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1830

THE LIBRARY

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

LOS ANGELES

'A 'N 'asnJOjAs ~~"

«30 Nia uiHdwvT

l t>MO]f\vF\

AN ESSAY

ON THE

NATURE AND OBJECTS

OF THE

COURSE OF STUDY,

IN THE CLASS OF THE

PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN MIND

AND LOGIC,

IN THE

UNIVERSITY OF LONDON.

BY THE REV. JOHN HOPPUS, A.M.

••Sure I am, that all the light we can let in upon our own minds, all the
acquaintance we can make with our own understandings, will not only be very
pleasant, but bring us great advantage, in directing our thoughts in the search
ot other things." — Locke.

SECOND EDITION.

LONDON :
PRINTED FOR JOHN TAYLOR,

BOOKSELLER AND PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY,
UPPER GOWER-STREET.

1830

LONDON:
PHINTEl* BV THOMAS DAVISON, WHITEFE1AR3.

AN ESSAY,

ETC.

It is the design of the following pages to explain, gene-
rally and in brief, the nature of those studies to which the
attention of the Students will be directed in the Class of
Mental Philosophy and Logic ; and to point out some
of the practical advantages which must result from these
pursuits, if rightly conducted, as a prominent and essential
branch of an enlightened and liberal education.

In the boundless field of knowledge which lies open to
human research, there are some objects which are evidently
adapted to gain more immediate attention than others, either
by the direct appeal they make to the senses, or their ob-
vious connexion with the necessities of mankind. It is with
the world itself, intellectually considered, as with the infant :
the latter is chiefly the creature of sensation, and time must
elapse ere the enlargement of its experience has brought
into exercise faculties of a different and more exquisite order.
Antiquity was the infancy of the world ; and it was natural
that the sensible properties of things should first attract
notice, and become the elements of the first rude attempts in
science.

Hence the splendour, the beauty, and the motions of the
heavenly bodies; the overflow of rivers; thunder and light-
ning ; the changes of the seasons ; together with the forms
and qualities of plants and animals, the diseases of the hu-
man frame, the decomposition of animal and vegetable sub-
stances, the various agencies of fire, air, and water ; and, in

J33f

short, all the more striking aspects of nature, were the facts
which in the early ages of the world awakened the curiosity
of man, and formed the basis of Astronomy, Chymistry,
Medicine, and other sciences.

These branches of knowledge, and all those which re-
semble them in being derived from similar sources, have, in
a general sense, been denominated the philosophy of nature.
This expression however, even in the most extensive accept-
ation in which it has usually been employed in modern
times, by no means includes all the objects of scientific in-
quiry. There is another sphere of investigation, which,
though less obtrusive to common observation, and to the
superficial eye almost shrouded from view, is by no means
less interesting, or less worthy to be explored. The most
indisputable of all evidence, the evidence of our conscious-
ness, assures us of the existence of certain powers and sus-
ceptibilities, or faculties, totally different from any which
are exhibited by the mass of objects that surround us ; and
we feel that these faculties are peculiarly our oxvn.

From this source, therefore, arises a new and separate
department of knowledge, quite distinct from that which is
derived from the wonders of mere sensible nature, comprising
whatever relates to the operations of that still more wonder-
ful instrument by which these wonders are surveyed; namely,
that which thinks, or what we denominate mind.

It requires nothing more than due reflection on that end-
less succession of thoughts and feelings, and their infinitely
diversified combinations, which form the conscious existence
of every day, to convince us that these mental phenomena
are not less curious, or less determinate, than those of ex-
ternal nature, to which indeed they have a more intimate
relation than we might in the first instance be ready to ima-
gine. This self-inspection will not fail soon to reveal to the
attentive inquirer some of the arcana of that world within,
which, though on a cursory glance it appears so dim and
shadowy, and will never cease, in common with all the other
spheres of knowledge, to have its regions of mystery and

darkness, demands only to be patiently and carefully sur-
veyed, in order to manifest that it is as truly subjected by
its great Author to general and fixed laws as the material
universe itself.

The consideration of these various facts in our sentient
and intellectual nature ; this survey of the mechanism, so
to speak, of the inner man ; this introversion, as it were,
of the intellectual eye, with a view to the analysis of the
mental operations, their arrangement, the order of their suc-
cession, and a variety of collateral topics, which it is at pre-
sent unnecessary to detail, is what we mean by the Philo-
sophy of the Human Mind, of which Logic may be
considered as a part.

The view it is proposed to take of this branch of education
in the Class, regards chiefly the mental powers and suscep-
tibilities considered in themselves ; or in other words, the
various states of sensation, idea, or emotion, in which the
mind, under the changing circumstances in which it is con-
stantly placed, is found to exist. The rectitude of any of
these states, as determined by the will of God, and right
reason, or the nature and rule of moral excellence, constitutes
a distinct branch of science, under the name of Ethics, or
Moral and Political Philosophy ; including whatever im-
mediately relates to the philosophy of private, social, and
public virtue.

The above aspect of the Philosophy of Mind, in which it
is viewed principally as to its mere faculties or various ac-
tual states, has sometimes been termed its physiology ; im-
plying the doctrine of its functions simply, in allusion to
that part of medical science which treats of the functions of
the animal frame. It has also been called the physics of
the mind ; its mere properties and laws, apart from their
moral relations, being viewed as an object of natural science.
With what propriety these terms, which general custom has
appropriated to other uses, may be applied to mind, is, in
part at least, a question of nomenclature only ; nor is it ne-

b 2

cessary that this question should now be entertained. Still
more foreign to the present purpose would it be to hazard
any rem. irks on the subject of the most philosophical divi-
sion of which science in general may be deemed susceptible.

Though the appearances of external nature, from the
strong and incessant appeal they make to the senses, were
so much calculated, as above remarked, to become the
earliest objects of scientific inquiry, it was nevertheless im-
possible that some of the more obvious attributes of mind
itself could remain unnoticed, even in the utmost infancy of
the history of man. Accordingly all languages are found to
be furnished with words, or names, which designate the
faculties of memory > imagination, reason, and the like, how-
ever little the possible analysis of these mental functions was
regarded as an object of philosophical discussion. The lite-
rature of the earliest nations indeed, with the exception of
the Hebrews, was so blended with the fictions of a poetical
thcogony, that little can be certified respecting any opinions
that were entertained among them as to the analysis of the
operations of the human mind ; or rather it is sufficiently
evident that this field of inquiry was almost entirely un-
known as an object of science.

Till the time of Plato and Aristotle, scarcely any thing,
we apprehend, that is definite can be gathered on this sub-
ject from the philosophical speculations that were current
even among the Greeks, imbued and mystified as they were
with the high colouring of the eastern polytheism. The
philosophy that predominated previously to the rise of these
brilliant luminaries of the ancient world was the Pytha-
gorean ; and though some of its principles, more immediately
regarding the Deity, were more rational and consistent than
those entertained by some of the schools that arose in sub-
sequent ages, the chief philosophy relating to the human
mind seems to have consisted in the favourite tenet of the
transmigration of souls, of which the alleged metempsychosis
of Pythagoras himself was accounted an example:

Ipse ego, nam memini, Trojani tempore belli,
Paranoides Euphorbus eram.

Quoslibet occupat artus
Spiritus ; eque feris humana in corpora transit,
Inque feras noster. — Ov. Metam. xv.

The succeeding period in the history of Grecian philo-
sophy, distinguished as it is by the genius of Plato and
Aristotle, and by the schools that adorned the groves of
Academus and the banks of the Ilissus, of which they
were the founders, is universally allowed to have been
its most illustrious eera. The time, however, was even yet
far distant when the human mind, emancipated from the
despotism of its own fancies, and the authority of names,
w r as to acquire that high discipline in the pursuit of truth
which was necessary to enable it to form a just and sober
estimate of itself; and when it was to arrive at an intel-
lectual self-command which should restrain it from that
Daedalian flight, to which it was ever prone, into aerial regions
of speculation, where its powers were consumed in an element
unsuited to their weakness, as the fabled wings of Icarus were
melted in the attempt to approach too near the sun.

Were we not aware how late it was in the history of the
world before the true inductive philosophy — the philosophy
of fact and reason — broke the spells of imagination and ro-
mance, and decidedly obtained that dominion which it now
possesses over the whole empire of natural science, it migh
appear surprising that whatever related to the mind and its
faculties should so long have presented to view nothing but a
rude and indigested series of wild and visionary speculations.
What is more familiar among the phenomena of mind
than that under certain circumstances that condition of it
which is termed sensation is produced ; and that under
other circumstances another state of consciousness arises,
which we term having an idea ? The moon is in the sky ;
our eyes are open, and are directed to that part of the
heavens in which she is shining : we have a sensation of

sight ; we see the moon. She has now run her course, and
is no longer visible in our hemisphere; but the word moon,
if it even accidentally reach our car, is sufficient to call up
the moon's spectre, so to speak, in the mind ; and we are
conscious of having an idea of the moon, which, though less
vivid than the previous sensation, is still perfect in its kind,
and which we feel to be as truly a part of our consciousness
as the sensation itself. It was some two thousand years,
however, from the time that these facts seem to have en-
gaged the attention of philosophers, before it was conceived
they might probably be ultimate elements in man's sentient
and intellectual nature; that is, facts of which no explanation
can be given.

It was always supposed that the mind did not perceive
the objects of sense directly and immediately ; but that
some kind of filmy and etherial representations of them
must intervene, which were termed phantasms, shadows,
forms, or images of the real objects. In conformity with
this ideal philosophy, Plato, in the seventh book of his
" Republic,"" compares the mind to a person in a dark cave,
and so situated as to perceive the shadows only, and not the
realities, of the objects that are passing without. These
shadows or " ideas'" were said to be but copies of their true
antitypes and originals, which were affirmed to exist in the
Divine Mind as the only real essences.

Aristotle, though he is immortalised by his Science of
Logic, if more minute on the subject of perception than his
scarcely less renowned preceptor, was by no means more
happy, or more satisfactory, in his speculations. He, and his
followers, maintained that these images, or forms, were im-
pressed on the organs of sense ; and in this stage of their pro-
gress they were termed sensible species : by some refinement,
which they subsequently underwent, they became objects of
memory, and were now called phantasms ; by a still more
subtile and refining process, they were fitted to be objects of
knowledge; having at length arrived at a rank, which it is

presumed will not now be very readily conceded to them,
namely, that of intelligible species.

The long reign of Aristotle and his commentators in
the schools, was equally unfavourable both to natural and
mental science. It was a millennium of slumber to the hu-
man intellect, during which the fantastic dreams of ima-
gination usurped the province of reason; and notwithstanding-
all the warfare of disputation, in which a claim was laid to
the universal domain of truth, the faculties of the mind, so
far as all useful purposes were concerned, made but feeble
achievements, and laboured under a kind of paralysis. The
scholastic sect of philosophers, which arose principally from
the prevailing fashion of commenting on Aristotle, rendered
Logic ridiculous by perverting it to the support of the most
absurd quibbles and the most unfounded hypotheses, and
left on the very name of " Metaphysics 1 " a lasting odium.

Ludovicus Vives describes these philosophers of the
middle ages in terms which claim for them at least some of
those imposing titles that were conferred on them by their
admiring disciples. Of these doctors, who, if not " seraphic"
or " perspicuous," were, it must be allowed, not unfrequently
" most resolute''' and " invincible" he thus speaks : " I have
seen the combatants, after having exhausted their stock of
verbal abuse, proceed to blows ; nor was it uncommon, in
these quarrels about metaphysical terms and ideas, which
neither party understood, to witness the combatants first
employing their fists, then their clubs, and finally their swords,
by which many were wounded, and some killed. 1 ' It was
unfortunate for mental philosophy that, by being associated
with the pursuits of the scholastics, it should have been
identified with so much that was absurd, unintelligible, and
useless ; and thus have been exposed to the neglect or con-
tempt of those who find it easy to depreciate what they do
not understand, and who are either unable or unwilling to
distinguish the ontology and dialectic folly of the schools,
from the Inductive Philosophy of the Human Mind, and the
practical Logic of the Novum Organum of Bacon.

The last named illustrious reformer of science, meriting,
as he is generally allowed to do, the honourable appellation
of Father of the Experimental Philosophy of Nature, was
fitted to give that impulse and direction which he did to the
labours of his successors, principally by the genius he pos-
sessed for rightly estimating both the powers and the limits
of the human mind. His philosophical writings in general,
and especially his work Dc Dignitate et Angmentis Scien-
tiarum, abound in trains of thought which are admirably
calculated to lead to more proper views than any that had
previously been entertained of the scope and aim of intel-
lectual science. Notwithstanding the tincture that is to be
found in his works of ancient hypotheses and habits of
thinking, from which indeed it was too much to expect that
he should at once practically deliver himself, his accurate
delineation of the chief erroneous associations of ideas, or
prejudices, under which the human mind is wont to labour,
the innumerable important hints he has thrown out on some
of its operations, and the perpetual demand he enforces to
have every subject of inquiry submitted to the test of the
inductive logic, entitle him to the highest rank among the
contributors to a just intellectual philosophy. His genius
resembled the morning sun, which, though many shadows
of the night may cling around his orb, has power to dart his
rays through them all to the remotest objects, and holds
forth, at his rising, the pledge and promise of a brighter
day.

Descartes, who flourished at the beginning of the 17th
century, and was contemporary with Bacon, has the praise of
more clearly stating, probably, than any one of his prede-
cessors, the necessity of studying the human mind simply
on the evidence of its own consciousness ', and of avoiding,
as much as possible, being misled by those analogies, borrowed
from the properties of matter, which are liable to prove so
great a source of error when applied to phenomena which
are of a nature so totally unlike any of those we witness in
the material world. " What am I ?" asks Descartes. " I

am a being susceptible of thought — but what is this being ?
a being that doubts, understands, affirms, denies ; that is
willing and unwilling, etc. I am convinced, therefore, that
none of the things that are comprehensible by the ima-
gination, things corporeal, can give me the knowledge of
myself; and the mind should be carefully abstracted from
these, that it may have a distinct conception of its own
nature.'" The victory which these and similar passages
seem to indicate their author to have gained over the
strongest prejudices of sense, at a time when the light of the
new philosophy had only begun to dawn on the idealism of
the schools, has induced Mr. Stewart to pronounce that these
views, " when first given to the world, formed the greatest
step in the science of mind ever made by a single individual;
and when Descartes,"" adds this distinguished writer, "esta-
blished it as a general principle, that nothing conceivable
by the power of imagination could throw any light on the
operations of thought, he laid the foundation-stone of the
Experimental Philosophy of the Human Mind.*"

It is a remarkable illustration of the slow progress of the
human faculties in the practical attainment and use of truth,
that Descartes, though meriting such an encomium as the
above, should have so completely abandoned, as he did, his
own fundamental principle, in his theories respecting the
connexion and communication between the body and the
mind. The soul, he affirms, has its seat in that part of the
brain called the pineal gland, or conarion ; and he details,
as if stating an indisputable fact,, the process by which the
" an imal spirits" by progressive and retrograde motions, keep
up a perpetual communication between the mind and every
part of the body ; a doctrine which contributed to furnish
the muse of Prior with materials for one of its happiest efforts :

" Alma, they strenuously maintain,
Sits cock-horse on her throne, the hrain,
And from the seat of thought dispenses
Her sovereign pleasure to the senses."

Prion's Alma.

The publication of Locke's Essay on Human Under-
standing, and its rapid and extensive circulation, maybe re-
garded as constituting a new aera in the history of mental
science. During fourteen years, its author lived to see it
pass through seven editions; and though, like every other
effort to benefit mankind, by holding up to them the torch
of truth, and teaching them to rejoice in the light for its
own sake, this great work excited the alarm and the opposition
of those who were interested in preventing the intellectual
and moral progress of the human race — nevertheless the
philosophy of Locke speedily gained ground, not only in
England and Scotland, but also in several parts of the con-
tinent of Europe ; and, within half a century, it had even
found its way into the fashionable coteries of the French
metropolis. Whatever defects in the precise use of lan-
guage, or other errors, the researches of subsequent labourers
in the same field may have brought to light in this cele-
brated Essay, certain it is, that the sincere and ardent
pursuit of truth, the originality of thought, and the constant
appeal to reason, which characterize it, not to add the sim-
plicity and energy of its style, were eminently calculated to
impart a sympathetic tone to future inquiring minds, and
to effect that salutary change in the general habits of
thinking on the topics it treats of, which has followed in its
train. It was, in short, the first grand, systematic ex-
hibition of the spirit of the Baconian philosophy applying
itself to the investigation of mind ; and instead of being
surprised that one individual should not have achieved every
thing, we may rather admire the genius that had power,
under the existing circumstances, to accomplish so much.

As it is by no means the intention of the present pages to
detail the history of the Philosophy of Mind, or to dwell
minutely on the respective merits of those who have written
on it, but chiefly to give some general idea of its nature and
objects to those to whom the subject may be new, and to
glance hastily at the manner in which it has gradually as-
sumed the form and consistency of a science, few only, even

of the names of those can be mentioned, who have con-
tributed, each his portion, either toward clearing away the
fabrics of error, or laying the foundations of truth. In
this, as in every other branch of human knowledge, one
philosopher has stood, as it were, on the pedestal reared by
another ; one has proceeded to fill up the outline, which was
already sketched by a former hand ; and each one has been
more or less indebted for some new train of thought to the
unwrought materials bequeathed to him by his less advan-
tageously situated predecessor. Nor is it a fact peculiar to
the history of this science, that some who have most suc-
cessfully pursued certain topics of inquiry, have on
others been the most completely led astray by the ignis
jatuus of an undisciplined imagination. Kepler, who en-
riched astronomy with the admirable discovery of the laws
of the planetary motions, was persuaded, from certain fan-
cied analogies, that the planets must be precisely six in
number ; and he acknowledged that his first concern, on
hearing of the discovery of the four satellites of Jupiter by
Galileo, was, how he could save his favourite scheme, which
was in j eopardy from this increase in the n umber of the planets !
In addition to the writers already noticed, who have con-
tributed to intellectual science, the names of Hobbes, Berke-
ley, Hartley, and Hume, not to mention others, are among
the most conspicuous ; each of which philosophers may be
regarded as, at the same time, a specimen both of the strength
and the weakness of the human mind — as exhibiting the
combination of that acute and patient research which has
added many valuable facts and illustrations to the stock of
our knowledge, with a devotedness to the most gratuitous
or fanciful hypotheses, and in some instances, with worse
than merely intellectual errors. Hartley's attempt to ac-
count for our sensations, ideas, and emotions, by mechanical
vibrations in the nerves and brain, or Berkeley's argument
against the existence of matter, is not necessarily connected
with ill moral consequences ; but Hobbes's denial of any
other distinction between right and wrong than what de-

ponds on the mere arbitrary will of the civil magistrate,
and Hume's universal scepticism, are at variance with the
happiness of mankind.

It is thus, however, that the Philosophy of Mind has gra-
dually derived accessions from various sources, and, by the
perpetual collisions of truth and error, has assumed the im-
proved form which it exhibits in the hands of its more modern
cultivators, especially in Scotland ; a country in which, for
nearly a century past, it may be affirmed to have met with
more successful attention than in anv other, and where it has
had the good fortune to escape being identified with that
mysticism and romance which have too much characterized
it in some parts of the Continent.

Lord Bacon has remarked, that one source of error to the
human mind is the tendency it often exhibits to imagine a
greater uniformity in nature than actually exists; and the
passion for systems, which has misled so many powerful
minds, is nearly allied to such a bias. Little doubt can be
entertained that to this cause may be traced much of the
supposed uncertainty of speculations on mind. The fate,
however, of successive systems, one perishing and another
rising on its ruins, from which the argument of uncertainty
is usually derived, militates nut against the subject, but
against the method of philosophy. When the phaenomena
of nature in general began to be studied simply by the
light of observation and experiment, and the facts, what-
ever they might be, were carefully registered and compared,
the whole aspect of physical science began to change, and
to assume a definite and certain form; and the order and
beauty of truth arose out of the chaos and darkness of the scho-
lastic ages. This inductive method may safely be pronounced
the only one that is suited to the weakness and limitation of
the human faculties — the only sure guide out of the labyrinth
of error ; and in proportion as it is applied to the investi-
gation of the laws of mind, will those laws, like any other
facts in nature, become truly ascertained. It is, if we mis-
take not, principally to the circumstance of the spirit of the

inductive philosophy having more deeply imbued the minds
of the Scottish writers than those of some of their cotempo-
raries in Germany, that the superiority of the Northern
school is to be traced ; and that under such auspices as those
of Reid, Stewart, and Brown, the genius of intellectual in-
quiry presents the aspect of a traveller, not arrayed indeed in
the plendid attire of the " Transcendental Philosophy *," but
patiently toiling onward in the path which must ultimately
lead to the temple of Truth, and claiming for his labours the
name and dignity of Science.

In the Universities of Scotland, it is well known that Men-
tal Philosophy and Logic form constituent parts of the general
instruction of youth ; and in the course of education published
by the Council of the University of London, to be pursued
by the Students, it is made to occupy the same prominent
and important place. In this Class their attention will be
directed to every topic that can properly come under the
denomination of the Philosophy of Mind, from its most
simple and familiar states of sensation, in smell, taste, hear-
ing, sight, and touch, to its most complex phaenomena of
thought and emotion, Hence the various orders of ideas,
simple and complex; the association of ideas; memory;
imagination ; attention ; habit ; the artifices the mind em-
ploys to facilitate and abbreviate its operations in abstraction
and generalisation, together with other uses of language ;
evidence; reasoning; belief; the will; the passions, or emo-
tions, viewed as states of the mind ; and a variety of other
inquiries, both immediate and collateral, and too numerous
now to be mentioned, will form the elements on which the
student will be taught to exercise and discipline his faculties
in the pursuit of truth : and this object will be promoted
not merely by oral communication, but also by perpetual
and various themes, exercises, and examinations.

Of the Philosophy of Mind, Logic, as before intimated, is
properly a branch, since it has a direct reference to one of
the most important of the mental operations. It mav be

* Vid. Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.

viewed either as the .sc'tfiicc or the art of reasoning. In its
stricter acceptation, as a science, it consists of the analysis of
that process of the mind ; while in its wider sense, as an art,
it includes the practical rules on which all ratiocination is to
be conducted, for the avoidance of error and the attainment of
truth. Its principles are completely developed in the Orga-
noid of Aristotle ; and, so far as relates to induction, its ma-
terials may be found, to a considerable extent, in the Novum
Organum of Bacon, which embodies the spirit of that method
of pursuing philosophical inquiries to which mainly is owing
the rapid advancement of science in modern times.

In conducting his pupils through the fertile field of the
Intellectual and Logical Philosophy, it will be the aim of the
Professor to make their studies not only useful, but also inte-
resting ; in materials for doing which, if he mistakes not,
many of the topics that will present themselves to their
notice will by no means be wanting. The great object will
be, to cause them to think for themselves ; and the idea of
teaching, rather than of merely lecturing, will constantly be
kept in view. This, at all events, must be the case, in pro-
portion as the Class shall be found to require elementary
instruction, and to be formed to that close reflection on what
passes within their own minds, and to those habits of mental
analysis, which are rarely possessed by very young persons,
and are never acquired without continuous and diligent
efforts. In whatever manner circumstances, as they arise,
may dictate any modification of the plan of teaching, the
important object will invariably be aimed at, of rendering
the course of instruction as efficient as possible, in promoting
the practical ends of a liberal and useful education.

The extensive advantages resulting from the cultivation
of mental and logical science in general, and the practical
utility of devoting to it a portion of that valuable period of
life which is allotted to the great purpose of acquiring
elementary education, are too obvious to those who have paid
any attention to this branch of knowledge to require the"
support of argument. Since it must be confessed, however.
that this department of learning has no! hitherto constituted

so prominent an ingredient as it merits, in the systems of edu-
cation pursued in the southern part of Britain, though it has
long held so distinguished a rank in the Scottish Universities,
itmay be proper to dwell somewhat at large on the advantages
which attach to its pursuit. Preliminary to this, it will not
be irrelevant to our purpose to glance atone or two of those
erroneous notions which have existed with regard to the
nature of the Philosophy of the Human Mind, and which,
even in the present age, have not entirely subsided.

One of these, and to which allusion has already been made,
is, that an uncertainty attaches to it, in consequence of its
being supposed to rest on a footing totally different, with
regard to our knowledge, from that of those sciences which
have matter for their immediate object; whereas, in reality,
the situation of both these general branches of knowledge
is in this respect the very same. Nothing, indeed, can be
more different than the two classes of phsenomena which
matter and mind exhibit to our observation ; the one being
known to us by its colour, extension, solidity, and other
familiar sensible properties ; the other, by sensations, ideas,
volitions, and a whole train of feelings equally peculiar,
every one of which is totally unlike any of the qualities we
assign to matter : yet a little reflection is sufficient to con-
vince us that our notions, both of matter and of mind, agree
in this, namely, that they are not direct, but only relative.
All we know of matter is, the properties that belong to it ;
and precisely the same is the case with mind itself. What-
ever, therefore, can be truly ascertained as a fact or event,
with regard to the affections of either, becomes as truly a
part of our knowledge in the one case as in the other. What
we ourselves are conscious of in the laws of mind, and
what we witness of the operation of similar laws in the minds
of others, we know as really as what we perceive in the laws
of matter ; both are alike known only by observation and
induction. Any uncertainty that may attach to our con-
clusions in either case in any given instance, arises cither
from the difficulty of procuring sufficient data, or from our

deriving wrong inferences from the existing premises ; to
both which evils some of the more complex mental pheno-
mena, it must be allowed, are peculiarly liable. Neither
of these sources of error, however, is confined to the science
of mind.

It has also been contended, by way of objection to the
Intellectual Philosophy, that as the inquiries connected with
it are " not of the nature of experiment, but of observation
merely, 11 the laws which Bacon has sketched out for the
regulation of experimental induction are in this department
" without authority. 11 It must indeed be acknowledged that
mind cannot, like matter, be subjected to the crucible; nor
can its various states of sensation, thought, and emotion,
be actually dissevered, and separately exhibited to view, like
the rays of the prismatic spectrum : we have not here, in
short, the same kind of command over the objects to be in-
vestigated, which matter often enables us, by its inertia
and its divisibility, to acquire. The discoveries, however,
which are brought to light by observation and by experi-
ment, are precisely of the same kind ; both rest on the same
ultimate basis, since experiment is nothing more than one
form of the observation of nature. This objection, moreover,
evidently tends to depreciate one highly important branch
even of physical science, and one which is now considered as
not yielding in the certainty of its conclusions to any part of
human knowledge; namely, astronomy. Surely Bacon never
anticipated that this most exact of sciences would ever be
regarded as less within the sphere of the inductive philosophy
than any other ! It scarcely needs to be added, that the
effects which astronomy has produced in navigation, geo-
graphy, and chronology, sufficiently prove that observation,
as well as direct manual experiment, may issue in an " in-
crease of power," and that it does not of necessity become
a mere "gratification of curiosity."

A prejudice, moreover, has not been wanting against
Mental Philosophy, arising from its association with the term
" metaphysics" This word appears to have originated

with Andronicus of Rhodes who was employed in editing
the writings of Aristotle, when the manuscripts were brought
to Rome by Sylla, after his conquest of Athens. Androni-
cus is said to have prefixed to certain books the title, To.
/jyira ra <pu<fix& 3 or " what immediately follows after the
physics, 11 in reference either to the place which these books
held in Aristotle's original arrangement, or to that which it
appeared to Andronicus they should occupy in the proper
order of subjects.

In regard to the prejudice derived from this source, the
following appropriate remarks occur in the Essays of Mr.
Stewart, whose writings, almost unrivalled in the elegance
of their style, have greatly contributed, during many years,
to promote a more general attention in the reading world to
the study of the philosophy of mind. Alluding to the
fourteen books of Aristotle, to which Andronicus gave the
name of " metaphysics, 11 this eminent author thus observes:
" Notwithstanding the miscellaneous nature of these books,
the Peripatetics seem to have considered them as all be-
longing to one science ; the great object of which they con-
ceived to be, first, to treat of those attributes which are
common to matter and mind ; secondly, of those things
separate from matter. A notion of metaphysics nearly
the same was adopted by the Peripatetics of the Christian
church. They distinguished its two branches by the titles
of ontology and natural theology. To these branches the
schoolmen added the philosophy of the human mind, as re-
lating to an immaterial substance ; distinguishing this last
science by the title of pneumatology.

" From this arrangement of natural theology and of the
philosophy of the human mind, they were not very likely to
prosper, as they gradually came to be studied with the same
spirit as ontology, which may safely be pronounced to be
the most idle and absurd speculation that ever employed
the human faculties. Nor has the evil been remedied by
the contempt into which the schoolmen have fallen in more
modern times. On the contrarv, as their arrangement of

the objects of metaphysics is still very generally retained, the
philosophy of the mind is not unfrequently understood as a
speculation much more analogous to ontology than to physics;
while, notwithstanding the new aspect it begins to assume
in consequence of the lights struck out by Bacon, Locke,
and their followers, it continues to share largely in that dis-
credit which has been justly incurred by the greater part of
those discussions to which, in common with it, the epithet
metaphysics is indiscriminately applied by the multitude.'"
Similar is the prejudice which has also been entertained
against Logic, in consequence of its perversion, already no-
ticed, to the purposes of scholastic disputation, during the
reign of Aristotle in the schools. The science and art of
Reasoning has, in the minds of the ignorant and the half-
taught, unjustly shared in the discredit which is now most
deservedly cast on the pedantry and jargon of the middle
ages.

Were we to limit the motives for inquiry into the intel-
lectual part of human nature to those of rational curiosity
and devout admiration, even these could not fail to prove
highly advantageous, and would present the study of the
philosophy of the mind as invested with attractions of no
common order; for it must be acknowledged that, of all the
familiar objects which display the power and skill of the
Creator, the human mind, in many respects, stands the most
conspicuous. Amidst all that is humiliating in the history
of man, there exist in his intellectual nature sublime traces
of his real greatness. This nature is the only object, in
that part of the creation with which we are conversant, that
bears even the faintest image of its Maker ; and it is a
monument of far more exquisite and costly workmanship
than the whole material universe. By means of the intel-
lectual endowments it is given him to possess, man is enabled
in some measure to subordinate all visible nature to his con-
venience and enjoyment. The earth, his dwelling-place,
assumes new forms and is clothed with new beauties at his
bidding; and, under the guidance of his plastic genius, di-

recting his manual labour, the wilderness becomes a second
Eden ; and the creations of his fancy rise up to embellish it,
like visions of enchantment, in the forms of " solemn temples,"
" gorgeous palaces," or " cloud-capt towers." The elements
also are, to a considerable degree, brought under his con-
trol, and made to administer to his desires ; and both the
winds and the waves have become his servants. In vessels
of huge bulk, and of the most surprising mechanism, he
rides upon the storms of the ocean ; and guided by that
compass which he has invented, and which points out his
course though sun and stars should be invisible, he is borne
along even to the extent of the circumference of the globe.

Nor have the heavens above escaped the scrutiny of his
research, nor the powers of his arithmetic. Confined as he
is to this earthly clod, his genius has taught him to invent
instruments for the gratification of his curiosity and the
advancement of his knowledge, which have the same effect
as though his locomotive faculties were extended to a wider
sphere. The heavenly bodies, which appear situated at so
hopeless a distance away from him, and of which some are
invisible to the naked eye, he has viewed with all the ad-
vantage of a nearer post of observation : he has traced the
planets in their wanderings through the mazes of the starry
firmament ; and stretching, as it were, his line and his com-
passes over the mighty void of millions and millions of miles,
he has determined their times and motions, their distances,
their magnitudes and densities, their mutual attractions, and.
their various irregularities. He has even extended his curi-
osity beyond the sphere that encloses the solar system, and
penetrated into the immeasurable regions of the fixed stars ;
and by the new optics with which his ingenuity has furnished
him, he has brought to light unknown strata of the universe,
and new wonders of the power of the Eternal, which had
been hidden from view in the abysses of the creation ever
since their existence.

The human mind has sometimes, after seeming to lie for

ages entranced in a dead sleep of inactivity, roused itself

.. 9

afresh, re-asserted its claim to unlimited advancement in
knowledge, and entered on a bolder and more excursive
flight. It was thus that Bacon's genius emerged from the
darkness by which it was surrounded, and taught his suc-
cessors to remodel all philosophy; and it was thus that
Newton regenerated astronomy, and with his contemporary,
Leibnitz, bequeathed to succeeding philosophers a new, and
a more sublime analysis than any before known, and by
which the abstractions of infinity itself are submitted to
mathematical calculation.

Nor do the various emotions and passions of which man
is capable present a less interesting field of inquiry than the
achievements of his intellect. These are the phases of the
human mind, which have a more immediate aspect towards
happiness, and which, according to their character and
complexion, either shed the light of peace and joy on every
object within their sphere, or cast a malign and disastrous
influence over all that is around them, and produce the
storms and desolations of the moral and political world. Such
are the visions of hope ; the terrors of fear ; the workings
of benevolence ; the selfishness of ambition ; the softenings
of pity, and the complacencies of affection ; or the contrary
ebullitions of wrath and revenge. More than all — the in-
satiable thirst for happiness, of which man's intellectual
nature is susceptible ; the lofty conceptions of ideal excel-
lence ; the visions of perfection and of beauty, not to be
realised in its present abode, and made up of the scattered
fragments of all that is fair and all that is good, on which
it is fain to linger ; while they most exquisitely harmonize
with that future destination which reason and religion con-
spire to pronounce the only object worthy of a lasting
ambition, exhibit the human mind, not only as the most
curious, but also as the most sublime of contemplations.

If we descend to the more immediate bearings of the In-
tellectual Philosophy, it is obvious that, considered as the
great instrument of all our knowledge, mind becomes an
object of general interest to all who are engaged in the pur-

suit of Truth, under every diversity of form which it can
present. If it be important that the astronomer should be
well acquainted with the construction and the uses, the
powers and the defects, of those instruments on which the
accuracy of his observations so much depends ; or that the
mechanician should rightly appreciate the strength of those
materials of which his machinery consists, and. be familiar
with its adaptation to the ends which he proposes in em-
ploying it, surely mind, which is at once the universal engine,
and the receptacle of all science, demands from us the effort,
Avhich cannot fail to repay itself, to ascertain, as far as pos-
sible, the laws which govern it, the extent and limitation
of its powers, and the purposes to which they may be le-
gitimately applied ; in order that its energies may not, on
the one hand, be wasted on objects beyond their reach, nor,
on the other, be paralysed, by the despair of attaining what
persevering labour, and a well-regulated conduct of the
faculties, might enable them to achieve. " It is of great
use to the sailor," says Locke, " to know the length of his
line, though he cannot with it fathom all the depths of the
ocean ;"" a remark which may evidently be applied to the
capacities of the mind.

As mind is the grand instrument we have to employ in
acquiring knowledge, its philosophy is obviously related to
every other branch of literature and science. It may be
regarded as the focus in which they all centre ; or rather as
the diffused and pervading light in which they all stand
forth to view, in their various relative connexions, harmonies,
and proportions. Science can exist only in the mind ; and
it is nothing more than a certain modification and arrange-
ment of the ideas derived from the given objects in each
particular branch. It consists of those series of abstractions
and classifications to which we subject the different states
of consciousness which are produced in us by the presence
of these objects, in order to systematize our knowledge, and
throw it into parcels that will be more easily remembered,
and will present more ready means of pursuing the investi-

2 !

gation farther in any given direction. Natural science, it is
evident, is not the mass of external objects that surround us,
which we may conceive as still existing, and as having the
same changes which they now exhibit, even if no minds
were employed in contemplating them. It is a registry
and a comparison and arrangement of those mental affections
and changes to which these objects give rise, and of which
the latter are simply the occasions. Medical science, for
example, does not consist in the mere parts and functions of
the corporeal frame, either healthy or morbid ; nor in the
qualities of certain mineral, vegetable, or animal bodies, that
may be employed as remedies in disease; for these all exist
independently of our knowledge. Nor does Botany consist
in the peculiar conformation and fructification of plants, or
the various forms of their leaves and roots, and their diversi-
fied habits and local situations; for these all existed long
before the science of botany was known. These, and all
the other physical sciences,are nothingmorethan phenomena
of the mind — certain changes within us, which, by the con-
stitution of our own nature, we are led immediately to refer
to those external things, which are therefore named the ob-
jects of each particular science.

The actual effects produced by the state of intellectual
philosophy on physical inquiries in general, are, it is well
known, abundantly exemplified in the history of the world.
The resuscitation of science was coeval with the progress of
more correct views than had formerly prevailed, respecting
the laws and operations of the human mind. If it be asked,
why did so many ages pass away before this improvement
took place ? was it that there was a dearth of genius, or a
want of industry, and ardour of pursuit, among those to
whom mankind looked up as the oracles of nature's mysteries,
and as possessing the key to her hidden treasures ; and who
were dignified with the name of philosophers? were Plato
and Aristotle, for example, men of inferior intellectual stature
to many who have succeeded them, at the remote distance
of modern times ? — this cannot be supposed. If these ex-

traordinary men did not attain to a true philosophy, or per-
ceived truth only in the disguise of monstrous shapes and.
distorted images, it was not that their visual faculty was less
acute than that of their successors, but that the atmosphere
that surrounded them was misty and impure. That intel-
lectual medium, through which all the objects of science
must become known, required to be freed from its prejudices,
and exorcised of its airy phantoms and chimeras. It was an
essential preliminary to the regeneration of human learning,
that the defective use which had previously been made of
the very instrument that must incessantly be applied to it,
should be clearly made known, and that this instrument
should be cleansed from the rust of antiquity, and po-
lished anew. " When we think," remarks Dr. Thomas
Brown, " of the great genius of Lord Bacon, and of the in-
fluence of his admirable works, we are too apt to look back
to his rules of philosophizing as a sort of ultimate truths,
without referring them to those simpler views of nature, in
relation to our faculties of discovery, from which they were
derived, and without paying sufficient attention to the false
theories of intellect which had led to these physical absurdi-
ties. But we must not forget that the temple Avhich he puri-
fied was not the temple of external nature, but the temple of
the mind; that in its inmost sanctuaries were all the idols which
he overthrew ; and that it was not till these were removed,
and the intellect prepared for the presence of a nobler divinity,
that truth would deign to unveil herself to adoration."

It is not however in physical science alone that the induc-
tive philosophy of the human mind is adapted to exercise a
salutary and guiding influence. Its effects may be equally
traced in many of those branches of learning which are
usually referred to literature, or which are of the nature of
literary arts. Among these, education, beyond dispute,
holds a foremost and distinguished rank : and here the in-
fluence of the Intellectual Philosophy is all- pervading ; for
what is education, it may be asked, or rather what ought
* education to be, but this philosophy reduced to practice?

All education may he divided into three parts; namely,
physical, intellectual, and moral. The first of these includes
the discipline which relates to the health and vigour of the
body merely ; as temperance, cleanliness, and gymnastic
exercises : the two last comprise the gymnastics, so to speak,
of the mind, or the art of training it to knowledge and
to virtue. Education, in this sense, as vulgarly understood,
is supposed to consist chiefly in the mere imparting of ele-
mentary instruction, together with the use of praise and
blame, reward and punishment; but the true science of
education may aspire to the accomplishment of much more.
It is the province of intellectual discipline not merely to in-
scribe, as it were, certain characters on the blank tablet of
the mind ; not merely to inform its native ignorance, and
to task it to the daily performance of some mechanical
routine : its grand general object is to train the mind to the
most efficient use of its own faculties, and to bring them to
the highest degree of perfection of which they are susceptible ;
producing such a balance of all its powers, and such vigour
in their exercise, that they may be directed to any given
pursuit with the greatest possible advantage.

The intellectual varieties we often witness in children of
the same family, and who have been subjected to the same
circumstances of ordinary association, present indubitable
evidence for the belief that there is a real difference in the
susceptibilities of mind ; a radical and original diversity of
mental organization. Such a characteristic peculiarity,
however, in each individual mind, it is obvious, b}' no
means renders that kind of education unnecessary which is
founded on a philosophical estimate of the human intellect,
an analysis of its faculties, and an inquiry into the grand
laws of their operation. Education, indeed, is rarely con-
ducted with this constant reference to the leading elements
of human nature; which principle can receive full justice
only from parents themselves, under whose eye the first years
of life are passed, and the earliest and most tenacious of the
menial associations are formed. Nevertheless, imperfect as

education, thus considered, still is, it has often both supplied,
in a great measure, the absence of superior natural endow-
ments, and brought out into bold and prominent relief latent
talents, which might otherwise have remained undeveloped,
and unknown even to their possessor. Hence the lines of
Gray are not more beautiful in imagery than true to philo-
sophy, which speak of the " celestial fire'' , of genius, or of
moral greatness, lying buried with some " mute inglorious
Milton," who might have proved a master of the lyre; or
" some village Hampden," who resisted the despotism of
some petty rural tyrant, and thus indicated that, supposing
him to have retained his love of freedom incorrupt, he
might, under other circumstances, and with the advantages
of education, have become a patriot, and resisted the misrule
of an oppressed nation.

But knowledge to their eyes her ample page,
Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll ;

Chill penury repress'd their noble rage,
And froze the genial current of the soul.

Full many a gem of purest ray serene

The dark, unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ;

Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness in the desert air.

The still more important objects of moral and religious
education are equally capable with that which is more im-
mediately intellectual, of being assisted by the principles of
the Mental Philosophy. If, in the conduct of intellectual
education, the object be to generate and confirm habits of
attention and activity, to rouse and to direct curiosity, to
inspire a taste for knowledge, to cultivate memory, ima-
gination, invention, and also to invigorate the faculty of
reason ; these, and all other intellectual exercises, may be
rendered subservient to the higher purposes of morality, and of
religion ; apart from the prospects of which, education is
destitute of every noble aim ; and, indeed, all human pursuits,
with whatever charm they may seem arrayed, become asinsigni-

Meant and unmeaning as the fluttering of an ephemeral insect
in the sunbeam. In this department of education, which
should also, it is obvious, be instituted in the earliest years of
childhood, a just acquaintance with the mental phenomena,
and, especially, a careful attention to the associating principle,
which exercises so wide an influence over all the operations
of mind, cannot fail to be of the highest moment. To form
strong associations between virtue and happiness, vice and
misery ; to guard the avenues of evil ; to cultivate the heart,
by regulating the domestic and social affections ; to inspire
the universal love of truth and duty, though opposed to
present gratification ; to allure the mind towards rectitude,
by endeavouring always to present it in attractive colours :
above all, to adopt the best means of conveying just ideas of
the relations, both natural and revealed, subsisting between
God and the creatures he has made, and to lead the plastic
mind to form such associations in connexion with the beauties
of nature and the works of genius, as may tend to illustrate the
divine perfections by pleasing images; — these, which are some
of the most important arts to be aspired to in moral and reli-
gious education, are, it is evident, of a nature to derive much
advantage from their being attempted in connexion with en-
lightened views of the principles of man's intellectual nature.
While the philosophy of mind thus extends itself over
every part of elementary education, its bearing on other
literary arts is not less obvious. In eloquence and poetry,
for example, the object in view is, to inform, to persuade,
to convince ; to originate certain trains of thought ; to act
on imagination ; to kindle a variety of emotions — as to
awaken sympathy, to produce indignation or alarm, to
inspire hope, and to convert all into the materials of plea-
surable excitement, and of a certain course of action. All
this is the contact of mind with mind ; and, supposing the
natural endowments of genius to be the same, a circumstance,
it must be allowed, not very easy to be estimated, it will be
no small advantage surely, to the orator at least, to know
somewhat intimately the powers and susceptibilities of that

which is at once the instrument and the object, the agent
and the materials, which he is to employ.

The true art of literary criticism also is nothing more
than the art of discovering the correspondences, or the un-
likeness, which mav exist between the delineations of truth
and truth itself. The excellence of works of literary genius
may be said chiefly to consist in their powerfully exemplify-
ing the most natural successions of human consciousness,
and in preserving unimpaired all the accordance of these
successions with certain general and fixed laws which truly
exists in nature, even in the most latent development of the
principle of association, or the wildest and most abrupt
bursts of passion. He who aspires to be more than a verbal
critic must have a philosophical acquaintance with the hu-
man mind.

On the tendencies of intellectual science with regard to
other important pursuits, the following observations of Mr.
Stewart are too appropriate to be omitted. " It will be
found, on a review of the history of the moral sciences, that
the most important steps which have been made in some of
them, even the most remote from metaphysical pursuits,
have been made by men trained to the exercise of their in-
tellectual powers by early habits of abstract meditation.
To this fact Burke probably alluded when he remarked,
that " by turning the soul inward on itself, its forces are
concentred, and are fitted for stronger and bolder flights of
science ; and in such pursuits, whether we take or whether
we lose the game, the chase is certainly of service."

Adverting to the use of the term metaphysical, which has
not unfrequently proved a bugbear to ignorance, and a con-
venient tocsin of alarm to selfishness and party feeling,
Mr. Stewart proceeds : " But a few years have elapsed
since this epithet, metaphysical, accompanied with the still
more opprobrious terms of atheistical and democratical,
was applied to the argument then urged against the morality
and policy of the slave trade, and in general to any appeal
that was made to the beneficent arrangements of nature, or

to the progressive improvement of the human race. Absurd
as this language was, it could not, for a moment, have ob-
tained any currency with the multitude, had there not been
an obvious connexion between these liberal doctrines and the
well-known habits of logical thinking which so eminently
distinguished their authors and advocates. Whatever praise,
therefore, may be due to the modern fathers of political
economy" (alluding particularly to Adam Smith), " belongs,
at least in part, to those abstract studies by which they were
prepared for an analytical investigation of its first and fun-
damental principles.

" The influence of these studies may be also perceived in
the philosophical spirit so largely infused into the best hi-
storical compositions of the last century. This spirit has,
indeed, been often perverted to pernicious purposes ; but
who can doubt that on the whole both history and philo-
sophy have gained infinitely by the alliance ?

" Another instance of the practical influence of meta-
physical science is the improvement which since the time of
Locke has become general in the conduct of education both
private and public. In our universities the studies of
ontology, pneumatology, and dialectics have been sup-
planted by that of the human mind, conducted with more
or less success on the plan of Locke's Essay, and in a few
seats of learning by the study of Bacon's Method of In-
quiry. In all this an approach has been made or attempted
to what Locke so earnestly recommended to parents, ' that
their children's time should be spent in acquiring what may
be useful to them when they come to be men.' Many other
circumstances, no doubt, have contributed their share in
producing this revolution ; but what individual can be com-
pared to Locke in giving the first impulse to that spirit of
reform by which it has been established ?

" In consequence of the operation of these causes a sen-
sible change has taken place in the style of English com-
jwsition. The number of idiomatical phrases has been
abridged ; and the language has assumed a form more sy-

slcmatic, precise, and luminous. The transitions too in our
best authors have become more logical, and less dependent
on fanciful or verbal associations. If by these means our
native tongue has been rendered more unlit for some of the
lighter species of writing, it has certainly gained immensely
as an instrument of thought and as a vehicle of knowledge. 11
After what has already been advanced, it is unnecessary
to dwell at any length on the actual benefits to be derived
by the student of the Philosophy of Mind, from the direct
tendency which it possesses to discipline and invigorate the
mind itself. Whether his attention be turned immediately
to the mental changes and sequences themselves, or to those
external qualities of nature which are so perpetually origin-
ating new trains of these ever-flowing series, as colour, so-
norous vibrations, figure, extension, hardness, motion ; it
will be at all times necessary for him to draw the materials
of his reasoning from his own internal resources ; that is,
from his consciousness. It may reasonably be supposed that
this habit of reflection, if once it become fixed, will be at-
tended with a facility of withdrawing at pleasure from the
world that is without to that which is within ; and that an
inexhaustible fund of intellectual amusement and benefit
will be found, in carrying on those trains of thought to
which the topics of the Intellectual Philosophy will
give rise, even during those otherwise vacant remnants
of time, which occur to every individual, apart from
the apparatus of books, or the intercourse of society.
Nor is this kind of contemplation a mere luxury of the mind,
or even a source of intellectual improvement only, to the
aspirant after learning : if self-knoxvledge be so important in
its moral tendencies, that the exhortation of the Grecian
sage, " Know thyself," was deserving of the encomium of
the Roman poet, who pronounced it to be a celestial inspi-
ration *, surely those mental inquiries may justly be regarded
as friendly to virtue, which tend to cherish an intimate ac-

* E coelo descendit ywh iriavrov.—Juv.

;y.i

quaintance with the various sources of human thought and
feeling, and the various springs of* human action.

It is equally unnecessary, after what has already been
said on the subject of education in general, to enlarge on
the bearing of intellectual studies on those departments of it
which are professional The elementary parts of a complete
education, as recommended in the Statement above alluded
to, published by the founders of the University, must evi-
dently be the same in all cases; and the third year has been
considered as a suitable period for attending the Class of
Mental Philosophy and Logic. Some, however, it may be
presumed, who may have received elsewhere their earlier
institution, and who are designed cither for the professions
or for general life, may be inclined to avail themselves of
the opportunity which is presented to them of being trained
to an acquaintance with a branch of knowledge which is
not to be regarded merely in the light of an elegant ac-
complishment, but as a diffusive principle, which may, most
advantageously, exercise a presiding influence over all the
active employments of human life.

It is probable that, in the course of time, not a few persons
who are students of Theology in other Colleges of Learning,
will be found availing themselves of some of the secular ad-
vantages afforded by an Institution which, while its prospe-
rity rests on the basis of enlightened public opinion, is of
no party ; which is founded with a view of promoting every
species of human learning, on the rational and equitable
principle of declining all claim to a control over that sacred
and inalienable right of private judgment in regard to Re-
ligion, for the exercise of which man can only be amenable
to a higher than human tribunal ; and which, even granting
that it be perverted and abused to error, is incapable, from
the very nature of the human will, of being restored to its pro-
per use, by any civil privations or penal inflictions, which are
alone the appropriate antagonists of whatever immediately
tends to the disturbance of public security and social order.
The influence of the Philosophy of Mind on the sacred

a >

avocations to which students in Theology arc looking forward
is peculiarly great and obvious. It is incumbent on them not
to be satisfied with being the mere superficial organs of a po-
pular and showy declamation, but to be intimately acquainted
with human nature under its various and diversified aspects.
As their appeal to mankind, moreover, must constantly pro-
ceed on the validity of the claims of the Jewish and Christian
Scriptures to our belief, as invested with the authority of
God, whatever relates to evidence and reasoning is an
indispensable part of their mental furniture. It pecu-
liarly belongs to those who are the professed votaries
of truth for its ozcm sake, to acquire the habit of close and
patient thinking, to obtain an intellectual independence of
character, which resists every thing that is merely of the
nature of hypothesis, yielding at the same time a manly and
implicit deference to the authority of fact, and adequate tes-
timony, though this may not unfrequently involve conse-
quences, which, in some of their bearings, may transcend the
limits of the human understanding, and may not be the
proper objects of its powers of comprehension.

Much of the intellectual discipline which has been referred
to, may to some extent, be applied also to the professions
both of medicine and laxo. In each of these, great accuracy
of discrimination and patience of research are frequently de-
manded ; and the most momentous conclusions often depend
on a balance of probabilities, which it may require extreme
attention and caution to view in their proper light and
bearings. Hence the importance of that general preparatory
discipline which the topics of the Intellectual Philosophy and
Logic are fitted to afford : the nature, for example, of the
different kinds of evidence ; the subjects to which they are
applicable, especially moral evidence, and its degrees ; the
proper limits both of doubt and of belief, together Avith the
various circumstances by which they may be influenced ; and
other similar inquiries. — To the medical practitioner it is
highly desirable, to say the least, that he should be a
mental philosopher, when we consider the very intimate

:34

though inexplicable union which subsists between body and
mind, the aberrations incident to the latter, and their con-
stant reciprocal effects and reactions, as often witnessed in
disease; not to mention the frequent importance of a certain
tact, in manners and behaviour, tending to obviate excite-
ment, and dependent, in a great measure, on the skilful
avoidance of unnecessary painful associations; in which, by
the way, politeness in general, may be said chiefly to consist.

Finally, if general business be the object in which edu-
cation is designed to terminate, it is needless to insist on the
utility of that acquaintance with human nature, and that
intellectual discipline, which are so well calculated to aid
in the formation of those practical habits which are essential
to the active pursuits of life.

In bringing these remarks to a conclusion, deferring a
more detailed view of the Course till the meeting of the Class
shall take place, the writer cannot refrain from stating, that,
although he is not unaware of the arduous nature of those
duties which will devolve on him as Professor of the Phi-
losophy of Mind and Logic, he cannot but feel encouraged
in reflecting on the success with which a similar field of
labour was cultivated in the University of Glasgow, by the
late venerable Professor Jardine ; many of whose students
have been known to ascribe their progress in future life, in
their several professions and avocations, in a great degree,
to the early and effective discipline of their intellectual fa-
culties, in the Class over which he presided, with so much
popularity and usefulness, for more than half a century. If
it be too much for those who tread in the steps of this di-
stinguished Teacher to hope for all his success, it is at least
competent to them in some measure to emulate his zeal.

April 23, 1830.

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1. Let the student of the Latin language commence with the Fables of
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himself thoroughly master of the sense of each Fable in the single Latin
text ; — so thoroughly, as to be able, not only to render the original, word
for word, into English sentences, but also, when examined without the
Book, to give the English for each Latin word, and again the Latin for each
English, unassisted by the connection of the story.

2. Having acquired from Phsedrus a considerable number of common
Latin words, without attempting their grammatical analysis, let him proceed,
in exactly the same manner, with the First Book of Ovid's Metamor-
phoses, which will make a large addition to his vocabulary in words of less
common use. The reading of this Book should be accompanied with the
study of the Accidence, as given in the London Latin Grammar. Taking
small portions at a time, as, for instance, the first declension of Nouns with
the first lesson of Ovid, the student should remark what words in the lesson
appear to correspond in form to any of those cases, — and so on, till the dis-
tinction of the Parts of Speech is clearly understood, and the Tables of De-
clension are learned by heart.

3. The regular inflections of the language being thus acquired from the
examples in the Grammar, — let him take up the First Book of Virgil's
/Eneid and after construing the Latin text, as in Phsedrus and Ovid,
according to the Interlinear translation, — let him learn to analyse each sen-
tence from the supplementary volume of Parsing Lessons; which will
enable him, not only to assign every word in each lesson to its proper part
of speech, but to give a full description of its peculiar modification, if
inflected from its simple form. In this stage of his course, he will derive
great benefit from frequently altering the signs and forms of nouns and verbs
in the Singh' English Version, so as to require the use of different cases,
tenses, &c. of the same Latin word ; — an exercise which will give him
complete power over the Inflections of the language.

4. Let him now proceed with CjEsar's Invasion of Britain; and
accompany each reading with a small portion of the Latin Syntax in the
same manner as he accompanied Ovid with the Accidence of the Grammar.
This will gradually render him familiar with the Construction of the language.
The style of the Commentaries is remarkably easy of construction, and
therefore peculiarly adapted for this exercise ; which is further facilitated by
the rules of Syntax, in the London Latin Grammar, being principally exem-

METHOD OF STUDY.

plified from this Part of Caesar, and the Book of Virgil's JSneid already
analysed. — After finishing Cyesar, he should recur to the Virgil, which he
before used only as a praxis of 'inflection, and make himself master of the
construction by the rules of Syntax, and also of the scanning of each line, by
the rules of Prosody.

5. In reading the Life of Agricola by Tacitus, he should endeavour to
comline in each lesson the exercises of inflection and construction which
hitherto he has taken separately: describing single words according to their
several declensions, and compound phrases according to their several de-
pendencies.

In learning the Greek language, precisely the same method may be fol-
lowed in the correspondent Parts of the Series.

1. Lucian's Dialogues furnish a copious Vocabulary as the elementary
volume.

2. Anacreon's Odes present a variety of simple sentences, from
which to distinguish the Parts of Speech, as given in the London Greek
Grammar.

3. Homer's Iliad, accompanied by the supplementary volume of
Parsing Lessons, involves a complete praxis in the Inflections of the
language.

4. Xenophon's Memorabilia give an introduction to Syntax, which
will be further familiarized by recurring to the Iliad.

5. Herodotus's Histories supply an interesting subject-matter, on
which to practise in combination, the various exercises separately performed in
the previous volumes.

After thus going through the Latin or Greek Series, the student is strongly
recommended to recur to the earlier volumes, in the same order as before,
and to exercise the whole of his grammatical knowledge in each of these Parts,
as well as in the last, — using the Interlinear Translation as little as possible,
and giving more attention to the Notes than in his first reading.

By the completion of this Elementary Course, he will not only be per-
fectly competent to enter on the reading of other Classic Authors, without
the aid of a translation, but will be prepared with a valuable store of words
and phrases for Greek and Latin Composition. The practice of writing in
each language according to these models will ensure a critical acquaintance with
their peculiar delicacies : and although, in commencing a new Author, the
young learner must require some assistance from judicious commentators,
yet, as far as the Language is concerned, he may rest assured he is already
in possession of its leading properties and powers.

*** The following Extracts, from the two Introductory Parts of Ph^e-
dri's and Ltcian, may serve as Specimens of the Interlinear Translations
of the Latin and Greek Series.

THE PILOT AND THE SAILORS— From Ph/edrus.

The thread of lift is of a mingled yarn — good mid VI together.
Navis vexata srevis tempestatibus, inter lachrymas vec-

A-Ship being-harassed by-fierce tempests, amid the-tears of-pas

torum, et metuni mortis, subito dies mutatur ad serenam

senders, and their fear of-death, suddenly the-day is-changed to a-calm

faciem; coepit* ferri tuta secundis flatibus, que extol-

aspect ; she-began to-be carried safe with-favourable breezes, and to-

lere nautas nimia hilaritate. Turn Gubernator,f facta s

elate the-sailors with-too-much jollity. Then the-Pilot, having-been-made

sophus periclo : " Oportet gauderc parc<\ et queri

wise by-danger, says : " It-is-meet to-rejoice sparingly, and to-complain

sensim;^: quia dolor et gaudium miscet§ totam vitam."

guardedly; because grief and joy checkers the- whole of lite."

* This verb is here so long delayed, that we might almost have desired the substan-
tive in the form of an ablative absolute ; if the similarity of cases would not have created
ambig-uitv.

t GiibernatoT (navis), " the governor of a ship," is expiessed by the single word
" pilot." — The predicate sophus is a Grecism.

X Sensim — The use of this adverb is rather singular, though perhaps not so anomalous
as it appears from its usual English representative " in-sensibly ;" it means here a
cautious circumspection, as of a person feeling his tray.

§ The singular verb is here very elegant, the two substantives constituting but one in-
divisible subject: — unless it be construed, by hypallage, " Life mingles grief and joy."

FROM LUCIAN'S DREAM.

Advantages offered by Education.

Ae j]v TTELZtj /tot, -irpCoTOv fitv tnt-Sei^u) (rot ttoXAo tpya

But if thou-be-peisuaded by-me, first indeed I-will- Hsplay to-tiiee many works

waXatwv avdpCov, airo-ayyeXovaa icai SavpaaTciQ trpa^eig icai

of-ancient men, reporting both admirable actions and

Xoyovg avriov, xai airo-(j)aivovaa (ojq tiirtiv) tv-irupov Travrwr.
words of- them, and showing-t/iec, (so to-say) experienced-in ill-things.

Kat tx]v \pv\nv, OTrep eart Kvptiorarov aoi, Kara-Koaprtacj ttoa-

And the soul, which partis most-masterly to- thee, I-will-adorn v.ith-

XoXg Kat ayaSotg* Koapnpaat, aio-Qpoavvy, Siicatoavvrj, tv-atfitiq,
many and good ornaments, with-temperance, with-justice, with-holiness,

irpqOTnTi, zirtt.LKUq, avv-eaei,^ icapTtptq, ry tpwTt rwv

with-gentleness, with -equity, with-pnidence, with-fortitude, with- [the] love of- [the]

KaXwv, rp oppy trpoq ra atpvoTara. Tap ravra

honorable things, with [the] zeal towards the most- important things. For these

tcrnv u)g-a\n§u)Q+ 6 a-anpciTOQ uoapog rf/c y>V)(tiQ.

are most-truly the unblemished adornment of-the soul.

* The phrase " many and good" is not intended to distinguish the ornaments from
one another, as it might seem in English. The expression is only equivalent to " many
good ornaments," and might be rendered with the conjunction, — " many and those
good." The Greeks employ the particle between any two epithets.

t Swytirn; (from uvvievai, to comprehend) may here be translated by the general
term Prudence, though in strict Aristotelian language, this term is rather synonymous
with " penetration," or " intelligence." — All compound words arc dissolved above.

X &>q aXnSoJr — here corresponds to the Latin form quam verissime, " as Uul
possible " bul Gre< k ad' ( i well as Latin, are generally used in the superl itive,

to convey this en

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ENGLISH-HEBREW;

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BY THE

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METHOD OF STUDY.

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SPECIMEN — (Gen. Ch. I.)
Be-reashith' bara'a ael5hlm' aeih ha'-shama'yim

(1) In-r/ic-beginning 2 created 'God — the-heavens

we-aeth ha-aaretz. we-ha-aa'retz hayethah' th5'hu wa-vo'hu

and — the-earth. (2) And-lhe-eaith was without-form and-void,

we- f hoshe'k oal..penei thehoumi we-rua f h aelohlm'

and-darkness was upon..t/ie-face-of tfte-deep; and-t/ie-Spirit-of God

mera'he'pheth oal-.penei ha'-mayim. \va'-yo'«mer aelohlm'

uas brooding upon.J/ie-face-of the-waters. (3) And-said 'God :

yehi* aoivr \va-yeh7..aowr'. wa'-yar'a aelohlm' aeth..

Let-there-be light: and-tWe-was-light. (4) And- 2 saw "God —

hii-adwv kT..Tdwv' : wa'-yavdel' aelohlm' bein ha-aowr'

the-light that-it-icos..good : and- 2 divided 'God between the-light

ii-vein' ha-'hoshe'k. wa'-yiqra'a aelohlm' \k-abwx yowm
and- between the-darkness. (5) And- 2 called 'God [to-]tlie-light day,

we-la-'hoshe'k qa'raa la'yelah. wa-yehi..oerev vva-yehT..

and-[to-] t/ie-darkness he-called night. And- a was. .'evening and- 2 was..

vo'qer yowm ae'had.

'morning 2 day 'i/ic-first.

E iglish Version. Verse 1, heaven. 2, the Spirit of God moved.
* This word, and others of the same form, rendered imperatively, are properly
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