UC-NRLF 257 bflb liiii! r r x *-'> v fc ~?r\^ -"\Qf- 'V "- ' l' ,. ,:\ '.J'.^i (//mS.j>_f5Q . 4" l r ^%C)'r 1 -.>, />;^. ; ') _ SSStt scSRSKo GIFT OF _ Daughter of William Stuart Smith jlttecc ctf tje 3EngSfe8> language* PRACTICAL GRAMMAR: IN WHICH WORDS, PHRASES, AND SENTENCES ABB CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR OFFICES; AKD THEIR VARIOUS RELATIONS TO ONE ANOTHER, ILLUSTRATED BY A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF DIAGRAMS. M Speech is the body of thought. 1 BY S. W. CLARK, A.M., P R I N C I P A Ii OP CbBTLAND ACADBMT, AUTHOR OP "FIRST LESSONS IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR," "ANALYSIS OP THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE," " GRAMMATIC CHART." FOETIETH EDITION, KEVI8ED. NEW YORK : PUBLISHED BY A. S. BAKNES & BURR, CHICAGO I GEORGE SHERWOOD, 118 LAKE STREET. CINCINNATI : RICKEY & CARROLL. ST. LOUIS : KEITH & WOODS. 1865. ENGLISH GRAMMAR AS A SCIENCE. ENGLISH GRAMMAR AS AN ART. EL ' & ENGLISH GRAMMARS AND ANALYSIS. Clark's First Lessons in English Grammar. Design- ed for Beginners, and Introductory to the Practical Grammar. By S. TV. CLAEK, A.M., Principal of Cortland Academy. ISmo, half hound. Clark's Tew English Grammar. A Practical Grammar, in which Words, Phrases, and Sentences are Classified according to their Offices; and their various Relations to each other, illus- trated by a Complete System of Diagrams. 12mo, cloth A Key to Clark's Grammar, containing Diagrams of all the Sentences for Analysis and Parsing found in the Grammar. Clark's Analysis of the English ILangwage with a Complete Classification of Sentences and Phrases, according to their Grammatic Structure. Designed as a Sequel to the En- glish Grammar. 12mo, half bound. Clark's Grammatie Chart. Exhibiting the Analysis of Sentences, the Analysis of Phrases, the Classification and Modi- cation of Words. Mounted. Price $2 50. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1864, BY S. W. CLAEK, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Northern District of New York. r el? vM.' P.KEFACE. THE GRAMMAR of a Language, Quintilian has justly remarked, is like the foundation of a building the most important part, although out of sight, and not always properly valued by those most interested in its condition. In the opinion of many modern educators, there is a tendency, on the part of all, to neglect this important branch of English Education not so much from a conviction that the science is not important, as that there is a radical defect in the common method of presenting it to the attention of the learner. This was the sentiment of the Author when, some fifteen years since, ne was called to the supervision of a Literary Institution, in which was established a department for the education of Teachers. Accordingly, recourse was had to oral instruc- tion ; and, for the convenience of Teachers, a manuscript Grammar was prepared, which embodied the principles of the science and the Author's mode of presenting it. These principles and this method have been properly tested \jy numerous and advanced classes during the seven, years last past. The manuscript has in the mean time, from continued additions, unexpectedly become a book. It has received the favorable notice of Teachers, and its publication has been, by Teachers, repeatedly solicited. To these solicitations the Author is constrained to yield, and in the hope and belief that the work will * ' add to the stock of humau knowledge," or at least tend to that result, by giving an increased interest to the study of the English language, it is, with diffidence, submitted to the public. In revising the work for publication, an effort has been made to render it simple in style, comprehensive in matter adapted to the capacities of the younger pupil, and to the wants of the more advanced scholar. It is confidently believed that the METHOD of teaching- Grammar herein suggested, is the true method. The method adopted by most text-books may be well suited to the wants of foreigners in. first learning our language. They need first to learn our Alphabet the power and sounds, and the proper combinations of Letters the definitions of words and their classification according to definitions. 870722 IV PKEFACE. But the American youth is presumed to know all this, and be able to catch the thought conveyed by an English Sentence ; in fine, to be able to use practically the language, before he attempts to study it as a science. Instead, therefore, of beginning with the Alphabet, and wasting his energies on technical terms and ambiguous words, he should be required to deal with thought as conveyed by Sentences. Accord- ingly, this introduction to the Science of Language begins with a Sentence, properly constructed, and investigates its structure by de- veloping the offices of the Words which compose it ; making the office rather than the form of a Word, determine the class to which it belongs. As an important auxiliary in the Analysis of Sentences, a system of DIAGRAMS has been invented and introduced in the work. It is not claimed for the DIAGRAMS that they constitute any essential part of the Science of Language ; nor do Geometrical Diagrams constitute such a part of the Science of Geometry ; Maps, of Geography ; or Figures, of Arithmetic. But it will not be denied that these are of great service in the study of those branches. Experience has established their im- portance. Let, then, the use of Diagrams, reduced as they are here, to a complete system, be adopted in the Analysis of Sentences, and their utility will become as obvious in the Science of Language, as it is in the science of Magnitude ; and for precisely the same reason, that an abstract truth is made tangible ; the eye is permitted to assist the mind ; the memorr is relieved, that the judgment may have full charter of all the mental powers. Conscious that novelty, as such, should not bear sway in the inves- tigations of Science, the Author has been careful, neither to depart from the ordinary method of presenting the Science, for the sake of novelty, nor, from dread of novelty, to reject manifest improvements. The old Nomenclature is retained, not because a better could not be proposed, but because the advantages to be gained would not compen- sate for the confusion necessarily consequent to such a change. But the terms purely technical have been introduced as a natural inference from fads previously deduced. Principles and Definitions are preceded by such liemarks as have fully established their propriety. The inductive method of arriving at truth has been followed throughout with that it stands or falls. ADVERTISEMENT TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION. IN sending forth this revised Edition of the PRACTICAL GRAMMAR, the Author takes occasion to render acknowledgments to his numerous professional brethren who have so favorably received the former editions, and also to express his gratitude for the various criticisms which its use has suggested. Especially is- he gratified that, with frank and faithful notices of the omissions and defects in the former Editions, there has been a unanimous approval of the SYSTEM and METHOD herein adopted. Accordingly, the work has- been rewritten upon the basis of the former Edition. In making the revision, an effort has been made to perfect the work in all its parts to supply defects to simplify the arrangement to bring the various parts more fully in harmony with the system and to adapt it more completely to Class Exercises. To Part I. important Additions have been made ; the Elements of Sentences have "been discussed more fully, and the DIAGRAMS are made to render the Analysis of Sentences more perspicuous. ANALYSIS dis- closes to the Student the right use of Words, according to established custom, thus furnishing the only appropriate key to the true Etymology of the Language. In Part II. ETYMOLOGY is so presented as to furnish a proper founda- tion for Syntax ; the several materials are adapted to their various positions in the structure to be reared. In Part III. careful attention has been given to make the other branches of the Science of Language subserve SYNTAX and harmonize with it. In this effort consists the great improvement in the Grammar as now presented ; the Analytical is made to accompany the Syn- thetical. Exercises in CRITICISM are inserted, in which common erro*rs are noticed and corrected by proper references to Rules, Notes, and Obser- vations in the text. The extensive and constantly increasing circulation of the original work, encourages the hope that, with its present improvements, it will secure the desired approbation of p, discerning public. COKTLAND ACADEMY, HOMER, If, Y. J* THE GRAMMATIC CHART. THIS CHART presents, at one view, the entire Etymology of the English language. It is useful chiefly in reviews and in etymological parsing. The large edition of the Chart may be used more profitably, as, with it, the whole class may follow the reciting pupil all having their attention directed to the same thing, at the same time. In the absence of a large Chart, the small ones may be used each student using his own. It will be noticed that the Chart does not give the Definitions of the Classes and Modifications of words ; but simply presents the principles of Etymology ; showing, for example, That a " Sentence" consists of " Principal Elements," and may have "Adjuncts." That the Principal Elements of a Sentence must be a "SUBJECT," a "PREDICATE," and (if Transitive) an "OBJECT." That the Subject may be a " WORD," a " PHRASE," or a " SENTENCE." That if the Subject is a Word, it is a " NOUN" or " PRONOUN" if a Noun, it is "COMMON" or "PROPER" if a Pronoun, it is " PERSONAL," " EELATIVE," " INTERROGATIVE," or " ADJECTIVE." That the Noun or Pronoun must be of the "NEUTER," "FEMININE," or "MASCULINE" Gender of ihe "FIRST," "SECOND," or "THIRD" Person of the "SINGULAR" or " PLURAL' ' Number and that it must be in the ' ' NOMINATIVE' ' Case. If the Subject is a "Phrase," it is a "SUBSTANTIVE" Phrase and may be (inform) "PREPOSITIONAL," "PARTICIPIAL," "INFINITIVE," or "IN- DEPENDENT" and may be "TRANSITIVE" or " INTRANSITIVE. " If the Subject is a " Sentence," it is a " SUBSTANTIVE" Sentence and maybe "SIMPLE" or "COMPOUND," "TRANSITIVE" or "INTRANSITIVE." Thus, a comparison of the Chart wit-k the General Principles, on pages 175-180, will readily suggest to the skillful Teacher the proper method of using it in review. The proper use of the Chart in Etymological Parsing is illustrated by EXERCISES, pp. 181-186. CONTENTS. PART I. riGB INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES 11 GENERAL DEFINITIONS. LANGUAGE Spoken Written 15 GRAMMAR General Particular 15 ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE Letters Wards Phrases Sentences 16 WORDS Classification 17 PHRASES Classification , 19 " ' OFFICES Substantive 19 11 ' " Adjective 19 " ' " Adverbial 20 ' ' Independent 20 " ' FORMS Prepositional 20 " * " Infinitive 20 " ' " Participial 21 " Independent 21 " Analysis 21 SENTENCES Analysis 23 " " Principal Elements 25 " *' Adjunct Elements 27 " " Exejcises 29 ' * Questions for Review 35 " DIAGRAMS General Rules 36 1 ' Classification 38 " Questions for Review 47 " EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 1 ' Simple Intransitive 48 " " Transitive 50 " Compound " 51 " " Mixed 56 " Complex 57 viii CLARK'S GRAMMAR. PAKT II. ETYMOLOGY. PAGl CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS their Forms 69 " Uses 73 NOUNS Classification 73 " Modification 75 " " Gender 76 " " Person 78 " " Number 78 Gate 82 PRONOUNS Classification 88 " " Personal 88 " " Relative 91 " " Interrogative 92 " " Adjective 93 Recapitulation 95 ADJECTIVES Classification 97 " Modification 101 * * Exercises . .*. 103 VERBS Classification 107 11 Modifications Voice 108 Mode ; 109 " " PARTICIPLES Ill " " Tense 115 " Recapitulation .117 " Conjugation 120 " Review 139 " Irregular List 140 " Unipersonal 143 ADVERBS 149 " Classification ? 151 " Modification 153 PREPOSITIONS List 156 Exercises 160 CONJUNCTIONS List 162 Exercises 164 EXCLAMATIONS 165 WORDS OF EUPHONY 166 Words varying in their Etymology 167 4 " " Observations 170 CONTENTS. IX PART HI. SYNTAX. PAOB ELEMENTS or SENTENCES Analysis 175 " PHRASES '" 178 Exercises by the CHART Sentences 181 " " " Phrases 185 EULE 1. The SUBJECT o a Sentence 186 Word 187 " " " Phrase 190 " " " Sentence 191 RULE 2. THE PREDICATE 194 " THE VERB 195 " " Number , 195 " " Person 197 " " Mode and Tense 200 Voice 201 " " Exercises 204 RULE 3. THE OBJECT Word 208 " Phrase 213 " " Sentence 215 " " Exercises 217 RULE 4. PRONOUNS Personal 219 " " Relative 221 " " Interrogative 224 RULE 5. PRONOUNS Adjective 225 Exercises 228 RULE 6. INDEPENDENT CASE 229 ADJUNCTS 232 RULE 7. ADJECTIVES 235 Qualifying 239 " " Specifying 240 RULE 8. " Possessive 242 in Predicate 247 RULE 9. ADVERBS 253 RULE 10. PARTICIPLES as Nouns 260 as Adjectives 264 " " as Adverbs 265 " " as Prepositions 265 18 " in Predicate 265 " " Exercises.. ..267 x CLARK'S GRAMMAR. " PAO* RULE 11. INFINITIVE VERB 267 " " Phrase 269 RULE 12, PREPOSITIONS 270 RULE 13. CONJUNCTIONS 273 RULE 14. EXCLAMATIONS 277 Words of EUPHONY , * 278 GENERAL RULES 279 Recapitulation of the Rules of Syntax 280 PART IY. ! PROSODY. MARKS or PUNCTUATION 282 GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL SIGNS 288 COMPOSITION Prose Verse 291 VERSIFICATION 294 FIGURES 298 " Grammatical 299 ' ' Rhetorico-Grammatical 300 " Rhetorical.. ..301 APPENDIX. LETTERS Their Forms, Roman, Italic, Old English 305 " " Capitals 306 " Their Offices 308 " Abbreviations < . . 309 CLARK'S GRAM! PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNE :MATIC CHART. . X* ,NES & BURR-NEW YORK. PART I. INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. * ' God moves in a mysterious way, His wonders to perform ; He plants his footsteps in the sea And rides upon the storm." Quest . Of whom is something asserted in the lines above -written ? Ans. Something is said concerning " God" What is said of God ? A. God " moves" How does God move ? A. " In a mysterious way" " God moves in a mysterious way" why 9 A. " To perform, his wonders" Concerning whom is something more said ? A. Something more is said concerning " God." > Why do you think so ? A. Because, in this connection, " He" means God. What more is said of God ? A. He "plants? He plants what 9 A. He plants "footsteps" He plants what footsteps ? A. " His" footsteps. 12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. He pi ante his footsteps where 9 A. " In the sea" ( What nor* is said of God ? A. He " rwfe." He rides where? A. " ZTpo/i ZAe storm" In the lines written above, what is the use or o^zce of the word "God" ? -4. It is used to tell who " moves." What is the use of the word " moves'' ? A. To tell what God does. What is the use of " in a mysterious way" ? A. To tell how God. moves. What is the use of * ' his wonders to perform' ' f A. To tell for what purpose God moves. What is the use of "He" ? A. To tell who " plants footsteps" and " rides." What is the use of "plants" f A. To teU what "He" does. What is the use of * ' his 1 ' f A. To tell whose footsteps. What is the use of ' ' footsteps' ' f A. To tell what He plants. What is the use of ' ' in the sea' ' ? A. To tell where He plants footsteps. What is the use of ' ' rides' ' 9 A. To teU what " He" does. What is the use of "upon the storm" ? A. To tell where He rides. % REMARK. The young Pupil has seen, in this exposition of the four lines written above, that words have meaning ; and that when they are properly put together, they convey the thoughts of the person who wrote them, to those who read them. INTRODUCTORY EXERCISES. 13 The above may be used as an appropriate MODEL for the following ADDITIONAL EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS. 1. " The | sun \ rose \ on the sea | ." 2. " A | mist | rose \ slowly | from the lake | .' 3. "The | night \ passed \ away | in song | ." 4. "Morning \ returned \ in joy | .'' 6. "The | mountains showed \ their | gray | heads \ ." 6. "The | blue \face \ of ocean | smiled | ." 7. "Day \ declines \ ." 8. "Hollow | winds \ are \ in the | pines | ." 9. "Darkly | moves \ each | giant | bough, \ O'er the sky's last crimson glow | ." 10. " Nature's | richest | dyes \ Are floating \ o'er Italian skies." 11. "A golden staff his steps supported. ' ' 12. "The dying notes still murmur on the string." 13. "A purple robe his dying frame shall fold." 14. " At the heaving billows, stood the meager form of Care." 15. " Oft the shepherd called thee to his flock." 16. "The comely tear steals o'er the cheek." 17. " The storms of wintry Time will quicklyj?#ss." 18. "Thus in some deep retirement would Ipass The winter-glooms, with friends of pleasant soul.' 19. "Then comes the father of the tempest forth, Wrapt in thick glooms." 20. "Thy bounty shines in Autumn, unconfined, And spreads a common feast for all that live." 21. "Some in the fields of purest ether play, And bask and whiten in the blaze of day." 22. " On thy fair bosom, waveless stream, The dipping paddle echoes far, And flashes in the moonlight gleam." 23. " Who can observe the careful ant, And not provide for future want." 24. " Nature with folded hands seemed there, Kneeling at her evening prayer/' 14: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. 25. ' The woods Threw their cool shadows freshly to the west." 26. * * The clear dew is on the blushing bosoms Of crimson roses, in a holy rest." 27. " Spring calls out each voice of the deep blue sky." 28. " Thou' rt journeying to thy spirit's home, Where the skies are ever clear. ' ' 29. " A summer breeze Parts the deep masses of the forest shade, And lets a sunbeam through." 30. " The pines grew red with morning." 31. " Sin hath broke the world's sweet peace unstrung Th' harmonious chords to which the angels sung." S2. ' ' And eve, along the western skies, Spreads her intermingling dyes." 33. " The blooming morning oped her dewy eye. 11 34. ' ' No marble marks thy couch of lowly sleep ; 35. But living statues there are seen to_weep." 36. " A distant torrent faintly roars." 37. * ' His gray locks slowly waved in the wind, And glittered to the beam of night." 38. " Oft did the harvest to their sickle yield" 39. " Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke." 40. "How jocund did they drive their team afield !" 41. " How bowed the woods beneath their sturdy stroke !" 42. " The breezy call of incense-breathing morn, The swallow, twittering from the straw-built shed, The cock's shrill clarion, or the echoing horn, No more shall rouse them from their lowly bed." LANGUAGE GRAMMAR. 15 LANGUAGE. DEFINITION 1. Language is any means of communi- cating thought, feeling, or purpose. OBS. 1. Thoughts and feelings are indicated 1. By certain expressions of the features, by gestures, and by other physical acts. This is called Natural Language. 2. By articulate sounds, or by written characters. This is called Arti- ficial Language. OBS. 2. Natural language is common to all intelligent beings, and is understood by all without previous instruction. Smiling, frowning, laughing, weeping, are instances of natural language. OBS. 3. Artificial language is invented by men. Sounds are made to indicate thoughts by mutual or common consent. Generally, each nation has its peculiar language. PRINCIPLE. Artificial Language is SPOKEN and WRITTEN. DEF. 2. Spoken Language consists in vocal sounds, indicative of thought, of feeling, or of purpose. DEF. 3. Written Language consists in artificial charac- ters, so arranged and combined as, by common consent, to represent thought or emotion. HEM. It is customary to give to every science a name, by which it *nay be distinguished from other sciences ; accordingly, people have agreed to call the science which treats of Language GEAMMAK. DEF, 4. Grammar is the science of Language. OBS. 1. There are certain General Principles of Grammar which are common to all languages. Hence the term GENERAL GRAMMAR. OBS. 2. But each particular language has some idioms and forms of construction peculiar to itself. Hence the term PARTICULAR GRAMMAR. HEM. Every Particular Grammar should include all the principles of General Grammar. 16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. DEF. 5 (a). English Grammar is the Science which investigates the principles, and determines the proper con- struction of the English language. (b). ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of communicating thought in appropriate words. REM. The articulate sounds of language are indicated by Letters. DEF. 6. A Letter is a character used to indicate a sound, or to modify the sound of another letter. EXAMPLES. A in hat, hate, hall, hart. OBS. For observations on the properties and offices of Letters, see APPENDIX, Note A. REM. Letters are combined to form "Words. DEF. 7. A Word is a Letter, or a combination of Let. ters, used as the sign of an idea. EXAMPLES . God mysterious stood slowly Ah ! by and. REM. Words are combined to form Phrases and Sentences. DEF. 8. A Phrase is a combination of words, not constituting an entire proposition, but performing a dis- tinct office in the structure of a Sentence or of another Phrase. EXAMPLES. At midnight, in his guarded tent, The Turk was dreaming of the hour When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, Should tremble at his power-. DEF O 9. A Sentence is an assemblage of words, so combined as to assert an entire proposition. EXAMPLES. 1. Night approaches. 2. Day is departing. 3. William is sleepy. 4. Socrates was a philosopher. 5. Virtue secures happiness. 6. John and George have arrived. 7. God created the heaven and the earth. 8. "The dying notes still murmur on the string. " , WOKD8 CLASSIFICATION. 17 WOKDS. CLASSIFICATION. REMARK. In a Discourse, words are used 1 . As Names of beings, places, or things ; 2. As Substitutes for names or facts ; 3. As Qualifiers or Limiters of names ; 4. To assert an act, being, or state ; 5. To modify an assertion or a quality ; 6. To express relations of things or of thoughts ; 7. To introduce or to connect Words and Sentences ; 8. To express a sudden or an intense emotion ; or, 9. For Rhetorical effect. Hence, by their uses Words are distinguished as, 1. Nouns, 2. Pronouns, 3. Adjectives, 4. Verbs, 5. Adverbs, 6. Prepositions^ 7. Conjunctions, 8. Exclamations, and 9. Words of Euphony. DEF. 10. A Word used as the name of a being, of a place, or of a thing, is called A Noun. EXAMPLES. God man sea way wonders emotion. DEF. 11. A Word used for a Noun, is called A Pronoun. EXAMPLES. Ithouhesheit who what that. DEF. 12. A Word used to qualify, or otherwise limit a Noun or a Pronoun, is called An Adjective. EXAMPLES. Mystmaus [way] Ais [wonders] tfw [sea]. 2* 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. DEF. 13. A Word used to assert an act, being ^ or state^ of a person or a thing, is called A Verb. EXAMPLES. [God] moves [He] plants [Day] declines. DEF. 14. A Word used to modify the signification of a Verb, an Adjective, or another Modifier, is called An Adverb. EXAMPLES. "A mist ROSE slowly from the lake." "The task was exceedingly DIFFICULT." *' He came between us very OFT." DEF. 15. A Word used to express a relation of words to each other, is called A Preposition. EXAMPLES. 1. " At MIDNIGHT, in his guarded TENT, 2. The Turk WAS DREAMING of the HOUR." DEF. 16. A Word used to introduce a Sentence, or to connect Words and Phrases, is called A Conjunction. EXAMPLES. 1. " And I am glad that he has lived thus long." 2. " God created the HEAVEN and the EARTH." DEF. 17. A Word used to Express a sudden or intense emotion, is called An Exclamation. EXAMPLES. Alas ! oh ! shocking ! DEF. 18. A Word used chiefly for the sake of sound^ is called A Word of Euphony. EXAMPLES. 1. " There are no idlers here." 2. "Now, then, we are prepared to define our position." 3. " Even in our ashes live their wonted fires." OBS. For observations on ' Words of Euphony " see Part II. PHRASES CLASSIFICATION. 1 9 PHRASES. CLASSIFICATION. REMARK. Phrases are used as substitutes for Nouns, Adjectives, and Adverbs ; or they are independent in construction. Hence, by their offices, Phrases are distinguished as, 1. Substantive, 2. Adjective^ 3. Adverbial, 4. Independent. DEF. 19. A Substantive Phrase is a phrase used as the Subject or the Object of a Verb, or the Object of a Prepo- sition. EXAMPLES. 1. " To be, contents his natural desire." 2. " His being a minister, prevented his rising to civil power. ' ' 3. "I doubted his having been a soldier.'' 4. * ' The crime of being a young man, I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny. ' ' What ' ' contents his natural desire' ' ? " To be,"i. e., mere existence. " I doubted" What? " His having been a soldier/ ' ' The crime of " What ? *' Being a young man." OBS. Substantive Phrases perform offices similar to those of Nouns and Pronouns. DEF. 20. An Adjective Phrase is a phrase used to qualify or limit the application of a Noun or a Pronoun. EXAMPLES. 1. "The time of my departure is at hand." 2. " Forgetting the things that are behind, I press forward." What "time" ? "Of my departure." 3; " The dishes of luxury cover his table." WJtat "dishes" ? " Of luxury." 20 EHGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. DEF. 21. An Adverbial Phrase is a phrase used to modify the signification of a Verb, of an Adjective, or of an Adverb. EXAMPLES. 1. " God moves in a mysterious way.' 1 2. ' * He is powerful for evil impotent for good. ' ' " God moves" How ? 11 In a mysterious way." " Powerful" In what respect? 11 For evil." DEF. 22. An Independent Phrase is a phrase not grammatically connected with any other element. EXAMPLE. " The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises." OBS. The office of an Independent Phrase is Logical, not Grammati- cal. Thus, in the sentence, ' ' The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises," the phrase "the hour having arrived," indicates the time of commencing the exercises ; but it is not joined to the word " commenced" by any connecting word. Phrases are distinguished also by their forms, as, 1. Prepositional^ 3. Participial^ 2. Infinitive^ 4. Independent. DEF. 23. A Prepositional Phrase is a phrase intro- duced by a Preposition, having a Noun or a Substitute as its object of relation. EXAMPLES. 1. " In a mysterious way. " "Tome." 2. "A habit of moving quickly is another way of gaining time. ' ' DEF. 24. An Infinitive Phrase is a phrase introduced by the Preposition TO, having a Verb as its object of relation. ^ EXAMPLES. 1. " To love"" To study" 11 To be diligent." 2. "We ought not to be satisfied with present attain- ments.'' 3. " I sit me down a pensive hour to spend." DEF. 25. A Participial Phrase is a phrase introduced by a Participle, having an Object or an Adjunct. EXAMPLES. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle, wheeling near Us brow," ANALYSIS OF PHRASES. 21 DEF. 26. An Independent Phrase is introduced by a Noun or a Pronoun, followed by a Participle depending upon it. EXAMPLES. 1. " The cars having left, we chartered a coach." 2. " Thus talking, hand [being] in hand, Alone they passed on to their blissful bower." NALYSIS OF PHRASES. A -rn . , /> ( Principal Elements and A Phrase consists 01 < . ,. z _ 7 ( Adjunct M, cements. DEF. 27. The Principal Elements of a Phrase are the words necessary to its structure. EXAMPLES. 1. "Bays | of limpid light \ gleamed | round their path | ." 2. li Birds sang | amid the sprouting shade | ." 3. " Manhood is disgraced | by the consequences \ of neg- lected youth | ." DEF. 28. The Adjuncts of a Phrase are the words used to modify or limit the offices of other words in the Phrase. EXAMPLES. 1. " Bays | of limpid light | gleamed | round their path | ." 2. " Birds sang | amid the whispering shade | ." 3. " See ! Winter comes | to rule the varied year | ." 4. " With what an awful, world-revolving power, Were first the unwieldy planets lanched along The illimitable void." Principal Elements of a Phrase consist of The Leader and the Subsequent. EF. 29. The Leader of a Phrase is the word used to Produce the Phrase generally connecting its Subsequent to the word which the Phrase modifies or limits. EXAMPLES. 1. " Like a spirit | it came, | in the van | of a, storm | ." 2. "Enough remains | of glimmering light | To guide the wanderer's steps aright | ." 3. " The previous question being demanded, | the debato closed." ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. OBS. The Leader of a Phrase is commonly the first word in position but not always; Adjuncts may precede. [See the last example.] The Leader of a Phrase may be A Preposition, A Participle, The Preposition TO, A Substantive. EXAMPLES. 1. " I am monarch of all I survey ; My right there is none to dispute." 2. <{ Taking a madman's sword to prevent | his doing mischief, | can not he regarded AS robbing him . ' ' 3. "The evening star having disappeared, | we returned to tha castle." DEF. 30. A Participle is a word derived from a Verb, retaining the signification of its verb, while it also per- forms the office of some other " part of speech." OBS. For observations on Participles, see page 111. DEF. 31. The Subsequent of a Phrase is the Element which follows the Leader as its object of action or relation^ or which depends on it in construction. EXAMPLES. " At parting, \ too, there was a long ceremony | in the hull, | buttoning up great-coats, tying on woolen comforters, \ fixing silk handkerchiefs over the mouth and up to the ears, and grasping sturdy walking-canes to support unsteady/^." The Subsequent of a Phrase may be, A Word, | A Phrase, \ A Sentence. EXAMPLES. 1. A Word." Sweet was the sound, when oft | at evening's Up yonder hill \ the village murmur rose." 2. A Phrase. "A habit | of moving quickly, \ is another way gaining time | ." 3. A Sentence. " The footman, in his usual phrase, Comes up with ' Madam, dinner stays. ' ' ' OBS. 1. The Subsequent of a Phrase is sometimes suppressed. EXAMPLE. " These crowd around, to ask him of his health. 1 ' <^F' RECAPITULATION. 23 OBS. 2. When any Element of a Phrase is suppressed, that part of the Phrase which is expressed whether Leader, Subsequent, or Ad- junct is to be regarded as the representative of the whole Phrase, and, in the analysis of a Sentence, it should be construed as the ifhole Phrase would be if fully expressed. EXAMPLES. 1. "These crowd around," i. e., around him. 2. " William will come home," i. e., to his home. 3. ' ' Mary has come to school early, " i. e. , at an early hour. " Around," as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb for it is a representative of the Adverbial Phrase, around him. " Around," as an Element in the Phrase, is a Preposition. u Home," as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb for it is a representative of the Adverbial Phrase, to his home. " Home" as an Element in the Phrase, is a Noun. 11 Early," as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb for it is a representative of the Adverbial Phrase, at an early hour, " Early," as an Element in the P;ira*'j ; i' 1 'in Adjective PHRASE. RECAPITULATION. Leader. PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. Subsequent Adjective Adverbial , ^osition. faiple. antive. 'rase. ^/Sentence. Wofid. Phrase. Sentence. ( Word. < Phrase. [ Sentence. 24 ENGLISH GBAMMAB PAKT I. SENTENCES. REMARK. A Sentence may be resolved into its Elements. DEF. 32. The Elements of a Sentence are the parts which enter into its structure. EEM. In the structure of Sentences, certain general principles are in- volved, which are common to all languages. 1. We have that of which something is declared. This is called the Sub- ject of the Sentence. 2. There must be a word or words used to declare positively, nega- tively, or interrogatively something of the^ subject. This is called the Predicate. These two parts are essential to the structure of a Sentence. 3. The Predicates of some Sentences assert acts which pass over to some person or thing. The names_^^^ch_ persons, places, or things are called Object Elements. 4. ThereJ HJr 1 ' Elements, used to .qualify, to limit, or to modify the various j ^Sentences. These are called Adjunct Elements. The jParcentence are distinguished as Principal Elements and Adjunct Elements. DEF. 33. The Principal Elements of a Sentence are the parts which make the unqualified assertion. EXAMPLES. 1^ Birds fly. 2. The sun shines. 3 . " The night passed away in song. ' ' 4. "The mountains showed, their gray heads.' 1 6. " Thy bounty shines in Autumn, unconfmed, 6. And spreads a common feast for all that live.' 7. " The king of shadows loves a shining mark." 8. "In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth. 1 ' ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION. 25 DEF. 34. The Adjunct Elements of a Sentence are such as describe or modify other elements. EXAMPLES. 1. " TJie \ night passed | away \ in song." 2. " The king | of shadows \ loves | a \ shining \ mark." 3. " There \ in his noim/ mansion, \ skilled to rule, \ 4. The | village \ master j taught | his \ little \ school | ." 5. " Lend me your songs, ye nightingales." 6. " Liberty ! I wait for thee." HEM. There are still other words, which are neither Principal Ele- ments nor Adjuncts, words which are sometimes used in connection with the Sentence, but which do not constitute an integral part of it. Hence, DEF. 35. Words accompanying a Sentence without entering into its structure, are called Attendant Elements, EXAMPLES. 1. " Lend me your songs, ye nightingales /" 2. " Liberty ! I wait for thee." 3. ' ' There are no idlers here. ' ' 4. "I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend." 5. " Even in our ashes live their wonted fires." 6. u Friends, Romans, CountrymeQ g a Participle. pq -g an Adjective. pq * a Noun. j> g a Pronoun. /v> Ccesar had passed the Rubicon. ' ' 2. "The FUR that warm* a monarch, WARMED a BEAR." REMARK. " That w:mns a monarch" is an Adjunct of "fur." ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. ' He HATH BROUGHT many CAPTIVES to Rome, Whose ransom did- the general coffers fill. ' ' 4. " SWEET WAS the SOUND, when oft, at evening's close, Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. 5. " The bounding STEED you pompously bestride, SHARES with his lord the PLEASURE and the PRIDE." 6. "I HAVE a TEMPLE in every heart that owns my influence." REMARK. ' ' That owns my influence" describes "heart." 7 . " Oft as the morning dawns SHOULD GRATITUDE AS- CEND." REMARK. * ' Oft' ' modi- fies ' ' should ascend. " "As the morning dawns' ' limits "oft." 8. "To him that u-isJiesfor me, I AM always PRESENT." 9. " These lofty TREES WAVE not less proudly, Thai tlieir ancestors moulder beneath them. ' ' OBS. A Principal Sentence and its Auxiliary Sentences constitute a Complex Sentence. [See EXAMPLES 1, 2, above.] REM. An Auxiliary Sentence is an Adjunct of a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence ; or it is used as a substitute for a Noun. Hence, Auxiliary Sentences are distinguished as Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial. CLA$SSFICAT1ON OF SENTENCES. 43 DEF. 49.- A Substantive Sentence is used as the Subject or the Object of a {Sentence ; or as the Object of a Phrase. 1. " That good men sometimes commit faults, can not be denied. ' ' shows ^ 3. He refused to tell what 4. " That all men are created equal, is a self-evident truth." 5. " Yet Brutus says he was ambitious." DEF. 50. An Adjective Sentence is a Sentence that is used as an Adjunct of a Substantive, . EXAMPLES. He I loveth. \ soul ) 1. "HE that getteth wisdom bis ~Y own ") LOVETH his own SOUL." 2. THEM that honor me, I WILL HONOR." JOHN is not ABLE to tell what he knows. QDCE^X^^) 4. " That life \A long irlirh arwrcrs life s great end." 5. " Tho man <>f wealth and pride Takes up a space that many poor supplied." 6. " Here I come to tell what I do know." ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. DEF. 51. An Adverbial Sentence is a Sentence that is used as an Adjunct of a Verb, ar Participle, an Adjective, or another Adverb, EXAMPLES. kneeled they fought rejoice. improve 1. "They kneeled before they fought. ' ' 2. "Teachers rejoice when their pupils improve. ' ' C Who 3. " "Who is here so base that he would be a bondman T ' EEMARK. "Base" de- scribes " who ;" "so" mod- ifies "base;" "that he would be a bondmen' ' lim- its "so." he ^ would be bondman ^ 4. " Where icealtk and freedom reign, contentment fails." 5. " How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood When fond recollection presents them to view. ' ' 6. " These lofty trees wave not less proudly That their ancestors moulder beneath them." OBS. A Sentence is sometimes a Logical Adjunct of some Word in a Principal Sentence. EXAMPLES. f It A " possible ) 1 . It is possible thai ice mis- ~~ See page 28,, ,,, B " That we misjudge" is a Sentence, used to limit the appli- cation of the Word "it." Hence, the Sentence is an Adj inct of the Word. It is called a Logical Adjunct because there is no Grammatical connection between the two Sentences, CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. EECAFITULATION OF DIAGRAMS. 1. FOR SENTENCES. K . ...a Simple Sentence Intransitive. EXAMPLE. " Landscape fades." a Simple Sentence Transitive. Ex. " Master taught school." a Compound Sentence Intransitive. Ex. " Lark ascends and sings." a Compound Sentence Intransitive. Ex. " Wealth and freedom reign." .a Compound Sentence Transitive. Ex. " We beheld moon and stars." .a Compound Sentence Transitive. Ex. ' Urn or bust can call breath." . a Compound Sentence Transitive. Ex. " Liberty and union promote peace and safety. ' ' . a Compound Sentence Transitive. Ex. " State conforms and models life." .a Compound Sentence Transitive. Ex. "Spirit unfurls light and wheels course." ^ . a Compound Sentence Transitive, n j Ex. " Wisdom and virtue elevate and ' ennoble man. ' ' .a Compound Sentence Transitive. ^ Ex. " Youth and beauty tread ring and shout raptures. ' ....a Compound Sentence Mixed. Ex. l 'He breathes fragra nee &nd sleeps."- a Compound Sentence Mixed. . Ex. " Fruits ripen and yield repasts." COMPLEX SENTENCES. the Principal Sentence. Ex. "He loveth soul." . . . .Auxiliary Sentence- -Adjective. Ex. ' ' That getteth wisdom. ' ' the Principal Sentence. Ex. " He will make apology." Aux iliary Sentence Adverb. Ex. " If John has injured you." . a Sentence having a Phrase for its Subject. Ex . 4 * Finding fault discourages youth . ' * . . .a Sentence having a Sentence for its Object. Ex. " Man eu-laims, they come." ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I 2. PHRASES, a Prepositional Phrase Simple. EXAMPLE. * Of Jam. ' ' a Prepositional Phrase Compound. Ex. " In peace and safety." a Participial Phrase Simple, Transitive. Ex. " Gaining time. ' ' an Infinitive Phrase Intransitive. Ex. " To dream." an Infinitive Phrase Transitive. Ex. ' * To give gifts.' ' . .an Independent Phrase. Intransitive. Ex. " Stwy being done. ' ' an Independent Phrase Transitive. Ex. " Boat having left wharf." COMPLEX PHRASES. a Participial Phrase the Object of a Preposition. Ex. " Of gaining time " Principal Phrase Prepositional, or Infin- itive, [itive. Auxiliary Phrase Prepositional, or Infin- Ex. ' ' On bed of sea-flowers. ' ' .a Participial Phrase, having a Sentence for its Subsequent. Ex. "Saying, we will reply." . . .Adjunct Word Adjective or 'Adverb. . . .Compound Adjunct. EEM. 1. With the exception of the last two, the above Diagrams are adapted to the Principal Elements of a Sentence or of a Phrase. In the exercises which follow, these Elements are variously modified by Adjunct Words, Phrases, and Sentences. 2. The whole Predicate consisting of one, two, three, four, and - sometimes five words is placed in one Diagram, as exhibited on thd following pages. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. A 47 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 38. Why are Sentences classified ? See Remark. How are Sentences classified ? What is an L.tran&itive Sentence ? See Def. 43. May Intransitive Sentences be either Simple or Com- pound? See Obs. Make Intransitive Sentences Simple. Make " " Compound. 39. What is a Transitive Sentence ? See Def. 44. Make Transitive Sentences Simple. Make " " Compound. What is a Simple Sentence ? See Def. 45. Make Simple Sentences Intransitive. Make ' ' " Transitive. What is a Compound Sentence ? See Def. 46. Make Compound Sentences Intransitive. Make " " Transitive. 40. WTiat are Clauses of a Sentence ? See Def. 46 (b). What Elements in a Sentence may be compounded ? . See Obs. (1-7 ). Make Sentences having Compound.. .... .Subjects. Make " " " Predicates. Make " " " Objects. How numerous may be the Clauses of a Sentence ? What is a Mixed Sentence ? .See Def. 46 (c). Make Mixed Sentences 1st Clause Transitive. Make " ** 2d Clause Transitive. 41. What is a Principal Sentence ? See Def. 47. What is an Auxiliary Sentence ? See Def. 48. 42. What is a Complex Sentence ? See Obs. Make Compound Sentences. What are the offices of Auxiliary Sentences ? See B By their offices, how are Auxiliary Sentences dis- tinguished ? 43. What is a Substantive Sentence ? See Def. 49. ' Make a Substantive Sentence that shall be the Subject of a Principal Sentence. Make a Substantive Sentence that shall be the Object of a Principal Sentence. What is an Adjective Sentence 9 See Def. 50. Make Adjective Sentences. 44. What is an Adverbial Sentence ? See Def. 61. Make Adverbial Sentences. 48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. REM. 1. In the following Exercises will be found Sentences of every grade from the most simple to the most complex. The Teacher will find exercise for his judgment and discretion in assigning the Sen- tences to his pupils (for analysis) according to their several capacities. 2. The Teacher will find it interesting and profitable to his Pupils to assign to each at least one Sentence, to be placed in its appropriate Diagram drawn on the black-board ex tempow, or on paper by appoint- ment at a previous recitation. SIMPLE SENTENCES Intransitive. 1. " Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight" A Simple Sentence Intransitive .......... See Def. 43. The Modified Subject ---- " The glimmering landscape." The Grammatical Subject .............. "Landscape." The Modified Predicate . . . . " Now fades on the sight." The Grammatical Predicate . . . .- ........... " Fades." ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. nsu c T,- , 5 " The " a Word. Of the Subject, j Glimmerin g a Word. ( "Now" a Word. Of the Predicate, ] u Qn ^ gight ,, a phrase- CONSTRUCTION. Elements. Office. Class. Now, tells when " landscape fades." Adjunct of "fades." Fades, tells what " landscape" does. Predicate of " landscape. The, tells what ' ' landscape. ' ' . Adjunct of ' ' landscape. ' ' Glimmering, tells what " landscape." Ad] unct of "landscape. r t Landsca'pe, tells what " fades." Subject of " fades." On the sight, tells where * ' landscape fades. ' ' Adjunct of ' ' fades. ' ' EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 49 Other EXAMPLES applicable to the same Diagram. 2. The studious pupil | seldom fails in his recitation. 3. The arrogant pedant | was quickly banished from the company. 4. Such bright examples | seldom fail, ultimately, to please. 5^ That bright meteor | flashed brilliantly athwart the heavens. 6, The young aspirant | never succeeded in his effort, 7. Our brightest students | are also foremost in their sports. fjjj Let each Pupil make a Sentence adapted to the same Diagram, ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. Principal Elements similar Adjuncts dissimilar. 8T " The big tear \ then started from his eye." 9. " Morni s/ace | brightened with gladness." 10. " His aged eyes look faintly through tears of joy/' 11. " We \ came to the halls of Selma." 12. " We sat around the feast of shells." 13. " Fingal \ rose in his place." 14. " The sword of Trenmor | shook by his side." 15. " The gray-haired hero \ moved before." 16. " On the pathway of spirits She wanders alone." 17. " The song of the wood-dove has died on our shore." 18. " And on the stranger's dim and dying eye The soft, sweet pictures of his childhood lie." 19. "His hair falls round his blushing cheek, in the wreaths of waving light." 20. " A flood of glory bursts from all'the skies." 21. " The long, bright days of summer quickly passed." 22. " The dry leaves whirled in Autumn's rising blast." 23. " The garden rose may richly bloom, In cultured soil and genial air, To cloud the light of Fashion's room, Or droop in Beauty's midnight hair." 24r " On Horeb's rock the prophet stood , 25. The Lord before him passed ; 26. A hurricane, in angry mood, Swept by him, strong and fast ; 27. Tlie forest fell before its force ; 28. The rocJcs icere shivered ir> its course ; 29. God was not in the blast." (See p. 258, Obs. 3,) r > 50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PART I. SIMPLE SENTENCES. Transitive, 1. " The king of shadows loves a shining mark" kiDg loves mark Ml A Simple Sentence Transitive ............. See Def. 44. ANALYSIS. C The Subject .......... " King." PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. < The Predicate ........ " Loves." ( The Object .......... . . " Mark." \ Of th e Subject, " 0ftke 1 Elements. The, King, Of shadows, Loves, A, Shining, Mark, Office. to tell what " king." to tell icho " loves mark." to tell u-hat " king." to tell what the king does. to tell what " mark." to tell what " mark." Class. Adjunct of " king." Subject of '* loves." Adjunct of " king." Predicate of ' ' king. Adjunct of " mark. Adjunct of " mark. to tell what the king "loves." Object of ** loves." Other EXAMPLES applicable to the same Diagram. 2. The science of Geology illustrates many astonishing facts. 3. A love for study secures oiir intellectual improvement. 4. The habit of intemperance produces much lasting misery. 5. A desire for improvement should possess all our hearts. 6. The use of tobacco degrades, many good men. 7. A house on fire presents a melancholy spectacle. 8. A man of refinement will adopt no disgusting habits. JpO*' Let each Pupil make a Sentence for the same Diagram, #^ Let the Pupil read only the Principal Elements of the above Sentences. Thus, Love secures improvement, Then let him add the Adjuncts to each word. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 51 COMPOUND SENTENCES. Transitive. I. u Knowledge reaches or may reach every home? 3 ANALYSIS. f The Subject " Knowledge." T>T>T -r i? T -r , J The 1 st Predicate ."Reaches." JrRINCIPAL JbLLEMENTS. < r r. 7 D 7- v uivr i, ? The 2d Predicate ." May reach." [The Object " Home." Of the Subject ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. \ Of the Predicate .. Of the Object "Every." ADDITIONAL SENTENCES, Having the PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS similar in construction. 2. " By thus acting, we cherish and improve both." 3. " Whose potent arm perpetuates existence or destroys. 4. ' ' For which we shunned and hated thee before. ' ' 5. " Hope, like a cordial, innocent though strong, Man's heart at once inspirits and serenes." 6. " Hence every 'state-, to one loved blessing prone, Conforms and models life to that alone. ' ' 7. " Mighty Alfred's piercing soul Pervades and regulates the whole. ' ' 8. " Temperance fortifies and purifies the heart." 9. ' * Bright angels viewed with wondering eyes, And hailed the incarnate God. ' ' 10. " Who does not receive and entertain a polite man with still greater cheerfulness ?' ' 11. " And oft that blessed fancy cheers, And beam my heart above. ' ' 12. " That voice of more than Roman eloquence, urged and sustained the Declaration of Independence." 13. " The pewter plate on* the dresser, caught and reflected the flame." * See Key, pages 21 and 79. ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. 1 . "In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." God created T heaven J .) : ^ the ) earth injl beginning^) - fThe Subject "God." The Predicate " Created." PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. < ( " Heaven" ( The Objects \ and ( " Earth." f Of the Subject ADJUNCT j Of the Predicate "In the beginning." ELEMENTS. 1 Of the 1st Object "The." [ Of the 2d Object " The." Elements. * ' In the beginning, ' "God," 1 'Created," The, Heaven, And, The, Earth, CONSTRUCTION. Office. tells when God " created." tells who * ' created heav- en and earth." tells what l * God' ' did. tells what ' ' heaven. ' ' tells ichat " God created. 1 joins "heaven and earth. ' tells what ' ' earth. ' ' tells what " God created. 1 Class-. Adjunct of "created.' - Subject of " created.' 1 Predicate of " God." Adjunct of " heaven.' ' Object of " created." ' Conjunction. Adj unct of * ' earth. ' ' ' Object. of "created." ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES, for the same Diagram. -. William loves his study and his play with equal attachment. 3. God, in the creation, has displayed his wisdom and his power. 4. Men gather the tares and the wheat with equal care. 5. We, at all times, seek our honor and our happiness. 6 Students require of the teacher much instruction and some patience. 7 He educated his daughter and his son at great expense. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 1. " Can storied urn or animated bust Back to its mansion call theflteting breath?" LggJLJ ^ojT^a^I^feli fleeUp g {1st Subject " Urn." 2d Subject . /. "Bust." The Predicate Can call The Object " Breath." Of the \st Subject " Storied." Of the 2d Subject . , . " Animated." Qf h Predicate r Back." . J ) " To its mansion." C " Thp " Of the Object j "Fleeting." ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. ADDITIONAL SENTENCES, In which the PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS are similar. 2. ''Illuminated reason and regulated liberty shall once more exhibit man in the image of his Maker." "The hunter's trail arid the dark encampments startled the wild beasts from their lairs. ' ' 4. " Their names, their years, spelled by the unlettered muse, The place of fame and elegy supply. ' ' 6. " Thy praise The widows' sighs and orphans' tears embalm." C. " Hill and valley echo back their songs." 7. " Tuen Strife and Faction rule the day," 8. " And Pride and Avarice throng the way." 9. " Loose Revelry and Riot bold, In freighted streets their orgies hold." 10. " Here Art and Commerce, with auspicious reign, Once breathed sweet influence on the happy plain." 5* ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. 1. " The Lord uplifts his aicfulhand. And chains you to the shore" fFie Subject c Lord." PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. The 1st Predicate < The 2d Predicate The 1st Object ' Uplifts." ' Chains." ' Hand." The 2d Obiect .. ' You." ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. Of the Subject " The." Of the 1st Predicate Of the 2d Predicate " To the shore." ( a TT- q ?? Of the 1st Object j a Awful." Of the Zd Object . ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES, In which the PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS are similar. 2. "He heard the King's command, And saw that writing's truth." 3. " For misery stole me at my birth, And cast me, helpless, on the wild." 4. " That the page unfolds, And spreads us to the gaze of God and men." 6. "Now twilight lets her curtain down, And pins it with a star." 6. " They fulfilled the great law of labor in the letter, but broke it in the spirit. ' ' 7. ' ' Then weave the chaplet of flowers, and strew the beauties of Nature about the grave. ' ' 8. "He marks, and in heaven's register enrolls The rise and progress of each option there." EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 55 1. " And the eyes of the sleeper waxed deadly and chill" deadly waxed . C C and ) PRINCIPAL j The Subject ---- " Eyes." ELEMENTS. { The Predicate . . " Waxed deadly and chill." ADJUNCT ( Of the Subject \ " ^e" ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ;/ a ^ord. _ ( " Of the sleeper" .a Phrase. ELEMENTS, j Of the Predicat \ ^ - NOTE. The words "deadly" and "chill" describe "eyes," and are therefore ADJECTIVES ; but they describe by making, (in connection with " waxed") an assertion. Hence they are ADJECTIVES IN PREDICATE they constitute a part of the Predicate. ADDITIONAL SENTENCES, Having Adjectives or Participles in Predicate. 2. " Age is dark and unlovely." 3. " Bloodless are these limbs and cold. 1 ' 4. " Now, therefore, be not grieved nor angry with yourselves." 5 . " / am perplexed and confounded . ' ' 6. " They became agitated and restless." 7. ** Rude am I in speech, and little blest With the set phrase of peace." 8. " What bark is plunging mid the billowy strife, And dashing madly on to fearful doom." 9. " The wares of the merchant are spread abroad in the shops, or stored in the high-piled warehouses " 10. " How finely diversified, and how multiplied into many thou- sand distinct exercises, is the attention of God !" 11. " Contentment is serious but not grave." 12. " The promises of Hope are sweeter than roses in the bud, and far more flattering to expectation." 13. * For cold and stiff and still are they Who wrought thy walls annoy."* * Wrought annoyance to thy walla. 56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. 1. " Time slept on flowers and lent his glass to hope? Time ^^ slept lent flowers JC_!!! hope Subject "Time." T> ( " Slept" Intransitive. PRINCIPAL I r T> / , i TJ, < Ihe Predicates. 4 and LLEME;NTS. I j ,, T A ,, m ( " Lent" Transitive. Object "Glass." {Of the Subject Of the 1st Predicate . " On flowars" . a Phrase. Of the 2d Predicate . " To hope" ... a Phrase. Of the Object " His" a Word. ADDITIONAL SENTENCES, Adapted to the same Diagram* 2. We sigli for change, and spend our lives for naught. 3. William goes to school, and pursues his study with zeal 4. James stays at home, and spends his time at play. 5. We shall pass from earth, and yield our homes to others. 6. Fruits ripen in Autumn, and yield us rich repasts. Other MIXED SENTENCES, with variable Adjuncts. 7. " For Spring shall return, and a lover bestow." 8. " The leaves mount up and wash the/ace of heaven." 9. "In silence majestic they twinkle on high, And draw admiration from every eye." 10. " Its little joys go out one by one, And leave poor man, at length, in perfect night." 11. " But the black blast blows hard, And puffs them wide of hope." 12. " Wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees, And betray the half- hidden cottage." EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 57 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 1. THE AUXILIARY SENTENCES. SUBSTANTIVE. 1. " That all men are created equal is a self-eviden[ truth." . {( " That all men ) The Subject. . \ are created >- a Sentence. \ equal." ("Is" ...... [a Verb arid The Predicate. . j u Truth ,, ; ; ; - j a Noum C Of the Subject ---- - ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. \ n ^ f7 ^ PVW;,,^/,, j "A." ( f t/ie ^ rec jte ' \ Self- Self-evident." ANALYSIS of the Auxiliary Sentence. ( The Subject ..... " Men." PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. | The Pr J ediGat ^ ^ Are cre ated." , ^ (Of the Subject . . . . u All" . . a Word. ADJUNCT ELEMENTS, j O y ^ Predicate. . " Equal."* ADDITIONAL COMPLEX SENTENCES, Having SUBSTANTIVE SENTENCES for their SUBJECTS. 2. " ' lean not,' has never accomplished anything." 3. '* ' I will try,' has done wonders." 4. " That friendship is a sacred trust, That friends should he sincere and just, That constancy befits them, Are observations on the case, That savors much of commonplace." * A word substituted for the Adverbial Phrase, " [with] equal [rights}. 19 58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. 1. " But Brutus says he was ambitious" C J(^_ ** ya J(QEDG Brutus says Cje_X\v aB t ambitious Subject " Brutus" a Word. PRINCIPAL I The Predicate. . . " Says" a Word. ELEMENTS.. 1 mi n^ * ( "He was am- ) Q Ine Object.... \ ,. . \ a Sentence. ( bitious . . [ ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. None. ADDITIONAL COMPLEX SENTENCES, Having SUBSTANTIVE SENTENCES for their OBJECTS. 2. " Go to the raging sea, and say, * Be still." /3. " But tell not Misery's son that life is fair.' 4. " ' And this to me ?' he said." 5. " Cassar cried, ' Help me, Oassius, or I sink.' " 6. " While man exclaims, ' See all things for my uss," 7. ' See man for mine,' replies a pampered goose." 8. " ' Will you walk into my parlor ?' Said a spider to a fly." 9. " He knew not that the chieftain lay Unconscious of his son." 10. " He shouted but once more aloud, * My father ! must I stay ?' " 11. " We bustle up with unsuccessful speed, And in the saddest part cry, ' Droll, indeed /" 12. " Then Agrippa said unto Paul, * Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. ' ' ' 13. "A celebrated writer says, 'Take care of the minutes, and the hours will take care of themselves.' " 14. *' The little birds, at morning dawn, Clothed in warm coats of feather, Conclude that they away will roam To seek for milder weather. ' ' 15. " I tell thee thou art defied." EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 59 AUXILIARY SENTENCES. ADJECTIVE. 1. " But they that fight for freedom, undertake The noblest cause mankind can have at stake" c A COMPLEX SENTENCE. ANALYSIS ' of the PRINCIPAL SENTENCE, ( The Subject ....." They" JRINCIPAL \ ThQpr J dicate .a Unc f erta ke ELEMENTS. The ^^ > Cause >, ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. Of the Predicate .. "The" a Word. ;c Noblest" a Word. Of the Object .1 " [That] man- ) kind can have > a Sentence, at stake" . . . . ) ANALYSIS of the FIRST AUXILIARY SENTENCE. _, j The Subject " That." ELEMENTS, j The Pr J edicate c< Kght PRINCIPAL ADJUNCT ) Of the Subject . . . - ELEMENTS. J Of the Predicate. "For freedom", a Phrase. ANALYSIS of the SECOND AUXILIARY SENTENCE. ( The Sutyect " Mankind." PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. 4 The Predicate . . " Can have." ( The Object . . . [That] understood. ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. Of the Subject Of the Predicate . . " At stake" a Phrase. Of the Object 60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. Thus analyze and place in the same Diagram the following ADDITIONAL SENTENCES. 3". And students who love to study, merit the highest honors which teachers can give them. 4. And actions which were founded in justice, produced the good results which we had in view. 5. "But such as seek for truth shall find the richest boon which God to man can give." 6. " And I who bleed for thee, Shall claim the brightest gift Which thou canst yield to me " 7. " But he who wins at last, Shall love the very toils Which fortime round him cast." THE -ADJUNCTS VARY. 8. "He that walketh uprightly walketh surely." 9. " There is something in their hearts which passes speech." 10. " He is in the way of life that keepeth instruction." 11. "I love the bright and glorious sun That gives us light and heat ; 12. I love the pearly drops of dew That sparkle 'neath my feet. 13. I love to think of him who made These pleasant things for me." 14. ' ' The boy stood on the burning deck, Whence all but him had fled : 15. The flames that lit the battle's wreck, Shone round him o'er the dead." 16. "I love to hear the little birds That carol on the trees." 17. " Poverty and shame shall be to him that refuseth instruction." 18. " Wisdom resteth in the heart of him that hath understanding." 19. " Understanding is a well-spring of life to him that hath it." 20. " But the noblest thing that perished there Was that young faithful heart." 21. " Thou hast green laurel leaves that twine Into so proud a wreath. 22. Thou hast a voice whose thrilling tones Can bid each life-pulse beat." (Page 269, Note 1.) EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 61 23. 24. 25. Around Sebago's lonely lake There lingers not a breeze to break The mirror which its waters make." * Cold in the dust this perished heart may lie, But that which warmed it once shall never die." He that by usury and unjust gain increaseth his substance. shall gather it for him that will pity the poor." Let the Pupil place Sentence 25 in the subjoined Diagram 1. " Our proper bliss depends on whafwe blame" C bliss Y depends j (Our X proper ) A COMPLEX SENTENCE THE AUXILIARY QUALIFIES A PHBASE. Elements. Offices. "Our" Adjunct of ' bliss." " Proper" Adjunct of " bliss." " Bliss" Subject of "depends." " Depends" . , Predicate of " bliss." " On what we blame" f . Adjunct of " depends. 1 " What " 5 C Thaf l 0bjeCt f " n '" < [Which] Object of "blame." 11 We" Subject of u blame." ' * Blame' ' . Predicate of ' ' we. ' ' ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 2. "What thou dost not know thou canst not tell." 3. "I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke." 4. " Seek not to know what i-i improper for thee." 5. " But here I stand and speak wiiat I do know." ,6 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. AUXILIARY SENTENCES. ADVERBIAL. 1. "And when its yellow luster smiled O^er mountains yet untrod, Each mother held aloft her child. To bless the bow of God." ( its ) f yellow ) / h'er : \ \ V / V J ( y >v mountains ) | ' X ( untr*d ) / ANALYSIS of the PRINCIPAL SENTENCE. FIRST MODEL. T* ( The Subject " Mother" . . PRINCIPAL \ Th Pre j dicate ; ; ; Held ,, ELEMENTS. | The Q ^ *%^ ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. Transitive. Of the Subject . . " Each" ...... a Word. '"Altft" ........ ..a Word. " When its yellow ^ luster smiled o'er a Sentence Of the Predicate. * mountains yet un- ( (Adverbial). trod" J "To bless the bow ' a Phrase. ) of God" [ J Of the Object " Her" . ? a Word. SECOND MODEL. Elements. Offices. tf And" Introduces the Principal Sentence. When its yellow luster smiled > ^ .Adjunct of - held." er mountains yet untrod," ) " Each" Adjunct of " mother." " Mother" Subject of "held." ' ' Held' ' . . . . Predicate of ' mother.' ' EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 63 "Aloft" Adjunct of "held." " Her" Adjunct of "child." " Child" Object of " held." "To bless the bow of God" Adjunct of " held." ANALYSIS of the AUXILIARY SENTENCE. " When" .Introduces the Auxiliary Seriienee. "Its" ... Adjunct of "luster." " Yellow" Adjunct of "luster." " Luster" Subject of " smiled." " Smiled" Predicate of " luster." "O'er mountains yet untrod" Adjunct of "smiled." ANALYSIS of the ADJUNCT PHRASES. "To" Introduces the Phrase connects "bless" with " held." "Bless" Object of " to." "The' 7 Adjunct of " bow." "Bow" Object of "bless." " Of God" Adjunct of ' bow." "Of" Introduces the Phrase connects " God" with "bow." " God" Object of "of." "O'er".. .0. . .Introduces the Phrase connects " mountains" with "smiled." "Mountains" .Object of "o'er." " Yet" Adjunct of " untrod." " Untrod" Adjunct of " mountains." 1 Thus analyze the following ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES. 2. " Wherefore is there a price in the hand of a fool to get wisdom, seeing he hath no heart to it. ' ' 3. " Yet do I feel my soul recoil* within me, As I contemplate the dim gulf of death. ' ' 4. "If we have ivhispered truth, Whisper no longer." 6. " Speak as the tempest does, Sterner and stronger. ' ' 6. "The hoary head is a crown of glory, if it be found in the way of righteousness." 7. "Their advancement in life and in education was such that each ought to have been a gentleman." * Page 269, Note I. 4: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. 8. " The sweet REMEMBRANCE of the just, SHALL FLOURISH when he sleeps in dust. ' ' 9. " But, when he caught the measure wild, The old man raised his head and smiled." 10. " There are sumptuous mansions with marble walls, Where fountains play in the perfumed halls." 11. "The earth hath felt the breath of spring, Though yet on her deliverer's wing The lingering frosts of winter cling." EXAMPLES Of SUBSTANTIVE, ADJECTIVE, and ADVERBIAL SENTENCES. Let the Pupil name the Sentence below adapted to this Dia- gram, and place it in an exact copy, written on the black-board. 1. "If you would know the deeds of him who chews, Enter the house of God, and see the pews." 2. ' ' The man that dares traduce because he can "With safety to himself, is not a man." 3. "And, as 1 passed by, 1 heard the complaints of the laborers who had reaped down his fields, and the cries of the poor whose covering he had taken away." 4. "The time must come when all will have been said that can be said to exalt the character^ any individual of our race." 6. "Mysterious are his ways, whose power Brings forth that unexpected hour, When minds that never met before, Shall meet, unite, and part no more." 6. " My heart is awed within me when I think Of the great miracle that still goes on, In silence round me. * EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 65 7. "When we consider "carefully what* appeals to our minds, and exercise upon ib our own reason -r- taking into respectful con- sideration what* others say upon it and then corne to a con- clusion of our own, we act as intelligent beings." 8. "Before we passionately desire what* another enjoys, we should examine into the happiness of its possessor." 9. ' ' With what loud applause didst thou beat heaven with blessing Bolingbroke, before he was what thou wouldst have him be !" * PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES. N 1. "The troubled ocean feels his steps, as he strides from wave to wave." , 2. " Beneath the spear of Cathmar rose that voice which awakes the bards," 3. "As they sat down, one said to his friend on his right, 'We shall soon see who is who.' " 4. "He sunk to sleep With all the nameless shapes that haunt the deep." 5. " Go to the mat where squalid Want refines, 6. Go to the shade obscure where Merit pines, 7. Abide with him wham Penury s charms control And bind the rising yearnings of his soul."\ 8. Survey his sleepless couch, and, standing there, Tell the poor pallid wretch that life is fair." 9. "It must be sweet, in childhood, to give back The spirit to its Maker, ere the heart Has grown familiar with the ways of em." 10. " Wheresoe'er our best affections dwell, And strike a healthful root, is happiness." 11. "A man of refinement never has recourse to proverbs and vulgar aphorisms." 12. "Across the ocean came a pilgrim bark." 13. ' ' The bark of the trunk of the white oak is frequently variegated with large spots." 11. " The uojd of the young stocks is very elastic, and is susceptible of minute divisions." 15. " The flowers put fortfi in the month of May." 16, " Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, In rayless majesty, now stretches forth Her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world." * Pages 92 and 222. t See Key, p. 86. 6* >O ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. 17. " Vulgarism in language is a distinguishing characteristic of bad company and a bad education." 18. " The wood of the silver fir is not much used as timber." 19. " The hemlock spruce is not much esteemed for timber." 20. " Milton's learning has all the effect of intuition." 21. " His imagination has the force of nature." 22. " Heaven from all creatures hides the book of fate." 23. " And as Jesus passed by, he saw a man who was blind.' 1 24. " If a noble squire had conducted himself well during the period of his service, the honor of knighthood was generally con- ferred upon him at the age of twenty." 25. " Another bright day's sunset bathes the hills That gird Samaria. ' ' 26. " One glance of wonder, as we pass, deserves The books of Time." 27. "A fretful temper will divide The choicest knot that may be tied, By ceaseless, sharp corrosion. 28. A temper, passionate and fierce, May suddenly your joys disperse At one immense explosion." 29. " But no mere human work or character is perfect." 30. " The profoundest depths of man's intellect can be fathomed." 31. "In the loftiest flights of his imagination, he can be followed." 32. " None of his richest mines are inexhaustible." 33. * ' Then began he to upbraid the cities wherein most of his mighty works were done, because they repented not. ' ' 34. " That secrets are a sacred trust, That friends should be sincere and just, That constancy befits them Are observations on the case, That savor much of commonplace ; 35. And all the world admits them." 36. " The dilatory caution of Pope enabled him to condense his sen- timents, to multiply bis images, and to accumulate all that study might produce or chance supply." 37. " Dryden often surpasses expectation 38. Pope never falls below it." 39. " Dryden is read with frequent astonishment 40. Pope, with perpetual delight." HEM. For the encouragement of Pupils who may not be able prop- EXERCISES IN SENTENCES. 67 erly to analyze the more difficult of the preceding Sentences, the fol- lowing Exercises are simplified 1 . The Principal Elements of the Principal Sentences are printed in SMALL CAPITALS J 2. The Principal Elements of the Auxiliary Sentences are printed in Italic letters ; 3. The letters in the margin refer to the appropriate DIAGRAMS (for the Principal Elements only) on page 45 ; 4. The forms and the offices of the Phrases are indicated by appropri- ate references. THE AMERICAN FLAG. J. R. Drake. B. When Freedom, from her mountain height, *b Unfurled her standard to the air,*6 1. I. SHE TORE the azure ROBE of night*a And SET the STARS of glory*a there ; 2. I. SHE MINGLED with the gorgeous dyes*a The milky BALDRIC of the skies, *a And STRIPED its pure celestial WHITE With streakings*6 of the morning light ;*a Then, from his mansion*6 in the sun,*6 3. I. SHE CALLED her EAGLE-BEARER down, And GAVE into his mighty hand*6 The SYMBOL of her chosen land.*a Majestic monarch of the cloud, *a B. Who rearst aloft thy regal form, To hear the tempest-trumpings loud,|5 And see the lightning lancesf b driven, f5 A. When strike the warriors of the storm, * A. And rolls the thunder-drum of heaven, *a A. Child of the Sun,* to thee*6 'TIS GIVEN, To guard the bannerfc of the free,*a To hoverfc in the sulphur smoke, *b To ward away the battle-stroke, fc And bid its blendingsfc shine afar,|6 Like rainbows, *b on the cloud*6 of war,*a The harbinger of victory. *a * Prepositional Phrase. t Infinitive Phrase. a Adjective Phrase. & Adverbial Phrase. c Independent Phrase. 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART I. 5 A. /''Flag of the brave, *a thy FOLDS SHALL FLY The sign of hope and triumph *a high./ A. /When speaks the signal trumpet-tone, A. And the long line comes gleaming on, B. (Ere yet the life-blood, warm and wet, Has dimmed the glist'ning bayonet), 6. M. Each soldier's EYE SHALL brightly TURN A. To where thy meteor-glories burn,*b A. And, as his springing steps advance, CATCH WAR and VENGEANCE from the glance ;|6 B. (And, when the cannon-mouthinas loud Heave, in wild wreaths, *b the battle-shroud, C. And gory sabers rise and/^ZZ, Like shoots*6 of flame*a on midnight's pall,*6 7o A. There SHALL thy VICTOR-GLANCES GLOwy 8. A. And cowering FOES SHALL SHRINK beneath A. Each gallant arm*6 that strikes below That lovely messenger*^ of death. *o) Flag of the seas,*# on ocean's wave,*6 9. A. Thy STARS SHALL GLITTER o'er the brave J*6 A. When death, careering .on the gale,*6 Sweeps darkly round the bellied sail,*6 A. And frightened waxes rush wildly back, Before the broadside's reeling rack,*6 10. C. The dying WANDERER of the sea*a SHALL LOOK at once*6 to heaven and thee,*6 And SMILE to see thy splendorsfi fly) b In triumph*& o'er his closing eye.*6 Flag of the free heart's only home,* FLOAT that standard SHEET ! 14. A. Where BREATHES the FOE but falls before us,*6 WithJ Freedom's soil beneath our feet,*6 And Freedom's banner streaming o'er us?*Z> $ See page 233, Obs. 7. See also Key, p. 45. PART II. ETYMOLOGY. REMARK 1 . In PART I. we have considered 1. The Structure of Sentences and of Phrases ; 2. The Elements which compose a Sentence or a Phrase ; 3. The Classification of Sentences and of Phrases ; 4. The Analysis of Sentences Proximate and Ultimate. REM. 2. In our progress through PART I. we have seen, 1. That the Proximate Analysis of a Sentence consists in resolving it into its immediate Constituent Elements. 2, That the Ultimate Analysis of a Sentence consists in reducing its Proximate Elements to the WORDS which com pose* them. REM. 3. We have next to consider the history of WORDS considered as ultimate Elements of Sentences including 1. Their Formation. 2. Their Functions. 3. Their Classifications. 4. Their Modifications. The Science of Language embraces, 1. ORTHOGRAPHY which treats of the Structure and Form of Words. 2. ETYMOLOGY which treats of the Classification and Modification of Words. 3. SYNTAX wfcich treats of the Relation and mutual Dependence of Words. 4. PROSODY which treats of the Arrangement and Utterance of Words. REM. A true system of Analysis requires that the Functions of Words be discussed previous to the consideration of their Elements. Hence we have placed an outline of ORTHOGRAPHY in the Appendix to this Work. 70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. CLASSIFICATION AND MODIFICATION OF WORDS. Words are distinguished by their Forms and by their Uses. 1. THE FORMS OF WORDS. By their forms, Words are distinguished as Radical or Derivative, Simple or Compound. DEF. 52. A Radical "Word is a word that does not derive its original from another word in the same lan- guage. EXAMPLES. Sun cloud rose friend chief swift just sell. DEF. 53. A Derivative Word is a word derived from a Radical, by prefixing or adding one or more letters to it. EXAMPLES. Sunny swiftly cloudy sinful selling unconscious roseate friendly justify chieftain. OBS. A Word that is Radical in the English language, may be a Derivative in the language from which it comes. EXAMPLES. Conscience optics algebra philosophy signify. DEF. 54. A Simple Word is a word that is used sepa- rately from another word. EXAMPLES. Have brightly freedom parlor music study times patience loved cottage peace cold. DEF. 55. A Compound Word is a word that is made of two or more words combined. EXAMPLES Star-light household- words rose-bud steam-engine pencil-case never- the-less moon-beam rail-road. OBS. The parts of a Compound Word are printed as one word with- out space between them, or they are joined by a short horizontal line (-) called a hyphen. EXAMPLES (without the hyphen). Overlay underwrite withstand sometimes nevertheless. " (with the hyphen). Hour-glass warm-hearted praise- worthy. CLASSIFICATION' OF WORDS. 71 v The Parts of a Compound Word are the BASIS and the ADJUNCT. DEF. 56. The JBasis of a Compound Word is the Principal Element in the word. EXAMPLES. "Race-horse horse-race hour -glass sergeant-at-arms father-m-\3iw a DEF. 57. The Adjunct of a Compound Word is the part that limits or modifies the Basis. EXAMPLES. Race-horse horse-rsice hour- glass jack-o' -lantern f&ther-iti-law zid-de-camp. OBS. The Adjunct of a Word may be one Word or a Phrase. EXAMPLES. One Word. Man-stealer race-horse &oo&-maker. A Phrase. ~F&ther-in-law aid-de-camp will-o'-the-wisp. EEM. Derivative and Compound Words have this distinction, viz. : Compound Words consist of two or more complete Words ; whereas, ' Derivative Words consist of one Word with Letters or Particles prefixed or attached. These Particles are called PREFIXES and SUFFIXES. DEF. 58. A Prefix is one or more letters placed "before a Radical, to form a Derivative Word. EXAMPLES. Reform degrade overlook undertake involve elect a&solve perfect, DEF. 59. A Suffix is one or more letters added to a Word, to make it Derivative. EXAMPLES. Forming graded homeZy goodness. REM. "Words may have more than one Prefix or Suffix. Hence, Prefixes and Suffixes are distinguished as Simple or Compound. EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE. Prefixes. Suffixes. Absolve, Compose, Forming, Takew, Dissolve, Depose, Formation, Verbose, Resolve, jfcpose, Dangerows, Rudefy, Zkform, .Z&take, Coinage, Hope/a/, Inform, Overtake, Goodness, Consular, Uniform , Undertake. Bigotry, Lambkin. 72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. Prefixes. Re con struct, Mis con ceive, In co herent, Un pre tending, Ir re vocable, Im per forated. Suffixes. Lone li ness, Might i ly, Fear less ness, Eight ful ly, Form a tion, Modi fi cation. Prefixes and Suffixes. Re&ating, Dissolved, Conformable, [Reconciliation, Transubstantiation, Indissoluble. Abnegation, Confinement, Substantial, Unconditionally, Disseminating, Conformability. The Radicals of Derivative Words are SEPARABLE or INSEPARABLE. DEF. 60, A Separable Radical constitutes a perfect Word, without its Prefixes or Suffixes. Keform, Deform, Inform, Conform, form. Adjoin, Conjoin, Enjoin, Unjoin, join. DEF. 61. An Inseparable Radical is not used as a dis- tinct word in the language, without the aid of its Prefixes or Suffixes. Collect, Delectable, Election, Recollect, Recollecting, led. Advert, Convertible, Diverting, Inversion, Undiverted, vert. . For an extended list of Prefixes and Suffixes, see " Derivation of Words' ' in SANDERS' ANALYSIS OF WORDS. NOUNS CLASSIFICATION. 73 II, THE USES OF WORDS. By their uses, Words are distinguished as 1. Nouns, } 2. Pronouns, > Principal Elements in Sentences. 3. Verbs , ) 4. Adjectives, ) A % , T 5. Adverbs, [Adjunct Elements. 6. Prepositions, \ Attendant Events. , 9. Words of Euphony, ) DEF. 62. A Noun is a Word used as the Name of a being, of a place, or of a thing. EXAMPLES. " The king of shadows loves a shining mark." OBS. 1. Nouns are names of 1. Material things, as Man book house apples. 2. Ideas or things not material, as Mind hope desire aversion remorse joy. OBS. Let the Pupil he careful here to distinguish a name from th$ thing named ; and remember that the name is the Noun. Thus, a house is a thing the name of that thing is a Noun. . CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. REMARK . Some Nouns are appropriated to individual persons or places, or to things personified ; others are general in their application, being used to designate classes or sorts. Hence, Nouns are distinguished as 'Proper and Common. DEF. 63. A Proper Noun is a name appropriated to an individual person or place, or to a thing personified. EXAMPLES. William Boston Hudson Oregon. " And old Experience learns too late That all is vanity below." 7 7 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. DEF. 64, A Common Noun is a name used to desig- nate one or more of a class or sort of beings or things. EXAMPLES. Man book conscience feeling landscape. "Now fades the glimmering landscape on the siglri." OBS. 1. Some Common Nouns are the names of qualities. DEF. 65. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality of a thing, and not of the Substance. EXAMPLES . Goodness meekness impracticability . DEF. 66. A Collective Noun is a Noun that is Singular in form but Plural in sense. EXAMPLES . Committee assembly army tribe clan multitude. " The village master taught his little school." DEF. 67. A Verbal Noun is a Noun derived from a Verb ; being in form, a Participle in office^ a Substan- tive. EXAMPLES. Beginning gatherings spelling joining. "In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." OBS. 1. The Classification of Nouns as Common and Proper, is one rather of curiosity than of practical utility in the Science of Language. OBS. 2. A Word is known to be a Noun, 1st. By its being a Name. 2d. By its performing a Substantive office. OBS. 3. A Substantive may be, 1. The Subject of a Sentence. 2. The Object of a Sentence or of a Phrase. 3. A Name or an Equivalent, independent in construction. But, OBS. 4. A Substantive office may be performed by Words, by Phrases, and by Sentence*. NOUNS MODIFICATION. 75 EXAMPLES. 1. By Wtrds, Nfuxs. 1. Paul the Apostle wrote an Epistle to Timothy. PRONOUNS. 2. Was ft yow that introduced me to 7'm ? 2. "By Phrases. 3. "Taking a madman's sword, to prevent his doing mischief, can not be regarded as robbing him. ' ' 3. By Sentences. 4. " That all men are created equal, is a self-evident truth." 5. " But Brutus says, he was ambitious." 6. " There is no question as to which must yield.' 1 Hence, OBS. 5. A Noun is generally Substantive. But a Word commonly used as a Noun may become, 1. An Adjective ; as, An iron fence gold leaf. 2. An Adverb ; as, Go home and come lack. 3. A Verb ; as, " But if you mouth it." OBS. 6. A Substantive office is sometimes performed by words com- monly used (a.) As Adjectives. 1. " The good alone are great." 2. ** Nor grudge I thee the much the Grecians give, Nor, murm'ring, take the little I receive." Dryden. "(6.) As Adverbs. 3. " 'Tis Heaven itself that points out an here- after. " Addison. (c.) As Conjunctions. 4. Nomin itivc, ns, "O h -ppy they!"" Ah, luckless he!" " it is /.'" But they snmi'titm-a take the form of the Objective, as, "Him excepted." '* I louiid it to be /*'/.' " Ah me / 8* 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART H. OBS. 1. From the above Paradigm, notice, 1. That Pronouns of the Third Person Singular only are varied to denote the sex. 2. That the Pronoun you is not varied to denote the Number. This is a modern innovation ; but the idiom is too well established to yield to criticism or protest. 3. That the principal variations are made to distinguish the Cases. 4 4. That, to distinguish the PERSONS, different words are employed. OBS. 2. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are commonly used "to specify or otherwise describe Nouns and Pronouns" ; and when thus used, ihey are therefore Adjectives.* They are placed here to denote their origin, and to accommodate such teachers as, by force of habit, are inclined to call them Pronouns in all conditions. (See Possessive Speci- fying Adjectives, p. 99.) QBS. 3. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are sometimes used Substantively, i. e., as the Subjects or the Objects of Sentences the Objects of Phrases, or as Independent Substantives ; and when thus used, they are therefore Substantives. (See Adjective Pronouns.) EXAMPLES. Subject of a Sentence. " My sword and yours are kin." Shakspeare. Object of a Sentence. " You seek your interests ; we follow ours." Object of a Phrase. " Therefore leave your forest of beasts for ours of brutes, called men." Wesley to Pope. 1 ' John is a friend of mine. ' ' Independent. " Thine is the kingdom." "Theirs had been the vigor of their youth." OBS. 4. The Pronoun it is often used indefinitely, and may have an Antecedent of the First, the Second, or the Third Person, of the Sin- gular or of the Plural number ; and sometimes it has no antecedent. EXAMPLES. ' ' It is 1. " " Was it thou ?' 'Is it you ? It was John. Was it the boys ? It snows. It blows. It seems. OBS. 5. That for which a Pronoun is used, may also be a Phrase or a Sentence. EXAMPLES. A Phrase. 1 . " IT is good to- be zealously affected in a good thing. 1 ' A Sentence. 2. " IT remains that we speak of its moral effects." * See Webster's Grammar, p. 46. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 91 RELATIVE* PRONOUNS. OEF. 83. A Relative Pronoun is a Pronoun used to introduce a Sentence which qualifies its own antecedent. EXAMPLES. 1. The youth who was speaking, was applauded. 2. We saw the man whom you described. 3. " Mount the horse which 1 have chosen for thee." OBS. 1. In Example 1, " who" relates to "yguth," and introduces the Auxiliary Sentence (" who was speaking"), whose office it is to de- scribe " youth." The word " who" not only introduces the Adjunct Sentence, but is also an Element in that Sentence a Principal Element the Subject. In Example 2, "whom you described," is an Auxiliary Sentence, used to describe or point out a particular " man" ; "whom* introduces that Adjective Sentence, is the object of "described," and relates to The Words used as Relative Pronouns are, who, which,, that, and what. OBS. 2. The Words as and than are sometimes, by ellipsis, used as Relative Pronouns. EXAMPLES. 1. " Such as I have, give I unto thee." 2. " We have more than heart could wish." But, generally, on supplying the ellipsis, we may make those words supply the offices of Prepositions or of Conjunctions. Thus, 1. "I give unto thee such [things] as [those which] I have." 2. * ' We have more [things] than [those things which] heart could wish." OBS. 3. Who is varied in Declension to indicate the Cases only. Which, that, and what, are not declined. But the word ichose is also used as the Possessive of which. Norn. Pos. Obj. Indep. Who, Whose,* Whom, Who or whom. Which, Whose, Which, Which. That, That, That. What, What, What. * Whose is always a definitive, attached t Nouns, and may relate to persons or to things ; as, " Whose I am, and whom I serve."" Whose body Nature is, and God the soul." 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. OBS. 4. Who is applied to man, or to beings supposed to possess intelligence. EXAMPLES. He who studies will excel those who do not. " He whom sea-severed realms obey." OBS. 5. Which and ii-hat are applied to brute animals and to things. EXAMPLES. The books which I lost. The pen which I use, is good. We value most what costs us most. OBS. 6. That is applied to man or to things. EXAMPLE. "Them that honor me, I will honor." OES. 7. What, when used as a Relative, is always compound; and is equivalent to that which, or the things which. The two Elements of this Word never belong to the same Sentence ; one part introduces a Sentence which qualifies the antecedent part of the same word. " Our proper bliss depends on what we blame." . In this example, "what"' is' a Compound Relative, equivalent to the two words, that which. That, the Antecedent part, is the object of "on;" "which," the Relative part, is the object of "blame." The Auxiliary Sentence, "we blame which," is used to qualify "that." [See page 43, last Diagram.] OBS. 8. The Compounds, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichsoever, what- ever, and whatsoever, are construed similarly to what. INTERROGATIVE PKONOTJNS. DEF. 84. An Interrogative Pronoun is a Pronoun used to ask a question. EXAMPLES. " Who will show us any good ? " Which do you prefer ?" " What will satisfy him?" LIST. OBS. 1. The Interrogative Pronouns are, Who applied to man. [ applied to man or things. \\hat ) EXAMPLES. -1. Who was John the Baptist ? 2. Which will you have ? 3. What can compensate for loss of character ? ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 93 Ous. 2. A Sentence is made Interrogative, 1. By a transposition of the Principal Elements the Pred- icate being placed before its Subject. EXAMPLES. Will yon go ? ' ' Did Claudius waylay Milo ?' ' 2. By the use of an Interrogative Pronoun. EXAMPLES. " What will a man give in exchange for his soul?' 1 ' Who will show us any good ?' ' 3. By the use of Interrogative Adjectives or Adverbs. EXAMPLES. 1. Which book is yours ? 2. " What evil hath he done? 3. " How can ye escape?" 4. " Where shall we go ?" 5. " Why will ye die.?" OBS. 3. The Antecedent technically so called of an Interrogative Pronoun, is the Word which answers the question. EXAMPLES. Who gave the valedictory ? Wheeler. Whom shall we obey ? OUT parents. OBS. 4. A Word which asks a question is to be construed as is the Word which answers it. EXAMPLES. Who has the book ? John [has the book]. Whose book is it ? [It is] William's [book]. " William's" describes "book" ; hence an Adjunct of "book." Whose" has the same construction ; hence an Adjunct of " book." ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. DEF. 85. An Adjective Pronoun is a Definitive Word, used to supply the place of the Word which it limits. EXAMPLE. "Some [ ] said one thing, and some, another" [ ]. OBS. 1. In this Example, "some" defines people (understood), and is, therefore, used Adjecti vuly. It is substituted for the Word * * people, ' ' constituting the Subject of the Sentence ; hence it is used Subslan- tively. But the Substantive being the principal office, the Word is properly called a Pronoun. Its secondary office being Adjective, it is properly called an Adjective Pronoun. 94: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. OBS. 2. An Adjective Pronoun always performs, at the same time, two distinct offices an Adjective office and a Substantive office ; and it may have, at the same time, an Adjective and an Adverbial Adjunct. EXAMPLE. " The prof essedly good are not always really so." " Good" describes people (understood), thus performing an Adject- ive office. " Good" Is the Subject of the Sentence ; hence a Substantive. As a Substantive, "good" is limited by the Adjective " the." As an Adjective, fi good" is modified by the Adverb, " professedly." OBS. 3. Words thus used are, by some grammarians, called " Pro- nominal Adjectives." We prefer the term, "Adjective Pronoun," because the Principal office is Substantive the Adjective office being sec- ondary in the structure of Sentences and of Phrases. OBS. 4. The following Words arjs often thus used : All, Former, Neither, Such, Both, Last, None l That, Each, Latter, One, These, Either, Least, Other, Those, Few, Less, . Several, This. Most specifying, and all qualifying Adjectives may be thus used: EXAMPLES. 1 . * * The good alone are great. ' ' 2. " The poor respect the rich." 3. " One step from the sublime to the ridiculous" OBS. 5. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are used in com- mon with other Definitives Substantively, i. e., as the Representatives of Nouns, which it is their primary office to specify. They are then properly called Adjective Pronouns. EXAMPLES. 1. "He is a friend of mine" 2. " Thine is the kingdom." 3. " Theirs had been the vigor of his youth/ PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 1. " Brutus and Aruns killed each other." 2. " Thou shalt be all in all, and I in thee." Milton. 3. " They sat down in ranks, by hundreds and by fifties." 4. " Teach me to feel another's woe, to hide the fault I see ; The mercy I to others show, that mercy show to me." Pope. 5. " Who are the called, according to his purpose." NOUNS PRONOUNS RECAPITULATION. 95 RECAPITULATION. Radical j Separable. Forms Derivative . . ( Inseparable. ( Prefix. -! Root. WORDS are distinguished by their and Simple. Compound. . . (Suffix. Uses ' Noun. Pronoun. Adjective. Verb. Adverb. Preposition. Conjunction. Exclamation. NOUNS are . PRONOUNS are , Proper Common . . . . f Concrete. J Abstract. 1 Collective. [ Verbal. Personal. Relative. Interrogative. Adjective. MODIFICATION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. ( Masculine. Gender J Feminine. I Neuter." NOUNS and PRONOUNS are modified by Person . Number Case. ( First. , J Second. (Third. j Singular. 1 { Plural. Nominative. Possessive. Objective. Independent. 96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 88. What is a Pronoun ? See Def. 81. Why are Pronouns used ? See Hem. What is an Antecedent of a Pronoun ? See Obs. 1. Antecedents may consist of what ? See Obs. 2. Why are Pronouns .classified ? See Rem. Sow are Pronouns classified ? ^ hat is a Personal Pronoun ? See Def. 82. 89. How are Personal Pronouns distinguished ? See Obs. How are Pronouns modified ? Decline the Personal Pronoun'. 90. What Pronouns are varied in form, to denote Gender ?. . See Obs. 1. For what are the principal variations made ? See Obs. 1. How do we distinguish the Persons of Pronouns? See Obs. 1. Why are Possessive Specifying Adjectives placed with Pronouns ? See Obs. 2. When are mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs used as Substantives ? and why ? See Obs. 3. Make Sentences having each of these Words as Subjects as Objects as Objects of Phrases in Predicate with a Verb. What may be some of the different Antecedents of it ?.See Obs. 4. 91. What is a Relative Pronoun ? See Def. 83. Give the LIST of Relative Pronouns. What is said of the words as and than ? See Obs, 2. Which of the Relative Pronouns are varied in form ?. .See Obs. 3. 92. What are the peculiar uses of who, which, and that? .See Obs. 4, 5, 6. What is there peculiar in the use of the Word what ? . .See Obs. 7. What other Double Relatives have we ? See Obs. 8. What is an Interrogative Pronoun ? See Def. 84. Give the LIST of Interrogative Pronouns See Obs. 1. 93. Sentences are made Interrogative hoiv ? See Obs. 2. What is the Antecedent of an Interrogative Pronoun? . .See Obs, 3. An Interrogative Pronoun is to be constructed how ?. See Obs. 5. What is an Adjective Pronoun ? See Def. 85. 94. What diitind offices are performed by Adjective Pro- nouns ? See Obs. 2. Why is the term Adjective Pronoun given to this class of Words ? See Obs. 3. Give the LIST of Words most frequently used as Adjec- tive Pronouns See Obs. 4. ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION. 97 ADJECTIVES. REM. As things possess individuality, and have points of difference from each other, so we have Words which point out and describe those things, and mark their differences from other things. Hence, DEF. 86. An Adjective is a Word used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun or a Pronoun. EXAMPLES. Good amiable the our earnest falling young conscientious correct famous. A good boy. An amiable young lady. Our national resources. Falling leaves. Conscientious Christian. Correct expression. CLASSIFICATION. REM. Adjectives are used 1. To express a quality as, good boy red rose sweet apple. 2. To specify or limit as, the book thy pen three boys. 3. To express, incidentally, a condition, state, or act as, loving friend wheeling orbs injured reputation. Hence Adjectives are distinguished as Qualifying Adjectives, Specifying Adjectives , and Verbal Adjectives. QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. DEF. 87. A Qualifying Adjective is a Word used to describe & Substantive by expressing a quality. EXAMPLES. Good sweet cold honorable amiable virtuous. An honorable man. An amiable disposition. A virtuous woman. Some good fruit. Three sweet oranges. Much cold water. 98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. SPECIFYING ADJECTIVES. DEF. 88. A Specifying Adjective is a Word used to define or limit the application of a Substantive without denoting a quality. EXAMPLES. A an the this that some three my. A man of letters, j An educated man. The question at issue. This road. That mountain in the distance. Some good fruit. Three sweet oranges. My enemy. OBS. 1. Adjectives derived from Proper Nouns are called Proper EXAMPLES. Arabian Grecian Turkish French. OBS. 2. Which, ichat, and sometimes whose, when used as Adjectives, are called Interrogative Adjectives when they indicate a question. EXAMPLES. 1. Which side will you take? 2. What evil hath he done ? 3. Whose hook is that ? REM. Adjectives may specify- 1. By simply pointing out things by limiting or designating. 2. By denoting relation of ownership, adaptation, or origin. 3. By denoting number, definite or indefinite. Hence, Specifying Adjectives are distinguished as Pure Adjectives, Numeral Adjectives, and Possessive Adjectives. DEF. 89. A Pure Adjective is a Word used only to point out or designate things. EXAMPLES. The that those such next same other. Thou art the man. That question is settled. Those books are received. The next class. The same lesson. Other cares intrude. 1 Such shames are common." I Any man may learn wisdom. ADJECTIVES NUMERAL. 99 DBF. 90. A Possessive Adjective is a Word that de- scribes a being or thing by indicating a relation of owner- ship, origin, fitness, etc. EXAMPLES. My our their whose children's John's Teacher's. My father my neighbor. Children's shoes. Our enemies. Johns horse. Their losses are severe. Teacher s absence. 2. " my of fense is rank ; it smells to heaven ; 3. It hath the primal, eldest curse upon it, A brother's murder." 4. "He heard the kings c o m'm and, and saw that ivritings truth." NOTE. A Possessive Adjective is generally derived from a Substan- tive, by changing the Nominative into the Possessive form. Thus : " He heard the kings command," is equivalent to, He heard the command of the king. DEF. 91. A Numeral Adjective is a Word used to do- note Number. EXAMPLES. One ten first second fourfold few many OBS. 1. Numeral Adjectives may be, Cardinal. One two three four. Ordinal. First second third fourth. Multiplicative. Single double- quadruple. Indefinite. Few many some (denoting number). OBS. 2. A and an, when they Denote number, are to be classed as Numeral Adjectives. EXAMPLES. 1. " Not a drum was heard, nor a funeral note." Not one drum was heard. 2. " Not an instance is on record." Not one instance is on record. VEEBAL ADJECTIVES. DEF. 92. A Verbal Adjective is a Word used to de- scribe a Noun or a Pronoun, by expressing, incidentally, a condition, state, or act. 100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. OBS. This class of Adjectives consists of Participles, used primarily to describe Nouns and Pronouns. EXAMPLES. 1. A running brook. 2. A standing pond. 3. I saw a boy running to school. 4. Another standing by the way. 5. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow. ' ' In this example the Sentence is, " I saw eagle:" arid " scaling yonder peak," is a Phrase used to describe *' I." "Wheeling near its brow,'' describes ' ' eagle. ' ' Scaling and wheeling are Participles used to describe a Noun and. a Pronoun hence they are, in their office, Adjectives, (See Def. 86.) They describe by expressing (not in the character of Predicates, but), tf incidentally, a condition, state, or act," of "I" and " eagle" hence they are Verbal Adjectives. HEM. 1. To render the classification more simple, I have preferred to class all Participles used chiefly to describe Nouns and Pronouns, as Adjectives and, because they are derived from Verbs, and retain more or less of the properties of the Verbs from which they are derived, I use the term Verbal Adjectives. But Teachers who are unwilling to do more than simply to call them Participles, will not find it difficult to adapt their views to the plan of this work ; the Pupil being taught that " Participles, like Adjectives, belong to Nouns and Pronouns." And, in the use of Diagrams " Participles used to limit Substantives, occupy the same position as Adjective^. ' ' HEM. 2. Participles used as Adjectives, commonly retain their verbal character, and, like their Verbs, may have Objects after them. Hence, Verbal Adjectives are distinguished as Transitive and Intransitive. EXAMPLES. Intransitive. 1. " He possessed a well-balanced mind." 2. " Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again." Transitive. 3. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle." 4. " We saw the children picking berries.'* ADJECTIVES MODIFICATION. 101 MODIFICATION OF ADJECTIVES., HEM. Most Qualifying Adjectives, express, by variation*! in form, dif- ferent degrees of quality. Hence, Some Adjectives are varied in form to denote Comparison. There may be four degrees of Comparison. 1 . Diminutive bluish. saltish. 2. Positive bli*e salt. 3. Comparative bluer salter. 4. Superlative bluest saltest. DEF. 93. The Diminutive Degree denotes an amount of the quality less than the Positive. It is commonly formed by adding ish to the form of the Positive. EXAMPLES. Bluez'sA, saltM. ^ DEF. 94. The Positive Degree expresses quality in its simplest form, without a comparison. EXAMPLES. Large pure rich good glimmering. ^ DEF. 95. The Comparative Degree expresses an in- crease or a decrease of the Positive. It is commonly formed by adding er, Or the Words more or less, to the form of the Positive. EXAMPLES. 1. Larger purer richer more common less objection- able. 2. *' Richer by far is the heart's adoration." DEF. 96. The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest increase or decrease of the quality of the Adjective. It is commonly formed by adding cst, or the Words most or least, to the form of the Positive. EXAMPLES. 1. Largest purest most ungrateful smallest upper- most 2. " The purest treasure mortal times afford Is spotless reputation . ' ' 9* 102 ENGLISH GKAMMAB PART II. OBS. L By tl^e use of other Words, the degrees of Comparison may be rendered indefinitely numerous. " EXAMPLES. Cautious- - soi.iew/iat cautious very cautious unusually cautious remarkably cautious exceedingly cautious too little cautious wracautious quite wwcautious. OBS. 2. Comparison descending, is expressed by prefixing the "Words less and least to the Adjective. EXAMPLES. Wise, less wise, least wise ambitious, less ambitious, least ambitious. OBS. 3. Most Adjectives of two or more syllables are compared by prefixing the words more and most, or less and least, to the Positive. EXAMPLES. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Careful more careful most careful. Careful less careful least careful. OBS. 4. Some Adjectives may be compared by either method speci- fied above. I EXAMPLES. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Kemote remoter remote^. Remote . . . . more remote most remote. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. Some Adjectives are irregular in comparison. EXAMPLES. Positive. Comparative. Superlative. Good better best. Bad worse worst. Little less least. Many more most. Much more most. p ( farther farthest. ' ' ( further furthermost. QJ, ( older oldest. ' ' c elder eldest. ADJECTIVES IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 103 OBS 5 Some Adjectives want the Positive. EXAMPLES.- 1. After, aftermost nether, nethermost. 2. " He was in the after part of the ship." OBS. 6. Some Adjectives want the Comparative. EXAMPLES. 1. Top, topmost. 2. "He stood upon the topmost round." OBS. 7. Some Adjectives can not "be compared the qualities they indicate not being susceptible of increase or diminution. EXAMPLES. Bound sq uare triangular infinite. EECAPITTJLATION, Superlative. ADJECTIVES are distinguished as. . , Qualifying Comparative. Positive. Diminutive ( Pure. Specifying 4 Numeral. { Possessive. Verbal. J Transitive. I Intransitive. EXERCISES. $&** Let the Pupil determine which of the following Adjectives are Qualifying, which are Specifying, and which are Verbal. Of the Qual- ify ing Adjectives, which can be compared, and how compared of the Specifying Adjectives, which are Pure, which Numeral, and which Pos- sessiveof the Verbal, which are Transitive and which are Intransitive. Able, False, That, Forgotten, Bold, Good, Three, Standing, Capable, Honest, Tenth, ^ Loving, Doubtful, Infinite, Twice, Admonished, Eager, Just, Several, Unknown. ^^*" Let the Pupil point out the Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns in the following Sentences, and name their classes and modifications. Let him be careful to give a reason for the classification and mod- ification of each, by repeating the appropriate definitions and obser- vations. 104: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PAET II. 1. Good scholars secure the highest approbation of their teacher. 2. Some men do not give' their children a proper education. 3. A trifling accident often produces great results. 4. An ignorant rich man is less esteemed than a wise poor man. 5. The richest treasure mortal times afford, is, spotless reputation. 6. ' * These dim vaults, These winding aisles, of human pomp or pride, 7. Report not. No fantastic carvings show The boast of our vain race, to change the form 8. Of thy fair works. Thou art in the soft winds That run along the summits of these trees 9. In music : thou art in the cooler breath, That, from the inmost darkness of the place, 10. Comes, scarcely felt ; the barky trunks, the ground, The fresh, moist ground, are all instinct with thee." FIRST MODEL. These. . . .describes " vaults ;" hence an Adjective for " a Word used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun or a Pronoun, is an Adjective." " ... .Specifies ; hence Specifying for " an Adjective used only to limit, is a Specifying Adjective." Dim qualifies " vaults ;' ' hence an Adjective for "a Word used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun or a Pronoun, is an Adjective." " ....Expresses a quality; hence Qualifying for " a Word used to describe a Noun by expressing a quality, is a Qualifying Adjective." Vaults ... is a Name ; hence a Noun for ' * the Name of a being, place, or thing, is a Noun." " . . .Name of a sort or class ; hence common for " a Name used to designate a class or sort of beings, places, or things, is a Common Noun." " . . .Spoken of ; hence, Third Person for " the Name of a person or thing spoken of, is of the Third Person. ' ' " . . .Denotes more than one ; hence Plural Number for " Nouns denoting more than one, are of the Plural Number." " . . .Subject of the Sentence ; hence Nominative Case for " the subject of a Sentence is in the Nominative Case.'' Winding . describes "aisles;" hence an Adjective for "a Word used ADJECTIVES - EXERCISES - MODEL. 105 to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun or a Pronoun, is an Adjective." "Winding . describes, by expressing a condition ; hence Verbal for " a Word used to describe a Noun by expressing, incidentally, a condition, state, or act, is a Verbal Adjective." Human . .describes " pomp" or *' pride ;" hence an Adjective for "a Word used to qualify or otherwise describe a Noun or a Pro- noun, is tin Adjective." " ... Expresses a quality ; hence Qualifying for ' ' a Word used to describe a Noun by expressing a quality, is a Qualifying Ad- jective." [It is profitable to repeat the Definitions until they become familiar ; after that they may be omitted the parts of speech and the classes and modifications of the several Words being simply, named, as in the fol- lowing exercise.] SECOND MODEL. ' ' No fantastic carvings show "^^ The boast of our vain race, to change the form Of thy fair works. ' ' Class. Person. Number. Case. Ho is an Adjective Specifying, - - limits " carvings." Fantastic" Adjective Qualifying, - - qualifies " carvings." Carvings " Noun Common, Third, Plu. Nom. to " show. " The. " Adjective Specifying, - - limits "boast." Boast " Noun Common, Third, Sing. Obj. of " show." he Teacher will abridge or extend these Exercises at pleasure. Then let four Sentences be made, each containing the Word good, so that, in the first, it will qualify the Subject in the second, the Object in the third, the Object of a Phrase attached to the Subject in the fourth, the Object of a Phrase attached to the Object. In like manner use the Words amiable honest industrious wise this some loving loved. Thus, 1 That amiable young lady was at the lecture. 2. We saw the amiable gentleman. 3. The benefits of an amiable disposition are numerous. 4. She possesses the advantages of an amiable temper. 106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. ADJECTIVE PHRASES AND SENTENCES. HEM. Things may be described not only by Words, but also "by Phrases and by Sentences. EXAMPLES. Adjective Phrases. I. " The TIME of my departure is at hand." 2. " Night is the TIME for rest." 3. " Turn, gentle HERMIT of the vale.' Adjective Sentences. 1. " HE that getteth wisdom, loveth his own soul." 2. Mount the HORSE which I have chosen for thee. 3. " THOU, -whose spell can raise the dead, I>id the prophet's form appear." QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. 97. What is an Adjective ? See Def. 86. Why are Adjectives used ? . . . , . .See Rem. 1. For what various purposes are Adjectives used ? See Rem. 2. How are Adjectives distinguished ? What is a Qualifying Adjective ? See Def. 87. 98. What is a Specifying Adjective ? See Def 88. What is a Proper Adjective? See Obs. 1. What is an Interrogative Adjective ? See Obs. H^w are Specifying Adjectives distinguished 9 What is a Pure Specifying Adjective ? See Def.. 89. 99. What is a Possessive Specifying Adjective ? See Def. 90. flow are Possessive Adjectives/ormcd ? See Note. What is a Numeral Adjective ? See Def. 91. What is a Verbal Adjective ? See Def. 92. 100. How are Verbal Adjectives distinguished? 101. How are Adjectives modified? H*ow many Degrees of Comparison may some Adjec- tives have ? When is an Adjective of the Diminutive form ? See Def. 93. When is an Adjective of the Positive form ? See Def. 94. When is an Adjective of the Superlative form ? See Def. 96, 102 What is said of Comparison descending ? See Obs. 2. When do we prefix a Word to denote Comparison ? See Obs 3. What Adjectives are compared irregularly 9 103. Are all Adjectives compared ? See Obs. 7. VEEBS CLASSIFICATION. 107 VERBS. HEM. As all things in the universe live, move, or have a being, we necessarily have a class of Words used to express the act, being, or state of those things. Henqe, DBF. 97. A Verb is a Word used to express the act, being, or state of a person or thing. CLASSIFICATION". REM. The act expressed by some Verbs passes over to an Object. Hence, Verbs are distinguished as ^Transitive or Intransitive. DEF. 98. A Verb is Transitive when it expresses an action which terminates on an Object. EXAMPLES. John saws wood God created heaven and earth. DEF. 99, A Verb is Intransitive when it expresses the being or state of its Subject, or an action which does not terminate on an Object. EXAMPLES. Animals run I sit John is sleepy. OBS. 1. Some Verbs are used transitively or intransitively. EXAMPLES. 1. " Cold blows the wind." 2. '* The wind blows the dust." 3. "It has swept through the earth." 4. " Jane has swept the floor." 6. "God moves in a mysterious way." 6. *' Such influences do not move me." DEF. 100. The Verbs be, become, and other Intransitive Verbs, whose Subjects are not represented as performing action, are called Neuter Verbs. EXAMPLES. He w God exists We facome wise They die. 108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. LIST. OBS. The Verbs commonly called Neuter are appertain be become belojig exist lie rest seem sleep. MODIFICATION OF VERBS. REM. Verbs that denote action, have two methods of representing the action. 1st As done by its Subject as, Clara loves Anna. 2d As done to its Subject as, Anna is loved by Clara. Hence, Transitive Verbs have two Voices The Active and the Passive. DEF. 101. A Yerb in the Active Voice represents its Subject as performing an action. EXAMPLE. Columbus discovered America. DEF. 102. A Yerb in the Passive Voice represents its Subject as being acted upon. EXAMPLE. America was discovered by Columbus. OBS. 1. The same fact may commonly be expressed by either the Active or the Passive form. EXAMPLES. William assists Charles. ) m Charles * a*utod by William. \ ^^ wme fact stated ' " William," the Subject of the Active Verb, becomes the Object of "by," when the Verb becomes Passive ; and " Charles/'' the Object of the Active Verb, becomes the Subject of the Passive. OBS. 2. In the English language, the formation of the Passive Voice is less simple than in many other languages. Thus, the corresponding assertions, IN LATIN. Doceo, in the Active Voice, has Doceor in the Passive. IN ENGLISH. I teach, " " " " lamtauyht " " Hence, the English Verb does not form its Passive Voice by an "inflec- tion of the form of the Active," but by combining the Verb be, in its various modifications, with a Participle of the given Verb. VERBS MODE. 109 EXAMPLES. Active. To see, I love, They applaud, Man worships, Passive. To be seen, I am loved, They are applauded, God is wor- shiped. OBS. 3. Most Transitive Verbs may take the Passive form. OBS. 4. A Verb taking the Passive form, becomes grammatically intransitive. The action is directed to no Object. The Subject receives the action. OBS. 5. But few Intransitive Verbs take the Passive form. EXAMPLES. 1. "We laugked at his clownish performances. (Active Intrans.) 2. His clownish performance was laughed at (Passive.) MODE. EEM. In addition to their primary signification, Verbs perform a secondary office L e., they indicate some attendant or qualifying cir> cumstances. This is indicated by the variations of the form of the Verb, or by prefixing Auxiliary Words. 1. A Verb m'ay simply express a fact. 2. It may express a fact as possible, probable, obligatory, etc. 3. It may express a fact conditionally. 4 It may express -a command or request. 5. It may express the name of an act, or a fact unlimited by a Sub- ject. Hence, Verbs have five modes of expressing their signification The Indicative, The Subjunctive^ The Potential, The Imperative, and The Infinitive. DEF. 103. A Verb used simply to indicate or assert a fact, is in the Indicative Mode. EXAMPLES. 1. " God created the heaven and the earth." 2. '* Rays of limpid light gleamed round their path." 10 110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. DEF. 104. A Verb indicating probab ility, power ^ will, or obligation, of its Subject, is in the Potential Mode. OBS. Words which may be regarded as signs of the Potential Mode, are, may might can could must sJiall should will would, either alone, or followed by the Word have. EXAMPLES. I may go You might have gone John should study Mary can learn It could not be done John shall study. OBS. Verbs in the Indicative and the Potential Modes may be used in Interrogative Sentences. (See p. 93.) EXAMPLES. 1. " Did Claudius waylay Milo ?" 2. " May one be pardoned and retain the offense ?" DEF. 105. A Yerb expressing a fact conditionally (hypothetically) is in the Subjunctive Mode. 4 EXAMPLE. " If he repent, forgive him." OBS. If, though, unless, and other Conjunctions, are commonly used with the Subjunctive Mode. But they are not to be regarded as the signs of this Mode, for they are also used wiljh. the Indicative and with the Potential. EXAMPLES. 1. If the boat goes to-day, I shall go in it. 2. I would stay, if I could conveniently. The condition expressed by "if the boat goes," is assumed as a fact hence, " goes" is in the Indicative Mode. NOTE. The Subjunctive Mode is limited to Auxiliary Sentences. DEF. 106. A Yerb used to command or entreat is in the Imperative Mode. EXAMPLES. 1 . " If he repent, forgive him. ' ' 2. ** Come to the bridal chamber, Death !" OBS. As we can command only a person or thing addressed, the subject of an Imperative Verb must be of the Second Person ; and, as a person addressed is supposed to he present to the speaker, the name of the Subject is usually understood. EXAMPLES. Ory aloud spare not. PARTICIPLES. Ill But it is often expressed. ' ' Go ye into all the world. ' ' DEF. 107. A Verb used without limitation by a Sub- ject, is in the Infinitive Mode. OBS. 1. The Preposition to, is usually placed before the Infinitive Verb, EXAMPLES. 1. " To enjoy is to obey/' 2. " I came not here to talk." OBS. 2. But that Word is sometimes suppressed. (See p. 269). EXAMPLE. " Let me hear thy voice, awake, and bid her Give me new and glorious hopes." OBS. 3. As a Verb in the Infinitive has no grammatical Subject, it can not be a Predicate. It is used, in combination with its Preposition, 1. Substantively ; as To do good is the duty of all. 2. Adjectively; as The way to do good. 3. Adverbially ; as I ought to do good. PARTICIPLES. EEM. In the three Sentences, , 1 . Birds sing, 2. Birds are singing, 3. Singing birds delight us, the Word "sing" (in Example 1) is a Verb used to assert an act of " birds." In Example 2, " singing" is derived from the same Verb ; and with the aid of the Auxiliary Verb " are," it makes the same assertion. In Example 3, *' singing" does not assert, but it assumes the same act. The same signification remains in the three Words, while they per- form different grammatical offices. Hence, DEF. 108. A Participle is a "Word derived from a Verb, retaining the signification of its Yerb, while it also per- forms the office of some other " part of speech." Ocs. Participles are Derivative Words, formed from their Radi- cals commonly by the addition of ing or ed. EXAMPLES. Be . being. Love loving loved. Have . . .having. Walk walking walked. 112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. REM. A Participle is used with or without an Auxiliary prefixed. Hence, Participles are \ ple or ( Compound. DEF. 109. A Simple Participle is a single Word de- rived from its Verb. EXAMPLES. Loving, loved having, had being, been. DEF. 110. A Compound Participle consists of a simple Participle, with the Auxiliary Participles "having" or " being," or " having been." EXAMPLES. \ L Lovin S Fearing. I 2. Loved Feared. S3. Being loved Being feared. 4. Having loved Having feared. 5. Having been loved. Having been feared. 6 Having been loving Having been fearing. EEM. 1. Tn giving names to the different Participles, grammarians are not agreed. By different authors the Simple Participles are dis- tinguished as Present and Past, ' * Active and Passive, ' " Imperfect and Perfect, " First and Second, and by other terms. HEM. 2. While none of the above names can be regarded as wholly free from imperfections, those first mentioned are perhaps less objec- tionable than others. Hence, Participles are distinguished as 1. Present, 2. Prior Present , 3. Past. DEF. 111. The Present Partible is the Participle formed by adding ing to the root of the Verb, and com- monly indicates a present act, being, or state. EXAMPLES. Being- -having loving walking doing fearing. OBS. "When the Participle is used with a Verb, the time is indi- cated by the Verb, and may be Present, Past, or Future. PARTICIPLES. 113 EXAMPLES. Present. I am writing letters. Past. I was writing letters. Future, I shall be writing letters, DEF. 112, a. A Past Participle is the Participle that is regularly formed by adding ed to the root of its Verb. EXAMPLES. Loved feared hated respected. OBS. 1. The Past Participles of Irregular Verbs are variously formed. [See List.] OBS. 2. The Past Participle may be used with a Verb indicating time, Present, Past, or Future. , EXAMPLES. Present. I am loved William is seen. .Past. I was loved William was seen. f Future. I shall be loved William will be seen. OBS. 3. The Present Participle is commonly Active in signification. EXAMPLES. 1. A falling leaf. 2. A fading flower. 3. "Scaling 'yonder peak, I saw an eagle, wheeling near its brow." OBS. 4. The Past Participle is commonly Passive in signification. EXAMPLES. 1. Injured reputation. 2. Lost opportunity. 3. ''Truth crushed to earth, will rise again." OBS. 5. A Participle of an Active Verb, preceded by the Auxiliary having, is used actively. EXAMPLES. 1. Having loved. 2 Having lost a day. 3. " The hour having arrived, we c^tnmenced the exercises." 4, Having seen the elephant, the rustic was satisfied. OBS. 6. Preceded by the Auxiliary being, or having been, the Past Participle is used passively, EXAMPLES. 1. Being loved. 2. Having been censured for idleness, John resolved to be diligent. HEM. The above and similar combinations of the Present Participle with the Past, indicate Prior Present Tense. Hence, DEF. 112, b. A Prior Present Participle is a Participle compounded of a Present and a Past Participle. OBS. 7> A Compound Participle may be Present or Prior Present- Active or Passive. 10* 114: ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PART II. EXAMPLES, Present. Being loved ............ Being se.en. Prior Present. Having loved .......... Having seen. Actwe ^ avm l ve( l .......... Having seen. ' I Having been walking. . .Having been seeing. \ Being loved ............ Being seen ' ( Having been loved ..... Having been seen. OBS. 8. The term Participle is given to these words because they participate in the offices of two "parts of speech" at the same time : that of the Verbs from which they are derived, and also of Nouns, of Adjectives, of Adverbs, of Prepositions, of Conjunctions in Predicate with Auxiliary Verbs, or to introduce Participial Phrases. EXAMPLES. 1. Noun (a). Singing is a pleasing exercise. (Z>). William maintains a fair standing in society, (c). " In the beginning, God created the heaven." 2. Adjective (d). A running BROOK a standing TREE. (e). Behold the GOOSE standing on one foot. 3. Adverb (/). " 'Tis strange ; 'tis passing STRANGE." (g). The task was exceedingly DIFFICULT. 4. Preposition (h). "I speak concerning Christ and the Church. (i). " Nothing was said touching that question." 5. Conjunction (k). " Seeing we can not agree, the discussion may be dropped." 6. Exclamation (Z). Shocking I Astonishing ! 7. In Predicate (m). "Birds are singing bees are humming. 1 * 8. Leader of Phrase, (n}. Wounding $he feelings of others. (o). " Avoid wounding the feelings of others. ' ' (p). A habit of moving quickly, is another way of gaining time. OBS. 9. Participles, like the Verbs from which they are derived, are Transitive or Intransitive. OBS. 10 A Participle used as a Preposition, must be Transitive. EXAMPLE." I speak concerning Christ and the Church." OBS, 11. A Participle used as a Noun, as an Adjective, or in Predi- cate, or as the Leader of a Participial Phrase, may be Intransitive or Transitive. PARTICIPLES TENSE. 115 (a) Intransitive. 1. Noun " Scolding has long been considered ungenteel. 2. Adjective . /'The curfew tolls the knell of parting day." 3. Predicate... 1 ' Spring-time of year is coming." (b) Transitive. 4. Teaching Clara, is a pleasing occupation. 5. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle.' 6. We are studying grammar. OBS..12. A Participle used as a Conjunction or as an Adverb must be Intransitive. EXAMPLES. 1. " Wherefore is there a price in the hands of a fool to get wisdom, seeing he hath no heart to it." 2. " A virtuous household, but exceeding poor." TENSE. HEM. Generally the form of the Yerb denotes not only the manner, but also the time, of the action or event expressed by it. Hence the distinction of Tense. DEF. 113. Tense is a modification of Verbs, denoting distinction of time. KEM, Time is Present, Past, or Future: of each of these periods we have two varieties, represented by different forms. Hence, Most Verbs have six Tenses Prior Past and Past, Prior Present and Present, Prior Future and Future. DEF. 114. A Verb in the Prior Past Tense denotes time past at some other past time mentioned, or implied. EXAMPLE. I had already expressed my opinion. ** OBs.Had, prefixed to a Participle, is usually the sign of this Tense. DEF. 115. A Verb in ihoPast Tense denotes time fully past. EXAMPLES. I wrote you a letter. We walked to Troy. I saw an eagle. David loved Jonathan. 116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. OBS. In Regular Verbs, the sign of this Tense is d or ed added to the root of the Verb. In Irregular Verbs, a distinct form is used. [See List.] DEF. 116. The Prior Present Tense denotes time past, but in a period reaching to the present. EXAMPLES. I have completed my task. John has returned. Mary has been prospered, Thou hast destroyed thyself. OBS. Have, hast, and has, are the signs of this Tense. DEF/ 11 7. The Present Tense denotes time present. EXAMPLES. Eliza studies. Ellen is reading. Clara can sing. Do you hear that bell ? Emily may ivrite that diagram. OBS. 1. This is the simplest form of the Verb the sign do is used to denote intensity, and in asking questions. OBS. 2. Present Tense may be 1. Definite as, I am writing. William studies. 2. Indefinite as, Virtue is commendable. DE"F. 118. The Prior Future Tense denotes time past, as compared with some future time specified. EXAMPLE. We shall have finished this recitation before the next class will come. OBS. Shall have and mil have, are the signs of this Tense. DEF. 119. The Future Tense denotes future time, as compared with the present. EXAMPLE. James will return to-morrow I shall see him, OBS. Shall, in the First Person, and will, in the Second and Third, are the signs of this Tense. REM. Distinctions of time are not indicated with precision by the form of the Verb. This must be done by the use of Adjuncts. In the Potential Mode, the Tenses are quite Indefinite one form being often used for another [See p, 122.] The same remarks will apply to Participles to the Infinitive, to the Subjunctive, and sometimes to the Indicative Mode. PARTICIPLES TENSE EXERCISES. RECAPITULATION. 117 VERB, - TRANSITIVE. INTRANSITIVE. ' Indicative . . - 'Prior Past, Past, Prior Present, Present, Prior Future, Future. f ACTIVE. ( PASSIVE. Potential . . . ! Prior Past, Past, Prior Present, Present. ( ACTIVE. ( NEUTER. Subjunctive. - Imperative , . Past, Present. Present. Infinitive. . . Prior Present, Present. Participle . . < Past, Prior Present, Present. EXERCISES. each Verb and Participle in the following Exercises be pointed out, and its Class and Modification given. 7. Willing to be taught. 8. Having seen the teacher. 9. Retire. 10. Let us alone. 11. Permit me to pa 12. Let me go. 1. I wrote. 2. Thou art reading. 3. James may recite. 4. Mary can study. 6. Joining the multitude. Accustomed to study. 13. It is pleasant to ride in a sail-boat. 14. We are all fond of singing. 15. Some are accustomed to sing by note. 16. The young ladies ought to have attended the lecture. 17. By teaching others, we improve ourselves. 18. Being accustomed to study, we can learn that lesson easily. 19. Having been censured for idleness, John has resolved to be diligent. 20. By endeavoring to please all, we fail to please any. 118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. 21. " To be or not to be that is the question/' 22. " Spirit ! I feel that thou Wilt soon depart ! 23. This body is too weak longer to hold The immortal part. 24. The ties of earth are loosening 25. They will soon break ; 26. And thou, even as a joyous bird, Thy flight will take I To the eternal world." <* 27. Go forth when midnight winds are high, And ask them whence they come ; 28. Who sent them raging through the sky, 29. And where is their far home ! 30. "Mark the sable woods, That shade sublime yon mountain's nodding brow. 31. With what religious awe, the solemn scene. Commands your steps. 32. As if the reverend form Of Minos or of Numa should forsake The Elysian seats, and, down the embowering glad, Move to your pausing eye." 33. " In the pleased infant, see its power expand, Whef? first the coral fills his little hand ; 34. Throned in his mother's lap, it dries each tear, As her sweet legend falls upon 'his ear ; 35. Next it assails him in his top's strange hum, Breathes in his whistle, echoes in his drum ; 36. Each gilded toy that doting love bestows, He longs to break, and every spring expose." 37. " Could I forget What I have been, I might the better bear What I am destined to. 38. I am not the first That has been wretched but to think how much I have been happier." 39. "Truth crushed to earth, will rise again ; 40. The eternal years of God are hers : 41. But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, And dies amid her worshipers. ' ' PARTICIPLES EXERCISES MODEL. 119 Let the Verbs and Participles on the preceding page be parsed ac- coiding to the following MODEL. Crushed is [a Participle, from the Verb crush ;] used here to describe a condition of "Truth ;" hence, a Verbal Adjective. Will rise .... asserts an act of "Truth ;" hence, a Verb. has no object ; hence, Intransitive. " simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. " denotes time future ; hence, Future Tense. Are asserts being of " years ;" hence, a Verb. " has no object ; hence, Intransitive. simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode, denotes time present ; hence, Present Tense. "Wounded. ... is [a Participle, from the Verb wound ;] used here to de- scribe a condition of " Error ;" hence, a Verbal Adjective. Writhes asserts an act of " Error ;" hence, a Verb. " has no object ; hence, Intransitive. simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode, denotes time present ; hence, Present Tense. " The surging billows and the gamboling storms Come crouching to his feet." Surging is [a Participle, from the Verb surge;] used here to describe "billows;" hence, a Verbal Adjective. Gamboling . .is [a Participle, from the Verb gambol ;] used here to describe "storms;" hence, a Verbal Adjective. Come asserts an act of " billows" and " storms ;" hence, a Verb. " has no object ; hence Intransitive. " simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. " denotes time present ; hence, Present Tense. Crouching. . .is [a Participle, from the Verb crouch;] used here to modify the act expressed by "come ;" " (it declares the manner of coming ;) hence, an Adverb by representation. [See p. 249, Obs. 5.] "In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." Beginning . . .is [a Participle, from the Verb begin ;] used here as the name of an event ; hence, a Verbal Noun. Created asserts an act of " God ;" hence, a Verb. act passes to objects (heaven and earth) Transitive. simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode. denotes a particular time past ; hence, Past Tense. 120 ENGLISH GEAMMAE PAET H. CONJUGATION OF VEEBS. REMARK 1. We have seen that most verbs are varied in form to de- note different modes and limes of action or "being. They are also varied to correspond with their subjects in Person and Number. The regular arrangement of the various forms of a Verb is called its Conjugation. REM. 2. Verbs "are varied by inflection of their Radicals, or by the use of different Radicals. Hence, in their methods of Conjugation, Verbs are distinguished as Regular and Irregular. REGULAR VERBS. DEF. 120. A Verb whose Past Tense is formed by the addition of ed to the Radical, is Regular in Conjugation. EXAMPLES. Present Tense. I love, act, save, fear. Past Tense. I loved, acted, saved, feared. OBS. 1. Some Verbs, for euphony, drop the final letter of the Radical. EXAMPLES. Love, loved. Save, saved. Recite, recited. OBS 2. Some Verbs, for euphony, double a final letter of the Radical. EXAMPLES. Tan, tanned. Transmit, transmitted. IRREGULAR VERBS. DEF. 121. A Yerb whose Past Tense is not made by the addition of d or ed to the Radical, is Irregular in Con- jugation. EXAMPLES. Present Tense. I am, see, do, hide, lay. Past Tense. I was, saw, did, hid, laid. REM. Some Irregular Verbs are not used in all the Modes and Tenses ; Hence, VERBS CLASSES. 121 DEF. 122. A Defective Verb is a Yerb that is not used in all the Modes and Tenses. Present. Can, may, must, ought, shall, will. Past. Could, might, ought, quoth, should, would. KEM. We have seen [see Part I., p. 26] 1. That the Predicate of a Sentence must have at least one Verb. 2. That it may have other Words. 3. That in Predicates formed of more than one Word, the last Word constitutes the Principal Part of the Predicate, t. e. t makes the Principal Assertion. 4. That the Principal Part of a Predicate may be A Verb. I lave. I do see. A Participle. I am loved. I have seen. An Adjective. John is weary. Velvet feels smooth. A Noun. We are friends. He is a scholar. A Pronoun. It is /. Thine is the kingdom. 5. That the Words prefixed to the Principal Part are Auxiliaries, and may be Verbs only, or Verbs and Participles. Hence, DEF. 123. An Auxiliary Verb is a Verb that is prefixed to another Yerb or to a Participle, to distinguish the Voice, Mode, or Tense of the Principal Verb. Always Auxiliaries. Present. Can, may, must, shall. Past. Could, might, should. Sometimes Principal Verbs. Present. Am, be, do, T have, will. Past. was, did, had, would. OBS. These Words, when used as Auxiliaries, perform peculiar offices, thus, Be, with its various modifications, is used before a Past Participle to indicate the Passive Voice. 122 ENGLISH GRAMMAB PAKT II. Can, may, must, shall (used to command), and will (signifying volition), indicate the Present Tense of the Potential Mode. Could, might, should, and would, are the signs of the Past Tense Potential. Do is used in the Present Tense, Indicative-intensive form. Did " " Past Tense, " " " Had " " Prior Past Tense, " Have " Prior Present Tense, Indicative. May have " " Prior Present Tense, Potential. Might have" " Prior Past Tense, " Shall " " Future, Indicative (First Person). Will ' * Future Indicative (Second or Third Person). NOTE. The Future and the Prior Future Tenses are placed in the Indicative Mode in conformity to the general custom of grammarians. A strict regard to uniformity and consistency would place them with their kindred forms in the Potential Mode, For, The * ' Indicative Mode is that form of the Verb used to indicate or tusert an act, being, or state." Now a thing future may be predicted, but' can not be declared or asserted. We may declare a purpose or make a prediction. So may we declare the possibility of an act r or the obligation to perform an act. But these are done by a modification of the Predi- cate, called Potential Mode. In the Sentence ' ' T shall go, ' ' we have asserted a prediction of an act. * * "I may go, " we have asserted a probability of an act. " "I can go," we have asserted a possibility of an act. *' I should go," asserts obligation to perform an act. " I might go," asserts liberty to perform an act. " I could go," asserts power to perform an act. Neither of the above assertions declares the performance of an act. They assert "probability, power, will, or obligation," but no actual event. The Potential Present and Past alike assert a present probability, pre- diction, possibility, etc., of & future act or event. " I shall go if I choose," "I may go if I will," "I can go if I will," " I should go if I were invited," * a11 refer to a future act " I might go if I were invited," " I could go if I were invited," VERBS CONJUGATION. EXERCISES. Showing the peculiar uses of Auxiliary Verbs. 123 PREDICATE. Auxiliaries. Principal. 2 3 4 5 am have been was had been shall shall have be been - singing. may be may have been might be might have been (2-) John is ] has been was had been will be ] will have been may be may have been might be might have been loved. the Pupil, substitute for the Word "John" the following Subjects, and notice what changes in the various Auxiliary Verbs must consequently be made. Thus, I requires (am have shall shall have.) Thou " (art hast hadst wilt mayst mightst.) They " (are have.) People " (are have.) He " [no chancfi.] Hence, OBS. The practical object of the following Paradigms is to teach the Pupil what are the various changes in the form of the Predicate to correspond to the Subject, and to indicate the various Modes, Tenses, Persons, and Numbers. 124: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. Paradigm of the Irregular Verb " BE." PRINCIPAL PARTS. -4m, was, being, been. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular Number. Plural Number, First Person. ... I am, We are, Second " .J houart ' (Ye are, ( You are, [ You are, Third " He is. They are. PRIOR PRESENT TENSE. 1. I have been. We have been, 2 j Thou hast been, j Ye have been, ' { You have been, | You have been, 3. He" has been. They have been. PAST TENSE. 1. I was, . We were, 2 j Thou wast, j Ye were, ' { You was,* ( You were, 3. He was. They were. PRIOR PAST TENSE. 1. I had been, We had been, 2 j Thou hadst been, j Ye had been, ' ( You had been, ( You had been, 3. He had been. They had been. FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall be, We shall be, o j Thou wilt be, j Ye will be, z> | You will be, { You will be, 3. He will be. They will be. PRIOR FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall have been, We shall have been, 2 j Thou wilt have been, j Ye 'will have been, ' "j You will have been, ( You will have been, 3. He will have been. They will have been. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I may be, We may be, o j Thou mayst be, j Ye may be, { You may be, | You may be, 3. He may be. They may be. * Some good writers use the Plural form of the Verb (were) in addressing one person. VERBS CONJUGATION. 125 PRIOR PRESENT TENSE, Singular. 1. I may have been, 2 ( Thou mayst have been, ' ( You may have been, 3. He may have been. 1. 2 ' 3. PAST TENSE. I might be, > Thou mightst be, [ You might be, He might be. - Plural. We may have been, Ye may have been, You may have been, They may have been. We might be, Ye might be, You might be, They might be. PRIOR PAST TENSE. I might have been, Thou mightst have been, You might have been, He might have been. We might have been, C Ye might have been, ( You might have been They might have been SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 3. If I be, If thou be, If you be, If he be. PRESENT TENSE. 1. If I were, 2 ( If thou wert, ( If you were, 3. If he were. PAST TENSE, If we be, C If ye be, ) If you be, If they be. If we were, \ If ye were, [ If you were, ' If they were. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. n ( Be thou, or ) Do thou be. C Be ye, or Do ye be. ( Be you, or Do you be. INFINITIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE To be. PRIOR PRESENT TENSE To have been. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. Bem You might recite, " He mig/it recite. We might recite, \ Ye might recite, [ You might recite, They might recite. Plural. I may be reciting, C Thou may at be reciting, { You may be reciting, He may be reciting. We may be reciting, Ye may be reciting, You may be reciting, They may be reciting. I may have been reciting, ( Thou mayst have been reciting, ( You may have been reciting, He may have been reciting. We may have been reciting, C Ye may have been reciting. ( You may have been reciting, They may have been reciting. I might be reciting, ( Thou mightst be reciting, \ You might be reciting, He might be reciting. We might be reciting, Ye might be reciting, You might be reciting, They might be reciting. PRIOR PAST TENSE. Singular. 1. I might have recited, o ( Thou mightst have recited, ' ( You might have recited, 3. He mig/it have recited. Plural. 1. We might have recited, o ( Ye might have recited, ' ( You might have recited, 3. They might have recited. I might have been reciting, C Thou mightst have beenreciting, ( You might have been reciting, He mig/it have been reciting. We might have been reciting, $ Ye might have been recit//^. ( You might ha-ve been reciting, They might have been reciting. VERBS CONJUGATION. 129 SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 1. If 3. If 1. If 2. HJ 3. If I recite, thou recite, you recite, he recite. we recite, ye recite, you recite, they recite. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. PAST TENSE. Singular. Though I recited, Though thou recited, Though you recited, Though he recited. Plural. Though we recited, n ( Though ye recited, ' \ Though you recited, 3. Though they recited. If I be reciting, \ If thou be reciting, [ If you be reciting, If he be reciting. If we be reciting, \ If ye be reciting, [_ If you be reciting, If they be reciting. Though I were recitm^, C Though thou wert reciting, ( Though you were reciting, Though he were reciting. Though we were reciting, C Though ye were reciting, ( Though you were reciting, Though they were reciting. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. C Recite thou, or Do thou recite. Plural. C Be ye reciting, or \ Do ye be reciting. 2. o C Recite ye or you, or ' Do ye or you recite. C Be thou recitm^r, or \ Do thou be reciting. INFINITIVE MODE. PRESENT. To recite. To be reciting. PRIOR PRESENT. To have recited. To have been reciting, PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. "Reciting. PRIOR PRESENT. Having recited. \ 130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. Paradigm of the Verb " LOVE." ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. Hove, Thou lovest, You love, 3. He loves. 2 ' Singular. Plural. 1. We love, Ye love, You love, 3. " They love. I am loved, ( Thou art loved, \ You are loved, He is loved. We are loved, C Ye are loved, \ You are ioved, They are loved. PRIOR PRESENT TENSE. 1. I have loved, 2 ( Thou hast loved, ' \ You have loved, 3. He has loved. Singular. Plural. 1. We have loved, 2 C Ye have loved, ( You have loved, 3. They have loved. I have been loved, C Thou hast been loved, You have been loved, He has been loved. We have been loved, C Ye have been loved, ( You have been loved, They have been loved. 1, I loved, 2 C Thou lovedst, ' \ You loved, 3. He loved. 1. We loved, Ye loved, You loved, 3. " They loved. PAST TENSE. Singular. Plural. I was loved, ( Thou wast loved, \ You was or were loved, He was loved. We were loved, C Ye were loved, \ You were loved, They were loved. PRIOR PAST TENSE. Singular. 1. I had loved, 2 ( Thou hadst loved, ' \ You had loved, 3. He had loved. I had been loved, C Thou hadst been loved, ( You had been loved, He had been loved. TERBS CONJUGATION. 131 I. We had loved, 2 C Ye had loved, You had loved, 3. They had loved. Plural. We had heen loved, C Ye had been loved, I You had been loved, They had been loved, FUTURE TENSE. 1. I shall love, 2. 3, f Thou wilt love, [ You will love, He will love. 1. We shall love, 2 ( Ye will love, ' ( You will love, 3. They will love. Singular, Plural. I shall be loved, C Thou wilt be loved, ( You will be loved, He will be loved. We shall be loved, C Ye will be loved, \ You will be loved, Thqy will be loved. PRIOR FUTURE TENSE. Singular. 1. I shall have loved, 2 C Thou wilt have loyed, You will have loved, 3. He will have loved. Plural. 1. We shall have loved, 2 ( Ye will have loved, ' { You will have loved, 8. They will have loved. I shall have been loved, C Thou wilt have been loved, \ You will have been loved, He will have been loved. We shall have been loved, C Ye will have been loved, ( You will have been loved, They will have been loved, POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE, 1. I may love, 2 ( Thou mayst love, ' ( You may love, 3. He may love. Singular. Plural. 1. We may love, 2 C Ye may love, ' You may love, 3. They may lovt. I may be loved, C Thou mayst be loved, You may be loved, He may be loved. We may be loved, C Ye may be loved, ( You may be loved, They may be loved. 132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PART II. PRIOR PRESENT TENSE. Singular. I may have loved, ( Thou mayst have loved, ( You may have loved, \ He may have loved. Plural. 1. "We may have loved, 2 ( Ye may have loved, ' 2 ( ' ( You may have loved, 3. They may have loved. I may have been loved, Thou mayst have been loved, You may have been loved, He may have been loved. We may have been loved, C Ye may have been loved, You may have been loved, They may have been loved. PAST TENSE. 1. I might love, 2 C Thou mightst love, ' \ You might love, 3. He might love. Singular. We might love, Ye might love, You might love, They might love. I might be loved, Thou mightst be loved, You might be loved, He might be loved. Plural. We might be loved, C Ye might be loved, \ You might be loved, They might be loved. PRIOR PAST TENSE. Singular. 1. I might have loved, I might have been loved, 2 ( Thou mightst have loved, C Thou mightst have been loved, ' \ You might have loved, ( You might have been loved, 3. He might have loved. He might have been loved. Plural. 1. We might have loved, 2 C Ye might have loved, ' You might have loved, 3. They might have loved. We might have been loved, Ye might have been loved, You might have been loved, They might have been loved. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. If I love, o C If thou love, ( If you love, 3. If he love. Singular. If I be loved, If thou be loved, If you be loved, If he be loved. VERBS CONJUGATION. Plural. 133 1. If we love, 2 \ If ye love, ' { If you love, 3. If they love. If we be loved, j If ye be loved, j If you be loved, If they be loved. PAST TENSE. 1. If I loved, 2 j If thou lo\ ed, ' { If you loved, 3. If he loved. Singular. If I were loved, {If thou wert loved, If you were loved, If he were loved. Plural. 1. If we loved, 2 j If ye loved, * { If you loved, 3. If they loved. If we were loved, ilf ye were loved, If you were loved, If they were loved. IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. n j Love thou, or ' ( Do thou love. Singular. j Be loved, or 1 Do thou be loved. Plural 2 j Love ye, or ' ( Do ye love. {Be ye loved, or Do ye be loved. INFINITIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. To love. To be loved. PRIOR PRESENT TENSE. To have loved. To have been loved. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. Loving. Being loved. PRIOR PRESENT. Having loved. Having been loved* PAST. Loved. 12 134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART H. Synopsis of the Verb " STUDY." Active Voice. INDICATIVE MODE. First Person. DECLARATIVE FORM. DECLARATIVE FORM. Negative. PRESENT I study I study not, or I do not study. PRIOR PRESENT. 1 have studied I have not studied. PAST I studied I studied not, or I did not study. PRIOR PAST I had studied I had not studied. FUTURE I shall study I shall not study. PRIOR FUTURE. .1 shall have studied. .1 shall not have studied. POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT I may study I may not study. PRIOR PRESENT. I may have studied. .1 may not have studied. PAST I might study I might not study. PRIOR PAST. . . ."I might have studied. . I might not have studied. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT If I study If I study not. PAST If I studied If I studied not. IMPERATIVE MODE. Second 'Person. PRESENT Study, or ) ( Study not, or " Do thou study, ) " " ( Do not study. INFINITIVE MODE. PRESENT To study Not to study. PRIOR PRESENT. .To have studied Not to have studied. PARTICIPLES. SIMPLE Studying Not studying, or studying not. COMPOUND Having studied. * . . .Not having studied. VERBS SYNOPSIS. 135 Synopsis of the Verb "TuRN. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MODE. DECLARATIVE FORM. INTERROGATIVE FORM. PRESENT I turn Do I turn ? PRIOR PRESENT. . .1 have turned Have I turned? PAST. I turned Did I turn ? PRIOR PAST I had turned Had I turned? FUTURE I shall turn Shall I turn ? PRIOR FUTURE. . . .1 shall have turned Shall I have turned ? POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT I may turn May I turn ? PRIOR PRESENT ... I may have turned .... May I have turned ? PAST I might turn Might I turn ? PRIOR PAST I might have turned. . .Might I have turned? Synopsis of the Verb " SELL." Passive Voice. INDICATIVE MODE. Third Person. INTERROGATIVE FORM. INTERROGATIVE FORU. Negative. T Is it sold ? Is it not sold ? PRIOR PRESENT. . .Has it been sold ? Has it not been sold ? PAST Was it sold ? Was it not sold ? PRIOR PAST Had it been sold ? Had it not been sold ? FUTURE WiH it be sold ? Will it not be sold ? PRIOR FUTURE. . .Will it have been sold ?. .Will it not have been sold ? POTENTIAL MODE. Third Person. PRESENT May it be sold ? May it not be sold ? PRIOR PRESENT . .May it have been sold ?. .May it not have been sold ? PAST .Might it be sold ? Might it not be sold ? PRIOR PAST Might it have been sold?. Might it not have been sold? * The SUBJUNCTIVE, IMPERATIVE, and INFIMTIVB MODES are not used in Inter- rogative Sentences. 136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. Paradigm of the Irregular Verb u SEE." DECLARATIVE FORM. INTERROGATIVE FORM. INDICATIVE MODE. 1. I see, 9 j Thou seest, * | You see, 3. He sees. 1. We see, 2 ( Ye see, ' \ You see, 3. They see. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. Seel? j Seest thou ? J See you ? Sees he ? See we ? j See ye ? ( See you ? See they ? OBS The above is the Simple form, which, in Interrogative Sentences, is not much used, the Intensive form being commonly employed. Thus, 1. I do see, 2 j Thou dost see, ' "j You do see, 3. He does see. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1. 2 3. They do see. We do see, j Ye do see, ' "j You do see, Plural. Do I see ? [ Dost thou see J Do you see ? Does he see ? Do we see ? Do ye see ? | Do you see ? Do they see ? PRIOR PRESENT TENSE. 1. T have seen, Thou hast seen, Singular. 2 \ ' ( You have seen, 3. He has seen. 1. We have seen, 2 j Ye have seen, 3. You have seen, They have seen. Plural. Have I seen ? j Hast thou seen ? | Have you seen ? Has he seen ? Have we Keen f j Have ye seen ? { Have you seen ? Have they seen ? IBKEGTJLAR VERBS PARADIGM 137 TENSE. Simple Form. 1. I saw, 2 j Thou sawest, ' "j You saw, 3. He saw. 1. We saw, 2 j Ye saw, ' { You saw, 3. They saw. Singular. Plural. Saw I? j Sawest thou ? { Saw you ? Saw he ? Saw we ? j Saw ye ? j Saw you ? Saw they ? PAST TENSE. Intensive Form. 1. I did see, 2 j Thou didst see, ' { You did see, 3. He did see. 1. We did see, 2 j Ye did see, ' | 3. You did see, They did see. Singular. Plural. Did I see ? j Didst thou see ? j Did you see ? Did he see ? Did we see ? j Did ye see ? \ Did you see ? Did they see ? PRIOR PAST TENSE. 1. I had seen, Singular. Had T seen ? 2 j Thou hadst seen, i Hadst thou seen ? ' ( You had seen, Had you seen ? 3. He had seen. Had he seen ? Plural. 1. We had seen, Had we seen ? 2 j Ye had seen, ' \ You had seen, (Had ye seen ? Had you seen ? 3. They had seen. Had they seen ? POTENTIAL MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1 T can see, Can T see ? {Thou canst see, j Canst thou see ? . You can see, ( Can you sec ? 3. He can see. Can he see ? 12* 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. 1. We can see, n j Ye can see, ' ( You can see, 3. They can see. Plural Can we see ? {Can ye see ? Can you see ? Can they see ? PRIOR PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1. I can have seen, 2 j Thou canst have seen, 3. | You can have seen, He can have seen. Plural. . We can have seen, j Ye can have seen, ' { You can have seen, . They can have seen. Can I have seen ? ) Canst thou have seen Can you have seen ? Can he have seen ? Can we have seen ? j Can ye have seen ? { Can you have seen ? Can they have seen ? PAST TENSE. 1. I could see, 2 j Thou couldst see, ' I You could see, 3. He could see. 1. We could see, 2 j Ye could see, ' ( You could see, 3. They could see. Singular* Plural. Could I see ? { Couldst thou see ? Could you see ? Could he see ? Could we see ? { Could ye see ? Could you see ? Could they see ? PRIOR PAST TENSE. Singular. 1. I could have seen, o j Thou couldst have seen, ( You could have seen, 3. He could have seen. Plural. 1. We could have seen, n j Ye could have seen, ( You could Jiave seen, 3.- They could have seen. Could I have seen ? j Couldst thou have seen ? ( Could you have seen ? Could he have seen ? Could we have seen ? j Could ye have seen ? ( Could you have seen ? Could they have seen ? Let the Pupil give the other Modes and Tenses of this Verb refer- ring to pp. 132-3 for corresponding declarative forms. VERBS MODIFICATIONS. 139 QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. frAOE 107. What is a Verb ? See Def. 97. How are Verbs distinguished ? What is a Transitive Verb? See Def. 98. What is an Intransitive Verb ? See Def. 99. What is a Neuter Verb ? See Def. 100. 108. What are the sub-classes of Transitive Verbs ? When are Verbs in the Active Voice ? : See Def. 101. When are Verbs in the Passive Voice ? See Def. 102. How is the Passive Voice formed ? See Obs. 2. 109. What gives occasion for distinctions of Mode? See Rem. Name the different Modes. When are Verbs in the Indicative Mode ? '. . .See Def. 103. 110. When is a Verb in the Potential Mode ?. ... See Def. 104. When is a Verb in the Subjunctive Mode ? See Def. 105. When is a Verb in the Imperative Mode ? See Def. 106. 111. When is a Verb in the Infinitive Mode ? See Def 107. What is a Participle ? See Def. 108. 112. What are the principal distinctions of Participles ? What is a Simple Participle? See Def. 109. What is a Compound Participle ? See Def. 1 10. How are the Simple Participles distinguished ? What is the Present Participle f See Def. 111. 113. What is the Past Participle? , .See Def. 112 1 14. What various offices do Participles perform ? See Obs. 8. 115. What is Tense ? What Names are given to the Tenses ? Define the Prior Past Tense, and give Examples See Def. 114. Define the Past Tense, " " See Def. 115. 116. Define the Prior Present Tense, " " See Def. 116. Define the Present Tense, " " See Def. 117. Define the Prior Future Tense, " " See Def. 118. Define the Future Tense, " " See Def. 119. Give the various Tenses in the different Modes . . See Recapitulation. 120. What does the term Conjugation indicate ? See Rem. How are Verbs distinguished, in Inflections 9 What is a -%ttZar Verb? See Def. 120. What is an Irregular Verb ? See Def 121. 121. What is a Defective Verb? See Def. 122. What is an Auxiliary Verb ? See Def. 123. Give the various offices of the Auxiliary Verbs See Obs. 1. 140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. EXERCISES. (I.) Let the Pupils give the Class, Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and Num- ber of the following Verbs and complete the Sentences. 1 . am writing a letter. 2. are reading poetry. 3.' didst see the eclipse. 4. 'had known duty. 5. may feel the worm. 6. ought to study. 7. couldst have favored him. 8. thou love me. 9. couldst love to study. 10. has walked to Boston. 1 1 . hast wandered from home. 12. shall learn wisdom. 13. will improve in writing. 14. could recite lessons. 15. canst be false to any man. 16. wish to see home. 17. wilt have returned my books. 18. - shall have returned from Europe. Repeat the First Person Singular of each Mode and Tense of the fol- lowing Verbs : Am, Eat, Neglect, Receive, Arise, Fly, Need, Reject, Begin, Go, Owe, Select, Blow, Hold, Ought, Squander, Come, Know, Practice, Yoke, Cut, Lay, Purchase, Touch, Do, Lie, Quiet, Use, Drink, Make, Qualify. Wish. Repeat the Third Person Plural of the same. (m.) Let the appropriate Auxiliary Verbs be inserted in the blank spaces indicated. 1. " Now the shades of night '-^ gone." 2. " The bell's deep tones -- swelling." 3. " The palace - - wrapped in flames." 4. " How my heart encrusted with the world !" 5. " Everything in the life of such persons misplaced." 6. " Science - raise thee to eminence." 7. " But I alone - guide thee to felicity." IRREGULAR VERBS. 14:1 8. " Ten years I- %llot to the attainment of knowledge." 9. ' * A chieftain's vengeance thou / " feel." 10. " The injuries of Fortune not affect the mind." I (IV.) Let two Auxiliary Verbs be inserted in the following Sentences : 1 . John not gone to the river. 2. We ''finished our task at five. 3. The earth dissolved like snow. 4 How we reconciled ? 5. Who thought it? , 6. You fatigued. 7. He not frightened. 8. You brought my letters. 9. The boy been injured by it. 10. No doctor made that man well. IRREGULAR VERBS. REM. The following are the IRREGULAR and the REDUNDANT VERBS of the English language. Present. Past. Present Participl s. Past Participle. Abide, abode, abiding, abode or abided. * Am or be. was, being, been. Arise, arose, arising, arisen. Awake, awoke or awaked, awaking, awoke or awaked Bear, bore or bare, bearing, born. Bear, to) sustain, \ bore or bare, bearing, borne, Beat, beat, beating, beaten or beat. Begin, began or begun, beginning, begun. kl Behold, beheld, beholding, beheld. Belay, belayed or belaid, belaying, Delayed or belaid. Bend, bent or bended, bending, bent or bended. Bereave, bereft or bereaved, bereaving, bereft or bereaved. Beset, beset, besetting, beset. Beseech, besought or beseeched. ,* beseeching, besought or beseeched.* Bet, bet or batted, betting, bet or betted.* * Obsolete forms. 142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. Present. Past. Present Partici^ pie. Past Participle. Betide, betided or betid,* betiding, betided or betid. Bid, bade or bid, bidding, bidden or bid* Bind, bound, binding, bound. Bite, bit, biting, bitten or bit. Bleed, bled, bleeding, bled. Blend, blended or blent, blending, blended or blent. Bless, blessed or blest, blessing, blessed or blest. Blow, blew or blowed, blowing, blowed or blown. Break, broke, breaking, broken. Breed, bred, breeding, breed. Bring, brought, bringing, brought. Build, built or builded,* building, built or builded.* Burn, burned or burnt, burning, burned or burnt. Burst, burst or bursted,* bursting, burst or bursted.* Buy, bought, buying, bought. Cast, cast, casting, cast. Catch, caught or catched,* catching, caught or catched.* Chide, chid, chiding, chidden or chid. Choose, chose, choosing, chosen. Cleave, clove or cleft, cleaving, cloven or cleft. Cleave, cleaved or clave, cleaving, cleaved. Cling, clung, clinging, clung. Clothe, clothed or clad, clothing, clothed or clad. Come, came, coming, come. Cost, cost, costing, cost. Creep, crept or creeped,* creeping, crept or creeped.* Crow, crowed or crew, crowing, crowed. Curse, cursed or curst,* cursing, cursed or curst.* Cut, cut, cutting, cut. Dare, dared or durst, daring, dared or durst. Deal, dealt or dealed,* dealing, dealt or dealed.* Big, dug or digged,* digging, dug or digged.* Dive, dived or dove, diving, dived or diven. Do, did, doing, done. Draw, drew, drawing, drawn. Dream, dreamed or dreamt, dreaming, dreamed or dreamt. Dress, dressed or drest, dressing, dressed or drest. Drink, drank, drinking, drunk or drank. Drive, drove, driving, driven. IRREGULAR VERBS. 143 Present. Past. Present Participle. Past Participle. Dwell, dwelt or dwelled,* dwelling, dwelt or dwelled.* Eat, ate or eat,* eating, eaten or eat.* Fall, fell, falling, fallen. Feed, fed, feeding, fed. Feel, felt, feeling, felt. Fight, fought, fighting, fought. Find, found, finding, found. Flee, fled, fleeing, fled. Fling, flung, flinging, v flung. Fly, flew, flying, flown. Forbear, forbore, forbearing, forborne. Forget, forgot or forgat, forgetting, forgotten or forgot. Forsake, forsook, forsaking, forsaken. Freeze, froze or freezed,* freezing, frozen or freezed.* Geld, gelded or gelt,* gelding, gelded or gelt.* Get, got or gat,* getting, got or gotten.* Gild, gilded or gilt, gilding, gilded or gilt. Girt, girded or girt, girding, girded or girt. Give, gave, giving, given. Go, went, going, gone. Grave, graved, graving, graved or graven. Grind, ground, grinding, ground. Grow, grew, growing, grown. Hang, hung or hanged, hanging, hung or hanged. Have, had, having, had. Hear, heard, hearing, heard. Heave, heaved or hove,* heaving, heaved or hoven. * Hew, hewed, hewing, hewed or hewn. Hide, hid, hiding, hidden or hid. Hit, hit, hitting, hit. Hold, held, holding, held or holden.* Hurt, hurt, hurting, hurt. Keep, kept, keeping, kept. Kneel, kneeled or knelt, kneeling, kneeled or knelt. Knit, knit or knitted, knitting, knit or knitted. Know, knew, knowing, known. Lade, laded, lading, laded or laden. Lay, laid or layed, laying, laid or layed.* Lead, led, leading, led. ENGLISH GRAMMAR PAET II. Present. Past. Present Participle. Past Participle. Lean, leaned or leant, leaning, leaned or lent. Leap, leaped or leapt, leaping, leaped or leapt. Learn, learned or learnt, learning, learned or learnt. Leave, left, leaving, left. Lend, lent, lending, lent. Let, let, letting, let. Lie, lay? lying, lain. Light, lighted or lit, lighting, lighted or lit. Loose, lost, loosing, lost. Make, made, making, made. Mean, meant or meaned,* meaning, meant or meaned.* Meet, met, meeting, met. Mow, mowed, mowing, mowed or mown. Mulct, mulcted or mulct,* mulcting, mulcted or mulct.* Outdo, outdid, outdoing, outdone. Pass, passed or past, passing, passed or past. Pay, paid or payed,* paying, paid or payed.* Pen, penned or pent,* penning, penned or pent.* Plead, pled or pleaded, pleading, pled or pleaded. Prove, proved, proving, proved or proven. Put, put, putting, put. Quit, quitted or quit, quitting, quitted or quit. Rap, rapped or rapt, . rapping, rapped or rapt. Read, read, reading, read. Rend, rent, rending, rent. Rid, rid, ridding, rid. Ride, rode, riding, rode or ridden. Ring, rung or rang, ringing, rung, Rise, rose, rising, risen. Rive, rived, riving, riven or rived. Roast, roasted or roast, roasting, roasted or roast. Rot, rotted, rotting, rotten or rotted. Run, ran or run, running, run. Saw, sawed, sawing, sawn or sawed. Say, said, saying, said. See, saw, seeing, seen. Seek, sought, seeking, sought. Sell, sold, selling, sold. Send, sent, sending, sent. IRREGULAR VERBS. 145 Present. Past. Present Participle. Past Participle. Set, set, setting, set. Shake, shook or shaked,* shaking, shaken or shaked.' Shape, shaped, shaping, shaped or shapen. Shave, shaved, shaving, shaved or shaven. Shear, sheared, shearing, sheared or shorn. Shed, shed, shedding, shed. Shine, shone or shined, shining, shined or shone. Show, showed, showing, showed or shown. Shoe, shod, shoeing, shod. Shoot, shot, shooting, shot. Shred, shred, shredding, shred. Shrink, shrunk, shrinking, shrunk. Shut, shut, shutting, shut. Sing, sung or sang, singing, sung. Sink, sunk or sank, sinking, sunk. Sit, sat, sitting, sat. Slay, slew, slaying, slain. Sleep, slept, sleeping, slept. Slide, slid, sliding, slidden or slid. Sling, slung, slinging, slung. Slink, slunk, slinking, slunk. Slit, slitted or slit, slitting, slitted or slit. Smell, smelled or smelt, smelling, smelled or smelt. Smite, smote, smiting, smitten or srnit. Sow, sowed, sowing, sowed or sown. Speak, spoke or spake, speaking, spoken. Speed, sped, speeding, sped. Spell, spelled or spelt, spelling, spelled or spelt. Spend, spent, spending, spent. Spill, spilled or spilt, spilling, spilled or spilt. Spin, spun, spinning, spun. Spit, spit or spat,* spitting, spit. Split, split, splitting, split. Spoil, spoiled or spoilt, spoiling, spoiled or spoilt. Spread, spread, spreading, spread. Spring, sprung or sprang, springing, sprung. Stand, stood, standing, stood. Stave, stove or staved, staving, stove or staved. Stay, staid or stayed,* staying, staid or stayed.* w 146 ESGLISII GRAMMAS PAST II. Present. Past. Present Participle. Past Participle. Steal, stole, stealing, stolen. Stick, stuck, sticking, stuck Sting, stung, stinging, stung. Stink, stunk or stank,* stinking, stunk. Stride, strode or strid, striding, stridden. Strike, struck, striking, struck or stricken. 1 String, strung or stringed, stringing, strung or stringed. Strive, strove, striving, striven. Strow, strowed, strewing, strowed or strown. Swear, swore, swearing, sworn. Sweat, sweated or sweat, sweating, sweated or sweat. Sweep, swept, sweeping, swept. Swell, swelled, swelling, swelled or swollen. Swim, swam, swimming, swam. Swing, swung, swinging, swung. Take, took, taking, taken. Teach, taught, teaching, taught Tear, tore, tearing, torn. Tell, told, telling, told. Think, thought, thinking, thought. Thrive, thrived or throve, thriving, thrived or thriven. Throw, threw or throwed, throwing, thrown or throwed. Thrust, thrust, thrusting, thrust. Tread, trod, treading, trodden or trod. Wake, waked or woke, waking, waked or woke. "Wax, waxed, waxing, waxed or waxen. Wear, wore, wearing, worn. Weave, wove, weaving, woven or wove. Wed, wedded or wed, wedding, wedded or wed. Weep, wept, weeping, wept. Wet, wet or wetted, wetting, wet or wetted. Whet, whetted or whet, whetting, whetted or whet. Win, won, winning, won. Wind, wound or winded,* winding, wound or winded. Work, worked or wrought, working, worked or wrought. Wring, wrung or wringed, wringing, wringed or wrung. Write, wrote, writing, written or writ. OBS. 1. Words in the above list, marked with a (*), are not much used by modern writers. VERBS UNIPERSONAL. 1 4:7 OBS. 2. A Verb often has a Preposition or other prefix placed before it ; the conjugation, however, remains the same. EXAMPLES. Take took taken. Mistake mistook mistaken. Overtake overtook overtaken. Misunderstand. misunderstood misunderstood. REM. The class should repeat this list in concert prefixing to each Yerb one of the Personal Pronouns. * \,T the Third Person a Noun may be used thus : I write I wrote I have written having writte You tread .... you trod you have trod having trod. He sweeps he swept he has swept having swept. John does John did John has done having done. Men sit men sat men have sat having sat. Some hear some heard. . .some have heard. . .having heard. They see they saw they are seen being seen. To the Transitive Verbs, Objects may be attached thus : We saw wood we sawed wood we have sawn wood. Birds build nests . . birds built nests birds have built nests. John writes letters . John wrote letters. .John will write letters. Thou seest me thou sawest me thou wilt see me. Other variations in these concert exercises may be profitable such as placing the words now, to-day, etc., after the Present yesterday, etc., after the Past Tense and heretofore, recently, etc. , after the Prior Present thus : I begin to-day I began yesterday . .1 have begun recently. The wind blows now. the wind blew then, the wind has blown often. The bell rings of ten . .the bell rang lately . the bell will ring to-morrow. William writes now. . William wrote then . William will write often. UNIPERSONAL VERBS. DEF. 124. A Verb used only as the Predicate of the Indefinite Pronoun " it" is called a Unipersonal Verb. EXAMPLES. It snows. It rains. It seems. It becomes. It be- hooves. It is evident. Methinks is an anomalous form of the Verb think. 148 ENGLISft GRAMMAR PART II. EXERCISES IX REVIEW. REM. Let the Pupil give the Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and Number, of the Verbs in the following Sentences : 1 . Science strengthens mind. 2. Do you see the large ship traversing the ocean by the force of the wind ? 3. William has visited Europe. 4. Have we exercised discretion ? 5. I, John, saw these things. 6. Did Washington secure renown ? 7. Ye had accomplished purposes. 8. I shall understand you. 9 Will Warner study Greek ? 10. Thou wilt not comprehend it. 11. Ye will have accomplished much. 12. We may receive instruction. 13. Canst thou guide Arcturus ? 14. Shall William accompany us ? 15. I will study Greek. 16. They are not appreciated. 17. Could it not be accomplished ? 18. Mary might have been misinformed. 19. Wisdom should be honored. 20. Thou canst not have been understood. 21. Sevastopol could not have been taken. 22. Meteors might have been seen. 23. What should have been done ? 24. Who can be trusted ? 25. Have you been reading poetry ? 26. Cora will be writing letters. 27. Stephen could not have been giving attention. 28. Might Clara have been admitted ? 29. Boys had been reciting lessons. 30. We will not be enslaved. 31. Pupils might not have been giving attention. 32. Caroline will have visited Syria. 33. Hear me for my cause. 34 Be silent, that ye may hear. 35. Bid her give me new and glorious hopes. ADVERBS. 149 ADVEKBS. REM. As actions are modified by circumstances, and as qualities vary in degree, so words expressing actions, and words denoting quali- ties, are modified by other words, denoting time, place, degree, manner, cause, etc. Hence, DEF. 125. A Word used to modify the signification of a Verb, an Adjective, or another Modifier, is called an Adverb. OBS. 1. Adverbs may consist of Words, Phrases, and Sentences. 1. A Word. The very best men sometimes commit faults. 2. A Phrase. "In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth." 3. A Sentence " They kneeled before they f ought" OBS 2. Adverbial Words are of great utility in rendering the lan- guage concise and spirited. They are commonly substituted for Phrases, " Brilliantly" . . . .for. . . . " With a brilliant appearance. " Solemnly" for. ..." In a solemn manner." "Vainly" , .for " In a vain attempt." " Here" .for. ..." In this place." " Now" for "At this time." 1. " Brilliantly the glassy waters mirror back his smiles." 2. " Solemnly he took the earthly state." 3. " Vainly we offer each ample oblation." 4. " Here sleeps he now." 5. "The waves are white below." The waves are white below him. 6. " Heat me these irons hot." Heat for me these irons hot. 7. ''Willie has come home early." Willie has come to his home at an early hour. BEM*" Below" "me" "home" and "early," are substituted for Adverbial Phrases. [See Part I., page 23.] OBS. 3. Words are also substituted for Adverbial Sentences. 13* 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. EXAMPLES. 1. "While there we visited the prison;" for, while we were at Auburn, we visited the prison. 2. " Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains." OBS. 4. An Adverb often modifies a Phrase. ET.AMPLES.~L We went almost TO BOSTON. 2. Wilkes sailed quite AROUND THE WORLD. 3 Engraved expressly FOR THE LADIES' GARLAND. OBS. 5. The Words which Adverbs properly modify are sometimes understood. EXAMPLE. Thou canst but add one bitter woe To those [ ] already there. OBS. 6. Adverbs sometimes take the place of Verbs, which they modify. EXAMPLES. ' ' Off, off, I bid you. " " To arms f ' " Back to thy punishment, false fugitive !" OBS. 7. Words generally used as Adverbs sometimes take the place of Nouns, and hence become Pronouns. EXAMPLES. 1. " Till then" for, till that time. 2. " From there' 1 for, from that place. 3. " And I have made a pilgrimage from far." Homer. 4. ' * Oh, let the ungentle spirit learn from hence A small unkindness is a great offense." OBS. 8. Participles become Adverbs when they indicate the manner of an action, or modify a quality. EXAMPLES. 1. " The surging billows and the gamboling storms Come, crouching, to his feet." [P. 249, Obs. 5.] 2o " Now it mounts the wave, And rises, threatening, to the frowning sky." 3. " "Pis strange, 'tis passing strange." 4. " A virtuous household, but exceeding poor." OBS. 9. A few words, commonly used as Prepositions, are sometimes used Adverbially. EXAMPLES. 1. " Thou didst look doivn upon the naked earth." 2. " And may at last my weary age 3. Find out the peaceful hermitage." Milton. ADVERBS CLASSIFICATION. 151 CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. HEM. The classes of Adverbs are very numerous. The following are the most important : I. OF THE FORMS OF ADVERBS. OBS. 10. Some Words are used almost exclusively as Adverbs ; such are Primitive Words. EXAMPLES. Even here now not then there. OBS 1 1 .But most Words used as Adverbs are Derivative Words their Radicals being commonly used as Nouns or as Adjectives. 1. From Nouns. Always nightty hourly aloft ashore. 2. From Adjectives. Brilliants/ rightly softly virtuous^/. OBS. 12. Many Words, commonly used as Nouns, Adjectives, Prepo- sitions, etc , become Adverbs by representation or substitution. EXAMPLES. 1. "William rises early" at an early hour. 2. " You have come too late'' at too late a day 3. " Warner will come home" to his home. 4. " He will return to-morrow" on the morrow. 5. " The captain had gone below" below deck. 6. "Is the agent within f" within the house. [See page 23, Obs. 2.] II. OF THE FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS. Adverbs are commonly divided into two primary classes : 1. Adverbs of Manner, and 2. Adverbs of Circumstance. DBF. 126. Adverbs of Manner are those which ask or answer the question, How f OBS. 1. Adverbs of Manner are such as indicate 1. Affirmation Ay certainly doubtless surely verily, etc. 2 Doubt.- Perchance perhaps possibly, etc. 3. Mode. Aloud asunder how so together thus, etc. 4. Negation. Nay not. 152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. OBS. 2. Phrases and Sentences often indicate the manner of an act. EXAMPLES. Phrases. 1. " God moves in a mysterious way" 2. " Silence now I brooding like a gentle spirit o'er The still and pulseless world/' 3. "Omar had passed seventy-five years in Jwnor and prosperity. Sentences. 4. " He died as he lived a devotee of mammon.' 5. " There are departed beings that I have loved as I never again shall love in this world. ' ' DEF. 127. Adverbs of Circumstance are such as ask or answer the questions, When ? Where ? Whether f Whence f How much ? Why f indicating Time, JPlace y Degree, Cause. I. OF TIME. HEM. All Words used to ask or to answer the questions, " When ?'' or " How often ?" are properly called Adverbs of Time. EXAMPLES. 1. Present. Instantly now presently yet, etc. 2. Past. Already heretofore hitherto lately yes- terday, etc. 3. Future. Henceforth hereafter soon, etc. 4. Absolute, Always ever never, etc. 5. Repeated. Continually often, rarely sometimes, etc. Ous. 1. Phrases and Sentences also perform the office of Adverbs of Time. EXAMPLES. Phrases. 1 . ' ' In the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth. ' ' 2. "The Christmas rose is in bloom during the month of January. 3. " At midnight, in his guarded tent, The Turk was dreaming. ' ' Sentences. 4. "And as Jesus passed by, he saw a man who was blind.*' 5. "I think of the friends who had roamed with me there, When the sky was so blue, and the flowers were so fdir" 6. ** Ye that keep watch in heaven, as earth, asleep, Unconscious lies, effuse your mildest beams." ADVERBS MODIFICATION. 153 II. OF PLACE. OBS. 2. All Words used to ask or to answer the questions, Where? Whither ? or Whence ? are classed as Adverbs of Place. EXAMPLES. 1. In a Place. Here there where? etc. 2. To a Place. Hither thither -whither? etc. 3. From a Place. Hence thence whence ? etc. OBS. 3. Most Adverbs of Place are in the form of Phrases. f in the cars, I from Rochester, EXAMPLES. Mary went i through New York, to Norfolk, [via Baltimore. And many in the form of Sentences. EXAMPLE. " Where wealth and freedom reign, contentment fails." OBS. 4. Words which ask or answer the questions, How much ? How far ? To what extent ? are classed as Adverbs of Degree. EXAMPLES. Altogether hardly little much quite merely so too very, etc. OBS. 5. Words used to ask or to answer the questions, Why ? Wherefore ? etc. , are classed as Adverbs of Cause. ^ EXAMPLES. Accordingly consequently hence therefore where- fore, etc. " Let others brave the flood in quest of gain." OBS. 6. Adverbs used to ask questions are called Interrogative Adverbs. EXAMPLES. Where have you been? How can we escape? MODIFICATION. Some Adverbs are modified, like Adjectives, by com- parison. EXAMPLES. Pos. Comp. Superl. 1. By use of Suffixes Soon Sooner Soonest 2. " " Auxiliary Adverbs . . Wisely . . . More wisely. . . Most wisely. EXEBCISES. ^^* Let the following Adverbs be classified and their Modification given : How, Already, In a moment, Not, Quickly, In flower, There, Vilely, O'er the rums, Soon, Eagerly, At pile. 154: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. #l* Let the Adverbial Words, Phrases, and Sentences, in the follow- ing Examples, be pointed eut and parsed after the following 1. " E'en now, where Alpine solitudes asCend, I sit me down, a pensive h6ar to spend ; And placed on high, above the storm's career, Look downward, where a hundred realms appear." Now Modifies " sit" denoting time; hence, an Adverb. itudes ascend ." ) Modines " sit" denoting place; hence, an Adverb. Down Modifies "sit" denoting place ; hence, an Adverb. A pensive hour to 7 Modifieg sit _ denoting cause; hence, an Adverb, spend j On high Modifies "placed" denoting place ; hence an Adv. Ab career heSt rm ' S ^ ModifieS "P laced " denoting^; hence an Adv. Downward Modifies " look" denoting place ; hence, an Adv. Where a hundred > Modifies look" denoting place; hence, an Adv. realms appear . ) 2. "Earth keeps me here Awhile ; yet I shall leave it, and shall rise n fairer ivinas than thine, to skies more clear." Here Modifies "keeps" denoting place; hence, Ad verb of Place. Awhile Modifies " keeps" denoting time; hence, Adverb of Time. On wings. . .Modifies "rise" denoting means; hence, Adverb of Means. ("On fairer wings than thine," is the Modified Adverb.) Than thine . Modifies " fairer'-' denoting degree ; hence, Adverb of De- gree. To skies Modifies "rise" denoting place ; hence, Adverb of Place. ("To skies more clear," is the Modified Adverb.) More Modifies "clear" denoting degree; hence, Adverb of De- gree. 3. ''How much better satisfied he is !" How Modifies "much ;" hence, an Adverb. Much Modifies " better ;" hence, an Adverb. Better Modifies " satisfied ;" hence, an Adverb. OBS. 1. Let it be remembered that the term ' ' Adverbs' ' is applied to a distinct element in the structure of Sentences that the function of that element may be performed by a single Word or by a combination ADVERBS EXERCISES. 155 of Words, constituting a Phrase or a Sentence. In analyzing Sentences containing these three distinct forms of the Adverbial Element, we pro- ceed according to the MODELS given above. But, OBS. 2. The Wards composing an Adverbial Phrase or Sentence have also their distinct individual offices. Thus, the Adverbial Phrase, " Above the storm's career," consists of a Preposition, (above) an Ad- jective, (the) an Adjective, (storm's) a Noun, (career). So also the Adverbial Sentence, " Where a hundred realms appear," consists of a Conjunction, (where) an Adjective, (a) an Adjective, (hun- dred) a Noun, (realms) and a Verb, (appear). Hence, OBS. 3. In Proximate Analysis, it is sufficient to discuss the Elements of Principal Sentences ; while, in Ultimate Analysis, each separate Word composing an Element, is to be parsed separately ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES of Adverbial Words, Phrases, and Sentences. 4. * ' Noiselessly around, From perch to perch, the solitary bird 5. ' ' How is it possible not to feel a profound sense of the responsible- ness of this Republic to all future ages." 6. " In a moment he flew quickly past. 11 7. " For there the shield of the mighty is vilely cast away." 8. * ' Thy pencil glows in every flower ;' ' 9. " Where Sense can reach, or Fancy rove, From hill to field, from field to grove, Across the wave, around the sky, There's not a spot, nor deep, nor high, Where the Creator has not trod, And left the footsteps of a God." * ' Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime Pealed their first notes to sound the march of Time, 10. Thy joyous youth began but not to fade, When all the sister planets have decayed : When, wrapt in fire, the realms of ether glow, And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below, 11. Thou, undismayed, shalt o'er the ruins smile, And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile !" 156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. DEF. 128. A Word used to introduce a Phrase, show- ing the relation of its Object to the Word which the Phrase qualifies, is A Preposition. LIST. A * ' Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck. ' ' About. , " We walked about town." Above " There is a ferry above the falls/* Across " Across the ocean came a pilgrim bark." Aboard " They came aboard ship." Aboard of " We succeeded in getting aboard of her. " After "He that cometh after me, is preferred before me." Against "He that is not for me, is against me. ' ' Along " Winds run along the summits of their hills." Amid " We stowed them amid-ships." Amidst " Amidst the mists, he thrusts his fists." Among " He became a great favorite among the boys." Amongst " We made diligent search amongst the rubbish." Around " The chill dews of evening were falling around me." As "He gives this as the latest news." Aslant "It struck aslant the beam." Astride " He sat astride the beam." As for " As for me and my house, we will serve the Lord." As to " As to that, I have nothing to say." At "He was at work at noon. ' ' Athwart " The dolphin leaped athwart her bows/' Before " He stood before the people." Behind " She stood behind a rick of barley." Below " The captain was below decks." Beneath ' ' Beneath the moldering ruins the brave boy sleeps." Beside " Beside its embers, red and clear, he stood." Besides "There was a famine in the land, besides the first famine." Between " Between whom, perfect friendship has existed." Betwixt " There is no difference betwixt them." Beyond " Beyond all doubt, he is the man. ' ' But " All went but me. ' ' PREPOSITIONS LIST. Both .... Adj Situated on lotji sides of the river. Both .... Pron Lepidus flatters both of both is flattered. Both . . . .Conj And now he is loth loved and respected. But Prep All but me were rewarded. But Conj I go but I return. But Adv If we go, we can but die. But Verb I can not but rejoice at his unexpected prosperity. Ere Prep And ere another evening's close. Ere Conj And ere we could arrive [it] the point proposed. For Prep They traveled for pleasure. For Conj He can not be a scholar, for he will not study. Like Prep . . . t . Nature all blooming like thee. Like Adj Like causes produce like effects. Like Verb We like whatever gives us pleasure. Like Noun. . . .We shall never see the like again. Near . . . .Adj At the near approach of the star of day. Near .... Prep We live near the springs. Near Adv Books were never near so numerous. Near . . . .Verb We shall near the light-house. Neither . . Adj He can debate on neither side of the question. Neither. .Pron We saw neither of them. Neither. .Conj The boy could neither read nor write. Next Adj The next generation. Next Prep Adjectives should be piaced next their substantives. Off Adj The off ox should keep the furrow. Off Prep William fell -of the load. Only Adj .... Love and love only is the loan for love. Only Adv Only observe what a swarm is running after her. Opposite. Adj On the opposite bank of the river. Opposite . Prep We stood opposite the Exchange. Past Adj A past transaction. Past Prep It was past mid-day. Bound. . .Adj Like the round ocean. Round. . .Prep Flung round the bier. Still Adj Still waters reflect a milder light. Still Adv Still struggling, he. tries to stand. VARIABLE OFFICES OF WORDS. 169 Still Conj StUlj the reflection has troubled me. Still Noun The loafer lounges about the still. Since. . . .Prep Since yesterday, we have taken nothing. Since. . . .Conj Since I can not go, I will be contented here. So Adj Solomon was wise we are not so. So Adv So calm, so bright. So Conj "I'll say thee nay, so thou wilt woo. Than Conj She is more nice than wise. Than Prep. , Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat. Than. . . . Pron We have more than heart can wish. That Adj. That book is mine. That Rel. Pron. .."Him that cometh unto me, I will in no wise cast out." That Pron. Adj. . .Forgive me my foul murder ? that can not be. That Conj I am glad that he has lived thus long. Then. . . .Adv Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains. Then Conj Then, I'll look up. Then Pron Till then. Till Prep They labored hard till night. Till Conj Till I come, give attention to reading. Till Noun He kept his money in the till. Until Prep From morn, even until night. Until . . . .Conj Until the day dawn. What . . . Adj At what hour did you arrive ? What . . . Eel. Pron. . , What Reason weaves, by Passion is undone. What . . .Inter. Pron. What does it avail? What . . . Exclam What ! is thy servant a dog ? Within . . Prep To inscribe a circle within a circle. Within . . Adj Received on the within bond, five hundred dollars. OBSERVATIONS ON SOME OF THE FOREGOING WORDS. As When this Word introduces a Sentence, it is properly called a Conjunction. EXAMPLE. "As ye journey, sweetly sing." When it introduces a Phrase, it is a Preposition, and is then generally equivalent to the Preposition for. EXAMPLES. 1. "He gave me this as the latest news from the army." 2. "I am always fearful lest I should tell you that for news with which you are well acquainted." 3. ' ' His friends were counted as his enemies. " Sigoumey. 4. " All mark thee for a prey." Cowper. 170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART II. The above examples clearly indicate that as is sometimes a Prepo- sition. HEM. Many grammarians insist that as, in the above and similar examples, "must be a Conjunction, because, in most cases, it connects The same is often true of other Prepositions. EXAMPLES. 1. In the city of New York. 2. " thy shadowy hand was seen Writing thy name of Death. ' ' Pollock. We do not claim that these examples contain words precisely in apposition as much so, however, as any words claimed to be connected by as. As is often used (by ellipsis of one or more words) as a Pronoun- [See REM. on than below.] 1. BUT. This word, like most Conjunctions, is derived from a Baxon Verb signifying " except" " set aside" " fail," etc. [See Webster's Improved Grammar.'] In the list above given, the Word retains its original signification and office. EXAMPLE. u I can not but rejoice." Equivalent. I can not fail omit to rejoice. 2. BUT is also used instead of the words, if it were not, or were it not. EXAMPLE." And but for these vile guns, he would himself have been a soldier." 8. BUT sometimes supplies the places of a Relative Pronoun and a Negative Adverb. EXAMPLE. " I scarce can meet a monument but holds my younger." Equivalent. I scarce can meet a monument that holds not my younger. LIKE When this word qualifies a Noun, it is an Adjective when it represents its Noun, it is an Adjective Pronoun. But when it shows a relation of two words, it is a Preposition. EXAMPLES. 1. "These armies once lived, and breathed, and felt like us. 2. " Yet all great learned men, like me, Once learned to read their A, B, C." VARIABLE OFFICES OF WORDS. 171 THAN . . .This word always expresses comparison, and comparison im- plies a relation. When this relation is expressed by Words, than is a Preposition. When it is expressed by Sentences, and when Words, Phrases, or Sentences are merely connected by it, it is a Conjunction. The use of it as a Preposition is sanctioned by good authority, ancient and modern. EXAMPLES. 1. " They are stronger than lions." 2. "Thou shalt have no other gods than me.' 1 Com. Pr. 3. " Their works are more perfect than those of men." THAN always introduces a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence, which con- stitutes a second term of a comparison of inequality. EXAMPLES. 1. " She is more nice than wise." "Than" connects words, and is therefore a Conjunction. 2. " Than whom none higher sat." "Than" introduces a Phrase, and is therefore a Preposition. 3. " We have more than heart could wish." REM. "Than" is the object of u could wish," and introduces the Sentence which limits "more," hence by virtue of the ellipsis it is a Relative Pronoun. Supply the words suppressed by ellipsis, and ' * than' ' becomes a Preposition. OBS. 1. Many words are used as Prepositions or Conjunctions, ac- cording as they introduce Phrases or Sentences. EXAMPLES. 1. John arrived before me. * * Before me' ' . . Is a Phrase, used to modify ' ( arrived ;" hence, Adverbial. "Before" Is a Preposition. 2. John arrived before I did. "Before I did". Is a Sentence, used to modify "arrived;" hence, Adverbial. "Before" Is a Conjunction. 3. John arrived as soon as I. " As I" Is a Phrase, used to modify "arrived ;" hence, Adverbial. 4. John arrived as soon as I did. "As I did" Is a Sentence, used to modify "arrived;" hence, Adverbial. OBS. 2. Of the many words thus used as Prepositions and Conjunc- tions, custom allows two as and than to be followed by Pronouns in the Nominative form. 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART H. EXAMPLES. 1 . * ' Thou art wiser than I. ' ' 2. "Thou art as tall as I." OBS. 3. But the Objective form is also used by our best writers. EXAMPLES 1. " It is not fit for such as us To sit with rulers of the land." W. Scott. 2. " Than whom none higher sat." Milton. WORTH. . .Worth indicates value and value implies a relation and relation of words is commonly expressed by a Preposition. EXAMPLE. * ' He possessed an estate worth five hundred pounds per annum." Equivalent. "He has an annuity of five hundred pounds." This word is used also as a Noun. EXAMPLE. " He was a man of great worth.'* Nor composed of not and other retains the offices of its elements. EXAMPLE. " Nor will I at my humble lot repine." Here "nor" being used to modify " repine" is an Adverb of Nega- tion. But because it introduces a Sentence additional to a former Sen- tence, it is a Conjunction : like many other Conjunctions, it indicates the office of the Sentence which it introduces, making it negative. SUBSTITUTION OF ELEMENTS. OBS. In the structure of Sentences, an Element of one form is often substituted for that of another. 1. A Letter is substituted for a word. EXAMPLE. 'Tis strange. C~ 'T ~^T~ is strange """*} HEM. Here " 'T," as an Element In the Sentence, is a representative of * it," and is a Pronoun Subject of the Sentence. Hence, in the Nominative Case. But "T," as an Element in the word " it," is a Letter a Consonant Mute Subsequent to its vowel " /. " 2. A Word is substituted for a Phrase. SUBSTITUTION OF ELEMENTS. 173 EXAMPLE 1. These crowd around to ask him of his health. These Y crowd ) X REM. 1 "Around," as an Element of the Sentence, is an Adverb of Place -being used as a representative of the Adverbial Phrase around him. 1 ' Around, " as an Element of its Phrase is the Leader a Preposition showing a relation of " crowd" to him understood. EXAMPLE 2. Anna has gone home. Anna has gone J home j \ X -~J^2LJ J REM. 2. "Home," as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb of Place being used as a representative of the Phrase to her home. "Home," as an Element in its Phrase, is the Subsequent Word Noun Common Objective Case Object of to understood. EXAMPLE 3. Clara has come to school early. HEM*. 3. "Early," as an Element in the Sentence, is an Adverb of Time being used as a represent riive of the Phrase at an early hour. " Early," as an Element in its Phrase, is an Adjunct Word Adjec- tive and limits hour understood. For further illustrations, see Obs. 5 and 6, page 159 ; see also page 23, Obs. 1, 2. REM. A careful examination of the genius of the English language will disclose the fact, that a great majority of words perform at the same time two or more distinct offices as individual and as represent- ative. The RULE to be observed in parsing is. that a word should le parsed firtf ar.rordi.nfj to its representative office in the Sentence, then according to its individual office. 15* PART III. SYNTAX. REMARK 1. In PART II. we have given attention to the discussion of WORDS considered as Elements of Language ; embracing 1. The Classification of Words, according to their offices. 2. The Modification of such Words as vary their forms to correspond with changes in their offices. HEM. 2. We have now to consider the Relations of the various Ele- ments of Language to one another, in the construction of Sentences. DEF. 132. Syntax treats of the construction of Sen- tences by determining the relation, agreement, and ar- rangement of Words, and of other Elements. GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS TO BE NOTICED IN ANALYSIS AND CONSTRUCTION. I SENTENCES. I. A SENTENCE is an assemblage of Words, so arranged as to express an entire proposition. ( PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS II. A Sentence consists of -J and ( ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. III. The PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS of a Sentence are such as are used to make the unqualified assertion. ^* Let each Pupil make a Sentence .having Principal Elements only. IV. The ADJUNCTS of a Sentence are such Elements as are used to modify or describe other Elements in the Sentence. #$" Let each Pupil make a Sentence having Adjuncts. ( The SUBJECT, V- The PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS of a Sentence are, < The PREDICATE, ( The OBJECT. v VI. The SUBJECT of a Sentence is that of which something is asserted. 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. VII. The PREDICATE of a Sentence is the "Word or Words that assert something of the Subject. . VIII. The OBJECT of a Sentence is that on which the act expressed by the Predicate terminates. $gi~ Let each Pupil make a Sentence, and name the Subject, the Predicate, and the Object. IX. The SUBJECT of a Sentence may he ( A WORD, 4 A PHRASE, or X. The OBJECT of a Sentence may be \ ^ SENTENCE. JB&T' Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Word Subject. Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Phrase Subject. Let each Pupil make a Sentence having a Sentence Subject. XI. A WORD used as the Subject or the Object of a Sentence may be A NOUN Proper. Personal, Relative, [ A PRONOUN, J Interrogative^ ( Adjective. each Pupil make Sentences having for their Subject 1. A Common Noun. 2. A Proper Noun. 3. A Personal Pronoun. 4. A Relative Pronoun. 5. An Interrogative Pronoun. 6. An Adjective Pronoun. ( Masculine Gender, XII. NOUNS and PRONOUNS are of the 1 Feminine Gender, or ( Neuter Gender. ( First Person, XIII. NOUNS and PRONOUNS are of the -| Second Person, or ( Third Person. - Number, or ^ Plural Number. 3^ Let the Pupil make Sentences having Nouns and Pronouns of the different Genders, Persons, and Numbers. XV. The SUBJECT of a Sentence is in the Nominative Case. XVI. The OBJECT of a Sentence is in the Objective Case. ' Another VERB, A PARTICIPLE, XIV. NOUNS and PRONOUNS are of the \ ( XVII. The GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE j A VERB, with of a Sentence is 1 or without An ADJECTIVE, A NOUN, A PRONOUN, or A PREPOSITION. the Pupil make Sentences containing Examples of each variety of Predicate mentioned. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 177 ' INDICATIVE MODE, ' Prior Pcist Tense, Past Tense, Prior Present Tense, Present Tense, Prior Future Tense, Future Tense. XVIII. A VERB in Predicate may be in the Past Tense, Present Tense. Present Tense. {Prior Past Tense, Past Tense, Prior Present Tense, Present Tense. SUBJUNCTIVE j MODE, ( IMPERATIVE j MODE, ( J^* Let the Pupil make Sentences having Verbs in each of the Modes and Tenses mentioned. ( Person XIX. A VERB in Predicate must agree with its Subject in ) and ( Number. ( PRIMARY XX. The ADJUNCTS of a Sentence are J or ( SECONDARY. XXI. PRIMARY ADJUNCTS are attached to the Principal Parts of a Sentence or of a Phrase. XXII. SECONDARY ADJUNCTS are attached to other Adjuncts. ( WORDS, XXin. ADJUNCTS may consist of -< PHRASES, or ( SENTENCES. ^^** Let the Pupil make Sentences containing Words Adjuncts. Let the Pupil make Sentences containing Phrases Adjuncts. Let the Pupil make Sentences containing Sentences Adjuncts. ( Compar. Superl. Posit. Dimin. ' Qualifying, XXIV. WORDS, PHRASES, and SENTENCES used as Ad- - juncts are ADJECTIVES ADVERBS, ( Pure. Specifying, -j Numer. ( Possess. Verbal, j Trans. 1 Intrans. Time, Place, Degree, Manner, Cause, etc., etc. 178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. ( INTRANSITIVE or TRANSITIVE, XXY. A SENTENCE may be -j SIMPLE or COMPOUND, ( PRINCIPAL or AUXILIARY. XXVI. An INTRANSITIVE SENTENCE has no Object. ^^ Let the Pupil make an Intransitive Sentence. XXVII. A TRANSITIVE SENTENCE has an Object. ^^ Let the Pupil make a Transitive Sentence. XXVIII. A SIMPLE SENTENCE has all its Principal Parts single. j^f* Let the Pupil make a Simple Sentence. XXIX. A COMPOUND SENTENCE has some of its Principal Parts com- pound. jS=f* Let the Pupil make a Compound Sentence. XXX. A PRINCIPAL SENTENCE asserts a Principal Proposition. XXXI. An AUXILIARY SENTENCE asserts a Dependent Proposition. ^^Let the Pupil make a Complex Sentence, and distinguish the Principal Sentence from the Auxiliary Sentence. XXXII. CONJUNCTIONS introduce Sentences and connect Words, Phrases, and Sentences. XXXIII. A PREPOSITION shows a relation of its object to the word which its Phrase qualifies. XXXIV. An EXCLAMATION has no dependent construction. XXXV. A WORD OF EUPHONY is, in its office, chiefly Rhetorical. II. PHRASES. XXXVI. A PHRASE is a combination of Words not constituting an entire proposition, but performing a distinct office in the structure of a Sentence or of another Phrase. ( PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS, XXXVII. A PHRASE consists of I and ( ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. XXXVIII. The PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS of a Phrase are those words neces- sary to its structure. 2^ Let the Pupil make a Phrase having Principal Elements only. XXXIX. The ADJUNCTS of a Phrase are Elements used to modify or describe other Elements. the Pupil make a Phrase having Adjuncts. { XL. The PRINCIPAL ELEME of a Phrase are PHEASES CLASSIFICATION. 179 XLI. The LEADER of a Phrase is the Word used to introduce the Phrase generally connecting its Subsequent to the Word which the Phrase qualifies. XLII. The SUBSEQUENT of a Phrase is the Element which follows the Leading Word as its Object. ^^ Let the Pupil make Phrases and distinguish the Leaders from the Subsequents. (Adjective ) WORDS, XL1II. The ADJUNCTS may consist of < or 5- PHRASES, or ( Adverbial } SENTENCES. ^" Let the Pupil make Sentences having Adjective Words Phrases Sentences. XLIV. A PHRASE is JTKANsmvEor { INTRANSITIVE. XLV. A PHRASE having a Transitive Verb or Participle as a Principal Element, is a TRANSITIVE PHRASE. ^f**Let the Pupil make a Transitive Phrase; 1. Participial 2. Infinitive. XL VI. A PHRASE whose Subsequent is a Noun or a Pronoun, or a Verb or a Participle having no Object, is an INTRANSITIVE PHRASE. IfZlS* Let the Pupil make an Intransitive Phrase ; 1. Prepositional 2. Participial 3. Infinitive 4. Independent. {PREPOSITIONAL, fe L or INDEPENDENT. XL VIII. A PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE is one that is introduced by a Prepo- sition having a Substantive Element as its object of relation. j^T" Let the Pupil make a Prepositional Phrase. XLIX. A PARTICIPIAL PHRASE is one that is introduced by a Participle, being followed by an Object of an action, or by an Adjunct. ^^ Let the Pupil make a Participial Phrase. L. An INFINITIVE PHRASE is one that is introduced by the Prepo- sition TO having a Verb in the Infinitive Mode as its Object of relation. J5* Let the Pupil make an Infinitive Phrase. LI. An INDEPENDENT PHRASE is one that is introduced by a Noun or a Pronoun having a Participle depending on it. /&- Let the Pupil make an Independent Phrase. 180 ENGLISH GKAMMAK PART III. III. A PHRASE is COMPOUND when it has two or more Leaders or Subsequents. jg&* Let the Pupil make a Compound Phrase Compound Leaders Compound Subsequent. LIII. A PHRASE is COMPLEX when one of its Principal Parts is qualified by another Phrase. ^^" Let the Pupil make a Complex Phrase. LIV. A PHRASE is MIXED when it has one or more Transitive, and one or more Intransitive, Subsequents. 2^S* Let the Pupil make a Mixed Phrase. HEM 1. Words combined into a Sentence, have a relation to each other a relation which often determines their forms. The Principal Modifications of words, as treated in PART II. of this work, are those of form and these forms vary according to their relation to other words. But the form does not always determine the office of words in a Sentence. I may say, " Frederick assisted James," and "James assisted Frederick." Here, although I use the same words and the same form of those words, I make two widely different assertions. The difference in the assertions in these examples is caused by the change of position of the Words. Hence the laws of AGREEMENT and ARRANGEMENT of words ia the construction of Sentences. BEM. 2. As Diagrams are of great service in constructing Sentences, by serving as tests of the grammatical correctness of a composition, they are inserted in PART III. It is hoped that the Teacher will not fail to require the Class to write Sentences which shall contain words in every possible condition, and in every variety of modification. Young Pupils and beginners should be required to place the Sentences in Diagrams. EXERCISES IN THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. HEM. Teachers will find the use of the blackboard of great service in the Analysis of Sentences and of Phrases. Of the many MODELS for Analysis, used by successful Teachers, the following are given, in addition to those found in PART I. FIRST MODEL. "An hour like this may well display the emptiness of human grandeur." EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS BY THE CHART. 181 The Modified* Subject An hour like this The Logical^ Predate | m 1 ' 1 ^ tb cm P tiness of human The Modified^ Predicate may well display Tl,e Modified Object the emptiness of human grandeur. ADJUNCTS. m ,, cv , . ( An . . . .a Word. Of the Subject j like this a Phrase. Of the Predicate well a Word. f\f t if\i- 4 i the a Word. Of the O^ect -j of human grandeur a Phrase. SECOND MODEL. " How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood." Principal Elements. Modified Elements. Adjunct Elements. e , <4C ,, (The scenes of my (The a Word. ies ' ' ' ( childhood \ Of my childhood . a Phrase. Pr7 " ATP dpar " j Are how dear to my C How a Word. ] heart { To my heart a Phrase. THIRD MODEL. "The lowing HERD WINDS slowly o'er the lea " The Modified Subject. The Modified Predicate. " The lowing HERD" " WINDS slowly o'er the lea." The Grammatic Subject. Its Adjuncts. The Grammatic} radicate. Its Adjuncts. TT . ( The . ? AAT ( Slowly HERD { lowing \ Wis6s \ o'er the lea EXERCISES ON THE CHART. HEM. 1. The following Exercises will exhibit the proper method of using the Chart in Etymological Parsing. HEM. 2. If the large Chart is used, the attention of the whole Class should be directed to it one of the Students using a "pointer," as he repeats the construction of each word, according to the formula: given below. HEM. 3. It is well for beginners in Etymological Parsing to have the Sentence to be parsed first placed in Diagram on the blackboard. 1. Animals run. Animals Animals. . . An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT SUBJECT WORD NOUN COMMON MASCULINE Gender THIRD Person PLURAL Number NOMINATIVE Case. * See page 25. t See page 26. 16 182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. Kun An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT PREDICATE VERB INDICATIVE MODE PRESENT Tense. 2. Mary is reading. (* Mary 3O 8 i reading ^ Mary An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT SUBJECT WORD NOUN PROPER FEMININE Gender THIRD Person SINGULAR Number NOMINATIVE Case. Is reading An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT PREDICATE VERB and PARTICIPLE Verb is in the IN- DICATIVE Mode PRESENT Tense . Reading An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT used in PREDICATE with " is. " 3. He might have been respected. C^ He Ymight have been respected ^ He An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT- SUBJECT WORD PRONOUN PERSONAL MAScuLiNEGen- der ^THIRD Person SINGULAR Number NOMINATIVE Case, Might have ) An (Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT been respected ) PREDICATE two VERBS and two PARTICIPLES Verb is inythe POTENTIAL Mode PRIOR PAST Tense. 4. His palsied hand waxed strong. waxed strong J His An Element in the SENTENCE ADJUNCT PRIMARY WORD ADJECTIVE SPECIFYING POSSESSIVE. Palsied An Element in the Sentence ADJUNCT PRIMARY WORD ADJECTIVE VERBAL INTRANSITIVE. Hand , .An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT SUBJECT WORD NOUN COMMON NEUTER Gender THIRD Person SINGULAR Number NOMINATIVE Case. Waxed strong . An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT PREDICATE VERB and ADJECTIVE Verb is in the IN- DICATIVE Mode PAST Tense. Strong An Element in the SENTENCE ADJECTIVE used in PRE- DICATE with " waxed." EXERCISES ON THE CIIAKT. 183 5. That good men sometimes commit faults, can not be denied. That good men} An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT sometime > SUBJECT SENTENCE SUBSTANTIVE SIMPLE TRANS- commit faults, ) ITIVE. Can r be denied. . . An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT PREDICATE two VERBS and a PARTICIPLE Verb is in the POTENTIAL Mode PRESENT Tense. Not An Element in the SENTENCE ADJUNCT PRIMARY WORD ADVERB of Negation. 6. He hears the thunder ere the tempest lowers. He He An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT SUBJECT WORD PRONOUN PERSONAL MASCULINE Gen- der THIRD Person SINGULAR Number NOMINATIVE p Case. Hears .^...An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT PREDICATE VERB INDICATIVE Mode PRESENT Tense. The An Element in the SENTENCE ADJUNCT PRIMARY WORD ADJECTIVE SPECIFYING PURE. Thunder An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT OBJECT WORD NOUN COMMON NEUTER Gender THIRD Person SINGULAR Number OBJECTIVE Case. Ere the tern- ) An Element in the SENTENCE ADJUNCT PRIMARY s. . . \ SENTENCE ADVERB INTRANSITIVE. 7. Too low they build who build beneath the stars. pest lowers. Too An Element in the SENTENCE ADJUNCT SECONDARY WORD ADVERB of Degree. 184: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. Low An Element in the SENTENCE ADJUNCT PRIMARY WORD ADVERB of Place. They An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT SUBJECT WORD PERSONAL MASCULINE Gender THIRD Person PLURAL Number NOMINATIVE Case. Build An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT PREDICATE VERB INDICATIVE Mode PRESENT Tense. Who build be- ) An Element in the SENTENCE ADJUNCT PRIMARY neath the stars ) SENTENCE ADJECTIVE SIMPLE INTRANSITIVE. Who An Element in the Auxiliary SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT SUBJECT WORD PRONOUN RELATIVE MAS- CULINE Gender THIRD Person PLURAL Number NOMINATIVE Case. Build An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT VERB INDICATIVE Mode PRESENT Tense. Beneath the ) An Element in the SENTENCE ADJUNCT SECONDARY stars ) PHRASE ADVERBIAL PREPOSITIONAL INTRANSITIVE. 8. " Scaling yonder peak, - I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow.' 1 Scaling yonder > An Element in the SENTENCE an ADJUNCT PRIMARY peak j a PHRASE ADJECTIVE PARTICIPIAL TRANSITIVE. I An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT SUBJECT WORD PRONOUN PERSONAL MASCULINE Gender FIRST Person SINGULAR Number NOMINA- TIVE Case. Saw An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT PREDICATE VERB INDICATIVE Mode PAST Tense. An An Element in the SENTENCE an ADJUNCT PRIMARY WORD ADJECTIVE SPECIFYING PURE. Eagle An Element in the SENTENCE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT OBJECT WORD NOUN COMMON MASCULINE Gender THIRD Person SINGULAR. Number OBJECTIVE Case. ANALYSIS OF PIIKASES BY THE CHAKT. 185 "Wheeling near j An Element in the SENTENCE an ADJUNCT PRIMARY its brow j PHRASE ADJECTIVE PARTICIPIAL INTRANSITIVE. Near its brow. . .An Element in the PHRASE an ADJUNCT SECONDARY PHRASE ADVERBIAL PREPOSITIONAL INTRANSITIVE. HEM. In the analysis of a Complex Sentence (see OBS. p. 42), an Auxiliary Sentence is found to perform an individual office, and ac- cordingly it is parsed as one Etymological Element of the Principal Sen- tence After it has been thus parsed, it should itself be analyzed, and the Words and Phrases of which it is composed, be parsed according to their respective offices. The same remark is applicable to Phrases. [See Exercise 7, above, and 2, below.} ANALYSIS OF PHRASES BY THE CHART. EXERCISES. 1. In the beginning (a Prepositional Phrase)- beginning In An Element in the PHRASE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT the LEADER a PREPOSITION. The An Element in the PHRASE an ADJUNCT WORD AD- JECTIVE. Beginning . . . An Element in the PHRASE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT the SUB- SEQUENT a WORD NOUN OBJECT. 2. "Scaling yonder peak" (a Participial Phrase) Scaling An Element in the PHRASE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT the LEADER a PARTICIPLE TRANSITIVE. Yonder An Element in the PHRASE an ADJUNCT WORD AD- JECTIVE. Peak An Element in the PHRASE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT the SUB- SEQUENT a WORD NOUN OBJECT. 3. " The time having arrived" (an Independent Phrase). The. Q time ^) L The J (having arrived) .An Element in the PHRASE an ADJUNCT WORD AD- JECTIVE. 16* 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. Time An Element in the PHRASE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT the LEADER a NOUN INDEPENDENT Case. Having ) An Element in the PHRASE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT the SUB- arrived j SEQUENT a PARTICIPLE INTRANSITIVE. 4. To bestow many favors (an Infinitive Phrase), To .......... An Element in the PHRASE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT the LEADER a PREPOSITION. Bestow ...... An Element in the PHRASE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT a part of the SUBSEQUENT a VERB INFINITIVE Mode TRANS- ITIVE. Many. ..... .An Element in the PHRASE an ADJUNCT ADJECTIVE. Favors ...... An Element in the PHRASE PRINCIPAL ELEMENT a part of the SUBSEQUENT OBJECT WORD NOUN. HEM. Exercises like the ahove are well calculated to prepare the Student for Exercises in Syntax ; and when he shall have learned the Bules of Syntax, he should combine the above Exercises with the ap- plication of those Rules. SYNTAX OF TPIE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. I. Of the Principal Elements. (1.) THE SUBJECT. ( Subject X Y __ RULE 1. The Subject of -a Sentence must be in the Nominative Case. OBS. 1. The Subject of a Sentence is always Substantive in its office. [See p. 25, OBS. 2.] (A Word, OBS. 2. The Subject of a Sentence may be -! A Phrase, or ( A Sentence. EXAMPLES. 1 A Word \ ( fl ) Noun ' ' * 1 ' " V irtue secures happiness." ( (6) Pronoun. 2. " He plants his footsteps in the sea." 2. A Phrase ............ 3. " His lemg a minister, prevented his rising to civil power." ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 187 4. " To give good gifts and to be benevolent, are often very different things." 3. A Sentence 5. " That all men are created equal, is a self- evident truth." REM. Whatever is peculiar to Pronouns, is discussed under the RULE for Pronouns. We now proceed to discuss \vhat is common to Nouns, Pronouns, Phrases, and Sentences, considered as Subjects of Sentences. OBS. 3. The Subject of a Sentence may be ascertained by its an- swering to the Interrogatives Who ? or What ? placed before the Pred- icate. Thus, in the Examples above What " secures happiness?" Ans. " Virtue." Who ' ' plants his footsteps in the sea ?' ' .Ans. " He. ' ' What * ' prevented his rising to civil ) . **. > Ans. His being a minister. power?" J What " is a self-evident truth ?" Ans. " That oil men are credited equal. ' ' What ' * are often different things ?" . . . Ans. ' ' To give good gifts and to be benevolent." REM. In parsing Phrases and Auxiliary Sentences, the same Ruleg are applicable as those given for Word Elements. SUBJECT WORD. OBS. 4. A Subject Word must be a Noun or a Pronoun. (a.} THE FORM or THE NOMINATIVE. OBS. 5. Because English Nouns are not varied in form to denote the Case (except the Possessive), much attention is required in giving them their proper position in a Sentence. [See REMARK 1, p. 178.] But when the Subject of a Sentence is a Personal Pronoun, the form indicates the Subject. (6.) POSITION OF THE NOMINATIVE. NOTE I. In position, the Subject of a Sentence com- monly precedes the Verb. EXAMPLES. 1. Animals RUN. 2. Resources ARE DEVELOPED. 3. Virtue SECURES happiness. 4. " The king of shadows LOVES a shining mark." 6. ' ' The sword and the plague-spot with death STREW the plain." 188 ENGLISH GEAMMAE PART III. *~ EXCEPTION 1. Tn Interrogative Sentences, the Subject is placed after the Verb, when the Verb constitutes a complete Predicate. EXAMPLE. " Heeds HE not the bursting anguish ?" EXCEPTION 2. When the Predicate of an Interrogative Sentence consists of two Verbs, or a Verb and a Participle, Adjective, Noun, etc., the Subject is placed after the first word of the Predicate. EXAMPLES. Is HE injured ? Is SHE kind ? Is HE a scholar ? Must I leave thee ? OBS 1. But the Interrogatives, who, which, and what, used as Sub- jects, precede their Verbs. EXAMPLES. " WHO irill show us any good ?" " WHAT can compensate for loss of character?" " WHICH shall Le taken first?" EXCEPTION 3. The Subject follows the Predicate, or the first Word of the Predicate, in Declarative Sentences, when the Conjunction tf, used to introduce a conditional or modifying Sentence, is omitted. EXAMPLE. " Dost THOU not, Hassan, lay these dreams aside, I'll plunge thee headlong in the whelming tide." EXCEPTION 4. When the word there is used only to introduce the Sentence. EXAMPLES. 1. "There is a CALM for those who weep." 2. ' ' There breathes not a SOUND, While friends in their sadness are gathering round." EXCEPTION 5. When the Verb is in the Imperative Mode. EXAMPLE. u Turn YE, turn YE at my reproof." " EXCEPTION 6. By the poets and public speakers, for rhetorical effect. EXAMPLES. 1. "Loud peals the THUNDER." 2. " Perish the groveling THOUGHT." OBS. 2. When one word includes in its signification niany others, expressed in the same connection, the general term is the proper Sub- ject of the Verb ; and the included terms may be regarded as explana- tory, and, therefore, independent in construction. [See Independent Case, p. 85.] EXAMPLE. "All sink before it comfort, joy, and wealth." Some teachers prefer to supply the ellipsis which is not improper. OBS. 3. The Subject of an Imperative Verb is commonly suppressed. EXAMPLE. " [ ] Take each man's censure, but [ ] reserve thy judgment." SUBJECT PHRASE. 189 OBS. 4. But it is sometimes expressed. EXAMPLE. " Go ye into all the world." OBS. 5. It is sometimes accompanied by an explanatory word. EXAMPLE. ' ' Ye rapid FLOODS, give way .' ' [See ' ' Independent Case. ' '] NOTE II. Unnecessary repetition of the Subject should be avoided. OBS. 1. This principle is violated in the following Example : " His teeth, they chatter, chatter still." OBS. 2. But this practice is allowable, when necessary to a proper rhetorical effect. EXAMPLES. Our Fathers, where are they 9 And the Prophets, do they live for ever ? OBS. 3. The agent of an action is commonly the Subject of the Sen- tence, but the agent of an action expressed by an Infinitive Verb, may be in the Nominative or in the Objective Case. 1. Nominative. I purpose to go. 2. Objective. I invited HIM to go. Ous 4. The agent of an action expressed by a Participle is com- monly in the Possessive Case. EXAMPLES. I heard of your going to Boston. John's joining the army was unexpected by his friends. OBS. 5. But it may be in the Nominative, in the Objective, and in the Independent Case. EXAMPLES. Nominative. "Scaling yonder peak, /saw an eagle Objective. Wheeling near its brow." Independent. The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises. REM. Hence, the agent of an action can not always be regarded as the Subject of a Sentence. SUBJECT PHRASE. 1. "To steal is base." 190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. 2. " Writing letters constitutes my most agreeable employment," OBS. 6. A Subject Phrase constitutes one distinct Element in the structure of a Sentence, and should be construed and parsed in the same manner as a Subject Word. Thus, In Sentence 1, "To steal" is a Phrase in form, Infinitive; in office, Substantive ; for it is the Subject of "is base." " Writing letters" is a Phrase in form, Participial; in office, Substantive ; for it is the Sub- ject of "constitutes employment." OBS. 7. After a Phrase as such has been parsed, it should be ana- lyzed, by resolving it into its constituent Elements. Thus, in the Phrase "to steal," "to" is a Preposition the Leader of the Infinitive Phrase ; " steal," is a Verb, Infinitive Mode the Subsequent of the Phrase, and Object of the Preposition "to." And in the Phrase " writing letters," " writing" is a Participle the Leader of the Participial Phrase ; " letters" is a Noun the Subsequent of the Phrase, and Object of the action expressed by "writing." FORM OF THE SUBJECT PHRASE. OBS. 8. The Phrases commonly used as Subjects of Sentences, are the Infinitive and the Participial Prepositional and Independent Phrases being seldom thus used. [See CLARK'S ANALYSIS, page 109, note.] POSITION or THE SUBJECT PHRASE. NOTE III. In Position, the Subject Phrase commonly precedes its Predicate. EXAMPLES. 1. To do good is the DUTY of all men. 2, Managing the household affairs now CONSTITUTES the sum of my employments. OBS. 1. EXCEPTION. The Subject Phrase sometimes follows its Pred- icate. EXAMPLE. "The sure WAY to be cheated is, to fancy ourselves more cunning than others. ' ' KEM. 1. " To fancy ourselves more cunning than others,' 1 is the Subject. "Is way," is the Predicate. SUBJECT SENTENCES. 191 HEM. 2. This position generally obtains, when the Indefinite Pro- noun it is placed instead of the Phrase. " 1C' precedes, and the Phrase follows the Verb. EXAMPLE. IT is the duty of all to do good to others. HEM. 3. In parsing Examples like these, the Phrase is to be regarded as explanatory of the Pronoun it used to define the Indefinite Word and is, in its office, analogous to a Word used to explain a preceding Noun. [See Independent Case, Obs. 2, p. 85.] SUBJECT SENTENCES. " That I have taken this old mans daughter is most true. OBS. 2. In Examples like the above we have two Sentences one, Principal, the other Auxiliary or Subordinate. The Auxiliary Sentence is an Element in the Principal the Subject, and should be parsed accordingly. Thus, in the above Complex Sentence, the Principal Sentence is Simple, Intransitive, having one Subject " That I have taken this old mans daughter ;" one Predicate "is true;" and one Adjunct " most." OBS. 3. After an Auxiliary Sentence has been parsed, as one Element in its Principal Sentence, it should be analyzed by resolving it into its constituent Elements. Thus, in the Auxiliary Sentence given above, " That" Introduces the Sentence ; hence, a Conjunction. "I" Is the Subject of its Sentence ; hence, a Substantive. 11 Have taken" . Is the Predicate of its Sentence; a Verb and Participle. "This" Is an Adjunct of " man"['s] ; hence, an Adjective. "Old" Is an Adjunct of "man"['s] ; hence, an Adjective. " Man's" Is an Adjunct of "daughter ;" hence, an Adjective. "Daughter" . . .Is the Object of " have taken ;" hence, a Substajitive. OBS. 4. The Subject Sentence is commonly not always introduced by the Conjunction "that." [See Examples below.] POSITION OF SUBJECT SENTENCES. NOTE IV. A Subject Sentence is placed before its Predicate. 192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. EXAMPLES. 1. " That we differ in opinion is not STRANGE." 2. " How he came by it, SHALL BE DISCLOSED in the next chapter." OBS. 1. EXCEPTIONS. When the Pronoun it is substituted for a Subject Sentence, the Pronoun precedes, and the Sentence for which it stands is placed after the Verb. EXAMPLE. " It is probable that we shall not meet again.' 1 OBS. 2. In parsing Sentences like the above, we are to parse "it" as the grammatical Subject of the Principal Sentence, and the whole Auxiliary Sentence as explanatory of the word "it" a Logical Adjunct of "it." [Sec "Logical Adjunct," p. 29.] ^^ Let the Class make Sentences, which shall be correct examples of the several Notes, Observations, and Piemarks, under Rule 1. EXERCISES. EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 1. There is no union here 'of hearts, That finds not here an end ; 2. Were this frail world our final rest, Living or dying none were blest, 3. Thus star by star declines, Till all are passed away ; 4. As morning high and higher shines, To pure and perfect day : 5. Nor sink those stars in empty night, But hide themselves in heaven's own light. MODEL. " Friend after friend departs" D T? f Subject ---- " Friend" \ Simple Sentence PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS j Pr ^ dicaie departs . \ Intransitive. * p%*^ \ " ADJUNCT ELEMENT. . * " After friend." a Phrase. l! THE LEADER After a Preposition. THE SUBSEQUENT Friend .a Noun. EXERCISES. 193 " Friend" . . . * is an Element in the Sentence. Principal Element. Subject. Word. Noun. Common. Third Person. Singular Number. Nominative Case according to Rule 1st. The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Nominative Case. ^^ Thus analyze all the Sentences in the foregoing and in the fol- lowing "Examples," and parse the Subjects of each. ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES 1. "Rewarding and punishing actions by any other rule, would appear much haHer to be accounted for by minds formed as he has formed ours." Bp. Butler. 2. " What time he took orders, doth not appear." Life of Butler. 3. "That every day has its pains and sorrows, is universally ex- perienced." 4. " My hopes and fears start up alarmed." 6. " Who shall tempt, with wandering feet, The dark, unfathomed, infinite abyss?" 6. "Not a drum was heard, nor a funeral note. 7. "Not half of our heavy task was done." 8. " Few and short were the prayers we said." 9. "A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid." 10. " Her satin snood, her silken plaid, Her golden brooch, such birth betrayed." GRAMMATIC FALLACIES. REM. Let the Pupils correct the errors of the following Sentences, and give the authority for every criticism, by a proper reference to Rule I. , or to Notes and Observations under the Rule. 1. " His wealth and him bid adieu to each other." Priestly. 2. " My sister and me were both invited." 3. " We have not learned whom else were invited." 4. " Scotland and thee did each in other live." Dryden. 6. " Tell me in sadness whom is she you love." Shakspear* 6. " Him I most loved fell at Gettysburg." IT 194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. 7. " Them are the boys we saw." 8. " The rustic's sole response was, ' Them's my sentiments. 7 " 9. " Has thee been to the yearly meeting?" * IL The Predicate. ( Subject. ~~^ Predicate. ^ J) HEM. 1. In a Sentence, it is the office of the Predicate to make the assertion. It declares existence, state, change, or an act, performed or received. REM. 2. A Predicate may consist of one Word or of a combination of Words. If of one Word ; it must be a Verb. Robert studies. And, in addition, it may have A second Verb Robert does study, A Participle Robert is studying. An Adjective Robert is studious. A Noun Robert is a student. A Pronoun It is I If I were you. A Preposition Its idle hopes are o'er, It may also consist of two Verbs and one or more Participles, etc. We MIGHT HAVE WALKED We MIGHT HAVE BEEN LOVED. 'OBS. 1. When a Predicate consists of more than one Word, the last constitutes the essential part of the Predicate. The other Words are Auxiliary, and are used to indicate Voice, Mode, Tense, and sometimes Person and Number. Thus, in the Sentence, ;i I may have been loved," the Word "loved" is the essential part of the Predicate " been," is an Auxiliary, the principal office of which is to denote the Voice; " have," denotes the Tense; " may," denotes the Mode. [See p. 123.] OBS. 2. Every complete Predicate must have a Subject, expressed or understood. VERBS. RULE 2. A Verb in Predicate must agree with its Sub- ject in Number and Person. REM. This rule requires that the form of a Verb be determined by its Subject. Strictly speaking, Verbs have no Number and Person. The term is used to denote a variation in the form of a Verb to cor- respond with the Number and Person of its Subject. Thus, VERBS NUMBER. 195 In the Singular Number, no Suffix is used for the First Person ; as, I walk. Est or st is added for the Second Person, solemn style. EXAMPLE. Thou walkest. S is added for the Third Person Singular ; as, John walks. In the Plural Number, Verbs are not varied to denote the Persons of their Subjects. EXAMPLES. We walk ye walk they walk. NUMBER. NOTE I. One Subject in the Singular Number requires its Verb to be in the Singular. REM. This note applies alike to Words, to Phrases, and to Sentences. EXAMPLES. Word Subjects . ... 1, u EARTH keeps me here awhile." 2. " KNOWLEDGE reaches or may reach every home." Phrase Subjects . . .3. " MY LEAVING HOME does not please you." 4. "To DISPUTE THE DOCTOR requires fortitude." Sentence Subjects . . 5. " THAT ALL MEN ARE CREATED EQUAL, is a self- evident truth. ' ' 6. " How HE CAME BACK AGAIN, doth not appear." ^^- Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. " Where are you, my boy ? Here I are." 2. " He dare not call me coward." 3. " I wonder at what thou says on that subject." 4. " And many a steed in his stables were seen." 5. ' ' There are pupils in this class, whose progress have been astonishing." NOTE II. Two or more Singular Subjects, taken sepa- rately, require the Verb to be Singular,, EXAMPLES. Word Subjects. .1. " WILLIAM or WARNER has my knife." 2. "DISEASE or POVERTY follows the lazy track of the sluggard." 3 . " My POVERTY, but not my WILL, consents. ' ' Shakspeare. 196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART HI. 4. "Every PHRASE and every FIGURE which he uses tends to render the picture more lively and com- plete." Blair. Phrase Subjects. ,.5. " WRITING LETTERS or READING NOVELS occupies her evening hours." 6. "To BE OR NOT TO BE, is the question." 7. "To SHOOT OR BE SHOT, was my only alternative." Sentence Subjects. .8. " That my client aided in the rescue, or that he was present at the time of it, DOES not APPEAR from the evidence adduced." 2^*- Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. " Neither history nor tradition furnish such information.'' 2. "Neither Charles nor his brother were qualified to support such a system." 3. " Nor war nor wisdom yield our Jews delight." 4. " He or his deputy were authorized to commit the culprit.' 5. " For outward matter or event fashion not the character within." *- NOTE III. A Collective Noun, indicating Unity, re- quires its Verb to be in the Singular Number. EXAMPLES. 1. " A NATION has been smitten." 2. " The SENATE HAS REJECTED the bill." 3. " Congress has adjourned." EXCEPTION. The Logical Subject of a Sentence is sometimes the Object of a Phrase used to qualify the Grammatical Subject. Then, when the Object of the Phrase is plural in form, and indicates that the parts of which the number is composed are taken severally, the Verb should be Plural. EXAMPLE. A part of the STUDENTS have left. Here " students" the name of many taken severally is the Logical Subject of "have left." and requires the Verb to be Plural, although "part," the Grammatical Subject, is Singular. OBS. 3. But Nouns not Collective are not varied in number by their Adjuncts. EXAMPLES. 1. " The progress of his forces was impeded." Allen. 2. The selection of appropriate examples requires taste. 3. " All appearances of modesty are favorable and pre- possessing. ' ' Blair. VERBS NUMBER. 197 ; the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. t 1. "A series of exercises in false grammar are introduced toward the end." Frost's Grammar. ; 2. "The numher of the names were about one hundred and twenty. ' ' Ware s Grammar. 3. " The number of school districts have increased since last year." 4. "In old English, this species of words were numerous." 5. " Have the legislature power to prohibit assemblies." 6. " Above one half of them was cut off before the return of spring." 7. " The greater part of their captures was sacrificed." 8. " While still the busy world is treading o'er The paths they trod five thousand years before." 9. " Small as the number of inhabitants are, their poverty is extreme." 10. "The number of bounty-jumpers are enormous." NOTE IV. One Subject in the Plural Number should have a Verb in the Plural. EXAMPLES. Ward Subjects. ... 1. " WINGS were on her feet." 2. "They that seek me early shall find me. EXCEPTION 1. Nouns, Plural in form, often constitute the titles of books. Such names, used as Subjects of Sentences, require their Verbs to be Singular. EXAMPLES. 1. " The ' Pleasures of Hope' is a splendid poem." 2. " The ' Lives of the Martyrs' is now out of print." EXCEPTION 2. A Plural Subject, modified by a Phrase whose Subse- quent is the Logical Subject of the Sentence, and Singular in form, may have a Singular Verb. EXAMPLE. Two thirds of my hair has fallen off. NOTE Y. Two or more Subjects connected by and require the Verb to be in the Plural. EXAMPLES. Word Subjects. . . .1. "The VIVACITY and SENSIBILITY of the Greeks seem to have been much greater than ours." 17* 198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PABT HI. 2. " Even as the ROEBUCK and the HART are. eaten." Phrase Subjects. . . 3. ' ' Chewing tobacco and smoking cigars disqualify a young man for mental improvement." Cutcheon. 4:'"" To spin, to weave, to knit, and to sew, were once V^ a girl's employments; ^ 5. But now to dress and catch a beau, are all she calls enj oyments. ' ' Lynn News. Sentence Subjects. . 6. tr Heact*of this burgess on the stone appear, How worthy he! how virtuous ! and Iww dear!" Crabbe. EXCEPTION 1. Two or more Singular Subjects so intimately as- sociated in thought as to constitute a logical unity, may have a Verb in the Singular Number. EXAMPLES. 1. "The head and front of my offending hath this extent." Shakzpeare. 2. "There is a peculiar force and beauty in this figure." Kames. EXCEPTION 2. Two or more Singular Subjects preceded by the Ad- jectives each, every, or no, require the Verb to be in the Singular Number. EXAMPLES. 1. " Every boy and every girl was eager for the recitation." 2. ' ' Each day and each hour is fraught with conse- quences too momentous for human contem- plation." 3. "No fortune and no condition in life makes the guilty mind happy." EXCEPTION 3. Two or more Singular Subjects connected by and one taken affirmatively and the other negatively require the Verb to be in the Singular Number. EXAMPLES. 1 . ' ' My poverty, but not my will, consents." Shakspeare. 2. * ' His moral integrity, and not his wealth, makes him respected." EXCEPTION 4. Two or more Singular Subjects, indicating the same person or thing, require the Verb to be in the Singular Number. EXAMPLE." The saint, the father, and the husband prays." Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. "Two and two is four, and five is nine.' 7 VERBS PERSON. 199 2. " The flax and the barley was smitten." 3. " The Mood and Tense is signified by the Verb." . 4. ' ' Every word and every member have their due weight and force." 6. " Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty." 6. " No law, no restraint, no regulation are required to keep him in bounds." 7. " Prudence, and not pomp, are the basis of his fame." 8. '* Not fear, but fatigue, have overcome him." 9. * ' The President, not the Cabinet, are responsible for the measure." _ NOTE VI. A Collective Noun, indicating Plurality, requires its Verb to be in the Plural Number. EXAMPLES. 1. "The PEOPLE are foolish, they have not known me." 2. " For the people speak, but do not write." OBS. 1. Collective Nouns, which always require a Plural Verb, are the following : Gentry mankind nobility people peasantry. OBS. 2. Those which may have Verbs in the Singular or Plural, according to the sense, are the following : Aristocracy army auditory committee congress church family meet- ingpublic school remnant senate. PERSON. NOTE VII. Two or more Subjects, taken separately and differing in Person, should have separate Verbs, when the Verb is varied to denote the Person of its Subject. EXAMPLE. You ARE in error, or /AM. OBS. But when the Verb is not varied to denote the Person, it need not be repeated. EXAMPLES. 1. You or 1 MUST GO. 2. The doctors or you ARE in error. NOTE VIII. When the Subject of a Verb differs in Person or Number (or both) from a Noun or Pronoun in Predicate, the Verb should agree with its Subject rather than with the word in Predicate. EXAMPLES. 1. " THOU art the man." 2. CLOUDS are vapor. 3. A iiousifi is an animal. 200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART HI. OBS. 1. The young Pupil often finds it difficult to decide which of the two Substantives is the Subject and which the Noun in Predicate. The following test will decide this point : When one term is generic and the other specific, the former belongs in Predicate the latter is the Subject. Thus, in Example 3, " animal" is a generic term "horse" is specific. We can not say, an animal is a horse, for not every animal is a horse ; but every horse is an animal. Hence, "horse" is the Subject, and "animal" is in Predicate. [See Independent Case, p. 85, Obs. 5.] MODE AND TENSE. NOTE IX. That Mode and Tense of a Verb should be used which will most clearly convey the sense intended. OBS. 1. A Verb used to denote a conditional fact or a contingency should have the Subjunctive or the Potential form. EXAMPLES. 1. " WERE I Alexander, I would accept the terms." 2. "So would I WERE IParmenio." 3. " If we would improve, we must study." OBS. 2- But if the condition is assumed as unquestionable, the Verb should be in the Indicative Mode. EXAMPLES. 1. " If thou hadst known." 2. If John has offended you, he will make due apology. X. That form of the Verb should be used which will most clearly express the time intended. OBS. 1. In constructing Complex Sentences, the Tense of the Prin- cipal Sentence does not necessarily control the Tense of the Verb in the Auxiliary Sentence. EXAMPLES. 1. " I said in my haste, all men are liars." 2. "He has been so long idle, that he knows not how to work. ' ' 3. "Copernicus first demonstrated that the earth revolves upon its axis. ' ' 4. ' ' Those that seek me early shall find me. ' ' 5. " * And when we are parted, and when thou art dead, 0, where shall we lay thee?' his followers said." OBS. 2. A proposition which is always true, or which includes the VERBS MODE AND TENSE. 201 past, the present, and the future, should be expressed in the Present Tense. EXAMPLES. 1. "The lecturer demonstrated that the earth is round." 2. "Did he say that the moon revolves from east to west?" OBS. 3. The variations for the Potential Mode are rather variations of form than to indicate distinctions of time this Mode being generally indifferent as to time. EXAMPLE. " 0, would the scandal vanish with my life, Then happy were TO me ensuing death !" OBS. 4. The Infinitive Present generally Indicates indefinite time the Finite Verb on which it depends commonly determines its Tense. EXAMPLES. 1. " I went TO SEE him." Present in form, but Past in sense. 2. * * I shall go TO SEE him. ' ' Present in form, but Future OBS. 5. But generally, to indicate past time, the Prior Present In- finitive is used, except when the Infinitive follows Verbs denoting purpose, ex- pectation, wish, etc. EXAMPLES. 1. We ought TO HAVE GONE. 2. I purposed TO WRITE many days ago. 3. I expected TO MEET him yesterday. 2^* Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. " I wish I was a gipsy." 2. " If I was a teacher, I should give shorter lessons." 3. "Take care lest the boat leaves before you shall get up. 4. " We have been expecting to see Eobert all last year." 6. " The preacher declared that beneficence was not benevolence." FORM OF THE VERB. NOTE XL That form of a Verb should be used which will correctly and fully express the fact intended. Common Errors.}. "There let him lay" Byron. 2. "To you I fltj f( r refuge." Murray. Corrected. There let him lie. To you I flee for refuge. 202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PART III. the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. " Respectable farmers never lay down in the field." 2. "I have no objection to your setting down occasionally." 3. " While I was talking, Sarah raised up to leave the hall." 4. "I expect you was out late last night. ' ' 5. " William has been falling trees in the maple grove." VOICE. NOTE XII. The form of the Active Voice is properly- used when the agent of the action expressed is made the Subject of the Sentence. EXAMPLES. 1. Columbus discovered America. 2. Cassar invaded Gaul. OBS. 1. The Passive form is used when the Object of the Act is made the Subject of the Sentence. EXAMPLES. 1. America was discovered. 2. Gaul was invaded. OBS. 2. The Agent of the Action is made the Object of an Adjunct Phrase, when the Verb takes the Passive form. EXAMPLES. Active Voice. 1. William HAS SOLVED the problem. 2. Mary GAVE rue a rose. Passive Voice. 1 . The problem HAS BEEN SOLVED by William. 2. A rose WAS GIVEN [to] me by Mary. OBS. 3. Action is sometimes improperly predicated of a Passive Subject. EXAMPLES. You are mistaken. for ............. You mistake. The house is building. for ............. The house is being built. which means . . . .The house is be\com]wff built, i. e., people are at work upon.it ; but the house does not act. $i* Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. "The boy has been found fault with too much." 2. "The old man thought he was not looked up to enough." VERBS TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 203 3. *' Wheat is now selling for a dollar a bushel." 4. " My predictions are now fulfilling." 5. " The timbers are now hewing for a new bridge." 6. " Here certain chemical mysteries were carrying on by the engineers." 7. " My coat is now making by the tailor." TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. NOTE XIII. A Verb which is necessarily Transitive requires an Object in construction, expressed or implied. OBS. The appropriate Object of a Sentence should not be made the Object of a Phrase. EXAMPLE. "Transitive Verbs do not ADMIT of a Preposition after them." Bullion's Grammar, p. 91, edition of 1847. CORRECTED. Transitive Verbs do not admit Prepositions after them [to complete the Predicate] . NOTE XIV. A Verb necessarily Intransitive should not have an Object, except by poetic license or for other rhetorical purposes. EXAMPLE. " I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend." EXCEPTION 1. But a small number of Verbs are used Transitively or Intransitively. [See p. 107, Obs. 1.] EXCEPTION 2. Some Intransitive Verbs may have Objects of their own signification. EXAMPLES. 1. " I dreamed a dream that was not all a dream." 2. "I have fought a good fight. ' ' OBS. 1. Some Verbs, commonly used Intransitively, become Trans- itive by virtue of a Prepositional Prefix. EXAMPLES. 1. John goes to school "goes" is Intransitive. 2. John undergoes punishment. " undergoes'' is Transitive. 3. The tower looks well ,.'" looks" is Intransitive. 4. The tower overlooks the city. ' * overlooks' ' is Transitive. OBS 2. In such examples of Compound Verbs in Predicate, it is generally not always the Preposition in Composition that makes the Verb Transitive. 204: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. OBS. 3. Verbs made Transitive by this use of Prefixes, can not ele- gantly be used in the Passive Voice. EXAMPLES. 1. "John undergoes punishment." We may not say punishment is undergone by John. 2. "The tower overlooks the city." Nor, the city is overlooked by the tower. OBS. 4. Prepositions not in composition, used with Intransitive Verbs to introduce Adjunct Phrases, are construed with the Predicate when the Verb becomes Passive. EXAMPLES. 1. " The children laughed at him." He was laughed at by the children. 2. " We often thought of our friends at home." Our friends at home were often thought of. HEM. Such expressions are not often elegant, and should be avoided when the same thought can be otherwise expressed. Thus, He was derided by the children. Our friends at home were often remembered. XY. A Verb should not be used for its Parti- ciple in Predicate. EXAMPLE. James ought not to have went. CORRECTED. James ought not to have gone. NOTE XVI. A Participle should not take the place of its Verb. EXAMPLE. "The work is imperfect ; you done it too hastily." CORRECTED. The work is imperfect ; you did it too hastily. OBS. Parts of the Predicate of a Sentence may be omitted by ellipsis. 1. The leading Word. "If[ ] heard aright, It is the knell of my departed hours.'' 2. The second Word. "They may [ ] and should return to allegiance." 3. The whole Predicate. " While [ ] there we visited the Asylum." 4 To whom, thus Eve [ ] . " Milton. VERBS PARSING. 205 ^Sf" Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. " Julia is always chose first." 2. '* Ains worth has spoke twice and has wrote once." 3. " The best apple was gave to Anna." 4. " You ought not to have broke that chair/' 6. "I seen you when you done it. ' ' 6. "I had rather have did it myself." EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. ' ' He maketh the storm a calm. ' ' He ^ ma?teth 8torm calm r The Subject [not modified] . " He." MODIFIED ELEMENTS. ] The Modified Predicate . . J " maket^ [to become] ( The Modified Object "the storm." ( The Subject "He." PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. \ The Predicate " maketh." ( The Object "storm." ( Of the Subject. ADJUNCT ELEMENTS. . -j Of the Predicate [to become] "a calm." ( Of the Object "the." PARSED BY THE CHART. He Is an Element in the Sentence Principal Element Subject- -Word Pronoun Personal Masculine Third Person Singular Number Nominative Case. Maketh Is an Element in the Sentence Principal Element Predicate Verb Indicative Mode Present Tense- Agreeing with its Subject ' ' He' ' in the Third Person Singular Number. The Is an Adjunct Element Word Adjective Specifying Pure and limits "storm." Storm Is an Element in the Sentence Principal Element Object Word Noun Common Third Person Sin- gular Number- Objective Case. [To become] ) Is an Adjunct Element Phrase Adverbial Infinitive a calm. . . J and modifies " maketh.'' 18 206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART HI. A Is an Element in the Phrase Adjunct "Word Adjec- tive Specifying Pure and limits "calm." Calm Is an Element in the Phrase Subsequent Word Noun Common Third Person Singular Number "in Predicate" with become understood. REM. The above is the correct grammatical construction of the Sentence, and it is correctly parsed. But without the Adjunct Phrase "to become a calm," the word "maketh" could not properly have " storm" as its Object. " Storm" is the Object of the modified Predicate "inaketh [causing to become] a calm." GRAMMATIC FALLACIES. REM. Let the Pupil correct the errors in the following Sentences, and give the authority for every criticism, by a proper reference to RULE 2, or to NOTES and OBSERVATIONS under the RULE. 1. " The rapidity of his movements were beyond example." WdU. 2. "The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally unknown." 3. "The Past Tense of these Verbs are very indefinite with respect to time." Bullion's Grammar, p, 31. 1840. 4. "Everybody are very kind to her." Byron. 5. "To study mathematics, require maturity of mind." 6. "That they were foreigners, were apparent in their dress." 7. "Coleridge the poet and philosopher have many admirers." 8. "No monstrous height, or length, or breadth appear." Pope. 9. " Common sense, as well as piety, tell us these are proper." 10. "Wisdom or folly govern us." Fish's Grammar. 11. " Nor want nor cold his course delay." Johnson. 12. "Hence naturally arise indifference or aversion between the par- ties." Brown s Estimates. 13. " Wisdom, and not wealth, procurejesteem." Ib. 14. " No company likes to confess that they are ignorant." 15. "The people rejoices in that which should cause sorrow." 16. "Therein consists the force and use and nature of language." 17. " From him proceeds power, sanctification, truth, grace, and every other blessing we can conceive." Calvin. 18. " How is the Gender and Number of the Relative known?" 19. "Hill and dale doth boast thy blessing." Milton. 20. "The Syntax and Etymology of the language is thus spread before the learner." Bullion's Grammar. 21. "In France the peasantry goes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes." Harvey. GRAMMATIC FALLACIES. 207 22. " While all our youth prefers her to the rest." Waller. 23. " A great majority of our authors is defective in manner." J. Brown. 24. " Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven." 25. " Nor he nor I are capable of harboring a thought, against your peace. " Wdlpole. 26. * ' Neither riches nor fame render a man happj r .' ' Day's Grammar. 27. "I or thou art the person who must undertake the business." Murray. 28. "The quarrels of lovers is a renewal of love." 29. ' * Two or more sentence^ united together is called a compound sentence. ' ' Day s Grammar. 30. " If I was a Greek, I should resist Turkish despotism." 31 . "I can not say that I admire this construction, though it be much used." Priestly s Grammar, p. 172 32. "It was observed in Chap. 3, that the disjunctive or had a double use." Churchill's Grammar. 33. "I observed that love constituted the whole character of God." 34. "A stranger to the poem would not easily discover that this was verse. " Murray. 35. "Had I commanded you to have done this, you would thought hard of it." J. Brawn. 36. "I found him better than I expected to have found him." 37. " There are several faults which I intended to have enumerated." 38. "An effort is making to abolish the law." 39. "The Spartan admiral was sailed to the Hellespont." Goldsmith. 40. " So soon as he was landed, the multitude thronged about him." 41. " Which they neither have nor can do." Barclay. 42. " For you have but mistook me all the while." Shakspeare. 43. "Who would not have let them appeared." Stede. 44. " You were chose probationer." Spectator. 45. " Had I known the character of the lecture, I would not have went. ' ' 46. "They don't ought to do \i.''Waikins. 47. "Had I ought to place ' wive in Predicate with ' makes?' " Pupil. 48. " Whom they had sat at defiance " Bolingbroke. 49. " Whereunto the righteous fly and are safe." Barclay. 50. " She sets as a prototype, for exact imitation." Rash. REM. After correcting the above examples, the Pupil should analyze and parse them using the MODEL given on p. 205, or those on pp. 183-4. i 208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III III. The Object of a Sentence. ' The Objec in the Objective Case. " RULE 3. The Object of an action or relation must be /""""" """Ny AA A Subject Y Predicate. Object Ute Red Sea coast." Pollock. 14. " The kijfc n <|raiit'OQ the Jews which were in every city, to gather themselves together, and to stand for their life, to destroy, to slay, and to cause to perish, all the power of the people and province that would assault them." Bible. 15. " We have more than heart could wish." 16. " My punishment is greater than I can bear." INDEPENDENT CASE. RULE 6. A Noun or a Pronoun, not dependent on any other word in construction, is in the Independent Case. REM. 1. As the grammatical Subject of a Sentence is limited to the Nominative Case of Is juns and Pronouns, so the Nominative Case is properly limited to the Subject of a Sentence. Hence the term "Nominative Case Independent" is inappropriate. REM. 2. The term " Independent Case" as applied to Nouns and Pronouns, indicates simply that they do not bear a part in the struc- ture of Sentences as integral Elements. This term includes the following six distinct conditions of Nouns and Pronouns : 1. Names of persons and things addressed. "Appellatives." 2. Explanatory words. " In Apposition." 3. Leaders of Independent Phrases. " Case Absolute." 4. In Predicate with Verbs. "Case after Neuter Verbs." 5. Words of Euphony. 6. Titles and Exclamatory Words. These conditions are exemplified in the following NOTBS. 20 230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PART III. I. The name of a person or thing addressed is in the Independent Case. EXAMPLES. I. ''FRIENDS, ROMANS, COUNTRYMEN." 2. " Come, gentle SPRING ethereal MILDNESS, come." OBS. 1. In the last example the word tJwu, understood, is the proper subject of "come." The words "spring" and "mildness" are ad- dressed, and are independent in construction. [See p. 85.] NOTE II. A Noun or a Pronoun, used to explain a pre- ceding Noun or Pronoun, is in the Ind^ " (4 }dent Case. '. nc - Adj EXAMPLES. 1. Paul, the APOSTLE, wrote to TimoJssiv>. 2. * ' Up springs the lark, shrill- voiced a^d shrewd, The MESSENGER of morn." OBS. 1. This Note applies also to Phrases and to Sentences. EXAMPLES. 1. It is our duty to STUDY. 2. " It is possible THAT WE HAVE MISJUDGED." [Seep. 235.] OBS. 2. An Independent Noun or Pronoun is properly a Logical Adjunct when it is used to describe or limit another word. EXAMPLES. Paul the APOSTLE. Peter the GREAT. HEM. "Apostle" describes "Paul," by limiting the application of that name to a particular individual. [See p. 85.] NOTE III. A Noun or a Pronoun, used as the Leader of an Independent Phrase, is in the Independent Case. EXAMPLES. 1. The HOUR having arrived, we commenced the exercises. 2. "Thus talking, HAND in hand, alone they passed On to their blissful bower. ' ' Hand being in hand. NOTE IV. A Noun or a Pronoun, used in Predicate with a Verb, is in the Independent Case. EXAMPLES. "Thou art a scholar." It is /. " God is love." "He maketh the storm a calm" OBS. A Noun or a Pronoun used in Predicate, may have the form of the Nominative or of the Objective Case. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 231 EXAMPLES. 1. " I thought it to be him."* 2. "It was not me* that you saw." 3. "It was not I that did it." REM. This idiom is established by good authority ancient and modern and grammarians can not well alter the custom. " Nescire quid accident antequam natus es, est semper esse puerwm." " Not to know what happened before you was born, is always to be a boy." Here, "puerum" (boy) has the form of the Accusative Case (Objec- tive), and can not be in the Nominative. NOTE Y. A Noun or a Pronoun, used for Euphony, is in the Independent Case. EXAMPLE. ' ' The rr i herself is lost in heaven. ' ' r.y OBS. In this Note are properly included Nouns and Pronouns, re- peated for the sake of emphasis. EXAMPLE. "This, THIS is thinking free." NOTE VI. A Noun or a Pronoun denoting the Subject of remark the title of a book used in address, or in ex- clamation, etc., is in the Independent Case. EXAMPLES. 1. " Our Fathers I where are they, and the Prophets ! do they live forever?" 2. ' ' Wright' s Orthography. ' ' 2ir Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. " Me being satisfied, you ought to be so too." 2. My being fatigued, John finished my task for me. 3. I thought it to be he. 4. It was not me that did it. 5. It was not I that you saw. DBS. 1. Adverbial Sentences are often elegantly condensed into Independent Phrases. EXAMPLES. Sentence. When the hour had arrived, we commenced the exercises. Phrase. The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises. * Well-established custom requires the same RULE in English that is given in our Greek Grammars. tk The Antecedent is sometimes put, by attraction^ in the case of the relative.'* 232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. HEM. I, "When the hour had arrived" is a Grammatical Adjunct of "commenced," an Adverbial Sentence. " Hour" is the Subject of that Sentence ; hence, in the Nominative Case. HEM. 2. "The hour having arrived," is a Logical Adjunct of "commenced," an Independent Phrase. "Hour" is the Leader of that Phrase ; hence, in the Independent Case. OBS. 2 By a custom not to be recommended nor allowed, except by "poetic license," an Independent Phrase is sometimes preceded by a Preposition, which does not indicate a relation, nor properly connect it to an Antecedent. EXAMPLES. 1. " WITH arm in arm, the forest rose on high, And lessons gave of brotherly regard." 2. * * UPON our horse becoming weary, we procured lodgings at a private house." HEM. 1. "With" is not necessary to the grammatical construction of the Sentence its affix being simply to preserve the rhythm. KEM. 2. The use of " upon" is unnecessary and improper. EXERCISES IN THE USE OF THE INDEPENDENT CASE, 1 . Absalom ! my son, my son ! 2. Lend me your songs, ye nightingales ! 3. How is IT possible not to feel grateful for such benefits ! 4. Other things being equal, we prefer a fruit-growing climate. 5 Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of time. 6. Henceforth I never will be Romeo. 7. John dislikes to be called an idle boy. 8. That little indiscretion made him my enemy. 9. His teeth they chatter still. ADJUNCTS. NOTE I. Adjuncts belong to the words which, they modify or describe. THE FORMS OF ADJUNCTS OBS. 1. Adjuncts may consist of Words, Phrases, or Sentences. EXAMPLES. 1. A Word. We were walking homeward. 2. A Phrase. We were walking toward home. 3. A Sentence. " Let me stand here till thou remember it." ADJUNCTS FORMS OF.* 233 II. In the use of Adjuncts, that form should be employed which will most fully convey the sense intended. OBS. 1. Many Adjunct Words, Phrases, and Sentences are inter- changeable. EXAMPLES, Word Adjuncts. 1. "An honest MAN is the noblest work of God." 2 " Dark DAYS are remembered." 3. " The wind's low SIGH. ' ' 4. James CAME to school early. Phrase Adjuncts. 5. A MAN of honesty is the noblest work of God. 6. Let him remember the DAYS of darkness. 7. The low SIGH of the wind. 8. James CAME to school at an early hour. Sentence Adjuncts. 9. A MAN who is honest, is the noblest work of God. 10. DAYS which are dark, are long remembered. 11. The low SIGH which the wind seems to make. 12. James CAME to school while it was yet early. OBS. 2. But this interchange of Adjuncts is not always admissible. EXAMPLES. Correct. "The TIME of my departure is at hand." Incorrect. My departure's TIME is at hand. [See Obs. 3, p. 244.] OBS. 3. Adjuncts are often Complex. One Adjunct Word may be qualified or limited by another Word. EXAMPLES. 1. Two HUNDRED dollars. 2. The CLOUD'S deep voice. 3. The WIND'S low sigh. s. 4. An Adjunct Word may be limited by a Phrase. EXAMPLES. 1. " From the shore, EAT into caverns, by the restless wave. 11 2. " Wisdom is TOO high for a fool. 11 OBS. 5. An Adjunct Word may be limited by a Sentence. EXAMPLES. 1. " He called so loud that all the hollow deep resounded." 2. " OFT as the morning dawns should gratitude ascend." [See Diagram, p. 42, and Diagram 3, p. 44.] OBS. 6. An Adjunct Phrase may be limited by a Word. EXAMPLE. Arthur went almost TO BOSTON. [See Diagram, p. 254.] OBS. 7. An Adjunct Sentence may be limited by a Word. EXAMPLE. " NOT as the conqueror comes, They the true-hearted came." [See p. 254.] 20* 234: ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PART III. THE OFFICES OF ADJUNCTS. OBS. 8. Adjuncts may be attached to any of the five Elements of Sentences. 1. To the Subject. ..." The KING of shadows loves a shining mark." [See Diagram, p. 39.] 2. To the Predicate. . " And when its yellow luster smiled O'er mountains yet untrod, Each mother HELD aloft her child, To bless the bow of God." [See Diagram, p. 62.] 3. To the Object ..... ' ' They undertake the noblest cause mankind can . have at stake." [See Diagram, p. 59.] 4. To the Adjective. . . ' ' The truly VIRTUOUS man is not REGARDLESS of his reputation. ' ' 5. To the Adverb. . . . " Wisdom is TOO high for a fool." 11 Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude ascend." [See Diagram, p. 42.] Hence, I. All Adjuncts of Substantives are to be parsed as Adjectives ; Adjuncts of Verbs, Participles, Adjectives^ and Adverbs, are to be parsed as Adverbs. OBS. In addition to Grammatical Adjuncts, we have what may prop- erly be called Logical Adjuncts. These are commonly Substantives, independent in construction, yet serving indirectly to limit or modify other Elements. [See p. 29.] They may be Words, Phrases, or Sentences. EXAMPLES. Word. PETEB the Hermit resembled, in temperament, PETER the Apostle. Peter / resembled Peter Hermit ~) \^ D J temperament) (^ Apostle REM. " Hermit" and "Apostle" are Nouns, yet serve to distinguish the two men named "Peter." ADJUNCTS OFFICES OF. 235 Phrase. IT is not good for man to be alone, is good ~~^ to l be alone What is not good for man ? To be alone. Hence, REM. The Phrase "to be alone' is a Logical Adjunct of "it." It indicates what is meant by that Pronoun, and may be substituted for it thus, To be alone, is not good for man. Sentence. IT is possible that we mistake. f It Y is possible J HEM. " That we mistake" limits the signification of the word " IT." For further Observations on Logical Adjuncts, see "INDEPENDENT CASE," Part II., p. 85. ADJECTIVES. RULE 7. Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns which they describe. OBS. 1. It should be remembered that any word whose most im- portant office is to specify, qualify, or otherwise describe a person or a thing, is, therefore, an Adjective. [See Def. 97.] A word which is sometimes or generally used as some other "part of speech," may, in certain connections, be used Adjectively ; and when thus used, it is an Adjective. EXAMPLES. An iron fence. Working oxen. HEM. Every Adjective having its Substantive understood, becomes Pronominal. [See Adjective Pronouns, p. 93.] OBS. 2. An Adjective may consist of A Word. The recitation hour has arrived. A Phrase. The hour for recitation has arrived. A Sentence. The hour in which we recite has arrived. 236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. ADJECTIVE WORDS. OBS. Adjectives describe things in two distinct methods : 1. As an ordinary epithet, in which the attribute is not asserted, but implied or assumed. EXAMPLES. 1. A sweet apple. 2. A few inhabitants. 3. " Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne, In rayless majesty, now -stretches forth Her leaden scepter o'er a slumbering world." 2. By asserting the attribute with the aid of a Verb or a Participle 4. The apple is sweet. 5. The inhabitants are free. 6. The world is slumbering. 7. " This latter mode of expression falls short of the force and vehemence of the former." Murray- THE FORMS OF ADJECTIVES. HEM. 1. Many words in the English Language are, primarily, Ad- jectives. EXAMPLES. Hard soft sour sweet good bad old young. HEM. 2. But most words used as Adjectives are Derivative Words. EXAMPLES. Arabia/I virtuous hope/wZ masterZy children' s HEM. 3. Many Adjectives have the same form as the Noun. EXAMPLES. A silver pencil a gold pen a stone bridge. NOTE I. That form of the Adjective should be used which is in accordance with reputable usage. EXAMPLES. 1. A gold pen not a golden pen. 2. A silver pencil not a silvery pencil. 3. " Golden ears, though richly waving, Must, in harvest, fall. ' ' 4. "The silvery tide will bear thee." OBS. 1. Two or more Adjectives are often used as distinct Ad- juncts of the game Substantive. EXAMPLES. 1. " The tall dark MOUNTAINS and the deep-toned SEA." 2. " A TEMPER, passionate and fierce, May suddenly your joys disperse, At one immense EXPLOSION." ADJECTIVES COMPARISON OF. 237 HEM. But the same Noun rarely has more than one Specifying Ad- jective. [See Specifying Adjectives below.] OBS. 2. When two or more Adjectives belong to the same Noun, they may I 1. Severally qualify the Substantive only ; or, 2. One Adjective may belong to the Noun as modified by the other. EXAMPLES. 1. " He was a tall, athletic, vigorous man." 2. ' ' Lamartine acted a conspicuous part in the late French Revolution. ' REM. "Tall," "athletic," and "vigorous," are Adjectives each standing in the same relation to the Word "man." " French" describes or limits " Revolution ; "late" limits " French Revolution." OBS. 3. This construction should be distinguished from that in which the Adjective and not the Adjective and Noun combined is modified by an Adverb. EXAMPLES. A very BEAUTIFUL flower. A long-neglected duty. OBS. 4. A Possessive Specifying Adjective may be limited by another Adjective. EXAMPLE. " He heard the KING'S command, And saw that WRITING'S truth." QUALIFYING ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. REM. As things are equal or unequal, similar or dissimilar, we have words indicating those differences. NOTE II. Care should be exercised in the choice of appropriate words to indicate Comparison. 1. COMPARISON OF EQUALITY. OBS. 1. Two or more things, similar in any given quality, are com- pared by the use of the word As, placed before the latter term. EXAMPLES. 1. John is AS tall as James. 2. Warner is not so fair as Arthur. . 3. "England can spare from her service SUCH men as him." Lord Brougham. 238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. OBS. 2. The former term of the Comparison of Equality may be pre- ceded by As or So, and sometimes by Such. [See Examples above.] As is commonly used in Affirmative Sentences. So is used in Negative Sentences. [See Examples above.] 2. COMPARISON or INEQUALITY. NOTE III. In Comparisons of Inequality, when but two things are compared, the former term requires an Adjective or an Adverb of the Comparative Degree. EXAMPLES. 1. "They are STRONGER than lions." Taylor. 2. "Their instinct is MORE PERFECT than that of man." Exception. Some good writers employ the Superlative. EXAMPLE. "The largest boat of the two was cut loose." Cowper. OBS. 1. The second term of Comparison of Inequality is commonly introduced by the word Than. [See Examples above.] OBS. 2. When the second term is a Substantive Word, Than is a Preposition. EXAMPLE. ** Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat." Milton. OBS. 3. When the second term is a Sentence, Than is commonly a Relative Pronoun or a Conjunction. EXAMPLES. 1. " He has MORE than heart could wish." 2. "And there are LOVELIER flowers, I ween, Than e'er in Eastern lands were seen." [For other Observations on Than, see " Conjunctions."] OBS. 4. The second term of a Comparison may be suppressed when the sense is not thereby obscured. EXAMPLES. 1. " We both have fed as well." 2. "I have known deeper wrongs." Mitford. NOTE IY. Adjectives of the Superlative Degree are used when more than two things are compared. EXAMPLES. 1. " The richest treasure mortal times afford is spotless reputation." 2. "Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of time." ADJECTIVES - COMPARISON OF. 239 . NOTE V. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives re- quireMifferent constructions. OBS. 1. The Comparative Degree requires the former term to be excluded from the latter. EXAMPLE. Iron is more valuable than all other metals. HEM. In this example, "Iron" is put as one term of Comparison, and "all other metals" as the other term two things are compared. Hence, the Comparative form. OBS. 2. The Superlative Degree requires the former term to be in- cluded in the latter. EXAMPLE. Iron is the most valuable of all the metals. REM. Here, "all the metals" are taken severally. "Iron" is taken from the list, and put in comparison with the many others more than two things are compared. Hence, the use of the Superlative form. VI. Adjectives whose significations do notfttdmit of Comparison, should not have the Comparative or the Superlative form. EXAMPLE. John's hoop is much more circular than mine. Corrected. John's hoop is much more nearly circular than mine. VII. Double Comparatives and Superlatives are improper. EXAMPLE. In the calmest and most stillest night. OBS. But Lesser is often used by good writers. EXAMPLE. "The lesser co-efficient." Dames' Algebra. HEM. The Comparison of Adjectives is not commonly absolute, but relative. Thus, in saying This is the sweetest apple, I merely say that this apple possesses a higher degree of the quality than all other apples with which it is compared. 13^ Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. John is not as tall as James. 2. William is so tall as his father, 3. The magnolia is more beautiful as the althea. 4. William's ball is rounder than mine. 24:0 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PAET III. 5. Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. 6. Eve was the fairest of all other women. 7. Eve was fairer than all her other daughters. 8. Nellie is the most loveliest of the girls. SPECIFYING ADJECTIVES. VIII. Specifying Adjectives should be so used as clearly to signify the real intention of the speaker or writer. HEM. 1. The peculiar province of Specifying Adjectives is to indicate the individuality of beings or things. Hence, OBS. 1. Specifying Adjectives should be used before Nouns taken in a restricted sense. EXAMPLES. 1. " The MAN of wealth and pride *i Takes up a SPACE that many POOR supplied. ' ' 2. "He has betrayed the CONFIDENCE of his FRIENDS." 3. " The TRUTH of that PROPOSITION is self-evident." HEM. 2. But Nouns may be restricted by the use of Phrases. EXAMPLES. 1 . * ' LOVE of virtue is exhibited in DEEDS of charity. ' ' 2. * ' APPLICATION to studies secures EXCELLENCE in scholar- ship. ' ' OBS. 2. Specifying Adjectives should not be used before Nouns taken in a general sense. EXAMPLES. 1. " Man needs but little here below." 2. " Confidence is a plant of slow growth." 3. " Truth crushed to earth shall rise again." OBS. 3. Specifying Adjectives should not be used before Proper Nouns. EXAMPLES. Jackson was the more skillful general ; Webster, the greater statesman. HEM. 3. Proper Nouns are rendered Common by the use of Specify- ing Adjectives. EXAMPLE. Lincoln is the Washington of the nineteenth century. IX. A Specifying Adjective should be repeated when its omission would occasion ambiguity or obscurity. ADJECTIVES SPECIFYING. 24:1 OBS. 1. We properly repeat the Specifying Adjective before two or more Nouns specifically distinct. EXAMPLES. 1. Man knows neither the day nor the hour of his de- parture. 2. The North and the South LINES re parallel. 3. "Bowen, the editor of 'The Teacher,' and the State Superintendent, will attend the Institute." HEM. The omission of "the" before " State Superintendent" would imply that "Bowen" is the State Superintendent. 4. The teacher and the pupil. 6. " My poverty and not my will consents." OBS. 2. We repeat the Specifying Adjective when two or more Nouns are joined in the same construction and taken severally especially if a part of the Nouns are suppressed. EXAMPLES. 1. We have sold the black, the bay, and the white horse. 2. " The vain, the wealthy, and the proud, In folly's maze advance." 8. The first, the third, and the fifth child were sons. 4. "The honorable the Legislature of the State of New York."' NOTE X. Specifying Adjectives should not be repeated before different Qualifying Adjectives used to describe the * same thing. EXAMPLES. 1. An ignorant rich man is less esteemed than a wise poor one. 2. " The North and South LINE is accurately drawn. %&&* Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. G^dest pupil in this class is not wisest. 2. The proper study of the mankind is the man. 3. The North and South lines run east and west. 4. The past and present tense of that verb do not differ in form. 5. The North and the South lines marked on the map are called meridians. 21 24:2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. NOTE XI. -In the use of Adjectives that imply Num- ber, such should be employed as agree in Number with their Nouns. EXAMPLES. A book one book three books. This book that book some books. OBS. 1. But a Noun having two or more Adjectives differing in Number, may agree in Number with the one placed next it. EXAMPLE. " Full many A GEM of purest ray serene." OBS. 2. One Numeral Adjective may qualify another Numeral. EXAMPLES. ONE hundred dollars a hundred horses FOUR score years TWO dozen oranges. NOTE XII. A Substantive should correspond in form to the Number indicated by its Adjective, when the Ad- jective is necessarily Singular or Plural. EXAMPLES. 1. "The field is two miles long and one mile broad." 2. * ' These ha?ids let useful skill forsake This voice in silence die. ' ' OBS. Exception. A few Nouns are used technically or figuratively in the Singular Number, with Plural Adjectives. EXAMPLES. A hundred head of cattle. Fifty sail of the line. JO* Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. Mary has not been at home this six months. 2 r The Ridge road is three rod wider than the Braddock's Bay road. 3. The surveyor's chain is four rod long. 4. Hence it is called a four rods chain. 5. William exchanged three pair of rabbits for ten dozen of eggs. POSSESSIVE SPECIFYING ADJECTIVES. RULE 8. A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case is used Adjectively. EXAMPLES. Webster's Dictionary. Our neighbor. OBS. 1. The Possessive Case is a term applied by grammarians, with reference to the fwm of Nouns and Pronouns. Neuns and Pronouns ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVE SPECIFYING. 243 in this Case do not always indicate possession ; and they may be in the Nominative, in the Objective, or in the Independent Case. EXAMPLES. 1. The peddler deals in boys' caps and children's shoes. 2. " And they both beat alike only, MINE was the quickest." 3. " He is a friend of MINE, and lives next door to SMITH'S." 4. "THINE is the kingdom." OBS. 2. The sign of the Possessive Case is not always annexed to the name of the Possessor. 1. It may be transferred to an attribute following the name of the possessor. t EXAMPLES. 1. The Pope of Rome's legate. 2. " Whether it be owing to the Author of nature's act- ing upon us every moment." Bp. Butler. 2. When two or more Possessives, immediately following each other, are alike applicable to the same word, it is attached only to the last. EXAMPLES. 1. George, James, and William's father. 2. A. S. Barnes and Co.'s publications. OBS. 3. But the sign of the Possessive should be repeated when one Possessive is used to specify another. EXAMPLE. Gould's Adam's Latin Grammar. OBS. 4. The sign of the Possessive should be repeated when the Possessives describe different things. EXAMPLE. " Heroes' and Heroines shouts confusedly rise." NOTE I. Possessive Adjectives describe Nouns and Pronouns, by indicating possession, fitness, origin, con- dition, etc., etc. EXAMPLES. 1. Boys' caps " Boys' " denotes the size of the caps. 2. Webster's Dictionary " Webster's" denotes the author. 3. " Heaven's immortal Spring shall yet arrive, And man's majestic beauty bloom again, Bright through the eternal year of Loves majestic reign." OBS. 1. A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case is often equivalent to an Adjective Phrase. 24:4: ENGLISH GKAMMAE - PART HI. EXAMPLES. 1. The people's will ................ The will of the people. 2. Webster's Dictionary ............. A Dictionary written by Webster. 3. Boys caps .......... ............. Caps suitable for boys. 4. "He heard the king's command. . .The command of the king. 5. And saw that writing 's truth." . .The truth of that writing. OBS. 2. But they are not always equivalent. EXAMPLES. 1. The love of virtue ..... is not virtue's love. 2. The desire of leisure. . .is not leisure's desire. Hence, II. Possessive Specifying Adjectives and Adjec- tive Phrases should not be substituted the one for the other when they are not fully equivalent. [See Examples above.] OBS. 1 .The laws of interchange of Possessive Adjectives and their kindred Adjective Phrases are as follow : 1. When the Object of the Prepositional Phrase constitutes the Agent of an action, state, feeling, etc., implied in the Substantive limited, the Phrase and the corresponding Possessive Adjective are equivalent, and, therefore, interchangeable. EXAMPLES. 1. The people's WILL .......... The WILL of the people. 2. The sun's RAYS ............ The RAYS of the sun. 3. Webster's last SPEECH ....... The last SPEECH of Webster. 2. "When the Object of the Prepositional Phrase constitutes also the Logical Object of an action, state, feeling, etc., implied in the Substantive limited, the Phrase and the corresponding Possessive Adjective are not equivalent, and, consequently, can not be interchanged. EXAMPLES. Correct. " The DOCTRINE of Divine sovereignty.' 1 Incorrect Divine sovereignty's DOCTRINE. 3. When the Object of the Prepositional Phrase may be the Logical Subject or the Logical Object of the action, state, etc., implied in the Substantive limited, the use of the Phrase generally occasions ambiguity, and is inadmissible without the addition of some other Element. EXAMPEE. " The love of God shall make their bliss secure." ADJECTIVES POSSESSIVE SPECIFYING. 245 HEM. This may mean God's love to them or their love to God. OBS. 2. If we intend the former, the ambiguity may be removed by the Phrase to them, placed after the word "God," or, if the latter, by the word their in place of the word " the.' 7 Thus, 1. The love of.. God to them shall make their bliss secure. 2. Their love of God shall make their bliss secure. OBS. 3. Adjectives derived from Nouns and Pronouns in the Posses- sive Case, often retain their Substantive character, and may be qualified by other Adjectives. EXAMPLE. " He saw that WRITING'S truth." "That" specifies NEGATIVE ADVERBS. NOTE II. But one Negative Word or Particle should be used in asserting a negative proposition. For, OBS. 1. Two Negatives applied to the same act or quality make it affirmative. EXAMPLES. 1 . ' * Not withow* cause. ' ' 2. " Such occurrences are not wnfrequent." 8, " Nw did he not perceive them." 256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR - PART III. OBS. 2. Negative Prefixes in derivative words have the same force as Negative Adverbs. EXAMPLES. 1. " He was not wwmindful of his obligations." 2. ** Such expressions are not melegant." 3. "That costume would not be ^appropriate to the occasion." HEM. 1. Such expressions have not always the full force of the cor- responding affirmative assertions, but serve to negative the negative assertion. OBS. 3. (a) Negative Adverbs are used primarily to modify Verbs. EXAMPLES. 1. ' ' They wept NOT. ' ' (5) To modify Adjectives. 2. NOT one of the family was there. 3. * * NOT every one that saith unto me, 'Lord! Lord I' shall enter into the kingdom of heaven." 4. *' Not all that run a race shall win the prize.' (c) To modify other Adverbs Words , Phrases, or Sentences. Word. --5. He is NOT generally in error. Phrase. 6. " They died xor by hunger or lingering decay, The steel of the white man hath swept them away." Sentence. 7. " NOT as the conqueror comes, They, the true-hearted, came." !REM. The influence of the Negatives, not, neither, etc., is often exerted on Nouns, Phrases, and whole Sentences. And, generally, when a Negative occurs in connection with other Adjuncts, the influ- ence of the Negative reaches the whole proposition, including the other Adjuncts. Thus, in Example 6, "not" modifies the phrase, "fo/ hunger or lingering decay.'" And in Example 7, " not" negatives the sen- tence ' * as the conqueror comes. ' ' the word u not," in Sentences 6 and 7, be parsed by a devotee of those systems of grammar that ignore the etymological offices of Phrases and of Sentences. Will he not also " ignore" com- mon sense ? Does "not" modify " died ?" Then they are still living ! OBS. 4. The Adverbs, yes, yea, no, nay, are independent in con- struction. HEM. The relation of these words to others in the sentence or period is logical rather than grammatical. Their grammatical relation is generally to Elements in. Sentences suppreed. POSITION OF ADYEKBS. 257 POSITION or ADVERBS. III. The Position of Adverbs should be such as most clearly to convey the sense intended. OBS. 1. Adverbs which modify Verbs generally precede a Single Verb in Predicate. EXAMPLES. 1. " Man naturally SEEKS his own happiness." 2. " Then, when I am thy captive, TALK of chains." OBS. 2. When the Predicate consists of more than one word, the Adverb is commonly placed after the first word in Predicate. EXAMPLES. 1. "We CAN not HONOR our country with too deep a reverence." 2. "I HAVE always BEEN an admirer of happy human faces." 3. "I WILL never LEAVE thee nor FORSAKE thee." OBS. 3. Adverbs modifying Adjectives are placed before their Adjectives. EXAMPLES. 1. "We can not honor our country with too DEEP a reverence." 2. ' ' We can not love her with an affection too PURE and FERVENT.' 7 3. " The very RICH man can never be truly HAPPY." 4. " The selfish man can never be truly POLITE." Exception. The word enough, used Adverbially, is commonly placed after its Adjective. OBS. 4. Adverbs are placed before other Adverbs which they modify. EXAMPLES. 1. " How LIGHTLY mounts the muse's wing." 2. " Too LOW they build, who build beneath the stars." 3. " Shepard's mill is driven partly BY WATER said partly BY STEAM." 4. " They died not BY HUNGER NOR LINGERING DECAY." 6. " Some work only FOB. PLEASURE." OBS. 5. Adverbial Phrases are commonly placed after the words which they modify. EXAMPLES. 1. " There CAME to the beach a poor exile of Erin." 2. " Time SLEPT on flowers and LENT his glass to Hope." 3. "The firmament GROWS BRIGHTER with every golden grain. 1 ' 22* 253 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. OBS. 6. Adverbial Sentences are commonly placed after the words which they modify. EXAMPLES. 1. "The firmament GROWS BRIGHTER with every golden grain, As handful after handful falls on the azure plain " 2. " And 1 am GLAD that he has lived thus long." REM. To the above rules for the Position of Adverbial Elements there are numerous exceptions. No specific rules can be given which will always be applicable. The judgment and taste of the writer are required to decide as to the Position of all the Elements of Sentences. Jg*i** Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. "A Christian should always act benevolent." 2. The fields look greenly. 3. Some of the pupils looked sadly, and others looked gladly. 4. Never bestow your favors grudging. 6. Every one that runs a race shall not win the prize. 6. Every one that does not run a race shall win the prize. 7. I have been always a lover of children. ___ 8. Some only work for pleasure. [So they never play for pleasure ?] 9. That hat was expressly made for me. 10. "The comparative degree can only be used in reference to two objects." Brown's Grammar, p. 140. QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. PAGE. 253. Repeat RULE 8. An Adverbial Element may consist of what ? Make Sentences to illustrate Obs. 1. Adverbs may modify what sorts of Elements ? Make Sentences to illustrate Obs. 2. Repeat NOTE I. How are Adverbs, derived from Adjectives and Nouns, formed? 254. When may the Adjective form be retained? Make Sentences to illustrate Obs. 3. "Cora feels happily to-night." Correct that Sentence by Obs. 3. [See also p. 249.] When are Participles used Adverbially ? 255. Make Examples adapted to Obs. 7. Make Examples adapted to Obs. 8. Make Examples adapted to Oba. 10. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 259 NEGATIVE ADVERBS. PA OB. 255. Repeat NOTE II. " I have not seen none of your books." Correct that Sentence by Obs. 1. " "Warner was not unwillirfg to go to school.'* Make an equivalent Sentence. [See Obs. 2.] 256. What is there peculiar in the use of Negative Adverbs? Make Sentences to illustrate Obs. 3. POSITION OF ADVERBS. 257. Repeat NOTE III. What is the usual position of Adverbial Words ? William studies commonly diligently very. Correct that Sentence by Obs. 1 and 4. '* I never will disturb my quiet with the affairs of state." Correct that by Obs. 2. " The day was pleasant very, amd the wind fair exceedingly." Correct that by Obs. 3. What is the usual position of Adverbial Phrases ? Make Sentences to illustrate Obs. 5. 258. What is the usual position of Adverbial Sentences ? Make Complex Sentences to illustrate Obs. 6. EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. " How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, ANALYSIS. INTRANSITIVE -, ( The Subject " Scenes' ' ) INTRANSITT PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS, -j The Pr ^ icate Are dear . } SENTENCE. ( "The" A Word. Of the Sutyect. ... j u Of my childhood" A Phrase. ADJUNCTS. - {"How" A Word. " To my heart" . . . . A Phrase. - When fond Recollection ) A -.___ presents them to view. " ) 260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART HI. PARSED BY THE CHART. "How" An Element in the Sentence Adjunct Primary Yford Adverb of Degree. [Repeat RULE 0.] "Dear" An Element in the Sentence Principal Part "in Predicate' ' Adjective. [Repeat NOTE III. to RULE 7.] " To my heart" .. An Element in the Sentence Adjunct Phrase Adverbial Prepositional Intransitive. [ Repeat RULE 9.] " Are" An Element in the Sentence Principal Element in Predicate Verb Indicative Mode Present Tense agreeing in Person and Number with "scenes." [Repeat RULE 2.] " The" An Element in the Sentence Adjunct Word Specifying Pure. [See RULE 7.] "Scenes" An Element in the Sentence Principal Part Subject Word Noun Common Third Person Plural Number Nominative Case. [Repeat RULE 1.] "Of my child-/ An Element in the Sentence Adjunct Phrase hood" f Adjective Prepositional Intransitive. [Repeat RULE 7.] "W h( f n f on d ) An Element in the Principal Sentence Adjunct- Recollection ( ~ . , , . , . . m .,. ^ presents them f Sentence Adverbial Simple Transitive. [Repeat to view." ... ) RULE 9.] REM. 1. For the Analysis of the Phrases, "To my heart," and " Of my childhood," seep. 185. REM. 2 The Auxiliary Sentence, "When fond Recollection presents them to view, ' ' may now be analyzed by the above formula, as a dis- tinct Sentence. PARTICIPLES. RULE 10. A Participle has the same construction as the " part of speech" for which it is used. I. PARTICIPLES USED AS NOUNS. NOTE I. A Participle used as a Noun may be 1. The Subject of a Sentence. EXAMPLES. 1. "The BEGINNING of strife is as when one letteth out water." PARTICIPLES. 261 2. " The PLOWING of the wicked t* sin." 3. lt Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mis- chief, CAN NOT BE REGARDED as robbing him." 2. The Object of a Verb. 4. "I doubted his having been a soldier." 5. "While you strive to bear BEING LAUGHED AT." 6. "Taking a madman's sword to PREVENT his doing mis- chief, can not be regarded as robbing him.' 3. The Object of a Preposition. 7. "7/1 the BEGINNING." 8. " Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the SUP- PLYING of our wants : Riches uvon ENJOYING our superfluities. ' ' Addison. 9. "Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief, can not be regarded AS robbing him." NOTE II. A Participle used as a Noun^ i. e., as the name of an action, retains its Verbal character, and may be followed by an Object when it is the leader of a Par- ticipial Phrase. EXAMPLES. 1. "They could not avoid GIVING offense. 19 2. * ' Its excesses may be restrained without DESTROYING its existence.' 1 3. RECEIVING goods, known to be stolen, is a criminal offense. 4. We have succeeded in MAKING A BEGINNING. REM. "Giving offense" is a Substantive Phrase Object of the Verb ''avoid." "Giving" is the Leader of the Phrase. "Offense" is the Subsequent Object of "giving." In Sentence 4, "Making a beginning" is a Substantive Pnrase fcject of th Preposition "im." "Making" u the Leader of the 262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. P.irticipial Phrase; "beginning" is the Subsequent Object of "making." [See also the preceding diagram.] DBS. 1. A Participle, being the Leader of a Participial Phrase, often has its Subject suppressed. HEM. In Sentence 1, above, "they" is the implied agent of the action expressed by "giving." In Sentences 2 and 3, the agents of "destroying" and of "receiving" are neither expressed nor implied. In Sentence 4, "we" is the implied Subject of " making." NOTE III. The agent of an action expressed by a Par- ticiple is sometimes expressed, and is generally in the Possessive Form. EXAMPLES. 1. " We have heard of his GOING to the Falls." 2. "I doubted his HAVING BEEN a soldier. ' ' 3. " Mr. Burton objected to his son's JOINING the army." NOTE IV. The sign of the Possessive Case of Nouns and Pronouns, used as the Logical Subjects of Participles, should not be omitted. EXAMPLES. Improper Construction. 1. "A fair wind is the cause of a vessel sailing." 2. He opposed me going to college. Corrected. 1. A fair wind is the cause of a vessel's sailing. 2. He opposed my going to college. OBS. 1 The Logical Subject of a Participle may be in the Objective Case only as the Object of a Preposition. EXAMPLES. 1. " The PLOWING of the wicked is sin." 2. ' * By the CROWING of the cock, we knew that morning was nigh." HEM. "Cock" is the Object of the Preposition "of," and is there- fore in the Objective Case. But it is also the Agent of the Action implied in the word "crowing ;" and is, therefore, the Logical Subject of the Verbal Noun " crowing." OBS. 2. Phrases thus used as Adjuncts of Participle* are sometime* PARTICIPLES USED AS NOUNS. 263 equivalent to Possessive Specifying Adjectives, and, therefore, are in- terchangeable. EXAMPLES. 1. The crowing of the cock. The cock's crowing. 2. " We listened to the singing of tlie children." We listened to the children's singing. OBS. 3. The Definitive, the, should be placed before a Verbal Noun whose Logical Subject is the Object of the Preposition of. EXAMPLE. "The PLOWING of the ivicked is sin." OBS. 4. The Definitive, the, should not be placed before a Verbal Noun whose Logical Subject is in the Possessive Case. EXAMPLE. "You object to my PLOWING the garden so early." NOTE Y. A Participle used to introduce a Participial Phrase, has the same construction as the Phrase which it introduces. 1. " Suspecting the treachery of our guide, WE made PREPARATIONS for defending ourselves from any hostile attacks." Here "suspecting" and "defending" are Participles, each used to in- troduce a Participial Phrase ; but " Suspecting the treachery of our guide' shows a condition of "WE." Hence, an Adjective Phrase. "Suspecting" describes "we," by expressing incidentally, an act of "we." Hence, a Verbal Ad- jective. ' * Defending ourselves 1 ' is a Parti- cipial Phrase Object of the Prep- osition "for." Hence, a Substan- tive Phrase. * ' Defending 1 ' is the name of an act, Object of the Preposition ' * for. ' ' Hence, a Verbal Noun. 2. Suspicious of the treachery of our guides, we made preparations for defense. " Suspicious" describes "we" by i "Defense' is a name, Object of expressing a condition or state of the Preposition "for." Hence, a "?." Hence, au Adjective. | Noun. 264 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART HI. II. PARTICIPLES USED AS ADJECTIVES. I. A Participle used as an Adjective belongs to a Noun or a Pronoun which it describes ; and may be modified by Adverbs. EXAMPLES. 1. " Whose visages Do cream and mantle like a STANDING pond. ' ' 2. " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an EAGLE Wheeling near its brow." 3. "We saw IT plunging 'mid the billowy strife, And dashing madly on to fearful doom." BEM. 1. "Scaling yonder peak" is a Phrase Adjunct of "I;" hence, Adjective. " Wheeling near its brow" is a Participial Phrase Adjunct of "eagle;" hence, Adjective. "Near its brow" is a Prepo- sitional Phrase Adjunct of " wheeling ;" hence, Adverbial. In Sentence 3, " 'Mid the billowy strife" is an Adjunct of " plung- ing." " Madly," and " on," and " to fearful doom," being Adjuncts of "dashing," are Adverbs. OBS. 1. The Participle, used as an Element in an Independent Phrase, may be suppressed when the sense is not thereby rendered obscure. EXAMPLES. 1. "Thus talking, hand [ ] in hand, alone they passed On to their blissful bower." Milton. 2. "Now, man to man and steel to steel, A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel." HEM. 2. It should be remarked, that such omissions of Participles occur only when they have Adjuncts. BEM. 3. In analyzing and parsing such Adjuncts, it is necessary to restore the Participles to which they belong. Thus, " in hand'' is a Phrase Adjunct of being, understood ; hence, an Adverbial Phrase. "To man" is an Adjunct of being opposed ', understood. PARTICIPLES USED IN PREDICATE. 265 III. PARTICIPLES USED AS ADVERBS. NOTE VII. Participles used Adverbially, belong to Verbs, Adjectives, or Adverbs, which they modify. EXAMPLE. Tis strange ! 'tis PASSING strange. OBS. 2. Participles are seldom used Adverbially without the termi- nation ly. EXAMPLE. " He spoke FEELINGLY on that subject." IV. PARTICIPLES USED AS PREPOSITIONS. NOTE VIII. A Participle used as a Preposition shows a relation of its object to the word which its Phrase qualifies. EXAMPLE. "He said nothing CONCERNING his temporal affairs." OBS. 3. The young scholar often finds it difficult to determine whether a Participle is used as a Preposition or as an Adjective. His difficulties on this subject will vanish when he recollects that 1. A Participle used as a Preposition does not relate to a Noun or a Pro- noun it generally introduces an Adverbial Phrase. 2. A Participle used as an Adjective always relates to a Noun or a Pronoun it generally introduces an Adjective Phrase. V. PARTICIPLES USED IN PREDICATE WITH VERBS. NOTE IX. A Participle used in Predicate asserts an act, being, or state, and may be modified by Adverbs. EXAMPLE. "We are anxiously EXPECTING to hear from William." NOTE X. In the use or Participles in Predicate, the proper modification should be used. 1. When an action is to be predicated of the Subject, i. e., when the Subject performs the act, the Active Parti- ciple should be used. EXAMPLES. 1. Henry is RECITING his lesson. 2. People are building the church. 2. When the Subject is to be represented as receiving the action, the Passive Participle should be used. 266 ENGLISH GKAMMAR - PAET III. EXAMPLES. 1. Henry's lesson is BEING RECITED. 2. The church is being built. XI. The Participial Phrase should not be em- ployed when the use of the Infinitive Phrase would be more elegant. EXAMPLES. 1. " If the case stands thus, 'tis dangerous drinking" Better. If the case stands thus, 'tis dangerous to drink. 2. "It deserves remarking." Harris s Hermes. Better. It deserves to be remarked. 3. "He refused complying with the regulations." Better. He refused to comply with the regulations. NOTE XII. The Participial Phrase should be used in preference to a Sentence, or any other more complicated construction, which would express the same idea. EXAMPLES. Sentence. 1. As I was scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle, which was ici'teeling near its brow. Complex Prepositional Phrase. 2. On scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle in the act of wheeling near its brow. Participial Phrase. 3 . Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow. HEM. These Sentences are all grammatically correct ; but the last gives the sentiment fully, and has the advantage of being the most concise, and is therefore to be preferred. OBS. The Logical Subject of a Participle may be suppressed only when the construction is sufficiently clear without it. EXAMPLES. Incorrect. 1. "Having resigned his commission, the company was disbanded." 2. "Counting the women and the children, the company was ascertained to be too large for the accommo- dations. * Correct. 1. (a) He having resigned his commission, the company was disbanded. or (b) The captain having resigned his commission, the company was disbanded. THE INFINITIVE VERB. 267 Correct. 2. (c) On counting the women and the children, the com- pany was found to be too large for the accom- modations. or (d) The women and the children being counted, the company was found to be too large for the accom- modations. or (e) Counting the women and the children, we found that the company was too large for the accommo- dations. EXERCISES IN REVIEW. the errors in the following Sentences be corrected by a proper application of the NOTES and OBSERVATIONS under RULE 9. 1. "It requires no nicety of ear as in the distinguishing of tones, or measuring time." Sheridan. 2. "He mentions Newton's writing of a commentary." ^ 3. " The cause of their salvation does not so much arise from their embracing of mercy, as from God's exercising of it." 4. "Those who accuse us of denying of it, belie us." Bentty. 5. "In the choice they had made of him for restoring of order." 6. "The Governor's veto was writing while the final vote was tak- ing in the Senate. ' ' 7. "To prevent it bursting out with open violence." Robertson. 8. "This must prevent any regular proportion of time being settled.' ' Sheridan. 9. " The compiler proposed publishing that part by itself." Adams. 10. " Artaxerxes could not refuse pardoning him." Goldsmith. 11. " They refused doing so." Harris. 12. " Entering the cars, the seats were found to be all occupied." THE INFINITIVE VERB. RULE 11. A Verb in the Infinitive Mode is the Object of the Preposition to, expressed or understood. HEM. A Verb in the Infinitive Mode is commonly used as the Sub- sequent of an Infinitive Phrase. Hence, it is an Element, not in a Sentence, but in a Phrase. OES. 1. The Infinitive Verb partakes much of a Substantive charac- ter, generally expressing the name of an act, being, or state. 268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART ILL EXAMPLES. We are prepared to act. Equivalent. We are prepared for action. OBS. 2. The Infinitive Verb.is never used as a grammatical Predicate; hence, it has no grammatical Subject. But it is often the logical Pred' Icate of a Noun or a Pronoun, which may be in the Nominative or in the Objective Case. EXAMPLES. 1., We love to study. 2. We requested him to spealc. HEM. " We," the grammatical Subject of "love," is also the logical Subject of " study." " Him,'* the grammatical Object of "requested," is the logical Subject of "speak." NOTE I. Infinitive Verbs following the Verbs bid, but, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, and sometimes behold, have, help, know, observe, perceive, and some others, do not require the Preposition to. EXAMPLES. 1. " I plunged in and BADE him follow." 2. "He DARES not touch a hair of Catiline." 3. " LET me hear thy voice awake." 4. " Clara HELPED me ivork that problem." 5. "I can not BUT swpect that she assisted Cora too/ 6. "I would not HAVE you go to-day." 7. "Necessity COMMANDS me name myself." OBS. 3. The Infinitive Verb, with its Preposition, is often sup- pressed. EXAMPLES. 1 . " Some deemed hirn wondrous wise." 2. " Intemperance makes a man [ ] a fool." OBS. 4. The Infinitive is sometimes elegantly used for other Modes. EXAMPLES. 1. "I am to settle this business." Arthur. Equivalent. I must settle this busi- ness. THE INFINITIVE VERB. 269 OBS. 6. The Preposition to should not be replaced by the Conjunc- tion and. Incorrect. Try and do as well as possible. Corrected. Try to do as well as possible. THE INFINITIVE PHRASE. OBS. 6. The Infinitive Verb with its Preposition constitutes an Infinitive Phrase, and may be construed as a Substantive, an Adjective, or an Adverb. EXAMPLES. I i -^ 1. "To be, contents his natural fro] be ") '{(contents y desiri desire." 2. "We should make efforts to im- prove. 3. William was invited to attend C William lectures. OBS. 7. An Infinitive Phrase, used Substantively, may be (a) The Subject of a Sentence. 1. " To be able to read well, is a valuable accomplishment." (b) The Object of a Preposition. 2. ' ' We were ABOUT to retire. ' ' 3. " Be so kind AS to place that in diagram." (c) A Logical Adjunct. 4. " IT is our duty to make good use of our time.'* HEM. In the opinion of most grammarians, the Verbs love, desire, wish, expect, and some others, take Infinitive Phrases after them as Objects. [See pp. 213, 214.] OBS. 8. An Infinitive Phrase, used Adjectively, may be the Ad- junct of (a) The Subject of a Sentence. 1 . ' * A constant PURPOSE to excel marked his whole career. ' ' (b) The Object of a Sentence. 2. William has made EFFORTS to improve in speaking. (c) The Object of a Phrase 3. "He arrived in TIME to give his vote. (d) A Substantive in Predicate. 4. That is the BUSINESS next to be done. 23* 270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. OBS. 9. An Infinitive Phrase, used Adverbially, may be the Ad- junct of (a) A Verb in Predicate. 1. Will you ALLOW me to place this in diagram ? (b) An Adjective in Predicate. 2. We are READY to depart. (c) An Adverb. 8. We were TOO late to take the cars. OBS. 10. The Infinitive, like other Phrases, is sometimes inde- pendent in construction. EXAMPLE. And, to be plain with you, I think you the more unreason- able of the two. OBS. 11. The Infinitive Phrase often follows the Words as and than. EXAMPLES. 1. " An object so high as TO BE INVISIBLE." 2. ' ' He said nothing further than TO GIVE an apology for his vote." HEM. In the above and similar examples, as and than are to be regarded as Prepositions, having for their objects the Infinitive Phrases following. In like manner it sometimes follows other Prepositions. EXAMPLE,- We are about TO RECITE. [See Obs. 7, above.] PREPOSITIONS. RULE 12. A Preposition shows a relation of its Object to the word which its Phrase qualifies. OBS. 1. The Object of a Preposition may be 1. A Word. "The time OF my de- parture is AT hand." 2. A Phrase. " A habit OF moving quickly is another way OF gaining time. 1 ' 3. A Sentence. * And cries OF ' live for ever ' struck the skies." OBS. 2. A Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence, being the Object of 3 Preposition, is, in its office, Substantive. [See "departure," "hand," PREPOSITIONS. 271 "moving quickly,'* "gaining time," and "live for ever, in tha Examples above.] OBS. 3. Words which follow Prepositions as their Objects of relation are Nouns or Pronouns, and commonly have the Objective form. REM. For Exceptions, see p. 172. OBS. 4 But Words commonly used as Adjectives or Adverbs, often become Objects of Prepositions, and are then properly parsed as Sub- stantives, in the Objective Case. EXAMPLES. 1. " He has faded from earth like a star from ON high." 2. John is a friend OF mine. 3. "As yet the trembling year is unconfirmed." OBS. 5 Scholars often find it difficult to determine the Antecedent term of a relation expressed by a Preposition examples sometimes occur in which the relation of the Object cf a Preposition seems to exist, not to any word, but to the whole Sentence. Generally, how- ever, tliis question can be settled by ascertaining which word is qualified by the Phrase introduced by a Preposition that word is the Antecedent term of relation. EXAMPLE. " A flood OF glory bursts FROM all the skies." REM. Here the Phrase " of glory" specifies "flood ;" hence, "flood" in the Antecedent term of the relative expressed by "of;" and the Phrase is Adjective. "From all the skies" modifies "bursts;" hence, "bursts" is the Antecedent term ; and the Phrase is Adverbial. OBS. 6. Double Prepositions are sometimes allowed. EXAMPLES. 1. " Out of every grove the voice of pleasure warbles." 2. * ' There can be no question as to which party must yield. ' ' OBS. 7. But two Prepositions should not be used, when one of them will fully express the sense intended. EXAMPLES. 1. " Near to this dome is found a path so green." 2. "Not for to hide it in a hedge." Bums. OBS. 8. A Preposition may be omitted when the sense is not thereby- obscured . EXAMPLES. 1. They carried the child home to its home. 2. He remained three weeks during three weeks. 272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. OBS. 9. POSITION. The proper place for a Preposition is (as its name implies) before the Phrase which it introduces. EXAMPLES. 1. "!N dread, IN danger, and alone, Famished and chilled THROUGH ways unknown." OBS. 10. But', by the poets, it is often placed after its Object. EXAMPLE. " From peak to peak, the rattling crags AMONG, Leaps the live thunder." OBS. 11. And sometimes in colloquial style EXAMPLE. " You will have no mother or sister to go to." Abbott. HEM. This idiom is inelegant, and not to be recommended. . OBS. 12. A Preposition commonly indicates the office of the Phrase which it introduces. EXAMPLE. See page 1GO. OBS. 13. Many words commonly used as Prepositions are some- times employed, not as Elements of Phrases, but as Word Elements in Sentences. These are commonly Adverbs. EXAMPLES. 1. " Come on, my brave associates." 2. "Lift up thy voice like a trumpet." 3. " Down, down, the tempest plunges on the sea, 4. And the mad waves rise up to buffet it." XOTE I. Care should be exercised in the choice of Prepositions. OBS. 1. The particular Preposition proper to introduce a given Phrase depends 1 . Usually on the word which the Phrase is to qualify. 2. Sometimes on the Object of the Phrase. EXAMPLES. Accommodate to. Die by violence. Compliance with. Accord with. " of a disease. Conformable to. Accuse of. Diminish from Difficulty in with. Acquainted with. Dissent from. Eager in for. Ask of a person. Insist upon. Need of. 1 ' for a thing. Made of a thing. True to. Bestow upon. '* by a person. Value upon. Boast of. " in a place. Worthy of. Concur with in. Abhorrence of. Differ from. Agreeable to. CONJUNCTIONS. 273 OBS. 2. When the second term of a Comparison is expressed by a Phrase- After a Superlative, the Preposition of is commonly used. After a Comparative, the Preposition than is commonly used. EXAMPLES. Grammar is the most interesting o/all my studies. Grammar is more interesting than all my other studies. OBS. 3. When the second term of a Comparison of Equality is a Noun or a Pronoun, the Preposition as is commonly used sometimes like is used. EXAMPLES. 1 . "He hath died to redeem such a rebel AS me. " Wesley. 2. "An hour LIKE this may well display the emptiness of human grandeur. ' ' OBS. 4. Some writers improperly substitute the words for and with for as. EXAMPLE. " It implies government of the very same kind WITH THAT which a master exercises over his servants."!?;?. Butler. OBS. 5. A Preposition and its Subsequent constitute a Phrase, generally constituting an Adjective or an Adverbial Adjunct. EXAMPLES. Adjective Element. 1. " The KING of Shadows loves a shining mark." Adverbial Element. 2. "Time SLEPT on flowers, and LENT his glass to Hope." HEM. 1. The Prepositional Phrase is also used as a Substantive Element in a Sentence. [See CLARK'S ANALYSIS, p. 115.] P.EM. 2. In the analysis of a Sentence, a Phrase contained in it is to be parsed, first, as one distinct Element in the structure of its Sen- tence ; then the Phrase is to be analyzed, and each of its distinct Ele- ments pointed out. [See pp. 184-5.] CONJUNCTIONS. RULE 13. Conjunctions connect Words, Phrases, and Sentences, or introduce Sentences. EXAMPLES. Words 1. "In the beginning, God created the HEAVEN and the EARTH " 274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART HI. Phrases. . .2. "To GIVE GOOD GIFTS and TO BE BENEVOLENT, are often different things. ' Sentences . . 3. " Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag, And the waves are white below. ' ' OBS. 1. Words connected by Conjunctions have a similar construction. EXAMPLES. 1. "God created the heaven AND the earth." 2. "Time slept on flowers, AND lent his glass to Hope." 3. "A great AND good man has fallen." REM. "Heaven" and "earth" are alike Objects of "created." ' ' Slept' ' and "1 ent' ' are Predicates of ' ' Time. " " Great' ' and ' ' good' ' describe " man." OBS. 2. But they have not necessarily similar modifications. EXAMPLE. "Every teacher has AND must have his own particular way of imparting knowledge." McElligoit. HEM. "Has" and "must have" are Predicates of "teacher" but they are not of the same Mode. OBS. 3. Phrases and Sentences used as Elements in the structure of a Principal Sentence, have a similar construction when connected by Conjunctions. EXAMPLES. 1. "He served his country in the cabinet AND in the field.' 1 2. "To eat AND to sleep, constitute the sum of his em- ployments." 3. " While lam his AND he is mine, I'm ever safe from ill." OES. 4. But Conjunctions may introduce Principal Sentences, with- out connecting them to any Word or Sentence in construction. EXAMPLES. 1. " And who says this ?" 2. " That I have taken this old man's daughter is most true." 3. " And I am glad that he has lived thus long. OBS. 5. Conjunctions introducing Adjunct Sentences connect their Sentences to the Word modified by such Auxiliaries. EXAMPLES. 1. "And, IF I sought, Think' st thou no other could be brought ?" 2. " As ye journey, sweetly sing." 3. ' ' How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood, WHEN fond recollection presents them to view." [See Diagram, p. 261.] CONJUNCTIONS. 275 OBS. 6. But Auxiliary Substantive Sentences are simply introduced by Conjunctions. EXAMPLE. 1. "THAT all men are created equal, is a self-evident truth." 2. "He knew not THAT the chieftain lay Unconscious of his son. ' ' [See Diagram, p. 214.] OBS. 7. The Position of Sentences often determines their connection, without the use of Conjunctions. EXAMPLES. 1. " The time may come you need not run." Thomson. 2. " Milton ! thou shouldst be living at this hour [For] England hath need of thee." 3. " But Brutus says, he was ambitious." OBS 8. Auxiliary Adjective Sentences are commonly introduced by Relative Pronouns and by Possessive Adjectives derived from them. EXAMPLES. 1. " He WHO filches from me my good name, Robs me of that WHICH not enriches him. ' ' 2. " Lo the poor Indian, WHOSE untutored mind Sees God in clouds or hears him in the wind" 3. "Thou hadst a voice WHOSE sound was like the sea" OBS. 9. Conjunctions that introduce Auxiliary Adverbial Sentences, and some others, indicate the offices of the Sentences which they introduce. . If, Unless, etc., indicate condition. As, When, Before, etc., indicate time. For, Hence, Therefore, etc., indicate an inference or cause. But, Yet, Nevertheless, etc., indicate restriction or apposition. Nor, Neither, etc., indicate a negation. EXAMPLES. 1. " Tf sinners entice thee, consent thou not." 2. " Speak of me as lam nothing extenuate, Nor set down aught in malice. ' ' 3. "Then, when I AM THY CAPTIVE, talk of chains." 4. " I go, but I return." Exception. The Conjunction when may introduce an Adjective Sen- tence that limits a Noun indicating time. EXAMPLE. Do you remember the TIME when Lee surrendered to Grant I Exception. The Conjunction where may introduce an Adjective Sen- tence that limits a Noun indicating place. EXAMPLE. la there some faivored SPOT where mortals weep no more f 276 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART III. Caution. The words where and when are often improperly used for the Phrase in which. Incorrect. "A limited monarchy is a government where the powers and duties of the monarch are limited by a constitution." Corrected. A limited monarchy is one in which the powers and duties of the monarch are limited by a constitution. OBS. 10. Conjunctions may be omitted only when the connection is sufficiently clear without them. EXAMPLES. 1. " Unnumbered systems, [ ] suns, and worlds, Unite to worship thee ; 2. While thy majestic greatness fills Space, [ ] Time, [ ] Eternity.' 7 OBS. 11. The Adverb " how" is sometimes improperly used instead of the Conjunction "that." EXAMPLE. " She tells me how, with eager speed, He flew to hear my vocal reed." Shenstone. OBS. 12. Conjunctions sometimes introduce the remnant of a Sentence. EXAMPLE. Though [ ] afflicted, he is happy. OBS. 1*3. POSITION. The proper place for a Conjunction is before the Sentence which it introduces, and between the Words or Phrases which it connects. EXAMPLE. " And there lay the rider, distorted AND pale, With the dew on his brow AND the rust on his mail." OBS. 14. But in Complex Sentences, the Conjunction introducing the Principal Sentence is commonly placed first, and that introducing the Auxiliary Sentence immediately following. EXAMPLE. "And when its yellow luster smiled, O'er mountains yet untrod, Each MOTHER HELD aloft her CHILD To bless the bow of God." But to this rule there are exceptions. EXAMPLES. 1. "They kneeled BEFORE they fought" 2. "How vain are all these glories, all our pains, UNLESS good sense preserve what beauty gains." Pope. CONJUNCTIONS. 277 CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS. OBS. 15. Many Conjunctions correspond to Adverbs, to Prepositions, and to other Conjunctions. As so "Asia the mother, so is the daughter." So as "Mary is not so cheerful as usual." Both and " Both good and bad were gathered in one group." Either . . .or "Either you mistake, or I was misinformed." Not nor " Prepositions should not be inserted nor omitted contrary to general usage." Neither. ..nor "Neither Alice nor Caroline has been here to-day." "Whether .or "I care not whether you go or stay." So that "He called so loud that all the hollow deep." Such that " My engagements are such that I can not go." If. then ' * If you will take the right, then I will go to the left.' ' Not only . but also. . "She was not only vain, but also extremely ignorant." Though. ,yet. ...;." Though ma*i live a hundred years, yet is his life as vanity." Because, .therefore." Therefore doth my Father love me, because I lay down my life." REM. The Antecedent corresponding word is sometimes expletive. OBS. 16. Double Conjunctions are sometimes used. EXAMPLES. 1. " As though he had not been anointed with oil." 2. " And yet, fair bow, no fabling dreams, But words of the Most High Have told why first thy robe of beams Was woven in the sky. ' ' OBS. 17. But they may not be used when one of them would fully express the connection. EXAMPLE. "There would be no doubt but that they would remain." The word " but" is unnecessary and improper. j^** Let the Pupils correct the following ERRORS. 1. William is not as cheerful as usual. 2. Either you mistake, else I was misinformed. 3. Neither wealth or fame render a man happy. 4. Prepositions should not be inserted or omitted contrary to general usage Kent, p. 435. 5. I can not doubt but that Robert will return. 24 278 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART in. EXCLAMATIONS. RULE 14. Exclamations have no dependent con- struction, OBS. Exclamations may be followed by Words, Phrases, or Sen- tences. EXAMPLES. 1. " Scotia ! my dear, my native soil." 2. "Wo ! wo ! to the riders that trample thee down." 3. "0 that I could again recall My early joys, companions all !" WORDS OF EUPHONY. NOTE. Words of Euphony are, in their offices, chiefly rhetorical. REM. The Principles of Euphony are much required in the structure of all languages ; for Euphony, words are altered in form, position, and office and they are, for Euphony, created or omitted. OBS. Euphony allows 1. The Transposition of Words in a Sentence. EXAMPLE. " From peak to peak, the rattling crags AMONG, Leaps the live thunder. ' ' 2. The oriission of a letter or syllable. EXAMPLE. " Hark ! 'tis the breeze of twilight calling." 3. The substitution of one letter for another. EXAMPLES. 1. Collect, for Conlect. 2. Syllogism, " Sunloglsm. 3. Immigrant, " /^migrant. 4. The addition of a letter, syllable, or word. EXAMPLE. " It was his bounds duty thus to act." 5. A word to be separated into parts, and another word inserted between them. EXAMPLE. " How MUCH soever we may feel their force." 6. A word to be used not in its ordinary office. EXAMPLES. 1. " And there lay the steed with his nostril ALL wide." 2> ' * The more I see of this method, THE better I like it." GENERAL RULES. 281 POSITION. NOTE. Words of Euphony should be placed ^f t ^ e appropriate connection. OBS. 1. In the following examples this principle is violated : 1. "To think of others, and not only of himself." Here ', l only" is used to render "himself" emphatic. A better position would be" and not of himself only. 1 ' 2. "Joyous Youth and manly Strength and stooping Age are even here." Better. Joyous Youth and manly Strength and even STOOPING AGE are here. 3. " When our hatred is violent, it sinks us even beneath those we hate." Better. It sinks us beneath even THOSE WE HATE. OBS. 2. A Word repeated in the same connection is to be regarded as a word of Euphony. EXAMPLES. "Down ! down ! the tempest plunges on the sea." " For life ! for life, their flight they ply." GENERAL RULES. 1. In constructing a Sentence, such Words should be chosen as will most clearly convey the sense intended regard being had also to variety and other principles of taste. 2. In expressing Complex ideas, judgment and taste are to be exercised in the use of Phrases and Sentences, when they may equally convey the sense. 3. That Modification of Words should be adopted which is in accordance with the most reputable usage. 4. The relative Position of Words, Phrases, and Sen- tences should be such as to leave no obscurity in the sense. 5. Involved Complex Sentences should not be used when Simple or Independent Sentences would better convey the sense. 280 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART in. RECAPITULATION OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. RULE 1. THE SUBJECT OF A SENTENCE NOUN OR PRONOUN. The Subject of a Sentence must be in the Nominative Case. RULE 2. PREDICATE OF A SENTENCE VERB. A Verb must agree with its Subject in Person and 1ST umber. RULE 3. THE OBJECT OF A SENTENCE OR PHRASE NOUN OR PRONOUN. The Object of an action or relation must be in the Ob- jective Case. RULE 4. PRONOUNS. A Pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in Gender, Person, and Number. RULE 5. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Adjective Pronouns are substituted for the Nouns which they qualify. RULE 6. INDEPENDENT CASE NOUN OR PRONOUN. A Noun or a Pronoun not dependent on any other word in construction, is in the Independent Case. RULE 7. ADJECTIVES. Adjectives belong to Nouns and Pronouns which they describe. RULE 8. POSSESSIVE SPECIFYING ADJECTIVES. A Noun or a Pronoun in the Possessive Case is used Adjectively. RULE 9. ADVERBS. Adverbs belong to Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs which they modify. RULE 10. PARTICIPLES. A Participle has the same construction as the " part of speech" 'for which it is used. EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 281 RULE 11. VERBS INFINITIVE. A Verb in the Infinitive Mode is the Object of the Preposition TO, expressed or understood. RULE 12. PREPOSITIONS. A Preposition shows a relation of its Object to the word which its Phrase qualifies. RULE 13. CONJUNCTIONS. Conjunctions connect Words, Phrases, and Sentences, or introduce Sentences. RULE 14. EXCLAMATIONS. Exclamations have no dependent construction. ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. [See Models on p. 261.] 1. "He was stirred "With such an agony he sweat extremely." Henry VIII. , ii. 2. 2. "But it is fit things be stated as they are considered -as they really are." Bp. Butler. 3. " He whose soul Ponders this true equality, may walk The fields of earth with gratitude and hope." Wordsworth. 4. " Before we passionately desire anything which another enjoys, we should examine into the happiness of its possessor." 5. " They say, * this shall be,' and it is, For ere they act, they think." Burns. 6. " My heart is awed within me, when I think of the great miracle that still goes on in silence round me." 7. * ' Take good heed, Nor there be modest where thou shouldst be proud." Young. 8. " Ambition saw that stooping Rome could bear A master, nor had virtue to be free." Thomson. 24* PART IV. PKOSODY. DEF. 1. That part of the Science of Language which treats of utterance, is called Prosody. OBS. Utterance is modified by Pauses, by Accent, and by the laws of Versification. PAUSES. DEF. 2. Pauses are cessations of the voice in reading or speaking. ( Rhetorical and OBS. l.-Pauses are j Grammatical . OBS 2. Rhetorical Pauses are useful chiefly in arresting attention. They are generally made after or immediately before emphatic words. They are not indicated by marks. EXAMPLES. There is a calm for those who weep, A rest for weary pilgrims found. OBS. 3. Grammatical Pauses are useful in addition to their Rhe- torical effect in determining the sense. They are indicated by MARKS OF PUNCTUATION. They are The Comma The Semicolon. The Colon. . , The Period The Interrogation .... ? The Exclamation. . . . ! The Dash OBS. 4. In its Rhetorical office, The Comma requires a short pause in reading. The Semicolon, a pause longer than the Comma. The Colon, a pause longer than the Semicolon. The Period requires a full pause. The Dash, the Marks of Exclamation and Interrogation, require pauses corresponding with either of the other marks. PAUSES COMMA. 283 HEM. In the use of Marks of Punctuation, good writers differ ; and it is exceedingly difficult for the Teacher to give Rules for theii use that can be of general application. The following Rules are the most important : COMMA. RULE 1. When more than two -words of the same construction occur consecutively, the Comma should be repeated aftei each. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. " Veracity, justice, and charity are essential virtues." 2. "There is such an exactness in definition, such a perti- nence in proof, such a perspicuity in his detection of sophisms, as have been rarely employed in the Christian cause." B. B. Edwards. Incorrect. 3. "The dripping rock the mountain's misty top Swell on the sight and brighten with the dawn." 4. Fame wisdom love and power were mine. n. The Comma is not placed between an Adjective and its Noun, although preceded by other Adjectives of the same con- struction. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. "David was a brave, martial, enterprising prince." 2. "With that dull-rooted, callous impudence." Incorrect. 3. "The tall, dark, mountains and the deep-toned sea." Ah ! how unjust to Nature and himself, Is thoughtless, thankless, inconsistent, man ! RULE 2. The parts of a Complex Sentence should be separated by a Comma, when the Auxiliary precedes the Principal Sentence. Correct. 1. " Where wealth and freedom reign, contentment fails." 2. " If thine enemy hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give him drink." Incorrect. 3. " "When the cock crew he wept." 4. "As ye journey sweetly sing." 284: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IT. RULE 3. An Adjunct Phrase or Sentence, used to express an incidental fact, and placed between the parts of the Principal Sentence, is separated by Commas. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. " The grave, that never spoke before, Hath found, at length, a tongue to chide." Incorrect. 2. "Truth crushed to earth will rise again." 8. "Rise sons of harmony and hail the morn." Exception. But when an Adjunct Phrase or Sentence which is indis- pensable in perfecting the sense, immediately follows the word which it qualifies, the Comma should not intervene. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. " Every one that findeth me, shall slay me." 2. " Let school-taught pride dissemble all it can." Incorrect. 3. "The fur, that warms a monarch, warmed a bear." RULE 4. Words, Phrases, and Sentences thrown in between the parts of a Principal Sentence are separated by Commas. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. " Go, then, where, wrapt in fear and gloom, Fond hearts and true are sighing." 2. "Now, therefore, I pray thee, let thy servant abide." Incorrect. 3. " It is a clear late the very picture ordinarily of repose." RULE 5. A Phrase or a Sentence used as the Subject of a Verb requires a Comma between it and the Verb. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. To do good to others, constitutes an important object of existence. 2. That we are rivals, does not necessarily make us enemies. Incorrect. 3. * * That all men are created equal is a self-evident truth. ' ' "His being a minister prevented his rising to civil power." RULE 6. Words used in direct address should be separated by a Comma. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. "Thou, whose spell can raise the dead, Bid the prophet's form appear." PAUSES SEMICOLON. 285 Incorrect. 2. ' ' Samuel raise thy buried head King behold the phantom seer!" RULE 7. Adjunct Sentences, Phrases, and sometimes Words, not in their natural position, should be separated by a Comma. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. " Into this illustrious society, he whose character I have endeavored feebly to portray, has, without doubt, entered." 2. " He, like the world, his ready visit pays, Where Fortune smiles." Incorrect. 3. " To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms She speaks a various language." OBS. An Independent Phrase should be separated from its Sentence by a Comma. Correct. " Thus talking, hand in hand alone they passed." Incorrect. "Captain Smith, having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of the congregation far his safe return. ' ' SEMICOLON. RULE 8. The Semicolon is used at the close of a Sen- tence which, by its terms, promises an additional Sentence. EXAMPLE?. Correct. 1. "The Essayists occupy a conspicuous place in the last century ; but, somehow, I do not feel disposed to set much store by them." Incorrect. 2. "It thunders but I tremble not My trust is firm in God." 3. " Wisdom is better than rubies, It can not be gotten for gold." Ocs. By many writers, the Semicolon is used to separate short Sentences which have not a close dependence to each other. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. "He was a plain man, without any pretension to pulpit eloquence, or any other accomplishment ; he had no gift of imagination ; his language was hard and dry ; and hii illustrations, homely. ' ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. Incorrect. 2. " I had a seeming friend I gave him gifts and he was gone I had an open enemy I gave him gifts, and won him The very heart of hate incite th at a good man's love." COLON. RULE 9. The Colon is used at the close of a Sentence, when another Sentence is added as a direct illustration or inference. EXAMPLES. Correct. 1. "Let me give you a piece of good counsel, my cousin : follow my laudable example : write when you can : take Time's forelock in one hand and a pen in the other, and so make sure of your opportunity." Incorrect. 2. "From the last hill that looks on thy once holy dome, I beheld thee, Sion ! when rendered to Rome 'Twas thy last sun went down, and the flames of thy fall Flashed back on the last glance I gave to thy wall." 3. "The wicked flee, when no man pursueth but the righteous, are bold as a lion." REM. The Colon is not much used by late writers its place being supplied by the Semicolon, the Dash, or the Period. PERIOD. RULE 10. The Period is used at the close of a com- plete or independent proposition. OBS. The Period is also used after initial letters and abbreviations. EXAMPLES. Correct J. Q. Adams, LL.D., M. C. Incorrect. A S Barnes and Co 51 John St N Y. HASH. RULE 11. The Dash is used to indicate 1. An abrupt transition. 2. An unfinished sentence. 3. A succession of particulars. PAUSES INTERROGATION. 287 Correct. 1. "They met to expatiate and confer on state affairs to read the newspapers - to talk a little scandal and so forth and the result was as we have been told considerable dissipation." Wilson's Burns. Incorrect. 2. "To me the ' Night Thoughts' is a poem on the whole most animating and delightful amazingly energetic full of the richest instruction improving to the mind much of it worthy of being committed to memory some faults obscure extravagant tinged occasionally with flattery. ' ' OBS. 1 . The Dash is often used instead of the Parenthesis. EXAMPLE. "As they disperse they look very sad and, no doubt they are so but had they been, they would not have taken to digging." OBS. 2. Many modern writers use the Dash in place of the Semi- colon and the Colon and sometimes with them. EXAMPLE. " Ye have no need of prayer ; Ye have no sins to be forgiven." Sprague. EXCLAMATION. RULE 12. The mark of Exclamation is used after a "Word, Phrase, or Sentence whose prominent office is to express sudden or intense emotion. Correct. 1. " Hark ! a strange sound affrights mine ear." 2. "To arms ! they come ! the Greek, the Greek !' Incorrect. 3. " my coevals, remnants of yourselves." 4. " Poor human ruins tottering o'er the grave." INTERROGATION. RULE 13. The mark of Interrogation is used after a Word, Phrase, or Sentence by which a question is asked. Correct. 1. " Why is my sleep disquieted?' 2. Who is he that calls the dead ? 288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. Incorrect. 3. "Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings." 4. " What pleasing study, cheats the tedious day." HEM. When the Interrogation or Exclamation is used, the Comma, Semicolon, Colon, or Period is omitted. GRAMMATICAL AND RHETORICAL SIGNS. OBS. The signs used in writing are 1. The Apostrophe 2. The Quotation " " 3. The Hyphen - 4. The Bracket [ ] 5. The Parenthesis ( ) 6. References * f 7. The Brace j- (Rising 8. Inflections \ Falling ( Circumflex. . j Long 9. Measures j ghoft _ 10. Caret A 1 1. Dieresis. , 12. Index 13 Section 14. The Paragraph fl DEF. 3. The Apostrophe (') is used to indicate the omission of a letter, and to change a Noun into a Possessive Specifying Adjective. EXAMPLES. 1. " Hearts, from which 'twas death to sever ; 2. Eyes, this world can rieer restore." 3. " How lightly mounts the Muse's wing." DEF. 4. The Quotation (" ") is used to inclose words taken from some other author or book. EXAMPLE. "South ey, among all our living poets," says Professor Wilson, " stands aloof and ' alone in his glory.' " BEM. A Quotation quoted is indicated by single marks. EXAMPLE. [See the latter part of the last Example.] DEF. 5. The Hyphen (-) is used between two elements of a compound word. EXAMPLES. Money-market ink-stand black-board. REM. It is also used at the end of a line, when the word is not fin- ished. [See this remark.] SIGNS DEFINITIONS. 289 DBF. 6. The Bracket [ ] is used to inclose a letter or mark given as an explanatory example, or a Word, Phrase, or Sentence thrown in by a reviewer, and not a part of the original sentence. EXAMPLE. "Mr. Secor found means to have Mr. Butler recom- mended to him [Lord Talbot] for his chaplain." DEF. 7. The Parenthesis ( ) is used to inclose a Phrase or Sentence explanatory of, or incidental to, the main Sentence. EXAMPLE. " Come, my Ambition ! let us mount together, (To mount Lorenzo never can refuse,) And, from the clouds where pride delights to dwell, Look down on earth." KEM. Modern writers often use the Dash for the same purpose. EXAMPLE. "The monotony of a calm for the trade- wind had already failed us was agreeably relieved yesterday by the neighbor- kood of two ships, etc." Malcolm. DEF. 8. References (* f J ) direct attention to notes at the margin or the bottom of the page. KEM. The letters of the Latin or Greek alphabets, and sometimes figures, are used for the same purpose. DEF. 9. The Braee (}) is used to include many species in one class. ( Qualifying, T EXAMPLE. Adjectives are distinguished as < Specifying, I Verbal. KEM. By the old poets, the Brace was also used to join the lines of a triplet. DEF. 10. Inflections ( /N v ) indicate elevations or de- pressions of the key-note in reading. EXAMPLES. ' ' Do you go to Albany' ?" " I go to Utica\ ' ' 25 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. '(-) indicates the long sound of a Syllable, as hate, mete, note. DEF. 11. Measures. { , ( ) indicates the short sound of a Syllable, as hat, met, n5t. DEF. 12. The Caret (A) is used between two Words, to indicate the place of words omitted and placed above the line. of mankind EXAMPLE. "The proper study A is man." DEF. 13. Dieresis ( ) is placed over the second of two vowels, to show that they belong to different syllables. EXAMPLES. Preemption. Coeval. Reeducate . OBS. The Hyphen is sometimes placed between the vowels for a similar purpose. EXAMPLE. Co-operate. DEF. 14. The Index (ESIP*) is used to point out a word or sentence considered worthy of special notice. DEF. 15. The Section () marks the divisions of a chapter or book. DEF. 16. The Paragraph (T) is used when a new sub- ject of remark is introduced. REM. The sign of the Paragraph is retained in the Holy Scriptures ; but in other compositions the Paragraph is sufficiently indicated by its commencing a new line on the page. DEF. 17. Accent is a stress of voice placed on a par- ticular syllable in pronouncing a word. DEF. 18. Emphasis is a stress of voice placed on a par- ticular word in a Sentence. OBS. This mark is indicated 1. In manuscript, by a line drawn under the emphatic word. 2. On a printed page, by the use of Italic letters CAPITAL letters are used to indicate words still more emphatic. COMPOSITION POETBY. 291 COMPOSITION. DEF. 19. Composition as the word implies is the art of placing together words so as to communicate ideas. PROSE AND VERSE. In Prose Composition, Words and Phrases are arranged with a primary reference to the sense. In Verse, the Sound and Measure of Words and Syllables determine their position. OBS. Among the various kinds of Prose Compositions may be mentioned the following : Narrative, Descriptive, Didactic, Historical, Biographical. VERSE. DEF. 20. Verse consists of words arranged in measured lines, constituting a regular succession of accented and unaccented Syllables. OBS. Verse is used in Poetry. The different kinds of Poetry are Lyric, Charade, Sound, Dramatic, Ballad, Pastoral, Epic, Epigram, Elegiac, Didactic, Epitaph, Madrigal. DEF. 21. LTEIC POETRY is as its name imports such as may be set to music. It includes the " Ode" and the " Song." OBS. 1. Lyric Poetry is of three kinds, the Ode, the Hymn, and the Song. OBS. 2. The Ode is generally longer than the other kinds of Lyrio Poetry, and is often irregular in -its structure. Familiar Examples. 1 ' Alexander' s Feast, ' ' by Dryden. 1 l Ode on the Passions, " " Collins. "Immortality," " Wordsworth. ^8^ Let the Pupil give other Examples. 292 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. OBS. 3. The Hymn is shorter, and is arranged in regular stanzas adapted to sacred worship. Familiar Examples* "The Psalms and Hymns" in general use in Christian congregations. OBS. 4. The Song is also short, but is more varied in its stanzas, and is adapted to secular uses. Familiar Examples. " Irish Melodies," by Moore. "Songs," " Barry Cornwall. 3^** Let the Pupil give other Examples. REM. English Lyric Poetry makes use of Bhyme exclusively. DEF. 22. EPIC POETRY is a historical representation real or fictitious of great events. HEM. Epic Poetry may employ either rhyme or blank verse. EXAMPLES. Rhyme. "Lady of the Lake," by Scott. "Curse of Kehama," " Southey. Blank Verse. " Paradise Lost," " Milton. " Course of Time , " ' * Pollock. ^i** Let the Pupil give other Examples. DEF. 23. DRAMATIC POETRY is a poem descriptive of scenes, events, or character, and is adapted to the stage. EXAMPLES. Tragic. "Othello," by Shakspeare. Comic. 11 All's Well That Ends Well," by Sha'kspeare. J^T Let the Pupil give other Examples. DEF. 24. DIDACTIC POETRY is that style adapted to the inculcation of science or duty. EXAMPLES. " Pleasures of the Imagination," by Akenside. "Art of Preserving Health," " Armstrong. $gi** Let the Pupil give other Examples. DEF. 25. The CHARADE is a short poem, usually in a Lyrical form, containing a ^Riddle. VERSIFICATION. 293 DEF. 26. An EPIGRAM is a witty poem, short, and generally abounding in ludicrous expressions. EXAMPLE. " Swans sing before they die ; 'twere no bad thing Should certain persons die before they sing." DEF. 27. An EPITAPH is a poetic inscription to the memory of some departed person. EXAMPLE. ' ' Underneath this stone doth lie As much beauty as could die, "Which in life did harbor give To more virtue than doth live." Jonson. DEF. 28. ELEGIAC POETRY is that species used to com- memorate the death of some person. EXAMPLES. "Lysidas," by Milton. "Elegy," " Gray. DEF. 29. The SONNET is a Poem devoted to the de- velopment of a single thought, in rhyming verse of a peculiar structure, and generally of fourteen lines. DEF. 30. The MADRIGAL is a Lyric Poem of an amatory nature, and of a lively species of verse. DEF. 31. PASTORAL POETRY relates to rural life, and is generally a song. EXAMPLES. "Rural Sports," by Gay. "The Falls of the Passaic," by Irving. DEF. 32. The BALLAD is a Lyric Poem, of a Narrative cast, in a simple or rude style of composition. EXAMPLE. "Battle of Brunnenberg," by Ferris. VERSIFICATION. DEF. 1 . VERSIFICATION is the art of making verse i. e., the proper arrangement of a certain number of Syllables in a line. 25* 204: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. N"OTE. There are two prominent distinctions in Verse, 1. Blank Verse. 2. Rhyme. DEF. 2. BLANK VERSE consists in measured lines usually of ten Syllables each, and which may or may not end with the same sound. EXAMPLE. " 'Tis midnight's holy hour ; and silence now Is brooding, like a gentle spirit, o'er The still and pulseless world. Hark ! on the winds The bell's deep tones are swelling ; 'tis the knell Of the departed year." DEF. 3. RHYMING VERSE consists of measured lines, of which two or more end with the same sound. Rhymes successive. "Thou bright glittering star of even! Thou gem upon the brow of heaven ! Oh ! were this fluttering spirit free, How quick 'twould spread its wings to thee I" Rhymes alternating. " Oh ! sacred star of evening, tell In what unseen celestial sphere Those spirits of the perfect dwell Too pure to rest in sadness here." DEF. 4. A line in Poetry is technically called a Verse. EXAMPLE. "And I am glad that he has lived thus long." REM. Verses are of different lengths. DEF. 5. A half verse is called a Hemistich. EXAMPLE." I, too, will hasten back with lightning speed, To seek the hero.'' DEF. 6. Two rhyming verses which complete the sense are called a Couplet. S. 1. " Look round our world ; behold the chain of love, Combining all below and all above." 2. "And more true joy Marcellus exiled feels, Than Caesar with a senate at his heels." VERSIFICATION. 295 DEF, 7. Three verses which rhyme together are a Triplet. EXAMPLE. " So fair, so sweet, withal so sensitive, Would that the little flowers were born to live, Conscious of half the pleasure which they give.'* DEF. 8. Four lines or more are called a Stanza. EXAMPLE. "Full many a gem of purest ray serene, The dark unfathomed caves of ocean hear ; Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, And waste its sweetness on the desert air." No TE .-Verses may end with j Jgjjjj EXAMPLE. " We come, we come, a little band, As children of the nation ; We are joined in heart, we are joined in hand, To keep the Declaration." REM. In the above stanza, the first and third lines end with Rhyming Wards the second and fourth, with Rhyming Syllables. DEF. 9. A collection of Syllables is called a Foot. -A Foot may cons.t of j DEF. 10. Feet of two Syllables are the Trochee first long, second short ^ Iambus . . . , first short, second long ^ Pyrrhic .... both short , ^ > ' Spondee . . . .both long Feet of three Syllables are the Dactyl one long and two short ^ ^ Anapest two short and one long < - ^- Amphibrach. first short, second long, third short. ^ ^ Tribrach , .. . three short ^ ^ ^, REM. Most English Poetry is written in Iambic, Trochaic, or Ana- paestic Verse. 296 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. TROCHAIC TERSE. 1. Hexameter, or six feet. " On a | mountain | stretched be | neath a | hoary | willow, Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the roiling billow." 2. Pentameter, or five feet. " Rouse him | like a | rattling | peal of | thunder." 3. Tetrameter, or four feet. On the | mountain's | top ap | pearing, Lo, the sacred herald stands t 4. Trimeter, or three feet. " How I love to | see thee, Golden evening sun,'* 5. Dimeter, or two feet* Rich the | treasure. Sweet the pleasure. 6. Monameter, or one- foot*, Ringing. Singing. IAMBIC YERSK 1. Six feet. The praise | of Bac | chus then | the sweet musi | cian sung. 2. Five feet. Oh, I | have loved | in youth's | fair ver [ nal morn, To spread | ima | gina | tion's wild | est wing. 3. Four feet. There is | a calm | for those | who weep, A rest | for wea | ry pil | grims found. 4. Three feet. What sought | they thus | afar ? Bright jew | els of | the mine? 5. Two feet. "I am | the grave." 6. One foot. 11 My home." VEKSIFICATI01T. 297 ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 1. Four fed. But we stead | fastly gazed | on the face | of the dead. 2. Three feet 1 1 And I loved | her the more | when I heard Such tenderness fall from her tongue." 3. Two feet. " For the night only draws A thin veil o'er the day." DACTYLIC VERSE. 1. Four feet. Come, ye dis | consolate, | where'er ye | languish. 2. Three feet. Earth has no | sorrows that | Heaven can not | heal. 3. Two feet Free from anx | iety, Care, and satiety. 4. One foot. Cheerfully, Fearfully. THE AMPHIBRACH. "There is a | bleak desert | where daylight | grows weary, Of wasting its smiles on a region so dreary. ' ' "With storm-dar | ing pinion | and sun-ga | zing eye, The gray forest eagle is king of the sky." "There's pleasure | in freedom | whatever | the season. That makes every object look lovely and fair." OBS. 1. The first syllable of a verse is sometimes omitted. [ ] "And there | lay the ri | der, distort | ed and pale, With the dew | on hi* brow | and the rust | on his mail." 298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. OBS. 2. A syllable is sometimes added to a line. "Earth has no | sorrows that | Heaven can not | heal.'' " A guar | dian an | gel o'er my life | presid | ing, Doubling my pleasures and my cares dividing." OBS. 3. The different measures are sometimes combined in the same line. EXAMPLES. "May comes, | May comes, | we have called | her long, May comes | o'er the moun | tains with light | and song ; We may trace | ligr steps | o'er the wak | ening earth, By the winds | which tell | of the vio | let's birth." Q BS> 4. Sometimes the last syllable of a line becomes the first syl- lable in the first foot of the next. ' On the cold | cheek of death | smiles and ro | ses are blend | ing, And beau | ty immor | tal awakes | from the tomb." FIGURES. s. -Language is modified in its structure, style, and utterance by the use of Figures. DEF. 1 A Figure of speech is a licensed departure from the ordinary structure or use of a word in a Sentence. OBS. Figures are employed to give strength, beauty, or melody to Language. ^ p. ( Grammatical or rE * 1 9 W e ( Rhetorical. DEF. 2. A Grammatical Figure is a deviation from the ordinary form or office of a word in a Sentence. DEF. 3. A Rhetorical Figure is a deviation from the ordinary application of words in the expression of thought. VERSIFICATION. I. FIGURES MODIFYING TIIE FORMS or WORDS These are called Aphceresis, Synceresis, Prosthesis, Diaeresis, Apocope, Syncope, Paragoge, Tmesis. DEF. 4. Apliazresis allows the elision of one or more of the first letters of a word. EXAMPLES. 1. "'Mid scenes of confusion." 2. " And therefore thou may'st think my 'havior light." Juliet. 3. " What ! have you let the false enchanter 'scape T' Milton. DEF. 5. Prosthesis allows a syllable to be prefixed to a word. EXAMPLES. 1. " Else would a maiden blush Repaint my cheek." Juliet. 2. " Let fall adown his silver beard some tears." Thomson. 3. " The great archangel from his warlike toil /Swrceased, ' ' Milton, DEF. 6. Apocope allows the elision of one or more of the final letters of a word. EXAMPLES. 1. " And that is spoke. . with such a dying fall. 7 ' 2. " Tho' the whole loosened Spring around her blows." 3. " T* whom th' archangel." Milton. DEF. 7. Paragoge allows a syllable to be annexed to a word. EXAMPLES. 1. " Wi thou tew trump was proclamation made." Thomson. 2. u Nor deem that kind/y nature did him wrong." Bryant* DEF. 8. Synceresis allows two syllables to become one. EXAMPLES. Extra session ordinary session extraordinary session. DEF. 9.Diceresis separates two vowels into different syllables. EXAMPLES. Cooperate re T terate . 300 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. DEF. 10. Syncope allows one or more letters to be taken from the middle of a word. EXAMPLES. 1. " Or serve they as a fimcry verge to bind 2. The fluid skirts of that same wat'ry cloud, 3. Lest it again dissolve and show'r the earth.' ' Milton. DEF. 11. Tmesis allows a word to be inserted between the parts of a compound word. EXAMPLE. "How MUCH soever we may desire it." OBS. Sometimes two figures are combined in the same word. EXAMPLE. " Ah ! whence is that sound which now larums his ear ?" II. FIGURES MODIFYING THE OFFICES OF WORDS. These are called RHETORICO-GRAMMATICAL FIGURES. They are Ellipsis, Syllipsis, Pleonasm, Enallage. nyperbaton. DEF. 12. Ellipsis allows the omission of one or more words necessary to complete the grammatical construc- tion, when custom has rendered them unnecessary to complete the sense. EXAMPLES. 1. " Thou art perched aloft on the beetling crag, And the waves are white below [ ]." 2. " Unnumbered systems [ ], suns, and worlds, Unite to worship thee, 3. While thy majestic greatness fills Space [ ], Time [ ], Eternity." DEF. 13. Pleonasm allows the introduction of words not necessary to complete the grammatical construction of a Sentence. EXAMPLES. 1. "The moon herself is lost in heaven." 2. "I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend." VERSIFICATION. 301 DEF. 14. Syllipsis allows a word to be used not in its literal sense. EXAMPLE. " And there lay the steed, with his nostril all wide." DEF. 15. Enallage allows the use of one word for another of similar origin, or the substitution of one modi- fication for another. EXAMPLE. " A world devote to universal wreck." DEF. 16. Hyperbaton allows the transposition of words in a Sentence. EXAMPLE. "His voice SUBLIME, is heard afar." III. FIGURES OF RHETORIC. They are Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Personification. Irony, Hyperbole, Antithesis, Metonomy, Synecdoche, Apostrophe, Interrogation, Exclamation, Vision, Paralepsis, Climax, Anti- Climax, Alliteration. DEF. 17. A Simile is a direct comparison. EXAMPLE. "The Assyrian came down like the wolf on the fold." DEF. 18. A Metaphor is an indirect comparison. EXAMPLE. "There is a tide in the affairs of men, Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune." DEF. 19. An Allegory is an extended metaphor, by which a narration, real or fictitious, is made to convey an analogous truth or fiction. EXAMPLE. " Eternity's vast ocean lies before thee ; There, there, Lorenzo, thy Clarissa sails ; Give thy mind sea-room ; keep it wide of Earth That rock of souls immortal ; cut thy cord ; Weigh anchor ; spread thy sails ; call every wind ; Eye thy great Pole-star ; make the land of life." 26 302 ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. DEF. 20. Personification represents inanimate things as being endowed with life and volition. EXAMPLES. 1. " And old Experience learns too late That all is vanity below." 2. "Joy has her tears, and Transport has her death." DEF. 21. Irony makes a sentence convey a meaning the opposite of its ordinary sense. EXAMPLE. " And we, brave men, are satisfied If we ourselves escape his sword." DEF. 22. Hyperbole exaggerates the truth. EXAMPLE. " "With fury driven, The waves mount up, and wash the face of heaven." DEF. 23. Antithesis contrasts two or more things with each other. EXAMPLES. 1. " Zealous though modest, innocent though free." 2. " By honor and dishonor, by evil report and good report, as deceivers, and yet true," DEF. 24. Metonomy puts one thing for another The cause for the effect, The effect for the cause, The container for the thing contained, An attribute or quality for the thing or person. EXAMPLES. 1. " Shall the sword devour for ever ?" 2. "Thy hand, unseen, sustains the poles." 3. "His ear is ever open to their cry." 4. "I am much delighted in reading Homer," 5. " He has returned to his cups again." 6. "I'll plunge thee headlong in the whelming tide." DEF. 25. Synecdoche puts a part for a whole, and a whole for a part. EXAMPLES. 1. "When the tempest stalks abroad, Seek the shelter of my roof. ' ' 2. " Oh ! ever cursed be the hand That wrought this ruin in the land." VERSIFICATION. 303 DEF. 26. Apostrophe is a sudden transition from the subject of a discourse to address a person or thing, present or absent. EXAMPLE. "This is a tale for fathers and for mothers. Young men and young women, you can not understand it." E. Everett. DEF. 27. Interrogation expresses an assertion in the form of a question. EXAMPLES. 1. " Looks it not like the king ?" 2. " He that formed the eye, shall he not see ?" DEF. 28. Exclamation expresses a sudden or intense emotion. EXAMPLE. "O liberty! sound once delightful to every Roman ear!" DEF. 29. Vision represents past or future time as present to the view. EXAMPLE. " I see them on their winding way, About their ranks the moonbeams play." DEF. 30. Paralepsis is a figure by which a main truth is expressed incidentally, or with a professed effort of the speaker to conceal it. EXAMPLE. " Without alluding to your habits of intemperance, I would ask, how can you attempt to justify your present inattention to busi- ness and the neglect of your family ?" DEF. 31. Climax is that form of expression by which the thoughts are made to rise by successive gradations. EXAMPLE. "He aspired to be the highest ; above the people, above the authorities, above the LAWS, above his COUNTRY." DEF. 32. Anti-Climax is the opposite of the climax. EXAMPLE. "How has expectation darkened into anxiety, anxiety into dread, and dread into despair." Irving. 304: ENGLISH GRAMMAR PART IV. DEF. 33. Alliteration is the repetition of the same let- ter at the beginning of two or more words immediately succeeding each other. EXAMPLES. 1. " Up the high hill he leaves a Auge, round stone." 2. "He carves with classic chisel the Corinthian capital that crowns the column." QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW. PAGE. 282. What is PROSODY ? Name the different marks of punctuation. When is a Comma properly used ? When a Semicolon ?& Colon ? a Period? When is a Dash properly used ? an Exclamation ? When do we use a mark of Interrogation ? 288. Name the GRAMMATICAL SIGNS. What is an Apostrophe ? a Quotation ? a Hyphen ? What is a Bracket ? a Parenthesis ? Reference marks ? What is a Brace ? Marks of Inflection ? Measures ? What is a Caret ?& Dieresis ? an Index .? a Section ? What is a Paragraph ? How are Paragraphs commonly indi- cated ? What is Accent ? What is Emphasis ? 291. What is COMPOSITION ? What are the varieties? What is Prose ? Name the various kinds of Prose. What is Verse 9 When properly used ? Name and define the various kinds of Poetry. 294. What is VERSIFICATION ? What are the distinctions of verse ? What is Blank Verse ? What is Rhyming Verse ? What is a Verse ? a Hemistich ? a Couplet ? What is a Triplet ? What is a Stanza ? What is a Foot ? A Foot may have how many Syllables ? What are the Feet of two Syllables ? of three Syllables ? What is 'a Trochee ? an Iambus ? a Pyrrhic ? a Spondee ? What is a Dactyl ? an Anapest ? an Amphibrach ? a Tribrach ? What measures are comrnojaly used in English Poetry ? 298. What is a FIGURE OF SPEECH ? Why are they used ? What is a Grammatical Figure ? a Rhetorical Figure ? Name the figures which modify the forms of Words. APPENDIX. EEM. Orthography properly belongs to a separate branch of the Science of Language. The following Synopsis is given, chiefly to pre- sent the Author's views as to the proper method of presenting this subject. DEF. Orthography is that branch of the Science of Language which treats of LETTERS their forms, their offices, and their combinations in the structure of WOKDS. OBS. 1 . The English Language has twenty-six Letters, which, are distinguished by their forms and by their uses. OBS. 2. The various forms of letters are exhibited in the following table : EOMAN Capitals. A B C D E F G H I J K L M N P Q R S T U V w X Y Z Small. a b c d e f g h i j k I m n o P * r s t u v w X y z ITALIC Capitals. A B C D .# J 7 // / J K L I/ N P Q 72 T, U V W X Y Z Small. a b c d e / 9 h i j k I m n P 2 r 5 t u v w x y z OLD ENGLISH Capitals. & as < 23 33 IF ( 3% K S B 3L ffl N j ,26* 306 APPENDIX. OBS. 1. Roman letters are in most common use in the English language. Italic Letters are used in words of special importance, and sometimes in Sentences. In the Sacred Scriptures, words supplied by the translators to com- plete the construction of Sentences according to the English idiom, are printed in Italics. <0>i& 2Snglis][) Letters are used for variety or ornament in title- pages, etc. OBS. 2. The small, or "lower case," Letters are used in forming most Words, and constitute the appropriate form of letters now used in printed works with the following EXCEPTIONS, which provide for the use of CAPITAL LETTERS. RULE 1. A word should begin with a capital letter when it is the first word of a distinct proposition. RULE 2. When it is a Proper Name, or a word imme- diately dervived from a Proper Name. EXAMPLES. Boston William American . Yermonter. RULE 3. When it is a name or appellation of the Supreme Being. EXAMPLES. God Saviour Holy Spirit Lord Omnipotent. RULE 4. When it is the first word of a line of poetry. EXAMPLE. "Twinkle, twinkle, little star, How I wonder what you are ! Up ahove the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky." RULE 5. When it is a principal word in a title of a book or office, and sometimes when it is a word of special importance, or used technically. EXAMPLES. 1. " Wilferd's History of the United States." 2. " Burke on the Sublime and Beautiful." 3. "The Subject of a Verb should not take the plae* of the Object." CAPITAL LET1ERS. 807 RULE 6. When it commences a direct quotation. EXAMPLES. 1. "The footman, in his usual phrase, Comes up with * Madam, dinner stays. ' " i 2. " Wo to him that saith unto the wood, ' Awake.' " RULE 7. When it constitutes the Pronoun "I" or the Exclamation " O." EXAMPLE. " 0, I have loved in youth's fair vernal morn, To spread Imagination's wildest wing." RULE 8. When it is a Common Noun fully personified. EXAMPLES. 1. " Sure I Fame's trumpet hear." Oowley. 2. "Here Strife and Faction rule the day." OBS. Letters are of various sizes, and have their corresponding appropriate names. The varieties of type in most common use are the following : 1. Pica. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUY WXYZ. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 2. Small Pica. ABCDEFGffl JKLMNOPQRSTU VWXYZ. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 3. Long Primer. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV WXYZ. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 4. Bourgeois. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. ab cdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz. 5. Brevier. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQBSTUVWXYZ. abcdefghijk 1m nopqrstu v wxy z . 6. Minion. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. abcdefghijklmn opqrstuvwxyz. 7. Nonpareil. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQESTUVWXYZ. abcdefghijklmnop qrstuvwxj-z. 8. Agate. ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUYWXYZ. abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzr- 9. PearZ. ABCDEPGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ. abcdefghijklmnopqrBtuvwxyz. ubodfghijUmnopqrstuv?rxys. 308 APPENDIX. THE OPTICES OF LETTERS. NOTE. Letters constitute the Elements of Words, and, like the Elements of Sentences and Phrases, are distin- guished as Principal Elements and Adjunct Elements. DEF. 1. The Principal Elements of a Word are the Letters which indicate the principal sound. They are called VOWELS. EXAMPLES. a in mate e in me oi in toil ou in sownd a in hat e in met OR in aphceresis ce, in subpoena. DEF. 2. The Adjuncts of a Word are the Letters pre- fixed or added to the Principal Elements to modify their sound. They are called CONSONANTS. EXAMPLES. ra in mate, met in mate, dme I in toil, Zame c in cider, cane h in hat, 7zate s in aphagresis, sound v in vile, twelve p in post, happy. REM. For convenience in articulation, most words are divided into Parts, called Syllables; hence, DEF. 3. A Syllable is a whole Word, or such part of a Word as is uttered by one impulse of the voice. EXAMPLES. Man man-ly man-li-ncss un-man-ly. DEF. 4. When a Word has but one Principal Element, it is pronounced by one impulse of the voice, and is then called a Monosyllable. EXAMPLES. Hand fall me so strength. DEF. 5. When a Word has two Principal Elements, it requires two articulations, and is then called a Dissyllable. EXAMPLES. Handsome falling strengthen holy. DEF. 6. When a Word has three Principal Elements, it requires three articulations, and is then called a Polysyllable. OBS. 1. Generally a Word has as many Syllables as It has Principal Parts. ABBREVIATIONS. 309 OBS. 2. Two Letters may form one Principal Element of a Word when they are placed together and combine to form one sound. EXAMPLES. oi in toil ou in sound ai in fair. OBS. 3. A Letter ordinarily used as a Vowel is sometimes added to a Syllable or a Word, to modify the Sound Of other Letters, and is then an Adjunct. EXAMPLES. e in time y in they i in claim. OBS. 4. One Letter is often made to represent the Sound of another. EXAMPLES. e represents a in they e represents in her i represents u iri sir. OBS. 5. In written Language, many Letters are used which are not sounded in spoken Language. Such are called Silent Letters. EXAMPLES. Hynm thum& eight phthisic. OBS. 6. One or more of the Letters constituting a Word are some- times used as the representative of that word. These are called ABBREVIATIONS. The most common abbreviations are the following A. C ...... Before Christ ____ from the Latin. .Ante Christum. A. B ...... Bachelor of Arts ........... "... . Artium Baccalaureus. A. D ...... In the year of our Lord ____ " ____ Anno Domini. ( Master of Arts ............ " ____ Artium Magister. A. M V In the year of the world. . . " ____ Anno Mundi. ( In the forenoon ............ " ____ Ante Meridiem, B. D ...... Bachelor of Divinity ....... " ____ Baccalaureus Divinitatia. D. D ...... Doctor of Divinity ........ " ____ Doctor Divinitatis. e. g ........ For example ............... " ---- Exempli gratia. i. e ........ That is .................... " ---- Id est. LL.D ...... Doctor of Laws ............ " ____ Legum Doctor. L. S ....... Place of the Seal .......... " ---- Locus Sigilli. Messrg ____ Gentlemen ............. French. .Messieurs. M. D ...... Doctor of Medicine ....... Latin. .Medicinae Doctor. MS.. . ; . . . .Manuscript ................ " ---- Scriptum Manus. N. B ...... Take notice ............... " ---- Nota Bene. Afternoon ................ " ---- Post Meridiem. p M v. M ---- - p ostmaster . P. S ....... Postscript ................ " ---- Post Scriptum. S. T. D ____ Doctor of Theology ........ " ---- Sanctoe Theologize Doctor. 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