from far, unto whom 
 a messenger was sent ; and, lo, they came : for 
 
ANTIMONY. 237 
 
 whom thou didst wash thyself, paintedst thy 
 eyes, and deckedst thyself with ornaments." Com- 
 mentators agree that the word translated "paint- 
 ing," or " painted," should be stibium ; however, 
 some of them consider that the painting was done 
 with plumbago or black lead, and speak of this as 
 a sort of lead ore. Stibium was the name for the 
 sulphide of antimony. Plumbago is a carbide of 
 iron that is, a combination of carbon with iron 
 and has no relation whatever to lead or its ores. 
 Sulphide of lead, or galena, may also have been 
 used for the same purpose, for when finely ground 
 it will stain the skin black, but not so deeply as 
 either of the others. Probably all three were used 
 according to circumstances, the wealthy using the 
 best, which was the stibium. 
 
 Pliny refers to stibium, but in a way which 
 makes it doubtful if at all times he means the pure 
 sulphide of antimony. Dioscorides, in describing 
 the preparation of the paint, says, " That it is to 
 be put into a lump of dough, and that put into 
 a fire, and covered over or buried in the coals, until 
 it is reduced to a cinder ; it is then extinguished 
 with milk and wine, and again placed upon coals, 
 and blown until ignition ; if burned longer it 
 becomes lead." Pliny's description for the pre- 
 paration of the paint is nearly the same, only he 
 suggests the use of cow dung instead of dough, 
 and cautions moderation in burning, lest it should 
 be converted into lead. From these remarks it is 
 
238 ANTIMONY. 
 
 probable that the ancients may have had metallic 
 antimony reduced during these operations, but 
 mistook it for lead, which it resembles in appear- 
 ance, and thus its distinctive character as a metal 
 may have been unknown. We think it evident 
 from the various applications to which the ores of 
 antimony, zinc, arsenic, &c., were put by the 
 ancients, that these metals must frequently have 
 been accidentally reduced to reguline condition, 
 but that the ancients, having a settled physical 
 dogma that there were only seven metals, these 
 extra metals, when so reduced and noticed, were 
 considered, first, on account of the impossibility 
 of there being more metals than seven, and second, 
 on account of their resemblance to lead or tin, to 
 be one of these metals in an impure and valueless 
 condition. These conventional ideas prevented, 
 till modern times, the discovery that antimony is 
 a distinct metal. Some of its preparations, as the 
 oxides, were used by the discoverer as medicines, 
 and these were given to the monks in the monas- 
 tery in which he was a member, to test their 
 effects, which often produced serious and fatal 
 results, hence the name given to the metal, anti- 
 monk or antimony. 
 
DYEING. 
 
 RECORDS and relics of decorative art supply 
 interesting data, from which may be deduced 
 important conclusions concerning the degrees of 
 refinement in civilisation attained by ancient 
 nations. Among such arts dyeing holds a forward 
 place. Being curious to know what were the 
 processes followed by dyers in ancient times, we 
 made patient search among such ancient literature 
 as was accessible to us, and which seemed at all 
 likely to contain the information wanted, but 
 regret to say, found no reliable, nor even intelli- 
 gible, description of such processes anywhere. We 
 are, therefore, compelled to return to the deductive 
 and analytical course which we pursued when 
 treating of the metallurgical arts, and deduce our 
 conclusions from such recorded analyses as we 
 have found of ancient dyed fabrics, and also from 
 the colours and dyeing agents which we know the 
 ancients were acquainted with. 
 
 We have divided the subject into three heads. 
 First , The fabrics or materials dyed ; second, The 
 colouring matters used ; and third, The colours 
 dyed. A knowledge of the fabrics, and the 
 
240 DYEING. 
 
 colours they were dyed, is of the utmost import- 
 ance in this inquiry; for the same operations, 
 often the same dye drugs, do not produce the same 
 effect upon different fabrics. 
 
 Skins of animals. Dyed skins were in common 
 use in Egypt from the remotest antiquity ; and the 
 Israelites carried numbers of them with them from 
 that country. " Earns' skins dyed red" seem to 
 have been held in high esteem by the Hebrews. 
 The under covering of the ark of the testimony 
 was formed of them. It is stated that every man 
 with whom was found rams' skins dyed red offered 
 them, and Moses made a covering for the tent of 
 rams' skins dyed red, and a covering of badgers' 
 skins above that. 
 
 C. Hamilton Smith, in Kitto's " Cyclopaedia," says, 
 " We agree with Dr Mason Harris, that the skins in 
 question were most likely tanned and coloured crim- 
 son, for it is well known that what is now termed red 
 morocco was manufactured in the remotest ages in 
 Lybia, especially about the Tritonian Lake, where 
 the original cegis or goatskin breastplate of Jupiter 
 and Minerva was dyed bright red ; and the Egyp- 
 tians had most certainly red leather in use, for their 
 antique paintings show harness-makers cutting it 
 into slips for the collars of horses and furniture." 
 And Wilkinson says of ancient Egypt that they 
 made shoes, sandals, coverings and seats of chairs 
 and sofas ; bow cases, and most of the ornamental 
 furniture of chariots, harps, and also shields were 
 
DYEING. 241] 
 
 adorned with coloured leather, and skins prepared 
 in various ways requiring the dyer's art. 
 
 Dr Thomson in his " Land and the Book," 
 says, " Salim led me through an entire street of 
 shoe shops this morning. Is the red leather which 
 the shoemakers use the rams' skins dyed red, 
 which formed one of the three colours of the 
 tabernacle ? No doubt ; and there is a definite - 
 ness in the rams' skins which is worth noticing. 
 From time out of mind the southern part of Syria 
 and Palestine has been supplied with mutton from 
 the great plains and deserts on the north-east and 
 south, and the shepherds do not ordinarily bring 
 the females to market. The vast flocks which annu- 
 ally come from Armenia and Northern Syria are 
 nearly all males ; the leather, therefore, is literally 
 rams' skins dyed red." 
 
 WOOL. That woollen stuffs were used, and spun 
 and woven into cloth for common use, at a very 
 early period of man's history, is beyond doubt; 
 and that woollen was dyed various colours, either 
 before or after being converted into cloth, is also 
 plainly stated in history, sacred and profane. It 
 is the opinion of Wilkinson that the ancient 
 Egyptians dyed their woollen stuff in the state of 
 wool or thread. 
 
 The words translated purple, blue, and scarlet, 
 in Scripture, we are told, refer in the original to 
 more than colour, implying rather the coloured 
 
 Q 
 
2 4 2 
 
 D YE ING. 
 
 material, such as purple, or blue cloth, or thread ; 
 so that such passages as the following : " And this 
 is the offering which ye shall take of them ; blue, 
 and purple, and scarlet," embrace the materials 
 dyed in these colours. Although woollen was in 
 common use amongst the ancient Hebrews, it was 
 held in very low estimation by the Egyptians, 
 and was not worn by the better class of Egyptian 
 society. No woollen was used in wrapping up 
 their dead. The reason for this, according to Mi- 
 Wilkinson, was the preservation of the embalmed 
 corpse, woollen cloth being liable to breed insects, 
 which would destroy the body. This appears a 
 satisfactory reason for the rejection of woollen 
 fabric in this particular case, but it does not 
 account for the general aversion to woollen stuff, 
 which, we have said, prevailed among the richer 
 classes of Egyptian society. Some writers, in 
 order to account for the general aversion, consider 
 it to have been an outcome of the hatred and 
 loathing with which the shepherd class were 
 regarded. Moses says, " Every shepherd is an 
 abomination to the Egyptians." The Hebrew 
 priests, while officiating in the tabernacle or temple, 
 were forbidden to wear woollen garments as a 
 matter of cleanliness. It is said, " They shall be 
 clothed with linen garments; and no wool shall 
 come upon them while they minister ; they shall 
 not gird themselves with anything that causeth 
 sweat." Wool was extensively used by the Hebrews, 
 
D YEING. 243 
 
 as well as other nations, for carpets, which were 
 dyed of rich colours. 
 
 SILK. The existence of silk in ancient times 
 has been doubted by several scholars. These 
 have endeavoured to prove that the word tran- 
 slated silk in the Proverbs and Ezekiel, may with 
 equal propriety be translated fine linen or cotton. 
 It has been argued, from its great cost in the 
 early period of our era, that silk could not have 
 been known in ancient times. Aurelian com- 
 plained that a pound of silk was sold at Rome 
 for twelve ounces of gold, or weight for weight. 
 But the same argument may be used with respect 
 to the Tyrian purple. One pound wool dyed of 
 that colour, in the time of Augustus, cost upwards 
 of 32 of our money, hence it might be said that 
 Tyrian purple could not have been known long 
 before the age of Augustus. Under the article 
 " Silk," in the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitan," it 
 is stated that silk was known in very ancient 
 times. 
 
 Bonomi, in his book on " Assyria," says, " The 
 custom of presenting robes as a mark of honour 
 may be traced to the remotest antiquity in eastern 
 countries, and even still prevails. The Midian 
 habit was made of silk, and among the elder 
 Greeks it was only another name for a silken robe. 
 The silken robes of Assyria, the produce chiefly of 
 the looms of Babylon, were renowned long after 
 the fall of the Assyrian Empire, and retained their 
 
244 DYEING. 
 
 hold of the market even to the time of the Roman 
 supremacy. Pliny speaks of the wool of silk, and 
 believed it was washed down from trees. At a later 
 period the western nations became acquainted with 
 the worm or fly by which the silk is spun. As 
 the worms were bred upon the mulberry trees, 
 this may account for Pliny supposing that the 
 wool of silk was washed down from trees. Silk 
 was brought to Rome from Seres, a nation of Asia, 
 supposed to be the modern Thibet, and was con- 
 sequently called Sericum. Some have supposed 
 that the Seres are the same as the Chinese, and 
 reason from this that silk was known to them in 
 the earliest ages. About two centuries before the 
 Christian era silk was worth its weight in gold. In 
 Rome it afterwards became very cheap, and was 
 a common article of dress among the Romans, but 
 it may have been known to other nations, previous 
 to its being brought to Rome. Although the pre- 
 cise time that silk was introduced as a fabric for 
 clothing in the more western countries cannot be 
 fixed, still we are strongly of the opinion that the 
 knowledge and use of it extend considerably into 
 ancient times, at least to the days of Ezekiel, 
 594 B.C., who says, " Thus wast thou decked with 
 gold and silver; and thy raiment was of fine 
 linen, and silk, and broidered work." 
 
 Professor Rawlinson seems to have no doubt 
 on this matter; speaking of the dress of the kings 
 of Persia in times of peace, he says, " It was the 
 
DYEING. 245 
 
 long flowing Midian garment, or candys, made in 
 all probability of richest silk." 
 
 COTTON. Cotton was known to the ancients 
 very early, but to what extent it was used in the 
 earlier periods of man's history is not known. 
 Herodotus is the earliest historian who mentions 
 it, calling it a tree wool, observing that the trees 
 of India bear fleeces as their fruit, surpassing those 
 of sheep in beauty, and that the Indians wear 
 clothes made from those trees. Ctesias, a con- 
 temporary of Herodotus, and who resided at the 
 Persian court, speaks also of the Indian wool of 
 trees. According to Baines, Yates, and several 
 Biblical commentators, the word translated 
 "green" in Esther i. 6, means u cotton," which 
 shows that this fabric was used in Persia at least 
 100 years before Herodotus wrote; and it is not 
 improbable that Solomon, who traded extensively 
 with India, may have received cotton as part of his 
 merchandise. Dr Royle tells us, in his " History of 
 the use of cotton in India," that its manufactured 
 products, and even the process of starching it, are 
 referred to in the a Institutes of Menu" at as early a 
 period as 800 years before Christ, close to Solomon's 
 time. Egypt had also a trade with India at a 
 much earlier time than that of Solomon, so that 
 cotton may have been an article of commerce 
 obtained from India as a matter of exchange. 
 The mummy cloths of Egypt have been examined 
 for proof of the use of cotton amongst that ancient 
 
246 DYEING. 
 
 people. But, contrary to expectation, all those 
 examined by Bauer, Thomson, and Ure, were 
 found to "be composed of linen. Since these 
 examinations, however, the late Dr Bowring as- 
 certained that the mummy cloth of a child was 
 formed of cotton, and not of linen as is the case 
 with adult mummies. Rosselini has found the 
 seeds of the cotton plant in a vessel in the tombs of 
 Egypt, which is an indication that cotton was not 
 only purchased as an article of import, but was 
 cultivated in Egypt. "Wilkinson says that cotton 
 cloth was manufactured in Egypt, and that cotton 
 dresses were worn by all classes. Pliny says that 
 the Egyptian priests, though they used linen, were 
 particularly partial to cotton robes; and on the 
 llosetta stone, there is mention made of cotton 
 garments, supplied by the government for the use 
 of the temple. Bonomi says, " The cotton manu- 
 factures were celebrated and remarkable, and are 
 mentioned by Pliny as the invention of Semiramis, 
 who is stated by many writers of antiquity to have 
 founded large weaving establishments along the 
 banks of the Tigris and Euphrates.'* The textile 
 fabrics of Assyria were celebrated all over the 
 civilised world. This implies an extensive shipping 
 trade, and agrees with the words of Isaiah, 800 
 years before Christ, in reference to Assyria, 
 " Thus saith the Lord, your Redeemer, the Holy 
 One of Israel; For your sake I have sent to Baby- 
 lon, and have brought down all their nobles, and 
 
DYEING. 247 
 
 the Chaldeans, whose cry is in the ships." From 
 these evidences we think it proven that cotton 
 was not only known, but used, in Egypt, Palestine, 
 and all the other civilised countries in the East, 
 from the earliest times of which we have any 
 record or relic. 
 
 LINEN AND FLAX. Whatever doubts may exist 
 respecting the use of cotton and silk among 
 ancient Eastern nations, there are none concern- 
 ing their common use of linen. It is familiarly 
 referred to in almost all ancient writings. The 
 Old Testament speaks of linen, fine linen, and 
 fine twined linen, &c. These being translations of 
 different words in the original have given rise to 
 some difficulties concerning the precise meanings 
 of each term, some supposing that cotton may be 
 the true meaning of some of these distinctive 
 names ; however, that different qualities of linen 
 were manufactured in ancient times, is amply 
 verified by the still existent varieties found in the 
 wrappings of mummies. Some of these cloths are 
 so fine in texture that even at the present day we 
 cannot surpass them, the quality of one piece 
 found at Memphis " being," writes Wilkinson, 
 " to the touch comparable to silk, and not inferior 
 in texture to our finest cambrics." Coloured 
 linens are also extant, of which we will speak 
 hereafter. Linen was common amongst the 
 
 K Hebrews, as every reader of his Bible well knows, 
 in Greece, and all the other nations of antiquity, 
 
248 DYEING. 
 
 linen was a common article of clothing ; although, 
 from a passage in Professor Ramsay's " Eoman 
 Antiquities," we may infer that linen as a whole 
 was scarce, or certain qualities of it were expen- 
 sive, " insomuch," says Ramsay, " that the priests 
 of Isis were at once marked out to the eye as a 
 distinct class by the circumstance of being robed 
 in linen." 
 
 In our opinion all the various fabrics named 
 were used less or more from very early times ; 
 some from the most remote antiquity, others from 
 at least 700 to 1000 years before the Christian 
 era. That they were all subjected to dyeing 
 processes cannot be affirmed, but only considered 
 probable* As these various fabrics are not acted 
 upon alike by the same dye, the different kinds 
 often requiring not only different treatment but 
 different dyeing agents to produce the same 
 effects, our ability to prove that one of these kinds 
 of fabrics was dyed will be no evidence that the 
 others were also dyed. We know, speaking from 
 modern experience, that a dyer may excel in dye- 
 ing woollen, and be altogether unable to dye 
 linen. Or, again, a dyeing agent may produce a 
 beautiful red or crimson on woollen, and be quite 
 unfit to dye linen ; and these circumstances may 
 be reversed, so that different treatment, and in 
 many instances different dye-drugs, have to be 
 used for animal and vegetable fabrics, so that in 
 this inquiry these peculiarities will have to 
 
DYEING. 249 
 
 be borne in mind, as the ancients, like the 
 moderns, would have to contend with these differ- 
 ent properties. These matters we will be able to 
 consider better after briefly considering what dye- 
 ing agents, so far as we know, they had to dye 
 with. The following is the list : 
 
 COLOUKING MATTERS. Kermes, indigo and 
 woad, madder, archil, safflower, alkanet, henna, 
 broom, galls, berries, walnut, pomegranate seeds, 
 Egyptian acacia, and shell-fish. 
 
 SALTS. Sulphate of iron (copperas), sulphate of 
 copper (bluestone), acetate of copper (verdigris), 
 acetate of iron (iron liquor), alum, alkaline car- 
 bonates, lime, and soap. 
 
 The possession of such articles as are named 
 indicates a considerable knowledge of practical 
 chemistry, although they may not have known 
 anything of chemistry as a science. 
 
 A modern dyer confined to this list would find 
 it very difficult to produce to satisfaction all the 
 colours the ancients possessed, but it would be 
 wrong to conclude that the ancients had not the 
 ability to dye excellent colours with the materials 
 named. Unfortunately our information about the 
 application of these agents, and even about the 
 agents themselves, is very meagre. The principal 
 source of information is from general historians, 
 the learned men of that day. Now, such arts as 
 dyeing were held in very low estimation by these 
 writers. Suppose that a general historian of the 
 
25O DYEING. 
 
 present day, in one of his publications, gives 
 information concerning modern processes of dyeing 
 and the dyestuffs used, suppose also that he does 
 trouble himself to obtain correct information ; 
 notwithstanding, we can safely affirm, by having 
 seen many examples, that his account would be 
 but a piece of popular writing, incorrect in many 
 particulars. This being the case, it is preposterous 
 to expect correctness from such ancient writers as 
 Pliny, who were too proud to visit workshops or 
 make inquiry of tradesmen concerning their pro- 
 cesses. Pliny, on whom we mostly depend, evidently 
 had this mistaken pride ; he says, " I should have 
 described the art of dyeing had it been included 
 among the number of the liberal arts." It is 
 therefore consistent with his own statement to 
 suppose that Pliny contented himself with the 
 floating knowledge wafted to him by popular report, 
 which concerning all arts is full of fallacies; besides, 
 Pliny lived at a time when the art of dyeing is 
 considered to have been much behind what it had 
 been centuries before. In Pliny's own time, at 
 all events of his own knowledge, he knew indigo 
 only as a pigment, and speaks of it as having been 
 got from the sea ; hence it has been supposed by 
 some writers that indigo was not known as a dye 
 before his time. It may be that the Greeks and 
 Romans in Pliny's time could not dye with indigo ; 
 but there is blue-dyed cloth still in existence, 
 dyed with indigo upwards of 1000 years before 
 
DYEING. 251 
 
 Pliny was born. It is possible that this is one 
 more proof of what we spoke of formerly of an art 
 being lost and again rediscovered, or well known 
 to one nation and not to another. We are inclined 
 to think, however, that the art of dyeing with indigo 
 was known to practical men in the days of Pliny, 
 although not known to the historian. It is as 
 likely as not that Pliny's silence arose from ignor- 
 ance. It is known that such arts were confined 
 to certain classes of the community, who kept 
 their operations secret, so that much was known 
 and practised by them which such men as Pliny 
 could not possibly know. It is stated by Bischoff, 
 " That in every province, and particularly in 
 Phoenicia, there were certain houses for dyeing 
 purple belonging to the emperors, and each of 
 these was under the inspection of an overseer, 
 whose chief business was to take care that the 
 articles were well dyed. These overseers and 
 their work were again under the inspection of a 
 higher functionary." Probably it was one such 
 general overseer that the king of Tyre sent to 
 Solomon, " A man cunning to work in gold and 
 in silver, and in brass and in iron, and in purple, 
 and crimson, and blue." Neither the dyers nor 
 their children durst follow any other occupation ; 
 they formed a peculiar tribe, and had their own 
 symbol, which was a small basket containing 
 purple and wool. 
 INDIGO AND WOAD. The indigo-producing plants 
 
252 DYEING. 
 
 have certainly been known from the remotest 
 antiquity. This is attested by a variety of circum- 
 stances, particularly by its Hindoo name Nil, 
 which, according to Sir William Jones, means blue. 
 By the same name it was known to the Arabs, Egyp- 
 tians, and other nations of the East, which is a 
 strongly circumstantial proof that indigo was first 
 imported from India. But at the same time a 
 knowledge of the properties of indigo was possessed 
 by nations who had no intercourse with India, and 
 who, therefore, must have obtained their indigo 
 from native plants. Caesar states that the ancient 
 Britons made their blue with indigo from the 
 woad plant, and that their wives and daughters, 
 when they appeared naked at the sacred festivals, 
 had their bodies dyed with it, so that they resem- 
 bled the Ethiopians. Pliny conceived indigo to 
 be a slime naturally collected in the scum of the 
 sea, and adhering to certain reeds growing on its 
 shores, which Beckmann says was the indigo plant 
 stripped of its bark. The peculiar smell which 
 indigo gives when burning, Pliny considered as 
 confirmatory of its marine origin. When the 
 indigo dye or plant was first introduced into 
 Egypt, Palestine, and these localities, is not 
 known ; but sufficient for our present purpose is 
 the fact that indigo was known and used by dyers 
 in ancient times for dyeing blues ; and that it was 
 used to a great extent is evidenced by the exten- 
 sive cultivation of the indigo plant in those 
 
DYEING. 253 
 
 countries, which cultivation is believed to have 
 been carried on from very early times. It is still 
 cultivated in small quantities. Dr Bowring says it 
 grows wild in certain parts of Palestine. Volney 
 says it grows with cultivation on Jordan's banks. 
 Burckhardt states that indigo is a common pro- 
 duct of the eastern coast of the Dead Sea, and 
 excels that grown in Egypt ; and dyeing blue 
 with indigo is still a common occupation of the 
 people of Safet. That indigo was used as a dye 
 by the ancient Egyptians is proved by the analyses 
 of the blue upon mummy cloths. Mr Thomson 
 who examined these colours says, " Though I had 
 no doubt the colouring matter of the blue stripes 
 was indigo, I subjected the cloth to the following 
 examination : Boiled in water for some time the 
 colour did not yield in the least, nor was it at all 
 affected by soap or strong alkalies. Sulphuric acid, 
 diluted so far as not to destroy the cloth, had no 
 action on the colour. Chloride of lime gradually 
 reduced, and at last destroyed it. Strong nitric 
 acid dropped upon the blue turned it orange, and 
 in the same instant destroyed it; these tests 
 prove the colouring matter of the stripes to be 
 indigo." Loftus found in the graves of ancient 
 Chaldea that the corpse had been dressed with blue 
 linen, in all likelihood dyed with indigo. 
 
 KERMES. These are the dried bodies of insects, 
 which feed upon the leaves of the prickly oak. 
 The word is considered Arabic, and signifies a 
 
254 DYEING. 
 
 little worm. This substance was known as a 
 dyeing agent in the East before the days of 
 Moses, and was used from time immemorial in India 
 for dyeing silk and woollen, and was also a dry 
 drug, known to Greek and Koman dyers. We 
 find the following remarks upon the use of kermes 
 in ancient times in Beckmann's " History of 
 Inventions." Beckmann derives his information 
 from Professor Tychsen, who is the writer to 
 whom he refers in the extract : " Tola was the 
 ancient Phoenician name for kermes, used both 
 by the Hebrews and the Assyrians ; and the 
 Assyrian translators of Scripture use that name 
 in Isaiah i. 18, called in our translation scarlet. 
 The dye was known to the Egyptians in the time 
 of Moses, and the Israelites must have carried it 
 along with them from Egypt. The same writer 
 thinks that the Arabs received the name kermes 
 from Armenia and Persia, where it was indigenous 
 and long known, and that that name banished 
 the old name, tola, in the East, as the name 
 scarlet did in the West." The following is Pliny's 
 account of kermes : " There grew upon the oak 
 in Africa, Sicily, &c., a small excrescence like a 
 bud, termed cusculium ; the Spaniards paid with 
 these grains half of their tribute to the Romans. 
 Those produced in Sicily were the worst ; those 
 from the neighbourhood of Emerita the best, and 
 they were employed for dyeing purple." 
 
 SHELL-FISH. When this means of dyeing was 
 
DYEING. .255 
 
 discovered is uncertain. There are various ac- 
 counts professing to give a narrative of the 
 discovery, but they are all mixed with fables. 
 The common story runs thus : A young man 
 walking along the sea shore with his sweet- 
 heart, their little dog caught at a Purpura, by 
 which his mouth became stained with purple, 
 which the young woman observing, expressed a 
 desire to have a dress of the same colour ; her 
 lover, anxious to gratify her desire, examined and 
 found the shell, and so discovered the dye. 
 Others have attributed the discovery to the Phoe- 
 nician Hercules, who was a great navigator. He 
 communicated his discovery to the king, who 
 immediately began to wear purple, and from that 
 time purple became a regal badge. The date of 
 the discovery has been given differently as 1500 
 B.C., and 1250 B.C., but purple is mentioned as 
 having been common in Egypt, and amongst the 
 Israelites, prior to the earliest of these dates, and 
 purple garments were worn by the kings of Midian 
 as early as 1291 B.C. 
 
 The shell-fish used for dyeing purple are named 
 by Pliny the Conchylium, Murex, Purpura, and 
 Bucdnum. He says the best Purpurce found in 
 Asia were those found in the sea adjoining Tyre; 
 that the Tyrians, when they caught any of the 
 greater Purpurce, took the fish out of their shells, 
 the better to extract the colouring matter, but 
 that they obtained it from the smaller by grinding 
 
DYEING. 
 
 in mills ; that the fishermen endeavoured to take 
 the purple fish alive, killing it immediately with 
 a blow, because if allowed to die slowly, it ejected 
 its precious liquor with its life. He states also 
 that the fish dies speedily if put into fresh water. 
 The method of catching them was this : The 
 fishermen took a net with wide meshes, into 
 which as bait a few mussels were put. These 
 immersed in the water, open their shells, which 
 the purple fish observing thrust in their tongues, 
 but immediately they perceive this they again shut 
 their shells, and in this manner the Purpurce were 
 caught. When the Purpurce was caught, the white 
 vein or receptacle of the colour was taken out and 
 laid in salt for three days ; after which the matter 
 so extracted and salted was boiled slowly in leaden 
 vessels over a gentle fire, the workmen from time 
 to time skimming off the fleshy impurities. This 
 process lasted ten days ; after which the liquor 
 was tried by dipping wool into it; and if the 
 colour produced was defective, the boiling was 
 renewed. Pliny says this liquor was generally 
 used with other dyes, by which a variety of tints 
 were produced. Amongst the other dyes are 
 named kermes, archil, and alkanet root. 
 
 By whatever means the dye was produced, purple 
 coloured cloth was certainly in ancient times held 
 in high estimation, and was at a later period 
 appropriated to the service of religion, and as a 
 distinguishing garb for the highest civil and 
 
DYEING. 257 
 
 military dignities, and ultimately became the 
 emblem and symbol of majesty. Under some of the 
 Roman emperors the wearing of purple by any 
 person not of the imperial family was deemed 
 treason, and punishable by death. The natural 
 effect of such restrictions would be that the skill to 
 produce the colour in perfection would gradually 
 deteriorate, and eventually all knowledge of the 
 process become lost. Many attempts have been 
 made in modern times to recover the knowledge 
 of how to produce this celebrated dye, with various 
 success, but without results sufficient to warrant 
 it being tried as a manufacture. The late Dr 
 George Wilson considered that the murixide got 
 from guano was the same as the ancient purple, but 
 in practice it does not give either the permanency 
 or the beauty history ascribes to the Tyrian purple, 
 probably from want of the proper mode of applica- 
 tion. Our purples, and some of the other colours 
 from coal tar, will stand favourable comparison 
 with any purple ever produced either in ancient 
 or modern times, so far as brilliancy is concerned ; 
 but they also have not the permanency ascribed 
 to the Tyrian purple. Mr Johnson, in his "Intro- 
 duction to Conchology," makes mention of the 
 colour obtained from shell-fish. He says, "Several 
 shell-fish have the power of secreting and throwing 
 out a fluid when irritated. Some of these fluids 
 are purple-coloured ; they have been occasionally 
 collected and tested, and several eminent men have 
 
258 DYEING. 
 
 considered that this fluid, so excreted, may have 
 formed a part or whole of the celebrated purple 
 dye of ancient times." With this view Johnson 
 disagrees. As these excretions are from the first 
 a purple colour, and liable to change by acids and 
 alkalis, and fade by exposure, he thinks they 
 formed no part of the Tyrian dye, for unchange- 
 ableness was one of its characters ; and Aristotle 
 and Pliny state expressly that the colour of that 
 fluid, on its first discharge from the animal, was 
 white. Such a coloured liquid can be procured, as 
 these authors say it was procured, from several uni- 
 valves belonging to the genera murex and purpurce, 
 and Colonel Montagu furnishes us with a good ac- 
 count of how it may be procured from the Purpura 
 lapillus, "The part containing the colouring mat- 
 ter is a slender longitudinal vein, just under the skin 
 on the back, behind the head, appearing whiter than 
 the rest of the animal. The fluid itself is of the 
 colour and consistence of thick cream. As soon as 
 it is exposed to the air it becomes of a bright yellow, 
 speedily turns to a pale green, and continues to 
 change imperceptibly until it assumes a bluish cast, 
 and then a purplish red. Without the influence 
 of the solar rays it will go through all these 
 changes in two or three hours ; but the process is 
 much accelerated by exposure to the sun. A 
 portion of the fluid, mixed with dilute vitriolic 
 acid, did not at first appear to have been sensibly 
 affected ; but by more intimately mixing it in the 
 
DYEING. 259 
 
 sun, it became of a pale purple, or purplish red, 
 without any of the intermediate changes. Several 
 marks were now made on fine calico, in order to 
 try if it was possible to discharge the colour by 
 such chemical means as were at hand ; and it was 
 found that, after the colour was fixed at its last 
 natural change, nitrous, no more than vitriolic, acid 
 had any other effect than that of rather brightening 
 it. Aqua regia.) with or without solution of tin, 
 and marine acid, produced no change, nor had fixed 
 or volatile alkali any effect. It does not in the 
 least give out its colour to alcohol, like cochineal, 
 and the succus of the animal at Turbo (Scalaria 
 clathrus), but it communicates its very disagreeable 
 odour to it most copiously, so that opening the 
 bottle has been more powerful in its effects upon 
 the olefactory nerves than the effluvia of asafcetida, 
 to which it may be compared. All the markings 
 which had been alkalised and acidulated, together 
 with those to which nothing had been applied, 
 became, after washing in soap and water, of a 
 uniform colour, rather brighter than before, and 
 were fixed at a fine unchangeable crimson." 
 
 I have myself obtained a beautiful permanent 
 purple from Purpura lapillus found in Arran. The 
 experiments of Colonel Montagu are important, 
 as they were made en cotton, and found fast without 
 the addition of a mordant, excelling in this respect 
 any other colouring matter we know, except indigo; 
 even the tar colours require a mordant for fixing 
 
26O DYEING. 
 
 them upon cotton. In "The Land and the Book," 
 Dr Thomson, speaking of ancient Sidon, says, "The 
 Tell on which the castle stands is artificial, and 
 what is more remarkable, is made in great measure 
 of old pottery, rubbish of houses, and thick beds 
 of broken Purpura, thrown out from Sidon's ancient 
 manufacture of purple dye." And again, speaking 
 of Tyre, "A variety of the murex, from which 
 the purple dye was procured, is found all along 
 this coast, but it abounds most around the Bay of 
 Acre ; so also the Helix Jauthina, from which a 
 blue, with a delicate purple of lilac tinge, may be 
 extracted, is equally abundant. After a storm in 
 winter you may gather thousands of them from 
 the sandy beach south of Sidon. They are 
 so extremely fragile that the waves soon grind 
 them to dust. A kind of Ruccinum is found here 
 at Tyre, which has a dark crimson colouring 
 matter about it, with a bluish, livid tinge. Ac- 
 cording to ancient authors this was used to vary 
 the shades of the purple. Pliny says the Tyrians 
 ground the shell in mills to get at the dye. This 
 could not have been the only process, because the 
 remnants of these shells found in pits along the 
 south-eastern shore of the island were certainly 
 broken or mashed, and not ground, and the same 
 is true of the shells on the south of the wall at 
 Sidon." 
 
 MADDER. This important colouring matter was 
 known to the ancients as a dye-drug. Pliny says 
 
DYEING. 26l 
 
 expressly that the red roots of the rubia were used 
 to dye wool and leather red. It is also stated by 
 Beckmann, quoting Dioscorides, that the thin, long 
 roots, &c., which are red, serve for dyeing ; and on 
 that account the cultivated kind (which indicates 
 an acquaintance with a wild sort) is reared with 
 much benefit in Galilee, around Ravenna in Italy, 
 and in Caria, where it is planted either among the 
 olive trees or in fields destined for that purpose. 
 Virgil refers to the madder plant, and says the 
 sheep feeding upon it had their wool coloured red. 
 It is known that swine and several other animals 
 have their bones coloured red by eating madder. 
 Dr Kitto, in his " Physical History of Palestine," 
 says madder grows abundantly in Syria and 
 Palestine. The dye from the madder root was cer- 
 tainly in very common use among the Egyptians, 
 and doubtless also among the Hebrews. The 
 reddish coloured dye of the mummy cloths appears 
 to have been produced from madder, and remains 
 a curious and interesting monument of its use. 
 
 CARTHAMUS, or safflower, was, in very remote 
 times, cultivated in Egypt, where it is still culti- 
 vated, producing the best quality of the dye. 
 Wilkinson says it is now proved by the discovery 
 of the seeds of Carthamus tinctorius in a tomb in 
 Thebes that the plant was cultivated in ancient 
 Egypt, not only for the dye it produced, but for 
 an oil extracted from its seeds. 
 
 ARCHIL. Theophrastus and several other ancient 
 
262 DYEING. 
 
 writers mention a plant which grew upon the rocks 
 of different islands, particularly in Crete or Candia, 
 and which had been used for a long time as a 
 violet dye for wool, said by some to have excelled 
 the ancient purple. This plant Beckmann and 
 several others consider to have been the lichen 
 Roccella, our archil. Pliny says that with this 
 plant dyers gave the ground or first tint to those 
 cloths they intended to dye with the costly pur- 
 ple. We think it very probable that this method 
 of bottoming the purple with archil was only intro- 
 duced at a later date, probably after the true 
 purple dye became scarce and costly, and is 
 an early instance of the production of a cheap 
 substitute. Archil dye is not permanent, and 
 although topped with the real purple dye, and 
 when fresh equally brilliant, yet the dye would 
 not remain permanent, the foundation of it being 
 bad. Probably the prohibition against dyeing and 
 wearing the real imperial purple led to this spurious 
 substitute. 
 
 HENNA. This plant, which is abundant in 
 Egypt, Arabia, and Palestine, was used by the 
 ancients, as it is by the moderns, for dyeing. The 
 leaves were dried and pulverised, and then made 
 into a paste. It is a powerful astringent dye, 
 and is applied to desiccate and dye the palms of 
 the hands and soles of the feet and nails of both, 
 and gives a sort of dun or rust colour to animal 
 tissues, which is very permanent. It is stated that 
 
DYEING. 263 
 
 i 
 
 when sal-ammoniac and lime were put upon the 
 coloured parts they changed to a dark greenish- 
 blue colour, and passed on to black, probably from 
 the sal-ammoniac containing iron, which would 
 give this result. The Tyrian ladies dyed rings 
 and stars upon their persons. Men gave a black 
 dye to the hair of their heads and beards. The 
 dyeing of the nails with henna is a very ancient 
 custom. Some of the old Egyptian mummies are 
 so dyed. It is supposed that the Jewish women 
 also followed this custom. Reference is made to 
 it in Deuteronomy, where the newly -married 
 wife is desired to stain her nails. Also, in the 
 Song of Solomon, Camp/tire, in the authorised 
 version, is said to mean henna, which has finely- 
 scented flowers growing in bunches, and the leaves 
 of the plant are used by women to impart a reddish 
 stain to their nails. Speaking of Arabian women 
 at the present day, Dr Thomson, in " The Land and 
 the Book," says, "They paint their cheeks, putting 
 tahl around their eyes, arching their eyebrows 
 with the same, and stain their hands and feet with 
 henna thus to deck themselves, and should an un- 
 married woman do so, an impression is conveyed 
 highly injurious to the girl's character." This 
 beautifully illustrates the passage just referred to 
 (Deut. xxi. 12). 
 
 GALLS are named among the substances known 
 to the ancients, but I cannot find whether they 
 were used as a dyeing agent. Wilkinson says that 
 
264 DYEING. 
 
 tanning was in Egypt a subdivision of dyeing, 
 and it is mentioned that copperas with galls dyed 
 leather black ; and there can be little doubt that 
 galls were used for a similar purpose in ordinary 
 dyeing. The Myrobollans and several sorts of 
 barks and pods of the Acacia nilotica were also 
 used for tanning, from their astringent properties, 
 and may have been similarly used for dyeing. 
 
 These are a few of the principal colouring mat- 
 ters used by dyers in ancient times. There is a 
 little confusion with respect to some of the salts 
 mentioned as having been used by them, especially 
 the alkaline salts a circumstance, however, not 
 to be wondered at. In more modern times there 
 is a similar confusion on this same head. 
 
 When nitre, for instance, is burned with car- 
 bonaceous matter, the product is carbonate of 
 potash. The ashes left by burning wood contain 
 the same salt. The ashes left by burning sea- 
 weed produce carbonate of soda. When nitre is 
 burned with sulphur, the product is sulphate of 
 potash, &c. These have all been called generically, 
 even in modern times, nitre, having each a certain 
 prefix well understood by the adept, or chemist, of 
 the day. We think it probable that all these 
 processes for making the different salts were 
 practised in ancient times, but now having only 
 the generic name nitre given us by historians, we 
 cannot understand exactly when nitre is mentioned 
 which of the nitres is meant When Solomon 
 
DYEING. 265 
 
 speaks of the action of vinegar upon nitre, the 
 chemist understands that the salt referred to is 
 a carbonate, but when the nature of the action or 
 application is not given, we have no idea what 
 particular salt is meant. There is no doubt, how- 
 ever, that the ancients were well acquainted with 
 the alkaline salts of potash and soda, and applied 
 them in the arts. The metallic salts of iron, 
 copper, and alumina were well known, and their 
 application to dyeing was generally the same as 
 at the present day. That they were used both as 
 mordants and alterants is evident from several 
 references. A very suggestive statement is made 
 by Pliny about the ancient Egyptians. u They 
 began," says he, " by painting or drawing on 
 white cloths with certain drugs, which in them- 
 selves possessed no colour, but had the property 
 of attracting or absorbing colouring matter ; after 
 which these cloths were immersed in a heated 
 dyeing liquor ; and although they were colourless 
 before, and although this dyeing liquor was of one 
 equable and uniform colour, yet when taken out 
 of it soon afterwards, the cloth was found to be 
 wonderfully tinged of different colours, according 
 to the peculiar nature of the several drugs which 
 had been applied to their respective parts, and 
 these colours could not be afterwards discharged 
 by washing." 
 
 Herodotus states that certain people who lived 
 near the Caspian Sea could, by means of leaves of 
 trees which they bruised and steeped in water, 
 
266 DYEING. 
 
 form on cloth the figures of animals, flowers, &c., 
 which were as lasting as the cloth itself. This 
 statement is more suggestive than instructive. 
 Persia was much famed for dyeing at a very early 
 period, and dyeing is still held in great esteem in 
 that country. Persian dyers have chosen Christ 
 as their patron ; and Bischoff says that they at 
 present call a dye-house Christ's workshop, from 
 a tradition they have that He was of that pro- 
 fession. They have a legend, probably founded 
 upon what Pliny tells of the Egyptian dyers, 
 " that Christ being put apprentice to a dyer, His 
 master desired Him to dye some pieces of cloth 
 of different colours; He put them all into a boiler, 
 and when the dyer took them out he was terribly 
 frightened on finding that each had its proper 
 colour." This or a similar legend occurs in the 
 apocryphal book entitled " The First Gospel of 
 the Infancy of Jesus Christ." The following is the 
 passage : " On a certain day also, when the Lord 
 Jesus was playing with the boys, and running 
 about, He passed by a dyer's shop whose name 
 was Salem, and there were in his shop many 
 pieces of cloth belonging to the people of that 
 city, which they designed to dye of several colours. 
 Then the Lord Jesus, going into the dyer's shop, 
 took all the cloths and threw them into the fur- 
 nace. When Salem came home and saw the cloth 
 spoiled, he began to make a great noise and to chide 
 the Lord Jesus, saying, ' What hast Thou done 
 unto me, thou son of Mary ? Thou hast injured 
 
DYEING. 267 
 
 both me and my neighbours ; they all desired their 
 cloths of a proper colour, but Thou hast come and 
 spoiled them all.' The Lord Jesus replied, ' I will 
 change the colour of every cloth to what colour 
 thou desirest,' and then He presently began to 
 take the cloths out of the furnace ; and they were 
 all dyed of those same colours which the dyer 
 desired. And when the Jews saw this surprising 
 miracle they praised God." 
 
 TIN. We have no positive evidence as to 
 whether the ancients used oxide, or the salts of tin, 
 in their dyeing operations. A modern dyer could 
 hardly produce permanent tints with some of the 
 dye drugs named without tin salts. We know 
 that the ancients used the oxides of tin for glaz- 
 ing pottery and painting ; they may therefore have 
 used salts of tin in their dyeing operations. How- 
 ever, they had another salt sulphate of alumina 
 which produces similar results, although the 
 moderns in most cases prefer tin, as it makes a 
 more brilliant and permanent tint. 
 
 ALUM. This is what is termed a double salt, and 
 is composed of sulphate of alumina and sulphate 
 of potash. The process of manufacturing it in this 
 country is by subjecting clay slate containing iron 
 pyrites to a calcination, when the sulphur with the 
 iron is oxidised, becoming sulphuric acid, which, 
 combining with the alumina of the clay, and also 
 with the iron, becomes sulphate of alumina and iron ; 
 to this is added a salt of potash, which, combin- 
 ing with the sulphate of alumina, forms the double 
 
268 DYEING. 
 
 salt alum. Soda or ammonia may be substituted 
 for potash with similar results ; the alum is crys- 
 tallised from the solution. That the ancients were 
 acquainted with this double salt has been disputed, 
 but we think there can be no doubt of its existence 
 and use at a very early period. A very pure alum 
 is produced in volcanic districts by the action of 
 sulphurous acid and oxygen on felspathic rocks, 
 and used by the ancients for different purposes. 
 Pliny mentions Alumine, which he describes as 
 white, and used for whitening wool, also for dyeing 
 wool of bright colours. Occasionally he confounds 
 this salt with a mixture of sulphate of alumina 
 and iron, which, in all probability, was alum 
 containing iron, the process of separation not 
 being perfect ; and he mentions that this kind of 
 alumen blackens on the application of nut-galls, 
 showing that iron was in it. Pliny says of 
 alumen, that it is "understood to be a sort of 
 brine which exudes from the earth ; of this, too, 
 there are several kinds. In Cyprus there is a 
 white alumen, and another kind of a darker colour ; 
 the uses of these are very dissimilar, the white 
 liquid alumen being employed for dyeing a 
 whole bright colour, and the darker, on the other 
 hand, for giving wool a tawny or sombre tint." 
 This is very characteristic of a pure aluminous 
 mordant, and of one containing iron. He also 
 mentions that this dark alumen was used for 
 purifying gold. He must be referring here to its 
 quality of giving to gold a rich colour. The liquid 
 
DYEING. 269 
 
 of this iron alumen, if put upon light- coloured 
 gold, and heated over a fire, gives it a very rich 
 tint ; a process practised still for the same purpose. 
 So far, however, as the application to dyeing is 
 concerned, it is unnecessary to prove that the 
 ancients used our double salt alum. Probably the 
 alumen referred to by Pliny, as exuding from the 
 earth, was sulphate of alumina, without potash or 
 soda, a salt not easily crystallised, but as effec- 
 tive, in many cases more effective, in the opera- 
 tions of dyeing than alum, which is attested 
 by the preference given to this salt over alum for 
 many purposes at the present day. Pliny says 
 that alumen was a product of Spain, Egypt, 
 Armenia, Macedonia, Pontus, Africa, and the 
 Islands of Sardinia, Melos, Lipara, and Strangyle, 
 and that the most esteemed is that of Egypt. 
 And Herodotus mentions that King Amasis of 
 Egypt sent the people of Delphi a thousand 
 talents of this substance, as his contribution 
 towards the rebuilding of their temple. Notwith- 
 standing considerable confusion in Pliny's account 
 of this substance, our belief is, that it refers to 
 different salts of alumina, and whether or not they 
 were all used in the processes of dyeing, they were 
 used for manufacturing purposes, and thus gives us 
 some insight to the advanced state of the arts in 
 these times. 
 
 SOAP. We take the following from the pen of 
 F. T. Buckland : " It has been lately suggested 
 
2/0 DYEING. 
 
 by an eminent lecturer that the ancient Greeks and 
 Romans were not acquainted with the use of this 
 valuable material; and that it is very possible 
 that the flowing robes and graceful drapery which 
 look so pretty when cut in marble, were not of 
 the cleanest kind. The following passage from 
 ' Knight's Pictorial Bible ' throws some light 
 on this point : Mai iii. 2, ' For he is like a 
 refiner's fire, and like fullers' sope.' ' Fullers' 
 sope.' The word ' soap/ by which the Hebrew 
 * borith ' is translated, might lead the general 
 reader to suppose the Hebrews possessed such 
 soap as is in use among ourselves. Such was not 
 the case. The word t borith ' is translated by the 
 Septuagint, followed by the Vulgate, ' Fullers' 
 herb,' whence, and from the explanation of the 
 rabbis, as well as from our knowledge of the 
 substances anciently, and even now, employed in 
 the place of soap, we may collect that the purify- 
 ing substance was a vegetable alkali, obtained 
 from the ashes of an alkaline plant. This 
 was used, or a solution of it, in connection with 
 oil, for washing clothes in ancient times, and 
 continues to be employed for the same purpose in 
 different parts of the East. As there are several 
 plants which furnish the requisite alkali, it is 
 doubtful what particular plant, or whether any 
 one alkaline plant in particular, may be intended. 
 The substance may have been obtained from 
 different plants, and it appears to us that the 
 
DYEING. 271 
 
 name ' borith ' denotes not the plant which 
 furnished the substance, but the substance itself, 
 from whatever plant obtained. Jerome, however, 
 supposes that the substance was furnished by a 
 particular plant growing in Palestine in moist and 
 green places, and which had the same virtue as nitre 
 to take away filth. Maimonides says the plant was 
 called gazul in the Arabic language. Although this 
 borith be that which our version renders ' soap,' 
 we are not to suppose that the Hebrews employed 
 no other substance for purification. The Bible 
 itself (Prov. xxv. 20, Jer. ii. 22) mentions a mineral 
 alkali (nitre) as employed for the same purpose ; 
 and the Misnah counts the ' borith ' but as one of 
 seven things employed to extract spots and dirt 
 from clothing." 
 
 The substance referred to in Proverbs is no 
 doubt carbonate of soda, and the same is most 
 probably that referred to in Jeremiah. H. B. 
 Tristram says that on all sides of the south end 
 of the Dead Sea, the soap plant (Salicomia 
 fructicosa) and Salsolas abound, and (alluded to in 
 Jeremiah and Malachi) the Bedouins burn it for 
 alkali to use as soap, just as kelp used to be 
 burned on the Scottish coast. This would produce 
 carbonate of soda, with strong alkaline property. 
 Dr Thomson, in " The Land and the Book," men- 
 tions that great mounds of grey ashes of the soap 
 manufacture exist in the East, and that such mounds 
 are found near Jerusalem and Gaza, and adds, " I 
 
2/2 DYEING. 
 
 cannot account for these immense hills of ashes, 
 except on the supposition that kali, used in the 
 manufacture of soap, has been very impure, leaving 
 a large residuum to be cast out in heaps." " In 
 Syria it is obtained mostly from the Arabs of the 
 frontier deserts, where it is made by burning the 
 glass wort and other saliferous plants that grow 
 in these arid plains. The kali resembles in 
 appearance cakes of coarse salt, and it is generally 
 adulterated with sand, earth, and ashes, which 
 makes the residuum very large, and from it these 
 vast hills of rubbish gradually accumulate round 
 the place where soap is manufactured. The growth 
 of these mounds, however, is so slow, that it must 
 have taken hundreds, if not thousands of years, 
 for those of Edlip to reach their present enormous 
 size." From these remarks we think it pretty 
 evident, that soap, even in our meaning of the 
 term, was known to the ancients. Within these 
 sixty years most of the soap made in this country 
 was obtained from the ashes of seaweed. 
 
 DIFFERENT COLOURS. From a consideration of 
 the list of dye stuffs and salts used as mordants 
 the whole of which I think we have not got an 
 account of the ancients may have been able to 
 produce a considerable variety of colours and tints ; 
 but, as might have been anticipated, there are 
 very few colours named, owing, no doubt, to a 
 confusion in the naming of tints. In Scripture 
 we have only blue, red, crimson, purple, and 
 
DYEING. 273 
 
 scarlet ; but what distinguished red from crimson 
 or scarlet we do not know, but will take them as 
 translated, with the present definitions. Profane 
 history mentions, in addition to these, yellow, 
 green, and black ; but they could not fail to have all 
 the intervening tints. It is worthy of remark that 
 in Scripture there is no reference to either yellow or 
 green. The Hebrew people being so fond of gold 
 ornaments, we would naturally reason that the colour 
 of gold would be a prevailing tint in their dress ; 
 but colours, as most things else in the East, were 
 symbolical. Yellow was a symbol of subjection, 
 and although esteemed, yet, according to Pliny, it 
 was exclusively worn by women ; so that, if the 
 same idea existed in early times, the Hebrews 
 would avoid it, especially in connection with their 
 religious services. It is stated that the veils 
 which brides wore on their wedding-day were 
 yellow a symbol of promise to serve, honour, and 
 obey. The dyeing of the nails yellow, as formerly 
 noticed, may have had a similar meaning. One 
 reason may account for the absence of yellow dye 
 in their embroidery for the tabernacle is their 
 lack of a permanent yellow dye. Linen dyed 
 yellow by any of the dye drugs which we know 
 they used, was fugitive, passing speedily into a 
 very dirty faded tint, which would have destroyed 
 the effect of the whole embroidered figure. That 
 this had something to do with its exclusion is 
 rendered probable by the use of gold thread along 
 
 s 
 
274 DYEING. 
 
 with the other dyed threads in their embroidered 
 work. " And they did beat the gold into thin 
 plates, and cut it into wires, to work it in the 
 blue, and in the purple, and in the scarlet, and in 
 the fine linen, with cunning work." Wilkinson, 
 speaking of the combination of colours in Egypt, 
 says, that when black was used, yellow was added 
 to harmonise with it. A yellow colour on some 
 mummy cloth, being tested by Mr Thomson, gave 
 no trace of tannin, and seems to have been dyed 
 by some extractive matter ; however, so far as we 
 have seen, the so-called yellow upon mummy cloth 
 is more of a dun or straw colour, and would not 
 pass for a yellow by either dyer or painter of the 
 present day. We must not forget, however, that 
 yellow is a favourite colour with the Chinese ; 
 indeed, it is their royal colour, and has been so for 
 ages. The ancient Persians also held yellow in 
 high esteem, probably they had a proper yellow 
 dye. The symbolism of the colour also may have 
 been different among the Persians and Chinese, 
 from what it was among the Egyptians and 
 Hebrews. 
 
 SCARLET. This colour was in the East a symbol 
 of triumph and rejoicing, and is still used as such 
 in India. Scarlet flags are used on the temples, 
 and as personal exhibitions, and indicate security 
 and joy. During the feast of the Hooli the in- 
 habitants are in the habit of scattering cinnabar; 
 and on all great Hindoo festivals it is the custom 
 
DYEING. 275 
 
 to wear necklaces of scarlet silk or worsted thread, 
 so that in the East a scarlet thread or cord is a 
 thing easily procurable in any house, and ready at 
 hand. We find the first mention of it in Scripture, 
 several years before the family of Jacob went into 
 Egypt (Gen. xxxviii. 28). Indeed, it is the first 
 dye mentioned in history, and although only in- 
 cidentally, yet in such a common and familiar way 
 as to show that the colour was well known. Again, 
 on another and interesting occasion, a scarlet cord 
 was easily procured by Rahab ; and in this instance 
 it was not without its symbolical meaning, of a 
 token or covenant of security. In some of the 
 Hebrew rites, such as the ceremony of pronouncing 
 a person or house free of leprosy, scarlet was used 
 along with hyssop, which may have been a symbol- 
 ical emblem of joy and triumph ; and the spreading 
 of a scarlet cloth over the ark of the covenant, 
 during its movement from place to place, may also 
 have been a symbolical expression of security. 
 Scarlet is also mentioned as the dress of females 
 in David's lament for Saul, and probably in its 
 symbolic sense 
 
 " Ye daughters of Israel, weep over Saul, 
 Who clothed you in scarlet and delightful garments, 
 Who put on ornaments of gold upon your apparel." 
 
 Solomon represents the virtuous woman as 
 providing scarlet clothing for her household as a 
 protection against the cold. Thus " she is not 
 afraid of the snow for the household, for all her 
 
276 DYEING. 
 
 household are clothed in scarlet." In China 
 scarlet and bright red are the festive colours, 
 denoting triumph, success, or joy; scarlet or red 
 painted sign-boards are hung out on festive 
 occasions. In Babylon, Daniel is said to have been 
 clothed in scarlet by the king, but in this case it 
 is considered by scholars that purple is meant. It 
 is impossible to tell whether the word translated 
 scarlet in Scripture refers to the same tint we 
 designate by that name ; but from the fact already 
 stated, that it refers to kermes, it is evident that 
 if not that fiery red we call scarlet, it was a bright 
 red quite distinct from crimson and purple. We 
 have no evidence as to the fabric on which this 
 colour was dyed, but if it was on linen or cotton, 
 and the dye kermes, then it is one of the lost arts. 
 However, they might have dyed a bright red from 
 safflower upon linen ; but this is a fugitive dye. 
 They might also obtain a red colour with madder; 
 but neither of these gives the tint of kermes. It 
 is more than probable that scarlet was generally 
 dyed upon worsted ; but even upon that fabric we 
 could not dye a very good or permanent colour 
 with kermes without a tin mordant. It is very 
 probable they had tin dissolved as a mordant, 
 although there is no evidence to prove it; but 
 whatever was the mordant used, the dye appears 
 to have been fast. We have a beautiful figure 
 drawn from its permanence by the prophet Isaiah 
 " Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be 
 
DYEING. 277 
 
 as white as snow ; though they be red like crimson, 
 they shall be as wool." Had the prophet in this 
 poetic symbol been intent upon the extreme 
 opposite of purity, he would have named black ; 
 but this colour is not permanent on any fabric, 
 and is easily removed; on this account it would 
 not have suited the lesson meant to be conveyed. 
 This was not the case, however, with scarlet. The 
 word which has been translated crimson here, is 
 universally admitted by scholars to be wrong, and 
 should be translated " double scarlet," or "scarlet 
 double dyed ; " and the passage should read 
 " Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as 
 white as snow ; though they be red as scarlet 
 double dyed, they shall be as wool." A colour so 
 dyed upon wool could not be removed without 
 destroying the cloth. Scarlet is referred to by 
 Nahum, who wrote nearly 800 years before Christ, 
 as the dress of soldiers 
 
 " The shield of his mighty men is made red ; 
 The valiant men are in scarlet ; " 
 
 doubtless as a symbol of triumph. 
 
 RED. The word red is mentioned in Scripture 
 repeatedly in connection with scarlet red as 
 scarlet, &c. ; but as a distinct tint or dye it is only 
 mentioned in Scripture in connection with rams' 
 skins, which were used as coverings for the furni- 
 ture of the tabernacle. Some commentators think 
 this referred to the skins of a certain kind of sheep, 
 having wool of a reddish-brown or fawn colour, 
 
278 DYEING. 
 
 much esteemed in the East : but in all the passages 
 it is distinctly stated rams' skins dyed red, except 
 in one place, where it is red skins of rams, so that 
 I think we are not warranted in supposing they 
 were natural, but were dyed in the tanning. 
 Coloured leather, as before-mentioned, was com- 
 mon in Egypt long before the exodus. Red, in 
 Egypt, was emblematic of the earth or earthy ; 
 the same idea was common among the Hebrews, 
 and appears in the name Adam, red earth, and 
 in Edom, which is red. 
 
 CRIMSON. This is another colour which is very 
 seldom referred to as a particular dye. It is 
 mentioned as one of the three colours of the vail 
 in Solomon's temple. " And he made the vail 
 of blue and purple and crimson, and fine linen, 
 and wrought cherubims thereon." It is stated 
 of Hiram that he was cunning to work in purple 
 and crimson, and blue, by which is meant, 
 evidently, acknowledge of the artistic combinations 
 of the colours used in embroidery. 
 
 Crimson is once mentioned in Jeremiah ; but 
 here, however, it is universally agreed that the 
 translation should be scarlet, the reference is 
 evidently to the symbolical meaning of scarlet. 
 " And when thou art spoiled what wilt thou do? 
 Though thou clothest thyself with crimson 
 (scarlet), thy lovers will despise thee, they will 
 seek thy life." 
 
 BLUE. As a dye this colour is referred to very 
 
DYEING. 279 
 
 early, and as might naturally be expected had a 
 high symbolical application. Blue, the colour of 
 the sky the seat of the gods became a colour 
 emblematic of heaven, but it soon begot a super- 
 stitious belief. There is a beautiful poetic illustra- 
 tion of this symbolic meaning in a picture found 
 in a mummy-case a short time ago. The blue 
 vault of heaven is represented by the goddess 
 Ne'ith. Beneath this is a double figure (two 
 bodies) representing the deceased ; his earthy body 
 is red and in the act of falling to the ground, 
 whilst his spiritual or heavenly body is blue, 
 standing upright and raising his hands to heaven. 
 In this symbolical picture is graphically shown 
 the Egyptian belief in the immortality of the soul. 
 In the East, blue was the colour of protection, 
 and continues so till the present day. It may 
 have been in consequence of this symbolism that 
 blue was the colour selected for the cloth covering of 
 the tabernacle. " In the East," says Mrs Postans, 
 " they wear blue as a protection against an evil 
 eye." " I inquired," says she, " why the favourite 
 mares of the Balooche chiefs had necklaces of blue 
 beads, and was told it was to protect them from 
 an evil eye. My water-drawer always saw that 
 the one blue ball was securely tied round the 
 throat of his little bullock ; and a Hummall in 
 my service in India, who had been a sufferer from 
 a stroke of the land-wind, at once tied a blue 
 cotton thread round his ankle, on which, he said, 
 
28O DYEING. 
 
 the evil spirit that tormented him would be 
 obliged to fly. The turquoise stone is often worn, 
 in consequence of its colour, as a protection for 
 the wearer against disease and evil eye." It is 
 possible that some of these ideas and supersti- 
 tions had their origin in higher sentiments. 
 Moses is commanded to direct the children of 
 Israel to put upon the fringe of the borders of 
 their garments a ribbon of blue, as a memorial, 
 which, when they looked on it, might remember 
 them of their God and His commandments. In the 
 transit of the tabernacle furniture, during their 
 march in the wilderness, all the sacred things, 
 the ark, candlestick, &c., were covered with blue 
 cloth. The curtains of the tabernacle were 
 attached to each other by loops of blue, fifty 
 loops to each curtain ; the breastplate was bound 
 to the girdle by a lace of blue. The plate of gold, 
 whereon was written " HOLINESS TO THE LORD," was 
 tied by a lace of blue to the front of the mitre. 
 The robe of the ephod worn by the high priest 
 was all of blue. Indeed, this colour seems to 
 have been what may be termed the covenant 
 colour of the Hebrews. In connection with the 
 tabernacle, the blue, purple, and scarlet, combined 
 in embroidered work upon fine linen, may have 
 held their symbolic meanings purple, regality; 
 blue, protection; scarlet, triumph; and white of 
 the linen, purity. A combination of the same 
 colours formed the vail of Solomon's temple. In 
 
DYEING. 28l 
 
 Babylon, blue, it would appear, was a favourite 
 colour worn by the highest classes, whether 
 because of any superstitious idea of protection 
 attached to it is not stated. Ezekiel writes, 
 " She doated on her lovers, on the Assyrians her 
 neighbours, who were clothed with blue, captains 
 and rulers/' Loftus tells us, in his " Researches 
 in Ancient Chaldea," that in ancient burying- 
 grounds, the skeleton is found holding cylinders 
 of agate with a copper bowl, and that the corpses 
 have been dressed with blue linen. 
 
 These facts show the prominence and common 
 use of blue dye in ancient times ; and there is 
 little doubt the dye was indigo, not only from the 
 fact that indigo was in possession of the ancients, 
 but that blue linen still extant is found to be 
 dyed with indigo. Whether they dissolved their 
 indigo by the same means as we do is not known ; 
 but they had the same reagents wherewith to do 
 so, for the dyeing of both animal and vegetable 
 fabrics. Though the Greeks at the time of Pliny 
 may not have known indigo as a dye, still it is 
 certain that other localities produced the dye from 
 indigo at that time, as well as for nearly two 
 thousand years previously. Certain localities where 
 the inhabitants devoted themselves to certain par- 
 ticular branches of trade, became, as was natural, 
 famous for their speciality. Ezekiel, who gives a 
 list of some of their localities and their specialities 
 
282 DYEING. 
 
 in reference to dyed colours, has the following 
 passage 
 
 " Fine linen, with broidered work from Egypt, 
 Was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy sail ; 
 Blue and purple from the Isles of Elisha 
 Was that which covered thee." 
 
 PURPLE. According to popular belief this is 
 the colour par excellence of the ancients, and the 
 encomiums passed upon this colour by ancient 
 authors have given to the art of dyeing a position 
 in ancient history, which, in the popular mind, it 
 otherwise would not have held. The Tyrian 
 purple is described as surpassing in brilliancy 
 every other dye, although no doubt some of our 
 coal tar colours are equally beautiful. Purple, 
 like the other colours, had an emblematic signi- 
 ficance. Whether it had a religious symbolism I 
 have not been able to ascertain, but close upon the 
 commencement of the Christian era we find it an 
 emblem or badge of royalty, or royal favour, 
 particularly in Kome, where those who had the 
 right to the distinguished honour of wearing 
 purple, were defined and decreed by a legal enact- 
 ment. We think commentators on Scripture, and 
 some other writers, have misapplied this circum- 
 stance, by considering that it applied to all 
 ancient times and nationalities, and have too 
 hastily identified all purple colours of which 
 they find mention with the Tyrian purple dyed by 
 shell-fish. Now, the Egyptians, Hebrews, and, we 
 
DYEING. 
 
 283 
 
 believe, other nations, had purple cloth and thread 
 long before even the earliest date ascribed to the 
 discovery of the Tyrian dye. 
 
 In fitting up the tabernacle, where a leading 
 feature was to impress on the Hebrews to regard 
 God as an earthly as well as heavenly king, purple 
 is less prominent than blue and scarlet, although 
 abundant, and this was prior to the discovery of the 
 Tyrian purple. The only place where purple is 
 named and used apart from other colours is as 
 follows: "And they shall take away the ashes 
 from the altar, and spread a purple cloth thereon : 
 and they shall put upon it all the vessels thereof, 
 wherewith they minister about it, even the cen- 
 sers, the flesh-hooks, and the shovels, and the 
 basons, all the vessels of the altar." These were 
 afterwards covered with skins, and so carried. It 
 is difficult to see any special emblem of royalty in 
 this use of purple cloth. The first mention of the 
 use of purple by royalty is in the time of Gideon, 
 between two and three hundred years after the 
 erection of the tabernacle, when, amongst the 
 spoils taken from the enemy, is named the purple 
 raiment that was on the kings of Midian. In the 
 furniture of the temple of Solomon purple gets no 
 higher prominence than the other colours used 
 along with it for tapestry and embroidered work. 
 However, Solomon, in his allegorical song, 
 mentions purple as the covering for the royal 
 
284 DYEING. 
 
 chariot. The same writer speaks of it as a dress 
 worn by an industrious and frugal wife 
 
 " She worketh beautiful vestments for herself ; 
 Her clothing is fine linen and purple." 
 
 That the wearing of purple was held as a mark of 
 high honour in Babylon, in the times of Jeremiah, 
 is evident from the fact that their gods are spoken 
 of as being clothed in purple and blue, these 
 colours being probably emblematic of power and 
 protection. In Persia, in the time of Esther, 
 about 500 or 600 years before Pliny, Mordecai is 
 ordered to be clothed in royal apparel, which is 
 stated to be blue and white, with a garment of 
 fine linen and purple. It is probable that the 
 adoption of purple robes or garments as a badge of 
 royalty or nobility was gradual, and limited to 
 certain nations ; and that not till the palmy days 
 of Rome was it limited to royalty, or distinctive of 
 royal favour, although royalty and the higher 
 classes had their marks of distinction in dress in 
 all ages and nations, and purple may have formed 
 a part, but only a part, of such dresses. It is 
 well known that dresses of divers colours have 
 been marks of distinction from the earliest periods, 
 and are still so in the East. Jacob gave Joseph a 
 coat of many colours, the symbols of which his 
 brethren well understood, and it increased their 
 enmity. Some suppose this coat was like our 
 tartan, others that it was made of patches of 
 
DYEING. 285 
 
 different coloured cloth. Roberts, in his " Illus- 
 trations of the East," says, " For beautiful and 
 favourite children, crimson and purple and other 
 colours are tastefully sewed together. Sometimes 
 children of Mohammedans have their jackets 
 embroidered with gold and silk of various colours ; 
 a child being clothed in a garment of many 
 colours, it is believed that neither tongues nor 
 evil spirits will injure him." In Persia, India, 
 and China, vestures composed of various colours 
 are still worn as marks of distinction. Em- 
 broidered garments of various colours have been 
 emblems of the highest distinction, even of royalty, 
 from the most ancient times. Such was the dis- 
 tinctive badge of the furniture of the tabernacle, 
 and such was the highest mark of honour an 
 ambitious and loving mother is represented as 
 seeking for her son 
 
 " Have they not sped ? have they not divided the spoil ; 
 To Sisera a spoil of divers colours, 
 A spoil of divers colours of needlework, 
 Of divers colours of needlework on both sides, 
 Meet for the necks of those who take the spoil ? " 
 
 Homer indicates this embroidered work as a dress 
 of kings, thus 
 
 " The bitter weapon plunged into his belt, 
 Transpierced the 'broidered cincture through its folds, 
 His gorgeous corselet," &c. 
 
 He also refers to Tyrian dye, thus 
 
 "Belts 
 That rich with Tyrian dye refulgent glowed." 
 
286 DYEING. 
 
 This is presumed to refer to purple, which is called 
 the Tyrian dye. 
 
 In David's time garments of divers colours were 
 worn by the king's daughters before they were 
 married. Pliny refers to embroidered and also 
 woven cloths of different colours as being known 
 to Homer, and states that the Babylonians were 
 the most noted for their skill in this kind of work. 
 It was, no doubt, one of these wrought and col- 
 oured garments that tempted Achan to break 
 Joshua's order. In his confession he says, 
 " When I saw among the spoils a goodly Baby- 
 lonish garment, &c., I coveted them, and took 
 them." 
 
 Professor Rawlinson in his " Five Ancient 
 Monarchies," says, in reference to the dresses 
 figured on the ancient seal of the king of Urr, 
 the successor of Nimrod the mighty hunter, 
 " We may conclude without much danger of 
 mistake, that in the time of the monarch who 
 owned the seal, dresses of delicate fabric, and 
 elaborate pattern, and furniture of a recherche 
 and elegant shape, were in use amongst the people 
 over whom he exercised dominion. The figures 
 on the above seal have flounces and fringes de- 
 licately striped, which indicates an advanced state 
 of this kind of manufacture five or six centuries 
 before the time of Joshua." 
 
 The Egyptians also were skilled in this sort of 
 work. Wilkinson says, " Many of the Egyptian 
 
DYEING. 287 
 
 stuffs presented various patterns worked in colours 
 by the loom, independent of those produced by 
 the dyeing and printing process, and so richly 
 composed that Martial says they vied with the 
 Babylonian cloths embroidered with the needle. 
 The weaving of patterns of different colours into 
 cloth is very suggestive of high attainments in that 
 art." From these, and many other references, we 
 are of opinion that although the purple colour was 
 symbolical of power and authority, it was not 
 worn alone in the more early times, but com- 
 bined with other colours, and that neither was 
 this colour itself exclusively worn by people in 
 power or authority, but was worn in many ways, 
 and put to various uses, by those who could afford 
 it. The dye produced from shell-fish seems to 
 have been very costly, which naturally made it 
 exclusive. The sails of vessels, in the earliest 
 times, were made of rich colours, with fanciful 
 devices embroidered upon them, some representing 
 the soul of the king, flowers, and other patterns ; 
 while others were adorned with coloured checks or 
 stripes. Embroidered sails were long a manufacture 
 of Egypt, and seem to have been bought by the 
 Tyrians for that purpose, as stated by Ezekiel 
 " Fine linen, with embroidered work from Egypt, 
 was that which thou spreadest forth to be thy 
 sails." These sails, Wilkinson says, were used 
 at a very early period in Egypt ; and the hem or 
 border of the sails was neatly coloured. The use 
 
288 DYEING. 
 
 of these sails was mostly confined to the pleasure- 
 boats of the grandees and of the king, ordinary 
 sails being white. It is stated that the devices 
 and colours on these sails denoted the rank of the 
 party. Such a custom as this, doubtless, gradu- 
 ally brought into use certain colours or com- 
 bination of colours as symbols distinctive of rank. 
 And as wealth always imitates the symbol of rank, 
 an exclusive right to certain rank marks and 
 colours might come to be enforced by kings, in 
 order to protect their own symbols. It is men- 
 tioned by Atticus that the sails of the large ship of 
 Ptolemy Philopater were of fine linen, ornamented 
 with a purple border. Upwards of a century after 
 this, Julius Csesar prohibited the use of purple to 
 his subjects, except upon certain days. After this 
 time we find the ship of Antony and Cleopatra at 
 the battle of Actium, distinguished from the rest 
 of the fleet by having purple sails a distinction 
 which is said to have been at that time the pecu- 
 liar privilege of the admiral's vessel. In the 
 time of Nero the wearing of purple without his 
 authority was punished with death a restrictive 
 law, which, I think, indicates that previously the 
 use of the colour was common, although that par- 
 ticular sort of it known as Tyrian purple may, from 
 its very great cost, have been confined to the 
 wealthy. This restriction could scarcely be against 
 the use of all purple dyed cloths, or if so, it must 
 have remained in force for only a short time, 
 
DYEING. 289 
 
 otherwise, it is irreconcilable with other notices of 
 about the same period. In the list of imports and 
 exports, both before and after the time of this 
 restriction, and even during the reign of Nero, 
 among other articles are named purple cloth, "fine 
 and ordinary," and mention is made of a number 
 of places where a trade in this colour was carried 
 on, showing such a trade to have been pretty 
 general. And about the same period we find men- 
 tion made of a woman Lydia being a seller of 
 purple, which could hardly be if the use of the 
 colour or tint was so restricted. We think there 
 must have been some peculiarity about this re- 
 stricted purple which is not well understood. 
 
 Respecting the cost and durability of the Tyrian 
 purple, it is related that Alexander the Great 
 found in the treasury of the Persian monarch 
 5000 quintals of Hermione purple of great beauty, 
 and 180 years old, and that it was worth 25 of 
 our money per pound weight. The price of dye- 
 ing a pound of wool in the time of Augustus is 
 given by Pliny, and this price is equal to about 
 32 of our money. It is probable that his 
 remarks refer to some particular tint or quality 
 of colour easily distinguished, although not at all 
 clearly defined by Pliny. He mentions a sort of 
 purple, or hyacinth, which was worth, in the time 
 of Julius Caesar, 100 denarii (about 3 of our 
 money) per pound. Again, in describing the 
 dye, he says that 100 Ibs. of the liquor of the 
 
2QO DYEING. 
 
 pelagium or purpura could be purchased at about 
 50 denarii (30s.), the liquor of the buccinum 
 being double that price ; also that 50 Ibs. of wool 
 required 200 Ibs. of the liquor of the buccinum, 
 and 110 Ibs. of the purpura, to dye a durable 
 colour like the amethyst. Now this would only 
 be about 3s. per Ib. of wool; and this, at the 
 time when it was death to wear the colour, is not 
 easily reconciled. Indeed, so much confusion 
 exists in the statements concerning this Tyrian 
 purple, that not a few have considered the whole 
 matter of the shell-fish dye a sort of myth ; not 
 that there was no truth in the shell-fish producing 
 a dye that cannot be gainsayed but that the 
 many wonderful stories told about it in ancient 
 times were used as a blind to cover and conceal 
 the knowledge of cochineal and a tin mordant 
 which, it is maintained, the Tyrians possessed. 
 Bruce, in his " Travels," maintains this opinion, 
 and says, that " if the whole city of Tyre had 
 applied themselves to nothing but fishing, they 
 could not have dyed twenty yards of cloth in a 
 year." And certainly, when we consider the 
 mode of fishing which Pliny mentions, by mussels 
 in a net, and the small intensity of the colour 
 which required 3 Ibs. of liquor to 1 Ib. of wool, 
 we would say they could not have a large trade. 
 Since, according to our modern researches into this 
 dye, one fish, the common Purpura lapillus, pro- 
 duces only about one drop of the liquor, then it 
 
DYEING. 291 
 
 would take about 10,000 fish to dye 1 Ib. of wool ; 
 so that only 3s. for this is out of the question, 
 and even 32 is not extravagant. We think the 
 error lies in confounding all purple colour with 
 the Tyrian or shell-fish dye, which seems to have 
 been rare and costly at all times, and necessarily 
 so. 
 
 In our opinion, different methods of dyeing a 
 purple were practised, but were kept secret. 
 Pliny at least does not seem to have known them, 
 and his descriptions are not very clear. Speaking 
 of the shell-fish dye, he says the liquor of the 
 buccinum alone gave a false dye, and that it was 
 necessary to fix it by the liquor purpura, in order 
 to render it durable. 
 
 The Tyrians gave the first ground of their 
 purple dye with the unprepared liquor of the 
 purpura, and then improved or heightened it by 
 the buccinum. In this manner they prepared 
 their double-dyed purple, called Purpura debapha, 
 which was so called either because it was immersed 
 in two liquors, or because it was first dyed in the 
 wool and then in the yarn. 
 
 BLACK. This has always been the symbol of 
 affliction, disaster, and privation, and the colour 
 is studiously avoided by the Orientals. Among 
 the Jews sackcloth was an emblem of distress, 
 and this was generally made of black hair. St 
 John speaks of the sun becoming " black as sack- 
 cloth of hair." Black is never referred to in 
 
DYEING. 
 
 Scripture as a dyed colour. A black dress was 
 sometimes imposed by dominant parties upon 
 those who were in their power, and whom they 
 desired to humiliate. The Jews in Turkey are 
 said to be obliged to wear a black turban. In 
 the Greek and Kornan theatres the persons whose 
 character the performer was enacting was gene- 
 rally indicated by dress. Those suffering under 
 misfortunes wore black, brown, or dirty white 
 garments. Although black in most countries has 
 been expressive of grief and sorrow, the Chinese 
 wear white as mourning ; and in our own day and 
 nation white and black worn together are expres- 
 sive of bereavement. 
 
 GREEN is not referred to in Scripture as a dye, 
 and very seldom in other writings. It does not 
 seem to have been much worn in ancient times, 
 probably on account of the difficulty of dyeing a 
 good green, which generally requires two distinct 
 dyes, a blue on yellow, or vice versa. It is the 
 colour ascribed to Venus by the Sabeans, whose 
 astrologers ascribed seven colours to the seven 
 planets, Saturn black, Jupiter orange, Mars red, 
 Sun yellow, Venus green, Mercury blue, Moon 
 white. Although green and some other colours 
 may not have been much used as dyes, they 
 were common as pigments, paints, and glazes for 
 enamelling, and were often employed with the 
 same symbolical meanings. The Birs Nimroud, 
 or Temple of the Seven Spheres, consisted of 
 
DYEING. 293 
 
 seven terraces, eacli terrace being of a distinct 
 colour, and these colours were symbolical of the 
 gods or planetary deities. The basement terrace 
 was black, the second orange, the third red, the 
 fourth golden, the fifth yellow, the sixth blue, 
 and the seventh silver or white, and on this last 
 stood the shrine, or chapel. As these different 
 colours were glazed or enamelled, great skill must 
 have been required for the work. 
 
SPINNING AND WEAVING. 
 
 SPINNING and weaving in ancient times were 
 principally performed by women ; indeed, the 
 words woof, weaving, and web are allied to the 
 word wife. However, in ancient Egypt and in 
 India men also wrought at the loom. Probably 
 nothing could be simpler or ruder than the looms 
 used by ancient weavers. Were we to compare these 
 with the looms and other weaving apparatus of the 
 present day, and reason therefrom that as the 
 loom so must have been the cloth produced there- 
 on, we would make a very great mistake. There 
 are few arts which illustrate with equal force our 
 argument in favour of the perfection of ancient 
 art so well as this of weaving. It would appear 
 that our advancement is not so much in the 
 direction of quality as in that of quantity. There 
 are few things we can do which were not done by 
 the ancients equally perfect. Rude as were their 
 looms in ancient Egypt, they produced the far- 
 famed fine linen so often mentioned in Scripture 
 and the writings of other nations. In order to 
 show that this is not to be regarded as a merely 
 comparative term applicable to a former age, we 
 will here quote from G. Wilkinson respecting 
 
SPINNING AND WE A VING. 2Q5 
 
 some mummy- cloths examined by the late Mr 
 Thomson, of Clithero : " My first impression on 
 seeing these cloths was, that the first kinds were 
 muslins, and of Indian manufacture; but this sus- 
 picion of their being cotton was soon removed by 
 the microscope. Some were thin and transparent, 
 and of delicate texture, and the finest had 140 
 threads in the inch in the warp." Some cloth Mr 
 Wilkinson found in Thebes had 152 threads to 
 the inch in the warp; but this is coarse when 
 compared with a piece of linen cloth found in 
 Memphis, which had 540 threads to the inch of 
 the warp. How fine must these threads have 
 been ! In quoting this extract from Wilkinson 
 to an old weaver, he flatly said it was impos- 
 sible, as no reed could be made so fine. How- 
 ever, there would be more threads than one in 
 the split, and by adopting this we can make 
 cloth in our day having between 400 and 500 
 in the inch. However, the ancient cloths are 
 much finer in the warp than woof, probably 
 from want of appliance for driving the threads 
 of the weft close enough, as they do not appear 
 to have lays as we have for this purpose. 
 Pliny refers to the remains of a linen corselet, 
 presented by Amasis, king of Egypt, to the 
 B/hodians, each thread of which was composed 
 of 365 fibres. " Herodotus mentions this corselet, 
 and another presented by Amasis to the Lacedse- 
 monians, which had been carried off by the 
 
296 SPINNING AND WE A VING. 
 
 Samians. It was of linen, ornamented with 
 numerous figures of animals worked in gold and 
 cotton. Each thread of the corselet was worthy of 
 admiration, for though very fine, every one was 
 composed of 360 other threads all distinct." No 
 doubt this kind of thread was symbolical. It was 
 probably something of this sort that Moses refers 
 to when he mentions the material of which the 
 corselet or girdle of the high priest was made the 
 fine twined linen. Jewish women are represented 
 in the Old Testament as being expert in the art of 
 spinning. 
 
 Ancient Babylon was also celebrated for her 
 cloth manufacture and embroidery work, and to 
 be the possessor of one of these costly garments 
 was no ordinary ambition. It is not to be 
 wondered at that when Achan saw amongst the 
 spoils of Jericho a goodly Babylonish garment, he 
 " coveted it and took it." The figure represented 
 on the ancient seal of Urukh had, says Rawlinson, 
 fringed garments delicately striped, indicating an 
 advanced condition of this kind of manufacture 
 five or six centuries before Joshua. It may be 
 mentioned, however, that such manufactures were 
 in ancient times, especially in Egypt, national. 
 Time was of little importance, labour was plentiful, 
 and no craftsman was allowed to scheme, or plan, 
 or introduce any change, but was expected to 
 aim at the perfection of the operations he was 
 engaged in, and this led to perfection in every 
 
SPINNING AND WE A VING. 297 
 
 branch. Every trade had its own quarters in the 
 city or nation, and the locality was named after 
 the trade, such as goldsmiths' quarters, weavers' 
 quarters, &c. This same rule seems to have been 
 practised by the Hebrews after their settlement in 
 Palestine, for we find such names in Scripture as 
 the Valley of Craftsmen. We also find that cer- 
 tain trades continued in families : passages such 
 as the following are frequent " The father of 
 those who were craftsmen," and " The father of 
 Mereshah, a city, and of the house of those who 
 wrought fine linen ; " and again, " The men of 
 Chozeba, and Joash, and Saraph, who had the 
 dominion of Moab and Jashubalahem, these were 
 potters, and those that dwelt among plants and 
 hedges, and did the king's work." In ancient 
 Egypt every son was obliged to follow the same 
 trade as his father. Thus caste was formed. 
 Whether this same was carried out in Babylon, 
 Persia, and Greece, we do not know ; but certainly, 
 in these nations there were in all cases officers 
 directing the operations, and overseers, to whom 
 these again were responsible, so that every manu- 
 facturing art was carried on under strict surveil- 
 lance, and to the highest state of perfection. As 
 the possession of artistic work was an object of 
 ambition amongst the wealthy or favoured portion 
 of the community, it led to emulation among the 
 workers. Professor Rawlinson, in his " Five Ancient 
 
2Q8 SPINNING AND WEA VING. 
 
 Monarchies," speaks of the Persians emulating 
 with each other in the show they could make of 
 their riches and variety of artistic products. This 
 emulation led both to private and public exhi- 
 bitions. One of those exhibitions, which lasted 
 over a period of six months, is referred to in the 
 Old Testament ; so that when we opened our Great 
 Exhibition in 1851, we were only resuscitating a 
 system common in ancient times, the event 
 recorded in the Book of Esther having happened 
 at least 2200 years before : 
 
 " In those days, when the King Ahasuerus sat 
 on the throne of his kingdom, which was in 
 Shushan the palace, in the third year of his reign, 
 he made a feast unto all his princes and his 
 servants ; the power of Persia and Media, the 
 nobles and princes of the provinces, being before 
 him : when he showed the riches of his glorious 
 kingdom, and the honour of his excellent majesty, 
 many days, even an hundred and fourscore days, 
 And when these days were expired, the king made 
 a feast unto all the people that were present in 
 Shushan the palace, both unto great and small, 
 seven days, in the court of the garden of the 
 king's palace ; where were white, green, and blue 
 hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and 
 purple to silver rings and pillars of marble : the 
 beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement of 
 red, and blue, and white, and black marble. And 
 
SPINNING AND WEA VING. 299 
 
 they gave them drink in vessels of gold (the 
 vessels being diverse one from another), and royal 
 wine in abundance, according to the state of the 
 king." 
 
 This must have been a magnificent exhibition. 
 The number attending this feast is not ascer- 
 tainable ; but if the princes and nobles of the 
 provinces (the provinces were 127 in number), and 
 all the officers and great men of Persia and Media, 
 and the servants of the palace, great and small, 
 were there, it must have formed an immense 
 company. Now, as every one drank out of a 
 golden cup of a different pattern, we obtain an 
 idea of profusion in art of which we can form but 
 a very limited conception. This fact indicates that 
 variety of pattern was an object sought after a 
 fashion favouring and fostering the development 
 of art and design, and worthy of being emulated 
 in the present day. 
 
 Speaking of the Persians, Professor Kawlinson 
 says that the richer classes seem to have followed 
 the court in their practices. In their costume 
 they wore long purple or flowered robes, with 
 loose-hanging sleeves, flowered tunics reaching to 
 the knee, also sleeved, embroidered trousers, tiaras, 
 and shoes of a more elegant shape than the ordi- 
 nary Persian. Under their trousers they wore 
 drawers, and under their tunics shirts, and under 
 their shoes stockings or socks. In their houses 
 
 
30O SPINNING AND WE A VI NG. 
 
 their couches were spread with gorgeous coverlets, 
 and their floors with rich carpets habits that 
 must have necessitated an immense labour and 
 skill, and indicate great knowledge in the manu- 
 facture of textile fabrics. 
 
POTTERY. 
 
 No branch of manufacture presents so ancient 
 and close an alliance betwixt art and utility as 
 does the art of the potter. The date when this 
 art first began to show itself is lost in the dark- 
 ness of remote antiquity. The remains, however, 
 of this art which have been collected from time to 
 time clearly indicate a gradual advance towards 
 civilisation. At the same time -"there is no art in 
 which the mechanical appliances connected there- 
 with have begun in such perfection. The potter's 
 wheel is the same in construction now as it was 
 in the remotest antiquity of which we have any 
 record, the same instrument as is depicted on the 
 most ancient monuments. Probably it is the 
 most ancient mechanical appliance which indus- 
 trial art has invented. Its simplicity and perfec- 
 tion for imparting, under expert direction, beauty 
 and utility to shapeless masses, is unsurpassed.; 
 and it has descended from age to age to the 
 present day without any important modification. 
 Indeed, so absolutely identical are the modes of 
 working in clay, both in the mechanical contri- 
 vances and the manipulatory processes now in 
 use, and those prevalent two thousand years before 
 
302 
 
 POTTERY. 
 
 the Christian era, that were it possible to resusci- 
 tate the mummy of an ancient Egyptian potter, 
 he might immediately find employment as a first 
 hand in our manufacturing establishments. The 
 potter's wheel is a round board attached to a 
 lathe, and capable of being moved thereby rapidly 
 or slowly, as occasion may require. The round 
 board moves in a horizontal position, and the clay 
 which is to be fashioned is fixed on the centre of 
 it. The wheel is then put in motion, either with 
 the hand, or with the foot working a treadle, or by 
 another circular board fixed upon the bottom of 
 the shaft or spindle of the wheel, which is moved 
 by the foot of the workman himself, or, when 
 large and heavy vessels are being made, by a 
 strap and a wheel driven by an attendant upon 
 the potter.; Mr Birch, in his " History of Ancient 
 Pottery," speaking about the wheel, says - 
 " Among the Egyptians and Greeks it was a low 
 circular wheel turned with the foot. Some wheels 
 used in the ancient Asetine potteries have been 
 discovered, consisting of a disc of terra-cotta, 
 strengthened with spokes and a tire of lead. 
 They are represented on a hydria with black 
 figures in the Munich collection, and also on a 
 cup with black figures in the British Museum. 
 The potter is seen seated on a low stool, appa- 
 rently turning the wheel with his foot. Repre- 
 sentations of the same kind are also found on 
 gems. 
 
POTTERY. 303 
 
 " In making vases, the wheel was used in the 
 following manner : A piece of paste of the 
 required size was placed upon it, vertically, in the 
 centre, and while it revolved, was formed with 
 the finger and thumb. This process sufficed for 
 the smaller pieces, such as cups, saucers, and 
 jugs. The large amphorae and hydrise required 
 the introduction of the arm. The feet, handles, 
 necks, and mouths were separately turned or 
 moulded, and fixed on while the clay was moist. 
 They are turned with great beauty and precision, 
 especially the feet, which are finished in the most 
 admirable manner, to^ effect which the jars must 
 have been inverted. The juncture of the handles 
 is so excellent, that it is easier to break than 
 to detach them. Great technical skill was dis- 
 played in turning certain circular vases of the 
 class of askoi. With their simple wheel the 
 Greeks effected wonders, producing shapes still 
 unrivalled in beauty." 
 
 The modern potter generally casts a thick 
 layer of plaster-of-paris upon his table, upon 
 which is put the clay. As the table revolves, the 
 workman models the clay with his finger, or by an 
 instrument which he holds in his hand, into any 
 kind of circular shape he may desire. We give 
 the following quotation from Dr Thomson's " The 
 Land and the Book," in order to show identity 
 between the ancient and modern manner of work- 
 ing in the East ; and we may mention that we 
 
304 POTTERY. 
 
 have seen the same method of manufacture fol- 
 lowed in potteries in this country: "I have 
 been out on the shore again examining a native 
 manufactory of pottery, and was delighted to find 
 the whole Biblical apparatus complete, and in full 
 operation. There was the potter sitting at his 
 frame, and turning the wheel with his foot. He 
 had a heap of the prepared clay near him, and a 
 pan of water by his side. Taking a lump in his 
 hand, he placed it on the top of the wheel (which 
 revolves horizontally), and smoothed it into a low 
 cone, like the upper end of a sugar-loaf. Then 
 thrusting his thumb into the top of it, he opened 
 a hole down through the centre ; and this he con- 
 stantly widened by pressing the edges of the 
 revolving cone between his hands. As it enlarged 
 and became thinner, he gave it whatever shape he 
 pleased with the utmost ease and expedition." 
 Having watched this potter at work for some 
 time, Dr Thomson adds " From some defect in 
 the clay, or because he had taken too little, the 
 potter suddenly changed his mind, crushed his 
 growing jar instantly to a shapeless mass of mud, 
 and beginning anew, fashioned it into a totally 
 different vessel." 
 
 The following is Jeremiah's description of the 
 same operations : " Then I went down to the 
 potter's house, and behold he wrought a work on 
 the wheel. And the vessel that he made of clay 
 was marred in the hand of the potter, so he made 
 
POTTERY. 3O5 
 
 it another vessel as seemed good to the potter to 
 make it " ( Jer. xviii. 3, 4). The art of pottery and 
 the products of that art are referred to in many 
 places of the ancient Scriptures, and spoken of also 
 after a manner which makes it evident that pottery 
 was a common art, and extensively practised by 
 the Hebrew people. There are descriptions of the 
 preparation of the clay : it was dug, then trodden 
 by men's feet, after which it was given to the 
 potter. From a passage in 1 st Chronicles it seems 
 evident that there were among the Israelites some- 
 thing like national manufactories of pottery ; at all 
 events there were manufacturers to the king, and 
 the art was pursued in these works by the descen- 
 dants of a certain family. " The sons of Shelah 
 the son of Judah were Er, the father of Lecah, and 
 Laadah, the father of Mareshah, and the families 
 of the house of them that wrought fine linen, of 
 the house of Ashbea, and Jokim, and the men of 
 Chozeba, and Joash, and Saraph, who had the 
 dominion in Moab, and Jashubi-lehem. And these 
 are ancient things, these were the potters, and 
 those that dwelt among plants and hedges : there 
 they dwelt with the king for his work " (1 Chron. 
 iv. 21-23). 
 
 The ease with which clay could be formed into 
 any shape offered a ready means for the develop- 
 ment of art ; and the ease with which it took 
 impressions and retained these when dried, rendered 
 clay generally useful for many purposes. Earthen 
 
 u 
 
306 POTTERY. 
 
 vessels were used both by the Egyptians and other 
 nations for culinary purposes ; tiles with patterns 
 and with writing upon them were common, and 
 were used as money and for deeds, which were 
 sometimes put into earthen vessels for preservation, 
 and the vessel then buried. A practice common 
 with many nations of antiquity was to put the 
 ashes of the dead into earthen vessels, and bury 
 them ; in some cases the entire body was put into 
 jars. Enormously large vessels were made of clay, 
 by fitting up a wooden frame- work and laying 
 clay over it. In burning or baking the clay the 
 wooden frame was destroyed, and a vessel left of a 
 size sufficient to form a residence for a person. It 
 was in one such that Diogenes lived when visited by 
 Alexander the Great. Such vessels also served as 
 casks for holding large quantities of wine, and they 
 were used also for honey and figs. Great skill 
 and attention was required in making them ; this 
 attention was probably more requisite in the dry- 
 ing and baking than in building. This at least is 
 our experience at the present day when making 
 large clay vessels, such as those used for the 
 manufacture of glass. 
 
 The discovery of the method of glazing, paint- 
 ing, and enamelling, must have been a great step 
 onward in the art of pottery; and such glazed 
 vessels are found among the ruins, and in the 
 tombs of people who lived in far remote antiquity. 
 If, as has been often remarked, we can estimate 
 
POTTERY. 307 
 
 the state of refinement of a people by the kind 
 and quality of their pottery, then most of the 
 ancient nations must have reached a high state 
 of refinement. As it is with respect to some 
 other practical arts, our highest effort now is 
 to equal ancient works, so is it in regard to the 
 potter's art our highest effort is to equal ancient 
 works. To surpass such works seems a position 
 too high to attempt, although within the present 
 century much has been done towards a high 
 position in the fictile art. Mr Birch is of 
 opinion that the Jews did not do much in the art 
 of pottery : he says, " No remains of earthen 
 vessels used by the Hebrews, or even of bricks 
 employed in the construction of edifices, are 
 known ; the pottery which is occasionally found on 
 the site of Jerusalem being principally either the 
 red Roman ware, or that called Samian. The 
 depth of debris which in some places reaches 40 
 feet, and the fact of no excavations having been 
 undertaken on the site, are the probable reasons 
 why entire vases or other Terra-cotta objects have 
 not been discovered, whilst the low state of the art 
 among the Jews may have caused the fragments, 
 which must always abound in the vicinity of great 
 cities, to be neglected. It is, however, possible 
 that the Jews obtained the principal earthenware 
 they required from Egypt, and that, as among 
 other Oriental peoples, metallic vessels were pre- 
 ferred for the kitchen or the table." There is, no 
 
308 POTTERY. 
 
 doubt, truth in this last remark, and we have else- 
 where shown that the Jews did use metallic 
 vessels in their houses, but that earthen vessels 
 were also in common use is evident from several 
 passages of Scripture, and what we have quoted 
 from 1st Chronicles is positive evidence that there 
 were also manufactures of pottery in Judea in the 
 time of Solomon. We may here direct atten- 
 tion to several passages in Scripture referring to 
 pottery, which are suggestive and interesting 
 as regards social habits. The potter's vessel is 
 made the symbol of weakness and fragility, and 
 when the prophet speaks of the wicked being 
 broken as a potter's vessel, he symbolises their 
 utter destruction. Jars and such vessels were 
 made extremely thin, and were consequently more 
 fragile than are most of our common stone or 
 delf ware. Isaiah says (xxx. 14), V* He shall 
 break it as the breaking of a potter s vessel that 
 is broken in pieces : so that there shall not be 
 found in the bursting of it a shred to take fire 
 from the hearth, or take water withal out of the 
 pit." In connection with this Dr Thomson says : 
 "It is very common to find at the spring or pit 
 pieces of broken jars, to be used as ladles either to 
 drink from or fill with, and bits of fractured jars 
 are preserved for this purpose. Take your stand 
 near any of the public ovens in Sidon in the 
 evening, and you will see the children of the poor 
 coming with ' shreds ' of pottery in their hands, 
 
POTTERY. 
 
 309 
 
 into which the baker pours a small quantity of hot 
 embers and a few coals with which to warm up 
 their evening meal. Isaiah's vessels, however, 
 were to be broken into such small bits that there 
 would not be a shred of sufficient size to carry 
 away a few embers from the hearth." These 
 comparisons are exceedingly interesting. ; It has 
 been supposed by some commentators on Scripture 
 that owing to the abundance of fragments which 
 lay strewn around the royal establishment of 
 potters near Jerusalem, this locality was named 
 the potters' field, and that it was this field that 
 was bought with the thirty pieces of silver given 
 to Judas for betraying his Master. \ If this 
 suggestion can be proved, it would show that 
 pottery was a manufacture carried on by the 
 Jews from the time of their greatest prosperity 
 under Solomon, until the time when Judea was 
 made a Eoman province, and the national or 
 royal pottery abandoned ; and this waste field, 
 that had been in connection with it, was bought 
 from their rulers and used as a burial place for 
 strangers. 
 
GLASS. 
 
 GLASS, according to Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 26), 
 was discovered by what is termed accident. Some 
 merchants kindled a fire on that part of the coast 
 of Phoenicia which lies near Ptolemais, between 
 the foot of Carmel and Tyre, at a spot where the 
 river Belus casts the fine sand which it brings 
 down ; but as they were without the usual means 
 of suspending their cooking vessels, they em- 
 ployed for that purpose bags of nitre their vessel 
 being laden with that substance : the fire fusing 
 the nitre and the sand, produced glass. The 
 Sidonians, in whose vicinity the discovery was 
 made, took it up, and having, in process of time, 
 carried the art to a high degree of excellence, 
 gained thereby both wealth and fame. Other 
 nations became their pupils ; the Romans, especi- 
 ally, attained very great skill in the art of fusing, 
 blowing, and colouring glass. 
 
 Whether the story of these merchants be strictly 
 correct we cannot say, but certainly if nitre came 
 into contact with a fire of glowing charcoal on a 
 bed of sand, there were all the conditions for 
 forming glass. By intense heat the nitre would 
 
GLASS. 311 
 
 be converted into the carbonate of potash, which 
 unites with great facility with sand. The date of 
 this discovery is nowhere mentioned, but it must 
 have been very far back; for glass was in use 
 before the time of Moses, and in all probability 
 Moses refers to this manufacture, or at all events 
 to the sand used for it, in his blessing of the tribe 
 of Zebulun, whose borders were unto Sidon. He 
 says, " They shall suck of the abundance of the 
 sea, and of treasures hid in the sand." Notwith- 
 standing this statement of Pliny, which is also 
 corroborated by Strabo and other more ancient 
 writers, it was long denied that the ancients were 
 acquainted with glass, properly so called ; nor did 
 the denial entirely disappear even when the city 
 of Pompeii proved it to be without foundation. 
 
 Sir E. B. Lytton says, " The discoveries at 
 Pompeii have controverted the long-established 
 error of the antiquaries, that glass windows were 
 unknown to the Romans. The use of them was 
 not, however, common among the middle and 
 inferior classes in their private dwellings." In 
 the tepidarium of the public baths, a bronze 
 lattice came to light with some of the panes still 
 inserted into the frame. 
 
 Wilkinson, in his "Ancient Egyptians," has adduced 
 the fullest evidence in proof that glass was known 
 to, and made by, that ingenious people at a very 
 early period of their national existence. Upwards 
 of 3500 years ago, in the reign of the first Osir- 
 
312 GLASS. 
 
 tasen, they appear to have practised the art of 
 blowing glass. The process is represented in the 
 paintings of Beni Hassan, executed in the reign 
 of that monarch. In .the same age images of 
 glazed pottery were common. Ornaments of glass 
 were made by them about 1500 years B.C., for a 
 bead of that date has been found, of the same 
 specific gravity as that of our own crown glass. 
 Many glass bottles, &c., have been met with in 
 the tombs, some of very remote antiquity. Glass 
 vases were used for holding wine as early as the 
 Exodus. Such was the skill of the Egyptians in 
 the manufacturing of this article, that they suc- 
 cessfully counterfeited the amethyst and other 
 precious stones. Winckelmann is of opinion, that 
 glass was employed more frequently in ancient 
 times than in modern. It was sometimes used 
 by the Egyptians even for coffins. They also 
 employed it, not only for drinking utensils and 
 ornaments of the person, but for Mosaic work 
 the figures of deities and sacred emblems being 
 of exquisite workmanship, and a surprising bril- 
 liancy of colour. The art, too, of cutting glass was 
 known to them at the most remote period. 
 
 Glass articles, made for ornamentation and for 
 works of art, which, at the present day, we can- 
 not rival, let alone surpass, have been found 
 amongst the ruins of Egypt ; and so common was 
 its use that necklaces, head-dresses, and other 
 common ornaments, enhanced with glass bugles 
 
GLASS. 3 1 3 
 
 and beads, were worn by the common people, and 
 imitation jewellery, made of glass of different col- 
 ours, was worn then as now, and so perfect were 
 these imitations of the precious stones that it 
 required the most expert specialists to detect the 
 difference. Indeed, glassmaking in Egypt must 
 have been a very extensive manufacture; there- 
 fore, had we no other proof, we are justified in 
 supposing that the Hebrews, while in Egypt, 
 obtained a knowledge of this art, and brought it 
 with them. This being the case, the reference 
 to the value of sand, in the blessing of Zebulun, 
 would be fully appreciated. Job speaking of 
 wisdom says, " The gold and the crystal cannot 
 equal it." Many scholars say that the word 
 translated crystal should be glass ; and there 
 were kinds of glass that were more precious than 
 gold. 
 
 Pliny describes the district which fell to the 
 lot of Zebulun as being the seat of glassmaking. 
 Moses probably refers to the same fact when he 
 speaks of treasures in the sand. This supposes 
 on his part a knowledge of glassmaking, and we 
 have seen that the Egyptians were expert glass 
 manufacturers long before the time of Moses. 
 Figures, found upon the tombs in Egypt, exhibit 
 men working at the art, using blowpipes exactly 
 as they are used at the present day. They pos- 
 sessed the art of introducing various colours homo- 
 geneously into the same vessel, a thing which 
 
3 14 GLASS. 
 
 glassmakers at the present day are still unable 
 to do. Mr Wilkinson states that, a few years ago, 
 the glassmakers of Venice made several attempts 
 to imitate the variety of colours found on antique 
 cups, and failed. Another curious process com- 
 mon in ancient times has also, and only, been 
 attempted at Venice. In this case, the pattern 
 on the surface passes in directly through the sub- 
 stance, so that if any number of sections be made, 
 each section has the same device on its outer and 
 inner, or upper and under surface, such work 
 being, in fact, a glass mosaic. The skill displayed 
 in this work lies not merely in the process, but 
 in the fineness of the design, for some feathers of 
 birds, and other details in the figures, are only to 
 be made out with the aid of a lens. This fact 
 indicates that means of magnifying were also 
 known, and employed, by workers in ancient 
 times, for certainly we would require to use such 
 aids in order to produce the same work. There 
 is one piece of glass mosaic referred to by Wil- 
 kinson, representing a bird, concerning which it is 
 said, that " the most delicate pencil of the mini- 
 ature artist could not have traced with greater 
 sharpness the circle of the eyeball and the plum- 
 age of the neck and wings." It is humbling to 
 our vanity to find that we, with our boasted skill 
 in arts, are yet behind our fellow-workmen who 
 lived 4000 years ago. The purpose to which such 
 wonderful workmanship was applied helps us to 
 
CLASS. 3 1 5 
 
 apprehend the social condition of the people among 
 whom it flourished. It takes a long time for a 
 people to acquire such an exquisite artistic taste, 
 that nothing but the very finest class of workman- 
 ship will be worn as ornament. A rude, ignorant 
 people hang fragments of broken glass around 
 their necks, and are satisfied with its mere bright- 
 ness or transparency ; not so a cultivated people. 
 The wealthy pay for and procure the highest class 
 of workmanship and material, the poor emulate 
 them, and ingenuity is thus set a- thinking to 
 devise and produce imitations in cheaper material 
 to supply the desires of the people. Wilkinson 
 found in Thebes counterfeit pearls which, even 
 with a strong lens, it was difficult to detect to 
 be impositions. Then, probably better than now, 
 a working man's wife or daughter might purchase 
 from an Egyptian dealer in ornamental goods a 
 necklace of imitation stone, not much inferior in 
 look to the reah Necklaces made with glass 
 bugles and beads, such as are common at the 
 present day, and nets made with different coloured 
 beads, of similar workmanship with our bead 
 purses, were worn by the Egyptian beauties when 
 Abraham and Sarah went down into that country. 
 Ancient profane authors make mention of im- 
 mense emeralds, which are considered now to have 
 been made of glass. An emerald was presented 
 by the King of Babylon to an Egyptian Pharaoh, 
 which was six feet long and four and a half broad ; 
 
3l6 GLASS. 
 
 and an obelisk composed of four emeralds, in the 
 Temple of Jupiter, was sixty feet high and six 
 feet broad. To form pieces of glass of such a 
 size, having the appearance of an emerald stone, 
 was a triumph of skill which certainly cannot be 
 surpassed at the present day, and, if produced, 
 would yet be a fit present to send to a king. 
 
 The art of engraving on glass was also well 
 known in ancient times ; but we have referred to 
 this art in connection with the engraving of the 
 names of the tribes of Israel on the stones in the 
 breastplate. It is said the engraving was like the 
 engraving of a signet. Layard states that travel- 
 lers can scarcely walk any distance in the neigh- 
 bourhood of the country where Nineveh and 
 Babylon are supposed to have stood without strik- 
 ing his feet against a glass fragment. Among 
 the excavations made in the mounds, Dr Layard 
 discovered some entire glass bowls. One of these 
 has on it cuneiform characters, which enables us to 
 fix its date at the latter end of the seventh cen 
 tury B.C. And he says, " It is the most ancient 
 piece of transparent glass the date of which has 
 been ascertained." We do not see how imitations 
 of precious stones could be made in glass without 
 transparency, however the dates of these imita- 
 tions have not been ascertained. Professor Raw- 
 linson says, in his " Five Ancient Monarchies," 
 that transparent glass was first brought into use, 
 or at least the oldest specimen found is, in the 
 
GLASS. 3 1 7 
 
 reign of Sargon, 710 B.C. ; but says that lenses of 
 transparent glass must have been in use before 
 this on account of the minuteness of the work in 
 their engravings, which supposition is confirmed 
 by the discovery of a lens at Nimrod. 
 
 The ancient Assyrians cut gems with great 
 skill. Layard mentions the discovery of a lens, 
 but says it was of rock crystal, so that it is 
 possible they may have had lenses for engraving 
 before transparent glass was used for that purpose. 
 Still the discovery of a lens, whatever was its 
 substance, is most important, for it shows that the 
 ancients were acquainted with the laws of light, 
 and the concentration of its rays. They un- 
 doubtedly knew practically much which they may 
 not have understood scientifically. There was 
 found in Pompeii a convex glass for a lamp, which 
 remained in the wall, dividing two apartments in 
 the public baths near the forum. From analyses 
 of ancient coloured glasses and enamels, the col- 
 ouring matters are found to have been for 
 
 Bright Red . Oxide of Lead (Red Lead) 
 
 Dull Red . . Oxide of Iron 
 
 Purple Red . do. 
 
 Rich deep Red . Suboxide of Copper 
 
 Yellow . . Yellow Ochre and Chalk 
 
 Orange . . Yellow Sulphide of Arsenic 
 
 Blue. . . Oxide of Copper, Alumina, Lime; 
 
 depth of tint depending on the quantities of these used. 
 
BUILDING. 
 
 THE building art meets us on the very threshold 
 of history. We read that Cain built a city and 
 called it after the name of his son. Shortly after 
 the Flood also, when man may be supposed to have 
 begun to work up the arts of civilisation anew, we 
 read of the project of building a tower, the top of 
 which would reach to heaven. The very conception 
 of such a work as this indicates a feeling of great 
 power and ability. Such an idea could not proceed 
 from a low uncultivated mind, nor from people who 
 had no experience in art. The materials they had 
 to work with, and the method of preparing these 
 materials, all indicate skill. " And they said one 
 to another, Go to, come let us make brick, and burn 
 them thoroughly, and they had brick for stone and 
 slime had they for mortar." In connection with 
 this tower, they also intended to build a city. 
 " They said, Go to, now, and let us build us a city 
 and a tower." How far these projected buildings 
 were proceeded with cannot now be determined. The 
 general opinion is, that they were stopped very 
 early ; however, that is only a surmise. Many 
 exaggerated stories have been told concerning this 
 great tower, owing no doubt to misunderstand- 
 ing. Travellers finding an extensive tower of 
 
BUILDING. 319 
 
 great height near Babylon concluded that it was the 
 remains of the Tower of Babel, pictures of which, 
 showing a high tower with a spiral road leading 
 upwards round it, may be seen in old illustrated 
 Bibles, which was calculated to have been about 
 one fourth of a mile in height. However, more 
 recent and accurate research has shown that the 
 ruin now standing was built by Nebuchadnezzar, 
 many centuries after the date of the projection of the 
 Tower of Babel. On this matter, and on the nature 
 of the buildings in Babylon and Chaldea, we will 
 quote from Prof. Rawlinson's " Five Ancient 
 Monarchies." 
 
 " In mineral products Chaldea was very deficient 
 indeed. The alluvium is wholly destitute of metals 
 and even of stone, which must be obtained, if 
 wanted, from the adjacent countries. The neigh- 
 bouring parts of Arabia could furnish sandstone, 
 and the more distant parts basalt, which appears to 
 have been transported occasionally to the Chaldean 
 cities. The Chaldeans found, in default of stone, 
 a very tolerable material in their country which 
 produced an inexhaustible supply of excellent clay, 
 easily moulded into brick, and not even requiring to 
 be baked in order to fit it for building. Exposure 
 to the heat of the summer sun hardened the clay 
 for most purposes, while a few hours in a kiln 
 made it as firm and durable as freestone or even 
 granite. Chaldea again yielded various substances 
 suitable for mortar. Calcareous earths abound on 
 
32O BUILDING, 
 
 the western side of the Euphrates towards the 
 Arabian frontier, while everywhere a tenacious 
 slime or mud is easily procurable, which, though 
 imperfect as a cement, can serve the purpose, and 
 has the advantage of being always at hand. 
 Bitumen is also produced largely in some parts, 
 particularly at Hit, where are the inexhaustible 
 springs which have made that place famous in all 
 ages. Naphtha and bitumen are here given forth 
 separately in equal abundance, and these two 
 substances, boiled together in certain proportions, 
 form a third kind of cement superior to the slime 
 or mud, but inferior to lime mortar." 
 
 In describing the remains of the Mugheir Temple 
 he says, " The material of which its inner structure 
 is composed seems to be wholly or partially burned 
 brick of a light red colour laid in a cement com- 
 posed of ]ime and ashes. This central mass is faced 
 with kiln-dried bricks of large size and excellent 
 quality, also laid, except on the north-west face, in 
 lime mortar. The north face is laid with bitumen. 
 
 " The earliest traditions and existing remains 
 of the earliest building alike informs us that the 
 material used was brick. The earliest brick hither- 
 to discovered in Chaldea is 11 J inches square by 
 2J inches thick ; the baked brick of later date is 
 longer, being 13 inches square by 3 inches thick. 
 The sun-dried brick was laid in mud as mortar ; 
 for the kiln-dried, bitumen was used. The next 
 king in succession is Nimrod, the mighty hunter, 
 
BUILDING. 321 
 
 and the earliest monarch of whom any remains 
 have been obtained. Not only are his bricks 
 found in a lower position than any others, at the 
 very foundation of building, but they are of a 
 rude and coarse make ; and the inscriptions upon 
 them contrast most remarkably in the simplicity, 
 in the style of writing used, and in their general 
 archaic type, with the elaborate and often com- 
 plicated symbols of the later monarchs. The style 
 of UrukVs building is also primitive and simple 
 in the extreme. His bricks are of many sizes and 
 ill fitted together ; he belongs to a time when even 
 the baking of bricks seems to have been compara- 
 tively rare, and he is altogether unacquainted 
 with the use of lime mortar, for which his 
 substitute is moist mud or bitumen ; his age is as 
 early as 2326 B.C., possibly a century earlier." 
 The author further says, " The works of this 
 ancient monarch are very gigantic and nume- 
 rous ; the base of one mound at Warka is 200 
 feet square, and about 100 feet high. The 
 buildings of this king seem to have been all 
 designed for temples. They are carefully placed 
 with their angles facing the cardinal points, and 
 are dedicated to the sun, the moon, to Beltis 
 (Bel-Nimrod). However, rude as were the 
 materials of his building, there is evidence of great 
 advancement in art. Speaking of the monarch's 
 signet, which consisted of a metal frame on which 
 was mounted a precious stone, Professor Eaw- 
 
 x 
 
322 BUILDING. 
 
 linson says, " So far as we can judge from the 
 representation, which is all that we possess of this 
 relic, the drawing on the cylinder was as good, 
 and the engraving as well executed, as any work 
 of the kind either of the Assyrian or of the later 
 Babylonian period." 
 
 In reference to the Tower of Babel, Professor 
 Kawlinson, in Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible," 
 says, " When Christian travellers first began to 
 visit the Mesopotamian ruins, they generally 
 attached the name of the i Tower of Babel ' to 
 whatever mass, among those beheld by them, was 
 the loftiest and most imposing. There are in 
 reality no real grounds, either for identifying the 
 tower with the temple of Belus, or for supposing 
 that any remains of it long survived the check 
 which the builders received when they were 
 scattered abroad upon the face of the earth, and 
 'left off to build the city.' All, then, that can 
 be properly attempted by the modern critic is to 
 show, fast, what was the probable type and char- 
 acter of the building, and second, what were the 
 materials and manner of its construction." The 
 author considers that although the ruin called 
 Birs-Nimrud cannot be the Tower of Babel 
 referred to in Scripture, it represents the form of 
 Babylonian temple towers, and describes it thus : 
 " Upon a platform of crude brick, raised a few 
 feet above the level of the alluvial plain, was 
 built of burned brick the first or basement stage, 
 
BUILDING. 323 
 
 an exact square 272 feet each way, and 26 feet 
 in perpendicular height. Upon this stage was 
 erected a second 230 feet each way, and likewise 
 24 feet |high, which, however, was not placed 
 exactly in the middle of the first, but nearer to 
 the south-western end, which constituted the back 
 of the building. The other stages were arranged 
 similarly; the third being 188 feet square, and 26 
 feet high; the fourth, 146 feet square, and 15 feet 
 high; the fifth, 104 feet square/and 15 feet high; 
 the sixth, 62 feet square, and 15 feet high; the 
 seventh, 20 feet square, and the same height. On 
 the seventh stage there was probably placed the 
 ark or tabernacle, which seems to have been 
 again 15 feet high, and must have entirely or 
 nearly covered the whole seventh story. The 
 entire original height, allowing three feet for the 
 platform, would thus be 156 feet. The whole 
 formed a sort of oblique pyramid." 
 
 Loffcus, in his " Ancient Chaldea," in reference 
 to the Sirs, states, that the different terraces are 
 of different colours, and that these may have been 
 produced by adding to the clay some chemical 
 compound before the bricks were burned ; and then 
 adds, "It is more difficult to explain the cause of 
 the vitrification of the upper building. Captain 
 Newbold originated an idea when we examined 
 the Birs-Nimrud in company, which is now begin- 
 ning to be adopted, that in order to render their 
 edifices more durable, the Babylonians submitted 
 
324 BUILDING. 
 
 them when erected to the heat of a furnace. This 
 will account for the remarkable condition of the 
 brickwork on the summit of the Birs-Nimrud, which 
 has undoubtedly been subjected to the agency of 
 fire." 
 
 If the surface of the building was vitrified after 
 the building was erected, it is certainly some- 
 what extraordinary when we consider the size and 
 the height. It would require very great care and 
 skill to effect vitrification over so large a surface, and 
 at the same time prevent fusion and running of 
 the fused mass at the hotter parts of the fire. 
 We have had samples of the bricks brought from 
 the Birs by Mr Fulton, who visited it a few 
 years ago, sun-dried, kiln-baked, and vitrified, 
 and having subjected them to analyses, found that 
 they were all composed of the same kind of clay. 
 The following are the analyses of the kiln-baked 
 and vitrified samples 
 
 KILN-BAKED. VITRIFIED. 
 
 Silica, 48-30 50-88 
 
 Peroxide iron, . . . 23-93 24 '46 
 
 Alumina, .... 5-50 5'87 
 
 Lime, 20'07 17'46 
 
 Magnesia, .... '94 1-04 
 
 Moisture and loss, . .1*26 -29 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 The colour of the kiln-baked was a light yellow, 
 resembling in appearance bath-brick, but hard. 
 This composition would be very easily vitrified, 
 requiring only a moderate heat and time. If this 
 
BUILDING. 325 
 
 heat was raised to high intensity, such a compound 
 would easily fuse and run down the face of the 
 building : even in burning the bricks, a high heat 
 would soon render them shapeless. As the bricks 
 still retain the king's mark sharply stamped upon 
 them, great care must have been taken in regulat- 
 ing the heat. One circumstance which militates 
 against Captain Newbold's theory of vitrification 
 after the building was erected, is the mortar, it 
 being of bitumen. A vitrifying heat would set fire 
 to the mortar and destroy the edifice. The Baby- 
 lonians were also acquainted at a very early period 
 with the arch, for some regularly constructed 
 semicircular arches have been discovered among 
 the ruined building. Pieces of baked clay also, 
 with inscriptions imprinted upon them, were used 
 as a circulating medium in the same way as our 
 bank-notes, these representing certain amounts 
 of gold and silver, and were payable at the royal 
 treasury. These brick bills date so far back as 
 600 B.C. Not only, therefore, were these Baby- 
 lonians skilled in art, but were far advanced in 
 political and social economy. 
 
 In countries where stone was accessible it was 
 used for building, and evidence exists of the great 
 perfection attained in early ages in the art of build- 
 ing with stone. Ancient Egypt, still a mystery, 
 has left ample evidence of her great skill in the 
 building arts. The Great Pyramid, which is yet an 
 enigma, stands for our astonishment. Herodotus 
 
326 BUILDING. 
 
 tells us, when speaking of the Labyrinth of Egypt, 
 that it had 3000 chambers, half of them above and 
 half below ground. He says, ' ' The upper ch ambers 
 I myself passed through and saw, and what I say 
 concerning them is from my own observation. Of 
 the underground chambers I can only speak from 
 the report, for the keepers of the building could 
 not be got to show them, since they contained, as 
 they said, the sepulchres of the kings who built 
 the labyrinth, and also those of the sacred croco- 
 diles; thus it is from hearsay only that I can 
 speak of the lower chambers. The upper chambers, 
 however, I saw with my own eyes, and found 
 them to excel all other human productions. The 
 passage through the houses, and the various wind- 
 ings of the path across the courts, excited in 
 me infinite admiration, as I passed from the 
 courts into the chambers, and from chambers into 
 colonnades, and from colonnades into fresh houses, 
 and again from these into courts unseen before. 
 The roof was throughout of stone like the walls, 
 and the walls were carved all over with figures. 
 Every court was surrounded with a colonnade, which 
 was built of white stone exquisitely fitted together. 
 At the corner of the labyrinth stands a pyramid 
 forty fathoms high, with large figures engraved 
 on it, which is entered by a subterranean passage." 
 No one who has read an account of the Great 
 Pyramid of Egypt, the building of Solomon's 
 Temple, and of the ruins of ancient stone build- 
 
BUILDING. 327 
 
 ings still remaining, will doubt the ability of the 
 ancients in the art of building with stones. 
 
 In connection with the subject of stone build- 
 ings, and indeed buildings of all kinds, a very 
 important question suggests itself; namely, What 
 kinds of mortar were used? There is a clear 
 statement concerning brick buildings, that the 
 adhesive materials employed were slime and bitu- 
 men. The former was, no doubt, mud or thin 
 clay similar to that used for making the bricks, 
 so that sun-dried bricks, built with this, would 
 form a solid clay mass. The bitumen was used 
 with the kiln-baked brick formerly referred to, 
 and was made somewhat similar to that we use 
 for pavement. We analysed a sample of this 
 asphalt which we found adhering to the sample 
 of brick which we had from Birs-Nimrud, and 
 found that it was composed of 25 per cent, of 
 bitumen, and 75 per cent, of ground limestone, 
 not finely ground, as there were pieces in it about 
 the size of a split pea, which enabled us to deter- 
 mine that the lime had not been previously burned, 
 but was common grey limestone. The composition 
 was both hard and tough, and resembled in char- 
 acter val de travers. The question may be asked, 
 Why should they have taken the trouble to grind 
 limestone when coarse sand would have served 
 the purpose? Doubtless they used what had 
 been found in practice to be the best, and a 
 building, made with bricks " thoroughly burned," 
 
328 BUILDING. 
 
 and laid in bitumen composed as above, was well 
 fitted to stand for centuries ; and if, as is supposed 
 by Captain Newbold, the whole surface of the 
 Birs-Nimrud was vitrified, such vitrification would 
 certainly secure it against all atmospheric influ- 
 ences. However, we cannot coincide with the 
 opinion that the vitrification was an intentional 
 act, performed when the building was being built, 
 for the application of fire to the building would 
 kindle the mortar, and bring the whole face of 
 the building into active combustion, and destroy 
 the beauty of the surface, if not the stability of 
 the entire building. Probably the vitrification seen 
 upon some portions was done by the firing of the 
 mortar accidentally. We have seen samples of 
 enamelled brick from Seleucia; they had been 
 baked, and were made of the same material as 
 the brick of Birs-Nimrud, the enamel was a beau- 
 tiful dark-purple colour. It had evidently been 
 put on in a liquid state, the liquid being thick 
 and pasty, as none of it had penetrated the porous 
 material of the brick. It had afterwards been 
 vitrified, probably in an oven. The enamel formed 
 a thin glass over the surface of the brick of about 
 the thickness of ordinary writing paper. 
 
 We have searched with care many archaeological 
 works, in the hope of finding some definite in- 
 formation concerning the kinds of mortar used by 
 ancient stone builders, but the statements of the 
 various travellers and excavators who have visited 
 
BUILDING. 329 
 
 ancient seats of civilisation are not very satisfactory. 
 They refer without discrimination to mortar -, lime, 
 lime-mortar, cement, plaster, <fu, but in few cases 
 do they specify the particular nature of the mortar 
 or cement of which they speak. Loftus says, 
 " The vaulted roof of the houses and mosques at 
 Mosul are constructed of gypsum, plaster, and 
 broken brick, the terrace being covered with mud 
 and earth ; such may have been the case in the 
 palaces of ancient Nineveh. The numerous frag- 
 ments of brick and lumps of decomposing gypsum 
 in the soil above the sculptures are strong presump- 
 tive evidence that this plan of constructing their 
 roofs was adopted by the Assyrians." Similar 
 indefinite statements with regard to mortars and 
 cements are made by Layard and others. In 
 Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," a passage in 
 Isaiah, in which the prophet speaks of the people 
 being as the burnings of lime, is adduced as 
 evidence that the ancient Jews were acquainted 
 with quick-lime as a mortar. The context, however, 
 gives no warrant for such an opinion. The burning 
 of the bones of a king into lime, is also adduced 
 as evidence, which it is not. Dr Thomson, in 
 " The Land and the Book," says, that " The houses 
 in Palestine are built without lime-mortar, and 
 that the mortar used, during rain, becomes as 
 slippery as soap, and if constant care is not taken 
 the houses soon fall." Job speaks of houses 
 which are not inhabited soon becoming heaps. 
 
33O BUILDING. 
 
 Solomon also refers to the rapid decay of houses 
 through slothfulness, and Ezekiel speak of walls 
 that had been built with untempered mortar as 
 soon falling. No doubt these references are to 
 ordinary buildings as dwelling-houses, but they 
 show that mortar such as we now use was not 
 used then for ordinary structures. 
 
 Dr Wallace of Glasgow, in a paper on ancient 
 mortars, gave analyses of samples taken from the 
 Great Pyramid : 
 
 Hydrated sulphate of lime 
 Carbonate of lime 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 Oxide of iron 
 Alumina .... 
 
 INTERIOR. 
 
 . 81-50 
 . 9-47 
 59 
 25 
 , . . 2-41 
 
 EXTKRIOR. 
 
 82-89 
 9-80 
 79 
 21 
 3-00 
 
 Silicic acid 
 
 . 5-30 
 
 4-30 
 
 99-52 100-99 
 
 In the work of J. J. Vicat on mortars, there is 
 an analysis of a sample from the Great Pyramid 
 differing little from that by Dr Wallace : 
 
 Sulphate of lime with a little alumina . . 70-30 
 
 Carbonic acid and lime 16-34 
 
 Sulphate of soda 3'2() 
 
 Water and loss 10-16 
 
 100-00 
 
 These have no relation whatever to our mortars, 
 but consist simply of plaster of Paris with certain 
 
BUILDING. 331 
 
 impurities. The description by Pliny of the pre- 
 paration of plaster of Paris accounts for such 
 impurities. He says, " There are numerous varieties 
 of it : one kind is prepared from a calcined stone 
 as in Syria, In Cyprus, gypsum is dug out of the 
 earth, the stone that is calcined for this purpose 
 ought to be similar to the alabastrites or else of 
 a grain like that of marble. In Syria they select 
 the hardest stones for the purpose, and calcine 
 them with cow-dung to accelerate the process. 
 Experience has proved that the best plaster of all 
 is that prepared from specular stone, or other 
 stone similarly laminated. Gypsum when moist- 
 ened must be used immediately, as it hardens 
 with the greatest rapidity. It is useful for orna- 
 mental figures and wreaths in buildings." Here we 
 find plaster applied to the same purposes to which 
 we now apply it, but not as mortar. The process 
 of calcination described by Pliny would naturally 
 lead to the knowledge of quick-lime, and he says, 
 "It is truly marvellous that limestone after being 
 subjected to fire should ignite on the application 
 of water." In all probability slaked lime was 
 used in the first instance as a sort of putty. Dr 
 Wallace gives an analysis of two samples, one 
 from the Pnyx, the other from an ancient temple 
 at Pentelicus near Athens. The mortars are very 
 old, but no date can be assigned. The analyses 
 are 
 
332 BUILDING. 
 
 PNYX. TEMPLK. 
 
 Lime 4570 49-65 
 
 Carbonic acid . . . 37'00 38-33 
 
 Magnesia . . . I'OO 1.09 
 
 Sulphuric acid T04 
 
 Peroxide of iron ... -92 -82 
 
 Alumina .... 2'64 '98 
 
 Silicic acid and sand . . 12-06 3-90 
 
 Water . -36 3'07 
 
 99-68 98-88 
 
 Dr Wallace also gives the analysis of a speci- 
 men found in Cyprus, which was used as a cement 
 for joining water-pipes placed ten feet below 
 the surface of the ground. Its composition 
 
 was 
 
 Lime 51'58 
 
 Carbonic acid .... 40'60 
 
 Magnesia '70 
 
 Sulphuric acid .... '82 
 
 Alumina ..... '40 
 
 Silicic acid and fine sand . . '96 
 
 Organic matter *24 
 
 Water 3-09 
 
 98-39 
 
 This is as near as possible the same in com- 
 position with that taken from the temple near 
 Athens. Neither are the same as our modern 
 lime mortar. 
 
 Mr Vicat gives three separate analyses of mor- 
 tars taken from structures erected in France by the 
 Romans during the reign of Agrippa. These are 
 the earliest examples we have found of the use of 
 our modern lime-mortar 
 
BUILDING. 
 
 333 
 
 FROM A TOWBR. REIGN OF AGRIPPA. 
 
 1ST CENTURY. 1ST CENTURY. 
 
 Lime 29'1 1516 
 
 Carbonic acid . . . 20 '0 9-00 
 
 Silicic . . . .45-0 68 '25 
 
 Water .... 5-9 4'00 
 
 Alumina and iron-oxide . ... 275 
 
 100-0 99-16 100-00 
 
 The first of these is much richer in lime than 
 the mortar we now use, and the lime and sand 
 must have been very pure. The two others are of 
 much the same composition as the lime-mortar 
 used at the present time. Marcus Portius Cato, 
 who lived about two centuries before our era, 
 describes the method of making lime-mortar in 
 his day, which is the same as we now follow. He 
 states the proportions of lime and sand employed, 
 and describes the outward properties which char- 
 acterise a good limestone, and also mentions the 
 construction of lime-kilns. Vitruvius^ who lived 
 about 200 years later, gives more details, speaks 
 of sea sand not being so well adapted for mortar 
 as that obtained from pits, on account of its tak- 
 ing longer to harden, and that pure limestone was 
 more serviceable. He was the first to notice the 
 properties possessed by Puzzolanas, a volcanic pro- 
 duct with the wonderful property of causing lime 
 to set rapidly under water, and to be used for 
 harbour construction, and for structures under 
 water. 
 
 The probability is that lime putty was originally 
 
334 BUILDING. 
 
 used, mixed with small stones to form a concrete, 
 and was used in this way before the practice of 
 mixing sand with lime came into vogue. It is the 
 opinion of many who have studied the subject, that 
 in the more ancient stone buildings no mortar of 
 any kind was used, or if any, only a thin layer 
 of plaster of Paris. This is the cement used 
 in the building of the Great Pyramid. In a 
 book just published by the committee of the 
 Palestine Exploration Fund, entitled " Our Work 
 in Palestine," in reference to the ancient wall of 
 the temple in Jerusalem, the following passage 
 occurs : " The masonry of this wall presents 
 several marked and very important differences of 
 work. These, as we shall shortly see, may be divided 
 into five. The stones are thus prepared : In the 
 first instance they are dressed square on the upper 
 and under surface and at the two ends. The 
 dressing is in many cases so true that a knife 
 cannot be inserted between two stones ; they are 
 placed one above another, each stone being set 
 half an inch to an inch further back, so that the 
 wall is not perpendicular, but stands at a slight 
 angle, the great advantage being that buttresses 
 and other supports are not needed. No mortar or 
 cement has been used." In an archseological 
 magazine, Long Ago, for February 1873, 
 appears the following in reference to buildings 
 supposed to be of the same date as Solomon's 
 Temple. 
 
BUILDING. 335 
 
 M. Mauch, an African traveller, is of opinion 
 that he has discovered the Queen of Sheba's 
 palace, about which he thus writes : " The ruins 
 which have been so often spoken about, are com- 
 posed of two masses of edifice in a tolerably 
 good state of preservation. The first is on a 
 mountain of granite ; and amongst other construc- 
 tions is to be remarked one which is an imitation 
 of Solomon's Temple, being fortress and sanctuary 
 at the same time, the walls of which are built in 
 wrought granite without mortar, and still being 
 more than 30 feet high ; beams of cedar served as 
 ceiling to the narrow and covered galleries. No 
 inscription exists, but only some special designs of 
 ornamentation which announce a great antiquity. 
 The whole western part of the mountain is covered 
 with blocks of great size, which seem to indicate 
 terraces. The second mass of ruins is situated to 
 the south of the mountain, from which it is 
 separated by a low valley ; it retains a well-pre- 
 served circular form, with walls constructed as a 
 labyrinth, also without mortar. A tower still 
 exists, 30 feet high, 17 feet diameter at base, and 
 9 feet at top. The circular is accompanied by a 
 large number of others, situated in the front, and 
 which, doubtless, served as the habitation of the 
 Queen of Sheba's suite. I was confirmed by the 
 natives themselves in the idea that these ruins date 
 from the Queen's time. The natives still call the 
 circular building the house of the great princess." 
 
336 BUILDING. 
 
 Speaking of Solomon's Temple, the authors of 
 "Our Work in Palestine " say, that an examination 
 'of the ancient wall presents no signs of chippings 
 or of stonedressing having been performed in 
 its neighbourhood, which signs would have been 
 present had the stones been prepared at the spot. 
 How well this agrees with the Scripture account, 
 " And the house, when it was in building, was 
 built of stone made ready before it was brought 
 thither, so that there was neither hammer nor 
 axe, nor any tool of iron, heard in the house while 
 it was building." Again, in connection with ex- 
 cavations made on Mount G-erizim, where there 
 are two ruins, the one known as the castle, the 
 other as the church, it is stated, " The church and 
 castle were found to be built on a rough platform 
 of large stones, laid together without mortar." 
 We wrote to Captain W. Wilson, R.E., one of the 
 exploring expedition. In the letter which we re- 
 ceived in reply to our inquiry, he says, " I do not 
 remember having seen mortar used in any of the 
 very early buildings in Palestine. The custom 
 seems to have been to dress the beds and joints of 
 the stones very finely, and set them without 
 mortar." Piazza Smith, in his " Work at the Great 
 Pyramid," says, " The stones fit so closely upon 
 each other that one cannot insert the edge of a 
 penknife between them." This practice of so pre- 
 paring each stone to fit exactly its proper place, is 
 suggestive of a great attainment in architectural 
 
BUILDING. 337 
 
 skill. In the case of such erections as the Temple 
 of Solomon, for which the stones were prepared in 
 the quarry at a distance from the building, the archi- 
 tect must have had a detailed plan of the building, 
 showing the exact dimensions of every stone with 
 its place in the building. 
 
 While speaking of the temple, we may relate a 
 story which we received as part of our instructions 
 when we joined the Freemasons. It has reference 
 to the corner-stone mentioned in Scripture, and 
 the substance of our instructions was as follows : 
 The corner or finishing stone in ancient temples 
 was generally regarded as a sacred stone, and had 
 certain sacred markings upon it. It was laid with 
 great ceremony, and was supposed to confer a 
 sacred influence on the building. David began 
 early to make preparation for the building of the 
 temple ; and among the things which he had in 
 preparation was a massive stone of an angular 
 shape without any carvings or marks of any kind 
 upon it. This stone was carried to the ground 
 where the temple was to be erected at the com- 
 mencement of the building operations, and the in- 
 structions to the builders were, that it was to be 
 taken care of, and carried up with them, as the 
 building proceeded, until its place was found. This 
 the builders considered a sort of useless labour, and 
 were often inclined to throw it over; but on coming 
 to the finish of their work, when they were ex- 
 pecting the grand sacred corner-stone to be brought 
 
 T 
 
338 BUILDING. 
 
 to them, the stone which the builders rejected 
 became the head of the corner, the space left was 
 found to fit this stone exactly, and Solomon, like a 
 true master mason with mallet in hand, may have 
 repeated the cheering words, It is finished. 
 
 There is often mention made of large pools and 
 reservoirs, stone-built erections for holding water. 
 We cannot conceive that the stones for these could 
 be so fitted as to be water-tight without cement, 
 but of what kind was the cement used we have no 
 positive evidence. Travellers do not seem to have 
 paid any attention to these matters. Captain 
 Wilson says in the letter referred to previously, 
 " Cement is used in the aqueducts and pools, and 
 an analysis of these would be interesting, but it is 
 difficult to say at what time the coating has been 
 put on, the constant repairs, &c., having since 
 obliterated the old work." However, stones pre- 
 pared with the exactness here indicated, and laid 
 with thin plaster of Paris, or lime putty between 
 them, would form a tight wall for a reservoir, but 
 when limestones were used for the building of 
 these reservoirs, they might ultimately require 
 repair. Baldwin, in his " PrehistoricNations," says 
 that " Mr Wellsted, speaking of ruins he saw at 
 Nakab-el-Hadjar, says that he found the remains 
 of an immense wall originally from thirty to forty 
 feet high, and ten feet thick at the foundation. 
 The blocks of greyish marble of which it was built 
 were hewn and fitted by the builders with eur- 
 
 
BUILDING. 339 
 
 prising nicety, indicating science and skill in 
 construction of a high order. The magnitude of 
 the stones used, and the perfect knowledge of the 
 builders, would give the structure importance in 
 any part of the world." And speaking of the 
 ruins, he says, " Their origin belongs to a very 
 remote antiquity." Concerning ruins found at El- 
 Belid, he says, " The blocks of stone used by the 
 architects, cut with geometrical precision, show 
 marvellous perfection in the workmanship of the 
 builders." Researches concerning the state of the 
 building arts in ancient Egypt, and among the 
 ancient Arabians, or Cushites, discover to us that 
 the further back we go, the more perfect is the art. 
 This art like others must have had a gradual 
 development, and the interval between the per- 
 fection of the art and the first beginnings must 
 reach back to a very remote time. 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 IN the 6th, 7th, and 8th chapters of Genesis, we 
 have an account of the building of Noah's Ark, 
 the Deluge, and destruction of mankind on account 
 of their wickedness. That within the period of 
 man's occupation of the earth a flood occurred, 
 which swept off all the inhabitants, is an all but 
 universal tradition. It is also a part of the same 
 tradition that a family, with less or more atten- 
 dants, were saved by means of a vessel prepared 
 for the occasion. The recent discovery, by Mr 
 George Smith, of a tablet in the British Museum, 
 having an inscription upon it describing the 
 Deluge, has given a new interest to the subject. 
 This tablet has been found along with others in 
 Assyria, and the various tablets probably formed 
 part of the library of an ancient Assyrian king. 
 The inscription is considered to record events 
 derived from sources much older than the tablet 
 itself. The tablet narrative agrees with the Bib- 
 lical account in many most important points. 
 The two statements affirm that the Flood was sent 
 in consequence of the wickedness of the people; 
 that Divine instructions were given for the pre- 
 paration of a boat or vessel for the preservation of 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 341 
 
 the builder and his family, and also for the pre- 
 servation of a number of animals for the restocking 
 of the world after the waters had subsided. There 
 are a few minor differences, caused, no doubt, by 
 the channels along which the tradition has flowed. 
 On this point Mr Smith says : " The Bible 
 account is the version of an inland people. The 
 name of the Ark in Genesis means a chest or box, 
 and not a ship, and no notice of the sea or of 
 launching, no pilots are spoken of, no naviga- 
 tion is mentioned. The inscription on the tablet, 
 on the other hand, belongs to a maritime people. 
 The Ark is called the ship, the ship is launched 
 into the sea, trial is made of it, and it is given in 
 charge of a pilot." 
 
 Mention is also made of a great many people 
 being preserved in the Ark with the builder and 
 his family, a state of matters which, considering 
 the circumstances, we think necessary, and which, 
 although not contained in the Bible narrative, is 
 not excluded. It is not our purpose, nor is it our 
 province, to discuss the question whether the 
 Chaldean account of the Flood has been borrowed 
 from or founded upon the Mosaic, or whether the 
 account in Genesis has been from the same source 
 as that from which this Chaldean account has 
 been taken. According to Rawlinson, who is no 
 doubt a high authority on such questions, the date 
 of the tablet is prior to the time of Moses. 
 
 Our inquiry is concerned, not with the Deluge, 
 
342 THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 but with the Ark as a work of art. This is the 
 first great work of the construction of which we 
 have any record; and a careful consideration of 
 the details contained in the narrative is very sug- 
 gestive concerning the state of practical and scien- 
 tific knowledge to which the Antediluvian had 
 attained. With this end in view, we purpose 
 taking the Bible narrative, brief as it is, and 
 viewing the matter as much as possible from the 
 stand-point of a practical man. The object for 
 which the Ark was built is well known ; and even 
 the most casual reader, with a very little reflection, 
 may see that God's announcement to Noah of a 
 coming flood, and His intention of saving him 
 and his family with pairs of all animals, entails 
 that one of two things was necessary in order 
 that Noah could properly execute his commission. 
 First, A full detail was necessary of the time the 
 Flood was to come upon the earth, the time the 
 water would continue, the number and kind of 
 animals to be preserved during that period, and 
 the circumstances in which the vessel was to be 
 placed during its voyage, to enable Noah to work 
 out the capacity and proportions of the required 
 vessel. For this purpose Noah would not only 
 require to be a good naval architect, but also to 
 be thoroughly acquainted with all existing animals, 
 their natures and habits, in order to provide them 
 with accommodation and proper food during a 
 five months' voyage and seven months' confine- 
 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 343 
 
 ment after the stranding of the vessel. Second, 
 That Noah, as the builder, should receive the size 
 and proportions of the vessel, with other necessary 
 details of internal arrangements ; and when the 
 ship was finished, receive further instructions from 
 the divine Architect as to the amount of food, and 
 number and character of the animals, and other 
 details. This latter, apparently, was God's plan, 
 as the narrative leads us to believe that Noah 
 did not know the time when the Flood would 
 occur until after the Ark was completed ; then he 
 was told to enter with his family and the animals 
 as specified : " For yet seven days, and I will 
 cause it to rain upon the earth forty days and 
 forty nights." Even this could give Noah no 
 idea of the magnitude of the Flood. Noah, we 
 think, represents a period in which the art of 
 ship-building had attained a considerable degree of 
 perfection. He, as the master shipwright, wrought 
 to the plan laid before him, as is done at the 
 present day. There is no evidence that the work- 
 men were inspired, or miraculously endowed with 
 practical skill in the use of tools. The instructions 
 Noah received for the building of the Ark, as 
 detailed by Moses, are as follows : " Make thee 
 an Ark of gopher wood ; rooms shalt thou make in 
 the Ark, and shalt pitch it within and without 
 with pitch. And this is the fashion which thou 
 shalt make it of: The length of the ark shall be 
 three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits, 
 
344 THE ARK 
 
 and the height of it thirty cubits. A window 
 shalt thou make to the Ark, and in a cubit shalt 
 thou finish it above ; and the door of the Ark shalt 
 thou set in the side thereof; with lower, second, 
 and third stories shalt thou make it." 
 
 Some of these directions are not very clear to 
 us, possibly from the translation not conveying the 
 real meaning of the original. Concerning the word 
 translated "Ark," the Rev. J. J. S. Perowne in 
 Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible," says, " The pre- 
 cise meaning of the Hebrew word is uncertain, the 
 word only occurs here, and in the second chapter of 
 Exodus, where it is used of the little papyrus boat, in 
 which the mother of Moses intrusted her child to the 
 Nile." Some scripture expositors read, " Windows 
 shalt thou make in the Ark," and consider that 
 the direction, " and in a cubit shalt thou make it 
 above," refers to the roof, or what we would call 
 upper deck, which was to slope a cubit. Others 
 again consider that the window was to be a cubit 
 in depth, running round the whole Ark at the 
 top, and formed a sort of skylight to the whole 
 interior, with its three tiers of nests or rooms, and 
 thus provided light and ventilation to the inmates. 
 Some again object to this idea on the ground that 
 to prevent rain getting in, glass or some other 
 transparent substance would be required. This 
 they consider could not be known at that early 
 period, forgetting that the skill required to con- 
 struct the Ark implies a state of practical know- 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 345 
 
 ledge, far beyond that which we look for in the 
 knowledge of a substance which will admit light 
 and keep out rain. Whether either of these be the 
 true view or not, there can be no doubt that proper 
 means were provided for ventilating and lighting 
 the Ark ; and we cannot think that Noah and his 
 companions were shut in, as it were, under hatches. 
 They must have had means of taking observations 
 both as to the state of weather and water, as we 
 find the very day noted on which the tops of the 
 mountains became visible, and this before the 
 opening of the so-called window in the roof. And 
 it is not for some time after that Noah removed 
 the covering of the Ark, though what this covering 
 was is not stated, only it shows that all the details 
 of the vessel are not given in Scripture. As to the 
 general construction of the Ark, commentators have 
 followed each other from the days of Sir Walter 
 Raleigh with very little variations. Their views are 
 summarised in the following extract from Smith's 
 "Dictionary of the Bible," by the Rev. Mr Perowne: 
 " It should be remembered that the huge struc- 
 ture was only intended to float on the water, 
 and was not, in the proper sense of the word, a 
 ship. It had neither mast, sail, nor rudder; it 
 was, in fact, nothing but an enormous floating 
 house, or oblong box rather. As it was very likely, 
 says Sir Walter Raleigh, that the Ark had a flat 
 bottom, and not raised in form of a ship, with a 
 sharpness forward to cut the waves for better 
 
346 THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 speed, the figure which is commonly given to it 
 by painters there can be no doubt is wrong. Two 
 objects only are aimed at in its construction, the 
 one was that it should have ample stowage, and 
 the other, that it should be able to keep steady 
 upon the water. It was never intended to be 
 carried to any great distance from the place where 
 it was originally built." We need hardly say 
 that there are here a number of assertions and 
 glosses not warranted by the narrative. The word 
 translated " Ark " seems to be like the word vessel, 
 which may apply to a box as well as a boat, that 
 is, implies no particular shape. An order given 
 to a boat-builder for a vessel to be 300x50x30 
 feet, one would never suppose that this meant an 
 oblong square box, flat-bottomed, and without bow 
 or rudder. Such a structure would not only be 
 more unsuitable, but much more difficult to make 
 water-tight than the usual form given to ships. 
 The statement that " it was never intended to be 
 carried to any great distance from the place where 
 it was originally built," is entirely an assertion of 
 the author, and altogether without foundation, as 
 the Ark may have sailed a long distance during 
 the five months it was afloat. Rawlinson, in his 
 u Ancient Monarchies," speaking of the Ark, says 
 " Would a floating house, not shaped shipwise, 
 have been safe amidst the winds and currents of so 
 terrible a crisis?" The author from which we 
 quote proceeds, " A curious proof of the 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 3 47 
 
 suitability of the Ark for the purpose for which it 
 was intended, was given by a Dutch merchant, 
 Peter Jansen, the Menonite, who, in the year 1604, 
 had a ship built of the same proportions. It was 
 120 feet long, 20 broad, and 12 deep. This 
 vessel, unsuitable as it was for quick voyages, was 
 found remarkably well adapted for freightage. It 
 was calculated that it would hold a third more 
 lading than other vessels, without requiring more 
 hands to work it. A similar experiment was also 
 said to have been made in Denmark." It is not 
 said whether the Dutch merchant's ship was flat- 
 bottomed and without bow, or rudder, or mast, 
 only the proportions rather a curious way of sup- 
 porting the validity of an ecclesiastical gloss. We 
 have no evidence as to the truth of these opinions, 
 but rather consider them gratuitous, and such as 
 on a little consideration will be seen to be erroneous. 
 Nothing is said in Scripture about the shape of the 
 Ark, only its dimensions are given. However, 
 there is one remark in the extract given with 
 which we heartily agree viz., the twofold object 
 evidently held in view in the design of the Ark, 
 ample stowage and steady sailing. In a large 
 cattle ship these qualities are most essential. We 
 quote a sentence from Dr Eadie's " Biblical 
 Encyclopaedia," as an instance of unmeaning 
 description : " After the most accurate computa- 
 tion by those versed in ship-building, and supposing 
 the dimensions given in the Sacred History to be 
 
34$ THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 geometrically exact, it is found that the vessel, in 
 all its known parts and proportions, is in perfect 
 accordance with the received principles of naval 
 architecture; " and it is added, " there can be no 
 doubt therefore that the Ark was built on strictly 
 scientific principles." We think no believer in 
 the inspiration of the Bible can gainsay this last 
 remark, knowing who was the Architect. 
 
 We will now consider the size of the vessel. 
 This is a subject of considerable difficulty, on 
 account of the uncertainty concerning the exact 
 length of the cubit which is the unit of measure- 
 ment in the text. A cubit was the unit of length 
 used by various nations, but the cubit of one 
 nation was not of the same length as that of 
 another. Some able scholars are of opinion that 
 there are distinct cubits, varying from 18 to 21 
 inches in length, referred to in Scripture, this 
 being the general length of a man's arm from 
 the elbow. Whether, however, the arm should 
 be measured to the wrist, or to the knuckles with 
 the hand shut, or to the point of the fore-finger 
 with the hand open, does not seem clear ; hence 
 there is a difficulty. There was also what is called 
 the sacred cubit, which most of our commentators 
 agree is that which formed the measure of the 
 Ark, and of other structures which were made by 
 Divine appointment. There have been several 
 surmises as to what the length of this sacred 
 cubit was. Sir Isaac Newton, as stated by Pro- 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 349 
 
 fessor C. P. Smith in his " Work at the Great 
 Pyramid," after a careful investigation, calculated 
 its length to be 25*025 inches ; his reasons for 
 adopting this measure being that it was the ten 
 millionth part of the earth's semi-polar (or semi- 
 axis of rotation) diameter. We are strongly 
 inclined to favour the views of Sir Isaac in this 
 matter. However, let us take each of the three 
 different kinds as unit, viz., 18 inches, 21 inches, 
 and 25*025 inches, and we have the following in 
 feet 
 
 18 Inches Cubit. Length of vessel, . . 450 feet 
 
 Breadth . . 75 
 
 Depth 45 
 
 21 Inches Cubit. Length of vessel, . . 525 feet 
 
 Breadth . . 87 
 
 Depth . . 62J 
 
 
 Sacred Cubit. Length of vessel, . . 625^ feet 
 ' Breadth . . 104J 
 
 Depth . . 62 
 
 This last measurement is only 55 feet shorter 
 than the Great Eastern, her length being 680 
 feet ; even the lowest is a vessel equal to the 
 average of any we build at present for long sea 
 voyages. 
 
 As no art or manufacture begins in a high state 
 of perfection, but is a gradual development, we 
 think Noah stands upon the apex of a long 
 growth in the art of ship-building; for although 
 God is represented as the Architect, Noah is the 
 
35O THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 person directing the work. If such an order as he 
 received had been given to a people in the rude 
 state of ship-building represented by the many- 
 ancient canoes found in our own country, it would 
 not only have been unmeaning, but, without 
 miraculous aid, impossible to carry out. No hint 
 is given by the inspired writer of any difficulty 
 having been experienced in the construction of 
 the vessel. 
 
 The next important consideration is the propor- 
 tions of the Ark, and from this we can form more 
 definite conclusions. When a naval architect is 
 asked to design a vessel, he must know previously 
 the purposes to which the vessel is to be put ; 
 whether she is to sail on the ocean or on a river. 
 A vessel made merely to float upon still water, 
 with heavy cargo, will be quite differently pro- 
 portioned from one carrying a similar cargo, but 
 intended to battle with wind and waves. If the 
 Ark had been merely intended to float in still water, 
 she would have held far more cargo by an increase 
 of breadth, but we think from her dimensions and 
 proportions the Ark was made suitable for large 
 cargo and heavy sea. If a naval architect of the 
 present day were asked to design a vessel for the 
 purpose of carrying large cargoes with the 
 greatest speed and capable of encountering heavy 
 seas, he would design one in the proportions of 
 our Clipper ships, or something approaching these 
 proportions. To show what these were and are, 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 351 
 
 we quote from a work on Naval Architecture by 
 the late Professor Kankine and J. R. Napier : 
 
 66 The common proportions of length to breadth, 
 in navies of the world down to recent times, ranging 
 from about 3 to 3| and 4, was considered a great 
 proportion even in yachts. At present many 
 sailing vessels are built longer and narrower than 
 these proportions, but still in the finest example 
 of Clipper ships, the length is seldom more than 
 5 to 6 times the breadth." 
 
 Here we find that both in old and in more 
 modern times, before naval architecture was so 
 well understood as it is now, vessels built for great 
 capacity and sailing power had nearly double the 
 proportions of breadth to length compared with 
 what modern science and practice say are the 
 most suitable proportions. Shall we then say that 
 the fact of the length of the Ark being exactly six 
 times its breadth, the proportions found to be most 
 suitable for quick sailing and a strong sea was 
 a mere accident. We are rather driven back upon 
 our statement, that the design of the Ark was in- 
 spired, and the work carried out by men who were 
 skilled in work of the kind. Suppose our friends 
 the archaeologists were to find the remains of such 
 a vessel as the Ark, we think they would reason 
 from the stand-point of a naval architect, that the 
 people in the age in which it was built must have 
 been far advanced in the art of ship-building. Yet, 
 as we have seen, Biblical commentators generally 
 
352 THE ARK OP NOAH. 
 
 do not perceive the scientific perfection in the struc- 
 ture of the vessel, but make of it something as 
 ridiculous as it is well possible to do from the data 
 given. Looking at the whole structure from a 
 workman's point of view, there would be required 
 not less than 25,000 loads of timber for its con- 
 struction. The cutting down of such a number of 
 trees as would be required, their conveyance to the 
 building-yard, the preparation of the wood for the 
 timbers of whatever shape they were, and the 
 fitting of the different parts, indicate a great 
 amount of skill on the part of the workmen. 
 Whether the fastenings were of wood or metal we 
 of course cannot decide, but considering what we 
 have seen of their knowledge of metals in 
 ancient times, it is more than likely both were 
 used. A recent correspondent of the Athenaeum says 
 that the knowledge of metals was retained by the 
 descendants of Cain, and the reason why Noah was 
 so long in the building of the Ark was that he 
 would have only flint or other stone implements 
 or tools to work with. This certainly would make 
 the work more difficult, but it does not detract 
 from the skill of the workmen ; rather does it 
 speak highly for their skill and patience in 
 undertaking and finishing the work under such 
 adverse circumstances. However, we are not in- 
 clined to favour such an idea, but think that 
 metal tools were in the hands of the Ark builders ; 
 for, if the workmen employed by Noah did not know 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 353 
 
 metals before the flood, they were not long in 
 making the discovery after, for we find metals in 
 common use at dates immediately after that given 
 for the Flood among the immediate descendants of 
 Noah. Neither do we think that one hundred and 
 twenty years were spent in its construction. All 
 the Bible says is, that it was one hundred and twenty 
 years from the time Noah received his instructions, 
 till the Flood came. We have heard objectors say 
 that the wood used at the commencement would be 
 rotten before the vessel was finished, forgetting that 
 provision was made against such a result, by having 
 the wood saturated with tar, or in the language of 
 the Bible, " pitched within and without." 
 
 There are some commentators who are so inno- 
 cent of anything practical in matters of this sort, 
 as to consider the Ark to have been made of basket- 
 work made watertight by pitch, because the same 
 word is used in the original which is used in 
 reference to the little boat (probably of basket- 
 work) in which the infant Moses was placed in 
 the Nile. We have already shown that the Ark 
 was a regular ship, that it was necessary to be of 
 great strength to support the large cargo it was 
 to carry, and we will show that it required both 
 stearing gear and means of propulsion to enable 
 the voyagers to manage it. We are aware that in 
 stating this we are treading on very delicate 
 ground, and that the orthodox view is that God 
 preserved the vessel and cargo by means of a 
 
 z 
 
354 THE ARK OF 
 
 continued miracle. But this is contrary to God's 
 way of dealing. There is no instance in Scrip- 
 ture of God interfering by miracle where man, 
 under the ordinary laws, can effect the object. 
 He had instructed Noah in all that was required in 
 the vessel, for the comfort and protection of the 
 different animals, by having them placed in dif- 
 ferent rooms or compartments, and also for the 
 proper working of the vessel, and Noah was no 
 doubt left to manage all the rest himself. The 
 Ark was afloat for five months, and it is hard to 
 believe that such a catastrophe as the Flood was 
 unaccompanied by wind ; at all events, we cannot 
 suppose that there were neither wind, waves, nor 
 currents during the whole five months' voyage. A 
 vessel without rudder in currents and wind always 
 drifts side on. A vessel, such as the Ark, without 
 rudder or means of propulsion, placed in a current 
 accompanied even with slight wind, would be 
 placed in a situation not only most uncomfortable, 
 but one in which a miracle would be required to 
 preserve alive a cargo of cattle ; so that we are 
 driven to one of two alternatives, either the pre- 
 servation by miracle, or, as we have explained, a 
 vessel fitted up in such a way as to enable Noah 
 to manage her by ordinary means. But, say the 
 objectors, How could Noah and his three sons and 
 their wives eight persons in all manage such a 
 vessel by the ordinary means ? This same diffi- 
 culty remains, although Noah had not to work the 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 355 
 
 ship, as the animals were both to feed and keep 
 clean, which, considering their number, was more 
 than any eight persons could accomplish. The 
 simplest explanation of the difficulty is that we 
 have already suggested, that Noah and his sons, 
 like Abraham and the other patriarchs, are named 
 as representing their households, and these included 
 a great many servants, both male and female. 
 Indeed, the invitation into the Ark suggests this : 
 " And the Lord said unto Noah, Come thou and 
 all thy house into the Ark ; for thee have I seen 
 righteous before me in this generation." There 
 are many instances of this use of language in the 
 Old Testament history, where only the head of the 
 house is named singly, but historically he repre- 
 sents his whole family and adherents, and the 
 same phraseology is used in the New Testament 
 in the same wide sense. The Chaldean tablet to 
 which we have referred states that there were 
 many people along with the person named the 
 Noah of the Bible ; and as we have shown that this 
 is not only not contrary to the Scripture account, 
 but essential to it, we accept it as strong evidence 
 of the correctness of our opinion. 
 
 The description given of the approach of the 
 Flood forces on our mind the necessity of Noah 
 having had control over his vessel. We are aware 
 that poets and preachers have represented the waters 
 gradually but steadily rising, and the people in 
 terror ascending the mountains in vain hope of 
 
356 THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 evading the rising tides, while they beheld the 
 Ark calmly floating away in safety with its living 
 freight; and when now too late to escape their awful 
 doom, they in despair curse their wretched fate 
 and vainly regret their want of faith in Noah's 
 warnings. Such ideas are no doubt full of poetry, 
 and touch the feelings of the hearers or readers. 
 Nevertheless, we think the beauty of the picture 
 is obtained at the expense of truthfulness. The 
 great master Teacher referring to the Flood, com- 
 pares it to the coming of the Son of Man, which is 
 always represented as being sudden and unexpected. 
 People were - marrying and giving in marriage 
 until the very day Noah entered the Ark. And the 
 narrative as given by Moses is terribly grand, and 
 gives no sanction to a slow and gradual rising of 
 the waters. 
 
 " In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in 
 the second month, the seventeenth day of the 
 month, the same day were all the fountains of the 
 great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven 
 were opened. And the Flood was forty days upon 
 the earth, and the waters increased and bare up the 
 Ark, and it was lifted up above the earth. And the 
 waters prevailed and were increased greatly upon the 
 earth. And the Ark went upon the face of the waters, 
 and the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the 
 earth." In the marginal reading of the A.V. the 
 words, " The waters prevailed," bare the meaning, 
 " Bearing down everything before it;" and such 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 357 
 
 would certainly be the case. Mr Steinmitz, in his book 
 on "Meteorology," says, "It would be a tremendous 
 shower if the rain fell at the rate of two-hundredths 
 of an inch per minute for one hour ;" and he makes 
 a calculation based upon the statement that the water 
 rose to the height of fifteen cubits above the highest 
 mountain in forty days and nights, andfinds that the 
 water would require to rise at the rate of five inches 
 per minute, or to twenty-five feet per hour. This 
 would be sufficient to destroy every living thing in 
 the space of half an hour. Without adopting the 
 calculation of Steinmitz of a rise of five inches per 
 minute, but only supposing the rain to fall at the 
 rate of two inches in an hour, it would be impossible 
 for any one to climb a hill. Such a shower would 
 sweep down everything movable before it, burying 
 the valley in one heap of confusion ; so that the 
 idea of poet and preacher is contrary to fact, and 
 is tame when compared with the historical record. 
 However, it may be said that if ship-building 
 were common, it is more than probable that many 
 other people besides Noah were in possession of 
 vessels and could have saved themselves. Many 
 would be afloat in vessels following their trade 
 when the Flood came, and might be saved, so that 
 in order to meet the whole case it is necessary 
 that the Ark should be the only and probably also 
 the first ship ever built, as commentators will 
 have us believe. We admit that if ship-building 
 was a common art, there would be many more 
 
358 THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 vessels in possession of men, who could save 
 themselves, and perhaps did save themselves from 
 the first great downpour of the Flood ; but if we 
 take the " breaking up of the fountains of the deep" 
 to mean a rapid raising of the water as an immense 
 wave, or a succession of waves, how many vessels 
 could survive such? and if any did survive few would 
 be provisioned for twelve months. Mr George 
 Smith, speaking about the Chaldean tablet, says 
 that the Scripture account evidently refers to a 
 vessel built inland; there is no account of launching 
 it, &c. We agree with this supposition, and think 
 it is Scriptural. The Ark was built for a special 
 purpose and under special circumstances, and 
 did not require to be launched to test its fitness ; 
 that was insured by the Architect. It is more 
 than probable that the vessel was built upon some 
 inland plain, contiguous to a plentiful supply of 
 wood. And the fact of building such a vessel 
 away from the sea may have brought upon Noah 
 the derision of his neighbours, as also that the 
 people refused to listen to his warning, which has 
 been traditionally connected with the undertaking. 
 Indeed, who would put their trust in the preaching 
 of a man whose conduct was apparently so absurd? 
 When finished, this inland position was the best 
 for collecting the cargo to be saved in the ark. It 
 shows the necessity of the door being in the 
 side, which could be afterwards secured, and the 
 securing of this may be what is referred to by the 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 359 
 
 expression, " God shut him in." And again if the 
 great catastrophe referred to, " the breaking up of 
 the great deep," was, as we think, sudden, whether 
 by earthquake or by the sinking of the land, few 
 if any vessel afloat could survive the fearful reflux 
 and influx of waves which must ensue. Even 
 within our own day, in South America, earthquakes 
 near the sea have been destructive to everything 
 near them, and all vessels within the influence of 
 the great wave have been destroyed, and these 
 were but slight compared with the Flood. Conse- 
 quently the building of the Ark inland secured its 
 safety, being protected from all destructive effects. 
 In the language of the Bible, it was borne up on 
 the surface of the waters. 
 
 There is one other statement in the narrative of 
 Moses which has led to some difficulty : that is the 
 expression we have referred to above, viz., "That 
 God shut him in." We have put the question to 
 several clergymen, Hebrew scholars, whether 
 these words mean that God closed up the Ark, 
 and that the inmates sat within passive so far as 
 the vessel was concerned. Four out of six held 
 this opinion, and that all were preserved by 
 miracle; two said the words so translated did not 
 necessarily bear that meaning that so far as that 
 expression was concerned, Noah might have 
 wrought his vessel as any captain would his 
 ship. But there being no apparent destination, 
 the guidance would only be to keep it in the 
 
360 THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 most favourable position for the comfort of the 
 inmates. 
 
 One German author whose book was recently 
 reviewed in the Athenaeum, cut the Gordian knot at 
 once, by saying that God put all the inmates of 
 the Ark into an hibernating state, and awakened 
 them after the waters were abated; but to ascertain 
 if the waters were certainly abated, Noah sent out 
 the dove and raven, and after being convinced by 
 the dove not returning, preparations were made 
 for removal. We must confess that if miracle is 
 admitted in this matter at all, this view is the 
 best. But unfortunately for such ideas, the 
 narrative viewed in a practical manner gives us 
 no warrant either to seek for or believe in a mira- 
 culous preservation of the Ark. After providing 
 Noah with a suitable vessel, that God should 
 afterwards be necessitated to work a miracle on 
 account of insufficient manual labour or skill on 
 the part of Noah, seems inconsistent with His 
 perfect character. 
 
 There are several other points in the narrative, 
 which we think require a different explanation 
 from that generally given, to be consistent with 
 the authorship, and with common sense. But 
 these are outside of our subject, which is with the 
 Ark itself, and its construction. We will conclude 
 this chapter with a quotation from Baldwin's 
 " Prehistoric Nations:" "The nautical science 
 of the old Arabians must have been equal to the 
 
THE ARK OF NOAH. 361 
 
 wants of their great commercial enterprise, for the 
 faculty to invent what was necessary did not wait 
 until our time to make its appearance in the 
 human mind. It is seen that the Phoenicians, 
 when they came out of the obscure prehistoric 
 ages into history, were immeasurably superior to 
 every other people in maritime skill. No other 
 people had such naval constructions, no other 
 people were so much at sea, or made such long 
 voyages, or had such skill in navigation. Some 
 ages later, the Athenians had ships, but they had 
 nothing like the great Phoenician ships that came 
 regularly to Athens in the service of commerce, 
 and were always regarded there as marvels of 
 naval architecture. What the Phoenicians were in 
 the Mediterranean, the southern Arabians were on 
 the Indian Ocean, although history necessarily has 
 much less to say of them. And these people, repre- 
 senting in the later ages of its decline the great 
 race that had been for not less than six millen- 
 niums, probably, foremost in human affairs, give us 
 some notion of what must have been the attain- 
 ments of that race in the ages of its highest 
 development and power. The marvellous skill of 
 the Phoenicians in manufactures would have been 
 impossible without unusual intellectual activity, 
 aided by great attainments in science. Is it 
 reasonable to believe that the nautical science of 
 such a people, with whom maritime enterprise was 
 a chief business, could have been poor and mean ? 
 
362 THE ARK OF NOAH. 
 
 Such a belief is possible only to the prodigious 
 incredulity of egotistical scepticism." 
 
 The same author is also of the opinion that the 
 ancient Arabians knew the mariner's compass. 
 He says, " The word vorsoriam has been inter- 
 preted to mean the mariner's compass, although 
 some critics have tried to see in it a rope, or the 
 helm of a ship. Pineda, and Father Kircher, 
 argued earnestly to show that the compass was 
 used by the Phoenicians and Hebrews in the time 
 of Solomon, which was much more reasonable 
 than the claim that it was first invented in 
 Europe." 
 
 The Chinese, too, are said to have known the 
 magnetic needle more than 2700 years before 
 the Christian era. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ABRAHAM using coined money paying 
 
 Ephron, 59 
 Achillas' shield, description of, 139 
 
 manufactured by Hephaistos, 141 
 
 Ahaz desecrating the Temple, 182 
 Altar made for the Tabernacle, 165 
 
 for the Temple of Solomon, 169 
 
 for Ahaz from a plan sent from 
 
 Damascus, 181 
 
 Alum and sulphate of alumina, 267 
 Amalgamation process for silver by 
 
 Pliny, 44 
 Amount of gold and silver collected 
 
 for Temple, 69 
 Analysis of ancient bronzes, 152 
 
 of ancient copper, 116 
 
 of copper from Telsefr, 120 
 
 of bricks from Birs-Nimrud, 324 
 
 of ancient mortars, 330 
 
 Ancient miners of copper using stone 
 
 tools, 111 
 Antimony ore used in ancient times, 
 
 236 
 
 Archil used for dying purple, 262 
 Arguments used against Scripture 
 
 History, 31 
 
 Aristotle's description of brass, 114 
 Ark of the covenant described, 8, 13 
 
 value of metals used for, 17 
 
 of covenant lost, 188 
 
 of Noah, 340 
 
 its probable fittings and guiding, 
 
 353 
 Articles in metal brought back from 
 
 Babylon by the Jews, 188 
 Arts among the Israelites iu Samuel's 
 
 time, 9 
 
 BABEL, Tower of, 318, 322 
 
 Babylon, the Jews return from, and 
 
 Temple furniture, 188 
 celebrated for its manufactures, 
 
 296 
 
 Baldwin's "Prehistoric Nations," 360 
 Bauerman on ancient mining and 
 
 smelting, 106 
 Beckmann on the tin named in 
 
 Scripture, 124 
 Bellows used in metallurgy in ancient 
 
 times, 27 
 
 Birch upon ancient pottery, 302 
 Birs-Nimrud, 322 
 Bitumen, or asphalte mortar, 327 
 Black as a dye, 291 
 Bloomeries for smelting in ancient 
 
 times, 213 
 Blue dye upon mummy cloth, 253 
 
 dyes made with indigo, 278 
 
 symbolic meaning of, 279 
 
 Brass of Scripture, 96 
 
 manufactured before zinc was 
 
 known as a metal, 234 
 Brick earliest building materials 
 
 referred to in history, 320 
 Britain a source of tin in ancient 
 
 times, 129 
 Bronze in Scripture, 96, 163 
 
 tools with steel shields, 214 
 
 necessity of pure copper in 
 
 making, 112 
 
 vessels used by Moses, 117 
 
 its manufacture, 150 
 
 chisels used for cutting granite, 
 
 149 
 
 found in Nineveh by Layard, 155 
 
 Building art, 318 
 
 without mortar, 334 
 
 Burned lime, 331 
 
364 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 CALCINATION, the process of, 79, 100 
 
 Calf golden, how ground, 77 
 
 Candelabrum in Tabernacle, 16 
 
 Candlestick of Tabernacle lost, 190 
 
 Carthamus as a dyeing agent, 261 
 
 Casting in core, 166 
 
 Castings for Temple, where made, 174 
 
 Cement for reservoirs, 338 
 
 Chaldea, buildings in, 319 
 
 a coppersmith's stock in an- 
 cient, 118 
 
 Cherubims, manufacture of, 16 
 
 Cochineal as a dye, 290 
 
 Colours, different, 272 
 
 Coloured glass, 317 
 
 Colouring matters used by dyers in 
 ancient times, 248 
 
 Copper, 94 
 
 obtained from ores, 97 
 
 mining and smelting by ancient 
 
 Egyptians, 104 
 
 toughening of in manufacture, 
 
 115 
 
 vessels and other articles found 
 in Chaldea, 117 
 
 Cost of metals in ancient times, 28 
 
 Cotton known and used in ancient 
 times, 245 
 
 Crassus' pillage of Temple of Jeru- 
 salem, 76 
 
 Crimson as a dye, 278 
 
 DATE, probable, of Egyptian mining 
 
 and smelting, 110 
 David's collection of metals for 
 
 Temple, 65 
 Decline of Art among the Israelites, 
 
 21 
 
 Different spoliations of Temple, 187 
 Divers coloured cloth emblem of 
 
 favour, 284 
 
 dresses worn by Princesses, 286 
 
 Dresses worn by Persians, 299 
 
 Dyeing, art of, 239 
 
 of different colours, 272 
 
 EADiE's,'Dr, Theory of grinding golden 
 
 calf, 81 
 criticism on grinding calf and 
 
 reply, 87 
 Early date of mining and smelting, 
 
 110 
 Ecbatana, city of great riches in art, 
 
 24,76 
 
 Egypt, Iron works in ancient, 211 
 Egyptians mining and smelting 
 
 copper, 104 
 
 Embroidered cloth emblem of hon- 
 our, 285 
 
 Enamelled bricks, 328 
 Enamels and glazes, 224 
 Engraving in ancient times, 30 
 Exhibitions of works of art, 298 
 Extraction of metals from ores, 5 
 
 FLAX and linen, 247 
 
 Flood, description of, and opinions, 
 355 
 
 Fuel and ores, 6 
 
 determining, locality for smelt- 
 ing, 108 
 
 Fullers' soap, 270 
 
 GALLS used in dyeing, 263 
 
 Gilding with amalgam of gold and 
 mercury, 230 
 
 Gladstone, Right Hon. W. E., on 
 Shield of Achillis, 140 
 
 Glass making, its discovery, 310 
 
 ornaments worn by Egyptians, 
 
 311 
 
 imitation of precious stones, 313 
 
 Glazing on pottery, 306 
 
 Gold recovered by mercury, 229 
 
 and silver, 33 
 
 its properties, 35 
 
 modes of extraction from mat- 
 rix, 36 
 
 Golden calf, grinding of, 77 
 
 Green dye, 292 
 
 Grinding golden calf, 77 
 
 Dr Memes' theory of, 79 
 
 Dr Eadie's, 81 
 
 Moses' account of, 84 
 
 Dr Eadie's criticism upon and 
 
 reply, 87 
 
 HAMAN'S great wealth in silver, 72 
 Hanging gardens paved with sheet 
 
 lead, 220 
 Hebrews had early knowledge of 
 
 iron, 199 
 Hena used for dyeing and staining 
 
 skin and nails, 262 
 Hesiod's four metallic ages, 208 
 Homer's reference to iron articles, 
 
 207-209 
 
INDEX. 
 
 365 
 
 IMAGE set up in Babylon, 187 
 Imitation of precious stones, 315 
 Indian method of smelting iron, 
 
 195 
 
 Indigo and woad as dyes, 251 
 Inlaying of metals, 212 
 Iron plentiful in David's reign, 39 
 
 smelting, how performed, 191 
 
 references to in Scripture, 199 
 
 in use in ancient Egypt, 211 
 
 JEREMIAH'S description of Potter's 
 
 working, 304 
 Jewellery made with coloured glass, 
 
 313 
 
 Jews return to Babylon, 188 
 Juventus Mundi, 73, 140, 209 
 
 KERMES, description of, and use in 
 dyeing, 254 
 
 LABYRINTH of Egypt, account of, 326 
 Layard's samples of bronze from 
 
 Nineveh, 158 
 notice of ancient iron articles, 
 
 211 
 Lead ore, and mode of smelting it, 
 
 217 
 
 covering clay conduit pipes, 221 
 
 conduit pipes, how manufac- 
 tured in old times, 222 
 used for the purification of 
 
 silver, 223 
 Legend of Christ being a dyer, and 
 
 miracles, 266 
 Lime as mortar, 329 
 
 slaked used as putty, 331 
 
 Linen and flax, 247 
 
 Litharge, and probable use, 224 
 
 Localities set apart for certain trades 
 
 in ancient times, 297 
 Loftus' account of the Birs-Nimrud, 
 
 323 
 excavations in Chaldea, 117 
 
 MADDER, a dyeing agent in ancient 
 
 times, 260 
 
 Maritime skill of Phoenicians, 361 
 Mariners' compass known in ancient 
 
 times, 362 
 
 Memes, Dr, on golden calf, 79 
 Mercury, a solvent of metals, 228 
 
 gilding by means of, 230 
 
 not mentioned in Bible, 10 
 
 Metallurgy, origin of, 3 
 Metals named in Bible, 10 
 
 in Temple of Solomon taken to 
 
 Babylon, 185 
 
 passed through fire for purifica- 
 tion, 136 
 Mining copper by ancient Egyptians, 
 
 104 
 
 Mirrors made of bronze, 164 
 Money used in ancient times, 59 
 Mordants used in dyeing, 265 
 Mortar used in building, 327 
 
 analyses of ancient, 330 
 
 Moulds used in ancient times, 25 
 Mummy cloths, what composed of, 
 247 
 
 dyed blue, 253 
 
 Murixide as a dye, 257 
 
 NEWBOLD'S, Captain, theory respect- 
 ing the vitrifying of Birs-Nim- 
 rud, 323, 328 
 
 Nebuchadnezzar spoiling the Temple, 
 185 
 
 Nitre, a generic name for different 
 salts, 264 
 
 Noah, the ark of, 340 
 
 and his sons representative men, 
 355 
 
 OBSCURITY of technical descriptions 
 
 in Pliny, 126 
 
 Opher, opinions of locality, 56 
 Ores of metals and fuel, 5 
 Ornaments of glass worn in ancient 
 
 Egypt, 312 
 Overlaying iron and copper with tin, 
 
 215 
 
 PALESTINE, mineralogy of, 7 
 Palmer, Prof. E. H., Desert of the 
 
 Exodus, 103 
 
 Parting gold and silver, 52 
 Patio process for the extraction of 
 
 gold and silver, 40 
 Percy's, Dr, analyses and remarks on 
 
 bronze, 155 
 Persian dyers choosing Christ as 
 
 patron, 266 
 Persians emulating for possession of 
 
 works of art, 298 
 Persepolis, remains of, 120 
 Philip's analyses of bronzes, 155, If 2 
 remarks on tin and its ores, 127 
 
366 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Phoenicians obtaining tin from Corn- 
 wall, 124 
 
 importing silver, 71 
 
 importing lead, 224 
 
 Pillars in front of Solomon's temple, 
 163 
 
 Plaster of Paris in buildings, 330-334 
 
 Pliny's account of the Tyrian purple, 
 290 
 
 ideas on copper smelting, 113 
 
 concerning silk, 224 
 
 Pompeii, glass found in, 311 
 
 Pottery, 301 
 
 Potter's wheel same in ancient as in 
 modern times, 802 
 
 field, 309 
 
 Precious metals in possession of the 
 Israelites, 62 
 
 in existence in 1872, 63 
 Preserving prisoners of war skilled 
 
 in arts, 22 
 Pure copper required for making 
 
 good bronze, 112 
 Purple dye, 255 
 in use before that dyed with 
 
 shell-fish, 282 
 Pyramid, Great, its structure, 325 
 
 QUANTITT 'of metals with Israel in 
 
 the wilderness, 20 
 precious metals collected by 
 
 David, 62 
 
 gold and silver in 1872, 63 
 
 Queen of Sheba's palace, 335 
 
 Quicksilver, 227 
 
 lime used in buildings, 331 
 
 Raleigh's, Sir W., opinion of Noah's 
 
 ark, 345 
 
 Ram's skins dyed red, 241 
 Red as a dyed colour, 278 
 
 leather, 240 
 
 Refining gold and silver, 42 
 
 by cupellation, 46 
 
 Remarks on structure of Noah's ark, 
 
 347 
 Reservoirs, how made water-tight, 
 
 338 
 
 Riches in temple of Belus, 73 
 Roman emperor gifting large sums of 
 
 money, 75 
 Romans working lead in Britain, 222 
 
 SACRED colours, 292 
 
 Safflower used aa a dye' by ancient 
 
 Egyptians, 261 
 
 Sails of ships embroidered, 287 
 Salts used in dyeing in ancient times, 
 
 249 
 Scarlet colour, and symbolic meaning 
 
 of, 274 
 Scripture references to refining gold 
 
 and silver, 45 
 
 to cupelling, 46 
 
 to use of iron, 199 
 
 Separating gold and silver, 52 
 Serpent brazen destroyed, 184 
 Shell-fish as a dye, 254 
 experiments upon in modern 
 
 times, 275 
 
 Shield of Achillis, 139 
 Shushau of the palace, 23 
 Silk in ancient times, 243 
 Silver and gold found together, 33 
 
 extraction from its ores, 38 
 
 its property when subjected to 
 
 heat, 42 
 
 imported by the Phoenicians, 71 
 
 Skins of animals dyed, 240 
 Smelting, copper ore, methods of, 97 
 
 tin ores, methods of, 122 
 
 Smith, Dr George, on the early date 
 
 of tin found in Britain, &c., 133 
 Soap, its manufacture, 269 
 Soldering, 222 
 Solomon's navy of ships, 70 
 Spoliations, different, of Solomon's 
 
 Temple, 177 
 
 Spinning and weaving, 294 
 Steel manufactured in India, 196 
 Steel-tipped tools, 214 
 Stibium used as paint in ancient 
 
 times, 237 
 Stone buildings, 325 
 
 TABERNACLE, bronze used in its con- 
 struction, 163 
 
 Temple of Belus, 73 
 
 of Solomon, bronze used in it, 167 
 
 built without mortar, 336 
 
 Tin, first name of, in history, 136 
 
 not found in Persian mountains, 
 
 119 
 
 ores, how smelted, 122 
 
 localities of ore, 123. 
 
 used in dyeing, 269 
 
 Tinned iron, &c., referred to by 
 Pliny, 138 
 
INDEX. 
 
 367 
 
 Tools of bronze tipped with steel, 214 
 Tower of Babel, 318 
 Trade guilds in ancient times, 113 
 Tradition respecting corner stone of 
 
 Solomon's Temple, 337 
 Transmutation of metals, 44 
 Tyre, city of, founded, 134 
 Tyrian purple, 257 
 its durability, 289 
 
 URUHK, King of HIT'S, seal, 296 
 fineness of engraving, 286 
 
 VALUE of metals used for Tabernacle, 
 
 17 
 
 Vaux's Nineveh, 212 
 Vermillion used as paint in ancient 
 
 times, 231 
 Vinegar, 265 
 
 WATER of purification, used for metals, 
 11 
 
 Weaving and its perfection in ancient 
 times, 294 
 
 Weight of the metals used for Taber- 
 nacle, 18 
 
 Weights used in transfers or ex- 
 changes, 61 
 
 Wheel, Potter's, in ancient and mo- 
 dern times, 302 
 
 Wilson's.Dr D. ," Prehistoric Annals, " 
 130 
 
 Dr Q., analyses of bronze, 159 
 
 Woad and indigo used in dyeing blue, 
 251 
 
 Women using hena for dyeing their 
 skin and nails, 262 
 
 Woollen stuff, 241 
 
 YELLOW as a dye, its symbolism, 273 
 
 ZEBULUN'S blessing, 233 
 
 ZINC ores known in ancient times, 233 
 
 oxide used in medicine, 234 
 
 THE END. 
 
 PRINTED BY BAI.LANTYNK AND COMPANY 
 EDINBURGH AND LONDON 
 
THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SANTA CRUZ 
 
 SCIENCE LIBRARY 
 
 This book is due on the last DATE stamped below. 
 
 To renew by phone, call 459-2050. 
 
 Books not returned or renewed within 14 days 
 
 after due date are subject to billing. 
 
 es 2477 
 
3 2106 00268 9963